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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+       Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE I_
+
+_Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal
+Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages
+83 and 84._]
+
+SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL, Size: 34 ft. 6 in.
+by 17 ft. 6 in.
+
+
+  TRANSLATION OF INSCRIPTION.
+
+  I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold,
+  My head has no protection other than this porchway;
+  The work of the Slave of this Holy Place.
+
+                                           Maksoud of Kashan.
+                                                   946 A. H. = 1540 A. D.
+
+FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., 34 WIGMORE
+STREET, LONDON, W.,
+
+And Sold by them in 1892 to THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH
+KENSINGTON, LONDON.
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+  BY
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY
+
+  _WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR
+  EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+  AND FOUR MAPS_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+  1927
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY JOHN LANE COMPANY
+
+Printed in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+SINCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr. John
+Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics
+has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering
+this monograph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not
+only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student.
+
+In the chapter entitled “Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Century” is a
+brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art;
+and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the
+masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The
+chapters on “How to Distinguish Rugs” and on “Purchasing Rugs” should
+prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and
+the chapter on “Weaving” contains many details which have not previously
+received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.
+
+The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the
+Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not
+only a general statement of their most striking features, but also a
+technical analysis that is termed “Type Characteristics.” It should be
+understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but
+are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to
+every owner of a rug as a means for its identification.
+
+It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the
+author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion
+has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting
+discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known authorities, who are
+quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions
+and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George
+Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson,
+of New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz;
+and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges
+the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and
+James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable
+collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of
+Decorative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the
+carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and
+firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations: Miss
+Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan
+Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of
+Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C.
+Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C.
+F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B.
+Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones &
+Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of
+New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of
+London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy
+Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.
+
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY.
+
+  NEW YORK, June, 1913.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                   PAGE
+
+     I INTRODUCTION                                           15
+
+    II PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF RUG-PRODUCING
+         LANDS                                                20
+
+   III MATERIALS                                              30
+
+    IV DYEING                                                 37
+
+     V WEAVING                                                44
+
+    VI DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS                                    58
+
+   VII RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY              74
+
+  VIII CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS                          97
+
+    IX PERSIAN RUGS                                          102
+
+     X ASIA MINOR RUGS                                       163
+
+    XI CAUCASIAN RUGS                                        197
+
+   XII CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS                                  233
+
+  XIII INDIAN RUGS                                           253
+
+   XIV CHINESE RUGS                                          263
+
+    XV KILIMS                                                276
+
+   XVI HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS                               282
+
+  XVII PURCHASING RUGS                                       295
+
+
+  INDEX                                                      309
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  COLOURED PLATES
+
+  PLATE
+
+     I The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil    _Frontispiece_
+          OPPOSITE PAGE
+
+    II Oushak Carpet                                          40
+
+   III Mosul Rug                                              66
+
+    IV Bergamo Rug                                           102
+
+     V Ghiordes Prayer Rug                                   130
+
+    VI Royal Persian Garden Carpet    _Between pages 160 and 161_
+
+   VII Ladik Prayer Rug                                      190
+
+  VIII Soumak Rug                                            210
+
+    IX Samarkand Rug                                         240
+
+     X Kang-hi Rug                                           270
+
+    XI Keen-lung Rug                                         300
+
+
+  HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate  1 Khorassan Rug                                      22
+
+    ”    2 Meshed Rug                                         26
+
+    ”    3 Kirman Rug                                         30
+
+    ”    4 Shiraz Rug                                         34
+
+    ”    5 Niris Rug                                          36
+
+    ”    6 Feraghan Rug                                       42
+
+    ”    7 Feraghan Rug                                       46
+
+    ”    8 Hamadan Rug                                        52
+
+    ”    9 Sarouk Rug                                         56
+
+    ”   10 Sarabend Rug                                       58
+
+    ”   11 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    64
+
+    ”   12 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    68
+
+    ”   13 Compartment Carpet                                 70
+
+    ”   14 Persian Animal Carpet                              72
+
+    ”   15 Persian Animal Carpet                              76
+
+    ”   16 Persian Animal Carpet                              78
+
+    ”   17 So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet               80
+
+    ”   18 So-called Ispahan                                  84
+
+    ”   19 Armenian Carpet                                    86
+
+    ”   20 Asia Minor Dragon and Phœnix Carpet                88
+
+    ”   21 Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein             92
+
+    ”   22 Oushak Carpet                                      94
+
+    ”   23 Sehna Rug                                          98
+
+        Map of Persia                                        104
+
+    ”   24 Bijar Rug                                         106
+
+    ”   25 Kermanshah Rug                                    110
+
+    ”   26 Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern             114
+
+    ”   27 Gorevan Rug                                       118
+
+    ”   28 Bergamo Prayer Rug                                122
+
+    ”   29 Ghiordes Prayer Rug                               126
+
+    ”   30 Ghiordes Rug                                      132
+
+    ”   31 Kulah Prayer Rug                                  136
+
+    ”   32 Melez Prayer Rug                                  140
+
+    ”   33 Melez Rug                                         144
+
+    ”   34 Rhodian Rug                                       148
+
+    ”   35 Konieh Prayer Rug                                 152
+
+    ”   36 Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug                              154
+
+    ”    E Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs            156
+
+    ”    F Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs          158
+
+           Map of Asia Minor                                 164
+
+    ”   37 Anatolian Prayer Rug                              166
+
+    ”   38 Mudjar Prayer Rug                                 168
+
+    ”   39 Daghestan Prayer Rug                              172
+
+    ”   40 Kabistan Rug                                      176
+
+    ”   41 Kuba Rug                                          180
+
+    ”   42 Chichi Rug                                        184
+
+    ”   43 Tcherkess Rug                                     188
+
+    ”    G Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs         192
+
+    ”    H Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs       194
+
+           Map of Caucasia                                   198
+
+    ”   44 Baku Rug                                          200
+
+    ”   45 Shirvan Rug                                       202
+
+    ”   46 Soumak Rug                                        204
+
+    ”   47 Kazak Prayer Rug                                  208
+
+    ”   48 Kazak Rug                                         212
+
+    ”   49 Karabagh Prayer Rug                               214
+
+    ”   50 Gengha Prayer Rug                                 218
+
+    ”   51 Royal Bokhara Rug                                 222
+
+    ”   52 Princess Bokhara Rug                              224
+
+    ”    I Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          226
+
+    ”    J Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          228
+
+    ”    K Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs        230
+
+           Map of Turkestan                                  234
+
+    ”   53 Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern                 236
+
+    ”   54 Turkoman Rug with Pindé Pattern                   238
+
+    ”   55 Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes                  244
+
+    ”   56 Yomud Rug                                         248
+
+    ”    L Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Central
+             Asiatic Rugs                                    250
+
+    ”   57 Beshire Prayer Rug                                254
+
+    ”   58 Beshire Rug                                       258
+
+    ”   59 Afghan Rug                                        260
+
+    ”   60 Beluchistan Prayer Rug                            264
+
+    ”   61 Turkoman Saddle-bags                              268
+
+    ”    M Medallions in Chinese Rugs                        272
+
+    ”    N Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+             Chinese Rugs.                                   274
+
+    ”   62 Srinagar Rug                                      278
+
+    ”   63 XVIII Century Chinese Rug                         282
+
+    ”   64 Keen-lung Rug                                     286
+
+    ”   65 Keen-lung Rug                                     292
+
+    ”   66 Kurdish Prayer Kilim                              296
+
+
+  BLACK AND WHITE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate A An Upright Loom                                     45
+
+    ”   B Technicalities of Weaving                           49
+
+    ”   C Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Centra
+            Asiatic Rugs                                      61
+
+    ”   D Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs                    63
+
+    ”   O General Designs                                    291
+
+
+  CHARTS
+
+  Periods when Antique Carpets were made                      96
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                161
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                162
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor Rugs             196
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian Rugs              232
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Central Asiatic Rugs        252
+
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+
+
+
+ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+IT is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of
+a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic
+accomplishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic
+expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been
+sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to
+increase with each succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the
+Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was
+purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of
+thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the
+price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty
+dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,[1] a
+woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide
+was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and
+ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two
+inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of
+$35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square
+foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid
+for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are
+not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable
+to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare
+that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot
+is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one
+thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk
+rugs.
+
+If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value
+of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs
+that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square
+foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in
+those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in
+their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these
+masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and
+artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes
+it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a
+brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and
+arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of
+form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his
+palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously
+changing hue those of the woven masterpieces.
+
+Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art
+critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the
+people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension
+of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art
+is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings
+and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest
+expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in
+his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a
+marked difference in treatment. The Occidental demands that in art
+“everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious
+realism before he can grasp its meaning”[2] and fails to recognise the
+more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on
+the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his
+subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest
+appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times
+have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which
+prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal
+spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim
+of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this
+difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in
+taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them
+not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour
+and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental.
+
+By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing
+to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea
+captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large
+quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with
+crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the
+Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art
+and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the
+change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally
+as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in
+which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought,
+formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of
+semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are
+often the products of great genius and that they express thought and
+feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the
+appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this
+growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old
+worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many
+who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at
+any price.
+
+The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we
+realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value
+the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the
+highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any
+other castings in the world, and for its netsukés, which are the
+smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of
+Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its
+artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of
+silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that
+was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his
+legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that
+China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will
+never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges
+stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+before which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St.
+Peter’s, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the
+majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which
+some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we
+realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of
+Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become
+the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics,
+in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged
+from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art.
+
+However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is principally
+in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration. The
+colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow
+and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture
+acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like
+the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn
+day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with
+its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other.
+Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It
+is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest
+artistic value lies.
+
+That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not
+exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen perception of
+music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another. Even to
+those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of
+appreciation. “The fact is,” said John Ruskin, “we none of us enough
+appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour.” But as the ear can
+be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated
+to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate the beauties of
+Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest
+extent.
+
+And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us.
+They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people
+who made them. Some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers, others
+reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in
+the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism
+with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to
+commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued; and though
+the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the
+study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of
+the weavers.
+
+Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the
+highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the
+Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in
+the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the
+assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the
+appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting
+people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land
+of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in
+tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old,
+there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will
+revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty
+and creative power of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS
+
+
+THE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic
+impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This
+influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been
+subjected, but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences
+of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones
+displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or
+symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative
+and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover,
+the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate
+and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accordingly,
+the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood
+by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where
+they are woven.[3]
+
+The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are
+China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and
+Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a
+geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is
+also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast
+plateau stretches eastward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude
+towards the east.
+
+Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand
+feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the
+northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand
+feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it
+increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet
+in the lofty table-lands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as
+it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of
+this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian
+seas, to form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+of about seven thousand feet.
+
+The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches
+of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no
+drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is
+bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that
+lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the
+deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so
+that there are but few important river courses.
+
+The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and
+consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow
+perennial streams. From time immemorial these streams have been used for
+irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by
+abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built
+the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples
+that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learning to quicken the
+intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds
+delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the
+most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the
+loom were of the finest quality.
+
+Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts
+consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are
+naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used
+only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads
+drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no
+drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it
+empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes
+impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is
+scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain
+falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the
+higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh
+pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the
+rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at
+the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle
+for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.
+
+The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the
+strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have
+affected the temperament and character of the people. The boundless
+stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the
+delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable,
+thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent;
+the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These
+qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which
+lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large
+proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and
+fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same
+as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces,
+woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend less
+harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they
+frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the
+modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings
+of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than
+the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes.
+
+Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as
+well as political struggles at home, have had an important influence on
+all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the
+histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made
+for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different
+racial influences which have affected their artistic development.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1. KHORASSAN RUG]
+
+In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in
+the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the
+north of them lived another people known as the Accadians. These races
+built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the
+cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony with one another, and
+continued to prosper until about 3000 B.C., when the Semitic race of the
+Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees,
+however, allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands,
+adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 B.C. built the city
+of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by
+the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by
+developing its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and
+powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they
+became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and
+knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.
+
+About the year 2000 B.C. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham,
+migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and
+founded Nineveh. A century later the land occupied by colonists who
+settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and
+in power until, in 1300 B.C., it gained its first victory over Babylon;
+and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional
+reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria,
+and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great
+conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of
+Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the
+land now known as Persia.
+
+When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by
+Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was
+similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an
+exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in
+Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran.
+One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the
+Medes; the other, which settled in the southern part, was known as the
+Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the
+course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the
+first to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 B.C. and
+destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and
+under Nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred
+square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These
+walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon became
+famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.
+
+While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus,
+leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and
+conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of
+Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 B.C., by
+diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his
+banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of
+all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331
+B.C., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the
+Persian Empire melted away.
+
+Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took
+definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes
+and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few
+remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days,
+that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of
+which there is any knowledge.
+
+During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom
+petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their
+mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 A. D.
+an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 A. D.) and his
+grandson Chosroes II (590-628 A. D.) ruled over the country from the Oxus
+on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the
+east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury,
+the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when
+it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter.
+
+In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and
+myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost
+unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to
+the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic,
+militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as
+the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly
+overran Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+resistance. From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens,
+they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it
+after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs
+became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there intermarried with
+the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African
+descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711
+they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following
+year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of
+Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive
+battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and
+Christian Europe was saved.
+
+These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and
+religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time
+when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence
+and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and
+Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy
+tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred
+canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with
+its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace,
+where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states
+that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung
+thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of
+silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two
+thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs
+surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately,
+but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains
+as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely
+to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful
+Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England
+from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover,
+in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during
+the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art.
+
+For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohammedans was
+dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The
+great wall of China, which was built over two hundred years before
+Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions
+of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more
+fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish
+and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many
+centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and
+to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward
+and westward. About the year 1000 A. D. one of these branches known as
+the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah,
+in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its
+power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the
+capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race
+should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on
+Persian textile art.
+
+Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that
+part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of
+pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few
+followers, and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes.
+He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to
+obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in
+1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis
+Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great
+central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then
+enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western
+Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+learning that some of the Sultan’s garrison were concealed he ordered
+the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days’
+siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased
+his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages
+of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the
+Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the
+province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2. MESHED RUG]
+
+With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in
+Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the
+settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the
+early part of the XI Century, it was inappreciable as compared with
+that of Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Cæsars,
+and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty
+days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly
+treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for
+a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people
+prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled workmen
+were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the
+Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not
+surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been
+recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern
+part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the “key pattern,” as
+well as other less familiar designs of distinctly Mongolian origin,
+appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of
+this period.
+
+Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of
+the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only
+Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet,
+rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia,
+was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to
+overrun Asia and divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.
+
+Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were
+again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the
+walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of
+Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all
+opposition. Never was conqueror more rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At
+Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste
+and the people were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when
+taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a
+monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were
+defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion
+receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned to his capital at
+Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by
+surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and
+temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious
+barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century
+European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of
+wonderful workmanship and beauty.
+
+The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This
+country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race,
+which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the
+VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans invaded it, and were still
+in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi.
+After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber,
+Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts
+and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art;
+and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to
+settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+weaving.
+
+With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and
+Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick
+succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St.
+Sophia became a mosque.
+
+After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the
+Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in
+Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its
+history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the
+Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf.
+This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil
+he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp,
+which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the
+Turkish ruler, Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from
+the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured
+Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.[4] But the
+lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was
+established at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of
+the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten
+years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia,
+restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his
+country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such
+as it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to Ispahan,
+where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art
+even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most
+skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an
+influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a
+subsequent period. It is also probable that he rendered valuable
+assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country.
+He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a
+wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with
+the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence
+began.
+
+In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it
+with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who
+captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and
+recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the
+West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in
+time it was confined to its present limits.
+
+It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the
+southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant
+struggles between the different races of the East for supremacy. Even
+from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the
+deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One
+victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of
+the Indus to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be
+understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial
+influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and
+subtle charms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE MATERIALS
+
+
+AS was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living
+in unfrequented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks,
+then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have
+personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known
+patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the
+manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the
+shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after
+colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the
+industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of
+dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of
+any Oriental woven fabric.
+
+The materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of
+animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more
+limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occasionally hair of
+the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a
+western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to
+produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger
+quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are
+affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire
+qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3. KIRMAN RUG]
+
+The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the
+Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan
+the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia
+Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in districts where
+the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often
+substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving
+countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is
+preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and
+twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times
+the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been
+shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of
+Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better
+suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep
+with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the
+natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty
+mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the “Roof
+of the World,” still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with
+enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang
+the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of
+Western Asia.
+
+Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native
+stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and
+more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the
+quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on
+the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some
+deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of
+Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is
+long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the
+flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the
+sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the
+nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but
+cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality
+that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the
+other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely
+depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better
+varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well
+unite with it and that take up very little dye.
+
+The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some
+rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The goats of
+Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above
+the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it
+grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the
+most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and
+finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as
+mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account
+of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of
+recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it
+grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and
+its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky
+and brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of
+the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be
+coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with
+the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing
+next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed
+by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it
+lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers
+of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage.
+Goat’s hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed
+with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently
+pliable.
+
+Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel
+which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical
+countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern
+latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in
+quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in
+most of Persia and Turkestan the yield is small, in the table-lands of
+Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty
+plateaus of Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool
+is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older
+camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and
+lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from
+the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool
+of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more
+valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom
+woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats’ hair of similar colour is
+often substituted for it.
+
+The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes
+of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs.
+Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited
+extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be distinguished by its
+coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn
+cows’ hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle
+brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.
+
+Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it
+possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage
+of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no
+impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep.
+Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained
+from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours
+are furnished by the camel.
+
+It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks
+and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have
+employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the
+East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost
+entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the
+mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern
+Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and
+Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted,
+particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its
+cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost entirely as warp
+and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable
+than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet
+there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a
+dark colour.
+
+In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires
+the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the
+lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in
+its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are
+carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted
+from parent to child, and is practised according to different methods
+in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is
+hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it
+loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals
+are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality. After the wool
+has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open
+air.
+
+The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and combing. The
+sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an
+inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of
+burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an
+orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One
+method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between
+rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of
+“teasing” with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held
+firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the
+cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument
+or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by
+the vibrations.
+
+When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and
+then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common
+spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton;
+in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and
+about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from
+civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes
+consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a
+foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic
+tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in
+length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by
+twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to
+these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become
+closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the
+length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The
+thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so
+as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread has
+been spun, it is removed from the stone and the process begun again.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4. SHIRAZ RUG]
+
+One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried
+anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd
+following his flock, while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or
+stone, as did his ancestors thousands of years ago. On the end of the
+distaff, that rests beneath his left arm, is the ball of wool from which
+he selects and twists the fibres, while he deftly turns the short
+spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand.
+The threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of
+small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular, and
+those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in
+order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are the most irregular
+in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all
+weavers.
+
+Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used for yarn,
+since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore, are twisted
+together to form a double thread. A simple device used by many nomadic
+tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right
+angles, and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular
+to them. The threads which are attached to this piece pass through a
+hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by
+twirling them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted
+to make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of a
+professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never the work
+of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile of a few rugs
+such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone is used; whilst for
+the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled, trebled, or
+quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two, three, or four ply, and even yarn
+of six ply is sometimes used. A distinction also exists in the manner of
+twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since
+according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so
+loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a
+single revolution or so tightly as to describe several.
+
+Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the
+Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost incredible
+disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods
+transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every
+attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible.
+Accordingly, the evenness or unevenness of single threads, the looseness
+or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn
+of different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few of
+the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different
+districts.
+
+Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer, and in
+order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and
+rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is first soaked in warm water
+and carefully rinsed in cold water. It is then placed in a copper pot or
+vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or
+sulphate of soda and potash, and stirred for about an hour. After this
+thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and
+thoroughly dried in the sun.
+
+The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the
+materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule, is
+unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world, and is
+prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time. The
+simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough, yet without a doubt
+the earlier spinners and weavers, while following their flocks with
+minds free from all conventions and limitations of art, discerned the
+elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power, and from
+them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and
+delicate tracery of the woven carpets.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5. NIRIS RUG]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DYEING
+
+
+HOWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental art in any field, their
+most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour. Without it
+the beauty of the lustre tiles of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of
+China, and the delicate textiles of Western Asia would fade into
+insignificance. It is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints
+chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments
+that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of Asia and
+is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the earliest
+carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in a lesser measure
+are reflected in modern fabrics.
+
+If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful association of
+different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates the picture that
+delights the sense, a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not
+only controls the secrets of the dyes, but has mastered the difficult
+knowledge of their proper application; for the beauty of the finished
+woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on
+anything else. From father to son for many generations has been
+transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal
+products of root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use,
+by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven
+fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more technical
+knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since modern designs are
+no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets; and so
+important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction
+in his tribe.
+
+The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the
+innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are received from
+remote countries, but most of the plants from which they are extracted
+grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with
+their flocks. Many of them are used without blending, but even some of
+the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a
+number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+infinite number of rich and delicate shades.
+
+The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo. This is
+derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus
+_Indigofera_, that grow to a height of four to six feet in the East
+Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water. In about
+twelve hours fermentation ensues; and after this subsides the liquid is
+drawn off into another vat, where after one or two hours of agitation
+the indigo forms as a precipitate. Many different species of this plant
+grow wild throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes, as by
+using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades
+result.
+
+Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (_Rubia tinctorum_), that
+grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern Asia, Its colouring
+properties were known to the ancients; and for a long period it has been
+cultivated in Asia Minor, where the succulent roots of the second and
+third years’ growth are regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds
+are derived from the insect cochineal (_Coccus ilicis_) that lives on
+oaks of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+the Arabs as “kermes,” signifying Red Dye. After the discovery of
+America another species (_Coccus cacti_) was found that was more
+productive of dyeing qualities. The females, which alone are valuable,
+are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of
+acetic acid, or placing them in hot water, or in an oven. From their
+dried bodies, of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a
+pound, the dye is produced. As both these dyes are noted for their
+fastness, they are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+cochineal is preferable to madder.
+
+The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are from the
+berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the leaves of the
+sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world. An
+orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root
+stocks of a plant of the genus _Curcuma_. From time immemorial a
+beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron. It is the product of
+the stigmas of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet the dye
+is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred
+thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has something of a
+stimulating effect on the human system, it has been taken by the
+Persians when mixed with their rice.
+
+With none of these three basic colours was any national feeling
+associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of blues. The Turkomans
+of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better reds than any other colour,
+and the best yellows, even if generally inferior in positiveness to
+blues and reds, were those of the Chinese.
+
+Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the
+application of a single dye, the many thousand different tints can only
+be produced by the blending of two or more. Moreover, the qualities of
+the same dye vary greatly, as they depend on the soil where the plant
+grew, the time of year when it was removed, and the weather and other
+conditions prevailing during the dyeing.
+
+In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in carpets it
+is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded appearance, due
+probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by
+blending is less permanent than the other. The Chinese greens obtained
+from the buckthorns are generally the best.
+
+Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and reddish brown
+from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron pyrites has been
+largely used in both old and modern rugs; but unfortunately the dye has
+a corrosive effect on the wool, so that the black knots of old rugs are
+often worn to the warp.
+
+In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (_Butea frondosa_) make a
+favourite dye, from which are produced, by blending with other dyes, a
+large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper
+tones. Another well known dye is _Butti lac_, obtained from an insect,
+_Coccus lacca_, that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra cotta,
+and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it
+is blended.
+
+Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either
+singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour effects are
+produced by the application of different mordants, which it is necessary
+to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are
+unable to absorb a large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all
+mordants is alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed
+in the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate rind,
+which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best known. Valonia
+also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons, the fruit of the
+tamarind, and the mango.
+
+In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the “Carpet Weaving Industry of
+Southern India” are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned
+by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of
+dyers who originally came from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy
+from a Persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few
+of these are given below, because they show not only the dyes and
+mordants, but also the methods employed.
+
+“Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind and sift lighter
+than the light dust of the high hills; soak for ten hours; keep stirring
+it; put in the wool and soak for many hours. Boil for three hours; wash
+in kurd water, water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up;
+leave for three hours, and then wash and beat again in water.
+
+“A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for twelve hours,
+grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some _Terminalia citrina_,
+pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix thoroughly. Boil; put the water into
+the hot bath and keep stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings
+water, and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash
+with a beating and dry.
+
+“Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, _Terminalia citrina_, oak
+galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for twenty-four hours. Put in
+the wool; soak it for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three
+hours. Dip in a soda-bath, wash, and dry.
+
+“Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and alum, and steep
+for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty or thirty hours; boil
+the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash; dip in
+acidulated water; and wash again with beating.
+
+“Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from four to six days
+in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time, stirring constantly till
+a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a
+thin glass bottle and settled. Then strain through two cloths, and put
+in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water. Add mineral acid;
+steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well,
+and dry.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE II—OUSHAK CARPET_
+
+_The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar to those of
+the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in Asia Minor during
+the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the central field, the rich
+red of the medallions, and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely
+unlike the more subdued hues found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting
+with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which
+display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal
+pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the early
+Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling
+qualities of beauty and harmony._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard_]
+
+“Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,[5] and alum. Mix well
+with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil
+for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and
+dry in shade.
+
+“Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum.
+Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a
+half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.
+
+“Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of _Cupressus sempervirens_, seeds and
+seed pods of babul (_Acacia arabica_), iron-filings water, and alum.
+Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four
+hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then
+wash and dry in the sun.
+
+“Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (_Onosma echioides_), a thought of
+cochineal, manjit (_Rubia cordifolia_) or lac colour a very little, and
+cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep
+for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in
+alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.
+
+“Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal
+for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths
+and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put
+wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take
+out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more.
+Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.
+
+“Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep
+for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for
+thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after
+beating and good washing.
+
+“Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep
+the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade.”
+
+Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of
+the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate
+affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers
+preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their
+forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing
+countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality
+where the fabrics were woven.
+
+Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the
+year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less
+complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted
+some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and
+most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no
+longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well
+as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art.
+The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency
+to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the
+colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the
+resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand,
+not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more
+pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old
+vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of
+Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently
+enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured
+occupation it was in days gone by.
+
+Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly
+applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in
+its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a
+separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the
+sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy
+their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of
+these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different
+kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings
+are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended
+above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which,
+after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain.
+After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the
+dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the
+preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn
+in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well as
+the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to
+be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This
+complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different
+shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the
+same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to
+instinct is the guide.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning of
+_tempus fugit_ or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and
+weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then
+the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were
+almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the
+dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich
+colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines
+of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged
+mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as
+did their fathers’ fathers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+NEAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude
+looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now
+reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to
+what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to
+construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found
+growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed
+excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same
+height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above
+the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case,
+roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal
+beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a
+rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn
+numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other
+end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal
+beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the
+work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are
+constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and
+herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the
+weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.—AN UPRIGHT LOOM]
+
+Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or
+cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend
+in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last
+rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may
+remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a
+seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each
+other at the sides of the rug. As the work progresses, the plank is
+raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small
+diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the
+threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may
+either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it
+and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally
+used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam
+as the work progresses.
+
+In Plate A (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts
+of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in
+the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is
+wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully
+transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams.
+If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but
+if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices.
+Two other rods, known as “Healds,” are then attached to the front and
+back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to
+the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted
+between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another
+is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by
+loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the
+lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the
+front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back
+threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the
+others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one
+shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two
+threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side.
+Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread
+of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between
+the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the
+lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads
+of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by
+studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is
+increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is
+also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into
+three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are
+without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few
+embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.
+
+A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp
+covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends
+across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between
+each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow,
+perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is
+made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other
+parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent
+threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back,
+recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next
+pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of
+these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears
+as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across
+four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each
+succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed
+“herring bone” weave.
+
+By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making
+them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent
+threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread
+of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp
+and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the
+knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another
+horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn
+of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left
+to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp
+is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel
+to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which
+the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and
+to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be
+discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed
+that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction,
+which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as
+is generally the case, from top to bottom.
+
+The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat on the
+number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the
+rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the
+yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of
+knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+“filling threads” of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A
+square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of
+a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be
+made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven
+pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less
+than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven,
+as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.
+
+These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes
+are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of
+India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town
+of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were
+made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted
+even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn
+appear together at the surface included between two[6] adjacent threads
+of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn
+is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of
+tying this knot are shown in Plate B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of
+which the second is known as a “right hand” and the third as a “left
+hand” knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese,
+many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name
+from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn
+encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the
+surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in
+Plate B, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the
+right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as
+“right-hand” or “left-hand” knots,[7] but in the appearance of the
+carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully
+parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but
+with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by
+studying Plate B, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna
+knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern,
+appear in rugs of shorter nap.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos.
+15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing
+between two rows of knots.]
+
+The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood
+even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern,
+which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the
+attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The
+more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities
+of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because
+only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy
+with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method
+of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of
+treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford
+a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating
+it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the
+established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from
+the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan
+district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern
+common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been
+familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular
+district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do
+to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements
+calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed
+with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some
+strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These
+distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that
+affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.[8]
+
+THE KNOT.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but
+it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may
+be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the
+back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots
+of other rugs, as the Samarkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and
+Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or
+coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity.
+Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while
+in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined
+the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a
+Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again,
+as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or
+more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there
+is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the
+yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced.
+For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of
+yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part
+in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls,
+Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly.
+Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the
+threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot
+encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the
+other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna,
+each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as
+Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the
+back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp,
+as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such
+rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply,
+the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than
+the width.
+
+THE WARP.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the
+relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If,
+for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a
+single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot
+lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate B, Figs.
+7 and 7-a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug
+cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance
+of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans,
+Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah,
+Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that
+one thread of warp to each knot is depressed, so that the back has a
+slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate B, Figs. 8 and 8-a). And in
+the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp,
+included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely
+concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a
+double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate B, Fig.
+9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot.
+To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class
+some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent
+and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another
+class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with
+which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of
+inserting the threads of weft or “filling” between the rows of knots;
+but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is
+pulled when they are tied.
+
+THE WEFT.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical
+differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for
+distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So
+subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and
+painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers.
+Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any
+well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the
+weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate
+one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally
+fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly
+tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two
+rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the
+coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows
+of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once
+crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of
+knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas;
+the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once
+between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown
+weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are
+features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug
+expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally
+distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be
+remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred
+and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty
+years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial
+purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years
+ago.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8. HAMADAN RUG]
+
+These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is
+made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun,
+to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as
+well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to
+whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven
+with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish
+brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used,
+they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same
+piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is
+of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans,
+it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and
+Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans,
+Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres
+of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.
+
+Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the
+yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers
+compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan,
+Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the
+weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp
+are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or
+Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the
+transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of
+knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly
+or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug,
+or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp.
+Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be
+noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an
+even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais
+part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this
+unevenness is even more conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in
+Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two
+adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least
+thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated
+appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is
+nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there
+are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.
+
+The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows
+of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost
+constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single
+thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of
+and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of
+these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute
+portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles.
+In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and
+behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is
+very similar to that of Sehnas.[9] In almost all other rugs the weft
+crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of
+knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a
+few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that
+is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and
+fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it
+is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same
+rug. In Plate B, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the
+appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once,
+twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are
+likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft
+inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the
+threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots,
+then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to
+alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that
+crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.
+
+As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed
+considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will
+fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so
+that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for
+instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority
+of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots,
+be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with
+hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined
+at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack,
+so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly
+imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once
+with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack.
+These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment
+of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for
+instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots
+be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed
+in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of
+moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and
+indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as
+the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but
+they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed
+from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two
+threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the
+other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats,
+old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that
+the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while
+the other is of a single ply.
+
+The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and
+scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to
+cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press
+firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so
+that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.
+
+FINISH OF SIDES.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of
+different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be
+designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious,
+suggests the method employed. In Weft Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 11,
+Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to
+which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is
+strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two
+rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the
+heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are
+completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a
+Double Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the
+cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage
+(Plate B, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of
+a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in
+figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form
+a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 14) is used
+among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs
+receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is
+necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried
+about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is
+wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft,
+but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds
+about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more
+adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is “Mixed,” or
+made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then
+an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords.
+Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be “attached”
+more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight
+fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two
+rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus “attached,” it is
+somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.
+
+These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are
+sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is
+required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly
+done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found
+to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently
+overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9. SAROUK RUG]
+
+FINISH OF ENDS.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides,
+are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction
+exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where
+the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend
+beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in
+Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are
+finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into
+the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not
+unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web,
+selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each
+separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more
+in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or
+are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which
+hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that
+encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or
+else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though
+the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web
+of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly
+those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as
+Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the
+evil eye.
+
+In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough
+usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have
+frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of
+warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent
+overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.
+
+The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all
+the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their
+methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who
+feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most
+careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately
+between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these
+peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require
+the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without
+which expert understanding would be impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS
+
+
+HOWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour,
+Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and
+designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple
+lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled
+mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.
+
+In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders
+of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or
+realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of
+associations.
+
+Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and
+colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been
+transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with
+different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and
+moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular
+deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also
+contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which
+over 1000 years B.C. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements
+were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would
+likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire
+worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of
+Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the
+spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is
+frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers,
+the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of
+designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10. SARABEND RUG]
+
+There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague
+philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the
+early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many
+months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express
+therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly
+defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the
+great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the
+crude beginnings of philosophy.[10]
+
+The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative.
+Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots
+of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The
+former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a
+picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part
+of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For
+this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this
+work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+designated “Stripes,” though they are frequently spoken of as separate
+borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which
+is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side,
+known as “Guard stripes.” Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+“Ribbon stripes,” and those of only one or two knots in width are called
+“Lines.” The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric
+device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple;
+but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often
+exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in
+character with those of the field.
+
+The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders.
+Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and
+unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other
+hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the
+Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper
+and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal
+designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are
+represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans.
+Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and
+ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular
+shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and
+one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are
+covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is
+only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a
+saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia
+Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by
+a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of
+immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.—PRAYER ARCHES OF PERSIAN, CAUCASIAN, AND CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS
+
+No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk.
+No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8,
+Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh.
+No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13,
+Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.]
+
+The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar
+importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so
+strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or
+mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well
+as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated
+in Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in
+Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines, but that in
+rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes
+pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the
+several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas,
+which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have
+a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman
+rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia
+Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian,
+and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a
+panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is
+placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and
+Caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the
+suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from
+Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are
+placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the
+exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the
+other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special
+features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+subsequent chapters.
+
+The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern
+are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is
+adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic;
+and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous
+towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a
+large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of
+society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan
+geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement
+that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the
+floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the
+adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so
+much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had
+advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that
+at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor
+had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and
+during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+subsequently.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.—PRAYER ARCHES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9,
+10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14,
+15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian.]
+
+In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in
+the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some
+vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian
+rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals,
+lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost
+as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been
+influenced; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs
+are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating in
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of
+earlier date. Among the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however,
+few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and
+flowers form the favourite theme for decoration.
+
+The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that
+reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and
+XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued
+as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and
+India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the
+borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes,
+palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed.
+On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose,
+pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more
+modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central
+medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured
+conventionalised flowers.
+
+In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or
+motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest
+assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated
+leaf and wine cup (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in
+Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate H,
+Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found
+almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids
+in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained
+by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest
+weavers each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ
+them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries
+ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They
+therefore deserve the most careful study.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or
+have been more universally employed than has been the figure [Symbol: S]
+or [Symbol: horizontal S]. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental
+rugs excepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are
+exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as
+occasionally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found
+except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other
+countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Tekkes, and
+Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian
+group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class
+of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the
+exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not sometimes represented.
+It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor “Dragon and Phœnix”
+carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate 20 (opp. Page 88); and
+appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be
+even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an
+emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible,
+however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent,
+which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.
+
+Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the
+swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American
+Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the monuments of the Nile,
+and on the temples of India. Widely as is its distribution, its most
+usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these
+countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is
+a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented
+in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the
+beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the
+rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has
+never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate O, Figs.
+5-a, 5-b, 5-c, 5-d, 5-e, and 5-f (Page 291).
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual
+design in Caucasian and Persian rugs; it is often found in some of the
+rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other
+classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups.
+Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the “Polish Carpets”
+and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its
+drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that
+it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three
+leaves, and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form.
+
+Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated
+with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of
+them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which
+the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was
+regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The
+sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting
+at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more
+frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of
+those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly
+bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and
+it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes,
+ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among
+some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in
+the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large
+star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious
+stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with
+colours so arranged is known as “Mohammedan’s jewel design.” The
+six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the “shield of David,” was adopted
+as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly
+nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or
+India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of
+most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.
+
+Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291),
+usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which
+and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses
+placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it
+is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of
+the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate 21 (opp. Page
+92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial
+symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent
+occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all
+Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from
+Persia.
+
+The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs
+of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the
+Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some
+instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is
+represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia
+Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, “even in
+the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India,
+China, and Persia.”
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE III—MOSUL RUG_
+
+_Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of
+the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied
+the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel’s hair that
+shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the
+other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on
+the river’s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric
+designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of
+the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic
+characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes,
+on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type
+of which few now remain._
+
+  _Property of the Author_]
+
+One of the most common designs is what has been called the “latch-hook.”
+When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends
+resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as
+in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called “running
+latch-hooks.” Since they appear in the Dragon and Phœnix rug (opp.
+Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they
+are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from
+the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade
+or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to
+another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in
+artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or
+Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts
+geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central
+Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as
+the reciprocal trefoil.
+
+In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and
+Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs,
+and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they
+were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance;
+but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.
+
+The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem
+suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes
+intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of
+weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs,
+and rarely in those of other groups.
+
+In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four
+centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band
+(Plate O, Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV
+Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan,
+as well as in many of the “Polish Carpets.” Later it was introduced into
+Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic
+weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these
+are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of
+the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated
+with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the
+Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of
+the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of
+clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted
+and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and
+the deity.
+
+In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig,
+vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they
+are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of
+geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a
+series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of
+floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the
+beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or
+plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life
+had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+in the Garden of Eden grew the “Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;” and
+in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of “The Tree of Life
+which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month,
+and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations.” From
+this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the
+Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true
+believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the
+companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the
+Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that
+confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits;
+also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on
+which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient
+Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the
+earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by
+different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a
+cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental
+symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16-a, b, and c), since the
+Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence.
+It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the
+Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India
+where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was
+inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must
+have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a
+large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as
+derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically
+drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called
+Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most
+artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite
+design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used
+as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.
+
+If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven
+fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater
+favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated
+extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the
+rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in
+many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with
+flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is
+characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia
+Minor. The “Euphrates flower,” which grows by the river banks of the
+Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern
+in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less
+frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are
+generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus,
+narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of
+their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are
+intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours.
+There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers,
+which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.
+
+Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the
+pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and
+embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of
+King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like
+modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and
+spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows
+wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely
+appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the
+old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers
+emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as
+has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish
+wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the
+scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.
+
+In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some
+part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or
+palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine
+with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the
+more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate
+tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border
+take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such
+borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the
+simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.
+
+One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known
+as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is
+believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since
+there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little
+son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen,
+on which became impressed the “palm” design formed by the hand and
+incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old
+Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of
+the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above
+Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it
+symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it
+will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in
+its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia
+Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the
+rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple
+curving lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of
+its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very
+ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the
+glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising
+that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old
+Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees
+worshipped.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13. COMPARTMENT CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
+OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly
+symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more
+interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the
+serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of
+Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been
+regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently
+considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed
+to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven
+design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian
+fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the
+“turtle border” (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably
+derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis,
+and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found
+exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the
+animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable
+that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and
+palmette.
+
+Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any
+others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the
+infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck,
+conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit.
+These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.
+
+With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented
+are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the
+fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the
+order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as
+the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of
+fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The attitude, to be sure, in which
+they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in
+flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes
+ill luck.
+
+As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as
+well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia
+Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the
+law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east,
+where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very
+common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor
+that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand,
+animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were
+intended to represent symbolically the weaver’s thought. In fact, those
+masterpieces of Persian art known as the “Hunting Carpets” would lose
+much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the
+sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness
+and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the
+victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards
+and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also
+mythological creatures, as the phœnix, emblematic of life and
+resurrection, and the winged _djinni_ or Persian spirits, that often
+adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of
+Iran.
+
+Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative
+attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but
+among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To
+the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though
+difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields
+of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of
+eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the
+sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour
+of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese.
+Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are
+suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction
+with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades
+of thought.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver.
+Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily
+life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the
+still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some
+old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the
+deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be
+added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought
+and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs
+another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden
+meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY
+
+
+THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug
+weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in
+different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs
+were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact,
+during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable
+that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with
+the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of
+weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.
+Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations
+of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.
+
+Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt
+they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had
+risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt,
+that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of
+looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity
+of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh,
+where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship
+were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers
+are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree
+of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient
+writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven
+fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus,
+Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have
+mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls,
+similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.
+
+This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured,
+has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark
+tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a
+sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master’s hut several
+thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.
+Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other
+pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless
+without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of
+nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury
+increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule
+of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during
+the summer months, they were substituted. “On these mats,” wrote the
+eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, “the artist found free scope for
+displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold
+threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive
+silk and gold carpets.” Long, however, before they had reached such a
+high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making
+warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple
+web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to
+the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance,
+more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there
+appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar
+in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.
+
+Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of
+the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine
+art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226
+A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced
+in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or
+goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals,
+and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered
+with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century
+A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship
+of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period
+of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in
+his monograph “Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird,” gave the
+following description of the “Spring of Chosroes” carpet:
+
+“When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of
+the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the
+ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor,
+Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy
+weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the
+beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This
+was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.
+Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold,
+silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure
+ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of
+springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented
+flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white,
+and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the
+water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones
+of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the
+leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones.”
+
+As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a
+million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a
+single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be
+distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period
+there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the
+importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to
+luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and
+encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the
+Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the
+banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred
+feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of
+the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk
+and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the
+year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated
+treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about
+four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of
+these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven
+in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire
+royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the
+Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on
+which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as
+well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some
+of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.
+
+As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the
+finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces
+of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the
+native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving
+was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more
+probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as
+presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and
+Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and
+elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where
+many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as
+many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since
+the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they
+were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied
+to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they
+were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often
+embellished with precious stones.
+
+
+ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS
+
+To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which
+antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental
+rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist
+that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed,
+we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved
+some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about
+1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques
+which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable
+that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which
+began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half
+of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that
+their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they
+suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of
+their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and
+miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age
+of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive
+development.
+
+One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.
+Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most
+interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian
+characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was
+woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as
+well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts
+of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal
+sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are
+Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each
+end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils
+or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate
+forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and
+Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics
+indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia
+where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on
+the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character
+of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the
+field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the
+stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms
+arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to
+place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the
+interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers
+of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it
+may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is
+strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and
+harmony.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.
+Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more
+regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets
+represent the art of weaving at a very early period.
+
+Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12,
+opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Böhler
+of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of
+nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces
+remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the
+flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was
+woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece
+as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian,
+and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the
+Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year
+1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest
+that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
+
+The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers,
+from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately
+cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes,
+of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and
+those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are
+likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the
+principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques
+of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of
+leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the
+grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the
+prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in
+Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin,
+from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the
+whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has
+been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was
+felt in all the weavings.
+
+If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its
+greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are
+exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange,
+ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a
+background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an
+Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the
+leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong
+and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and
+the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses
+and in immediate contact.
+
+If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the
+drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by
+comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique
+Persian carpets.
+
+Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13,
+opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches
+wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of
+London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which
+bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six
+hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and
+silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
+Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of
+Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess
+Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de
+Commerce at Lyons.
+
+In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on
+design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at
+the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that
+more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is
+the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and
+border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets
+represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the
+higher products of Persian looms.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE
+METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as
+consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon
+encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller
+rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On
+the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of
+sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phœnix so common
+in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
+The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques
+and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field
+are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and
+flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped
+areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
+
+The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The
+main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is
+adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a
+chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating
+elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud
+bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in
+red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
+The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers
+in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of
+both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which
+is the most perfect harmony.
+
+The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the
+tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of
+the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson
+ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it
+came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre
+of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting
+carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard
+of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
+
+There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in
+Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its
+resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the
+year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that
+were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and
+hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some
+principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the
+weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
+
+A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called “Hunting
+Carpets.” The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to
+the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the
+following extract from his work: “The manuscript of Nizami, one of the
+pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for
+the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia’s most renowned
+masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these
+magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written,
+was considered one of the most remarkable ‘the like of which the eye of
+time never beheld,’ plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both
+animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the
+manuscript.”
+
+One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is
+in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was
+purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of
+ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an
+average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp
+and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently
+believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long
+time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital,
+and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it
+belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael’s reign
+and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in
+the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as
+the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border
+a dark blue characteristic of this period.
+
+The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life
+amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths
+of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to
+the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to
+one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains
+animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that
+are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller
+animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a
+perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
+Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The
+repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal
+life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow
+of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied
+during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
+Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals
+in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan
+near Kermanshah.
+
+As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence
+between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack
+of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended
+to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are
+peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear
+in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of
+symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which
+received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
+
+On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary
+standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the
+artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few
+other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and
+simplicity of colour.
+
+Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in
+the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half
+feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about
+three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is
+of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully
+studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following
+extracts are taken:
+
+“The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite
+delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow
+terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which
+spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the
+direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps
+of the mosque.
+
+“Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground,
+relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes
+the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded
+cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of
+red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a
+broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a
+so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of
+the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a
+bold design in blue.”
+
+But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the
+greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the
+border of the upper end is the following inscription:
+
+  “I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold;
+  “My head has no protection other than thy porchway;
+  “The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan,
+     in the year 946.”
+
+Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the
+character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard
+for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year
+946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date
+indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the
+fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who
+died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of
+Tamasp I.
+
+To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake;
+since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of
+the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of
+his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part
+of the Safavid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were
+used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is
+unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the
+words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers;
+and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest
+that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now
+owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length
+of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In
+the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period,
+with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side
+by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that
+rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
+Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more
+skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the
+spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow,
+and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the
+chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features
+that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia,
+Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering
+that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the
+bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
+
+  “Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
+  Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
+  Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the
+    Immaculate.
+  Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
+  The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+    Bak’r.”
+
+These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour
+sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
+Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same
+age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares
+surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in
+early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in
+Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer
+carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during
+succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern
+Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
+
+Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal
+rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of
+Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had
+previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It
+has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five
+and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the
+other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses
+twice, is partly exposed at the back.
+
+Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears
+in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the
+medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in
+the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not
+usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps
+at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly
+rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with
+their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size,
+show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was
+probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the
+influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate
+balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show
+that it is distinctly Iranian.
+
+If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page
+78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran,
+the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length
+of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the
+difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any
+particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced
+relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red
+ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter
+they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette
+forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is,
+indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so
+prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later
+than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court
+of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year
+1600.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add
+interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe
+of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and
+foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome
+plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a
+tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with
+artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where
+on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming
+shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the
+tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial
+happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central
+medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding
+colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of
+workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly
+hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed
+in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and
+precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+forms.
+
+The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets
+were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this
+piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that
+were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
+
+Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces,
+the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of
+weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists
+employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of
+the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received
+special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending
+carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of
+Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals
+were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan,
+that were made the famous “Polish” silk or “Polonaise” carpets about
+which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson
+in his “Eastern Carpets” claims that they were woven in Poland by
+Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more
+probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court
+and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by
+wealthy connoisseurs of art.
+
+How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques
+of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be
+a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts
+of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of
+them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is
+believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years
+1604 and 1650.
+
+Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold
+is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the
+earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have
+light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with
+perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing
+the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences
+combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic
+tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art
+of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
+
+One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine
+feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though
+threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver
+of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves,
+and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the
+light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all
+its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with
+mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every
+part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the
+heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern
+or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE
+KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
+
+In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is
+probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant
+designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with
+encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the
+borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting
+four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish
+pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
+
+It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate
+successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some
+of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the
+XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent
+years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of
+their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they
+came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is
+true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the
+Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent
+carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp
+and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the
+weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has
+not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period
+an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well
+known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were
+largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and
+that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known
+that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to
+another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar
+character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It
+accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets
+was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat,
+but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to
+a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
+
+Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
+The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue
+is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their
+distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably
+derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult
+of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that
+slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese
+cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were
+constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order
+furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For
+instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully
+over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they
+were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the
+XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of
+the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century
+only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years
+before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes,
+cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of
+the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the
+palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
+
+Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the
+Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times
+carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in
+Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the
+palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the
+districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of
+Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost
+uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively
+few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
+Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and
+Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their
+patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
+The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or
+lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that
+contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main
+stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques
+adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably
+represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art
+unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in
+Europe.
+
+Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those
+from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be assumed that the high
+culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of
+the Caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north; and
+that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine
+woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region
+during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being
+remarkably handsome.
+
+Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets,
+which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century
+and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice
+the breadth; the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a
+single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of
+narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing
+archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally
+some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from
+which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of
+more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.
+
+In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century carpet
+(Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these
+pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential
+characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the
+same class. The field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped
+sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet,
+and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous
+small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and
+Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge, as well as
+the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the
+effulgent stars of old Daghestans and Kabistans. An effort has been made
+to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though
+its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The
+palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal
+forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+Western Asia Minor.
+
+Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a district
+in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its
+approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a
+similar rug is represented in a fresco called the “Wedding of the
+Foundling,” painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that
+it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not
+much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other
+from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square
+compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are
+represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phœnix that was
+adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the
+chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to
+formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an
+archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets.
+
+In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which
+hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so
+frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as
+“Holbein rugs.” Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described
+indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in
+different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of
+Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf,
+and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed,
+the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni
+Mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin. They came
+from Asia Minor or Western Armenia.
+
+It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia
+Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken
+thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may
+have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been
+transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known
+pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears
+in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of
+Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs
+and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that
+suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow
+stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are
+very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that
+these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater
+Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, extended over
+the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21. PORTRAIT OF GEORG GYZE BY HANS HOLBEIN, SHOWING
+A HOLBEIN RUG WITH CUFIC BORDER]
+
+These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of
+such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were
+woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and
+1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early
+Flemish and Italian painters, it may reasonably be assumed that some of
+them were made before the end of the XV Century.
+
+A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is
+now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five
+feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field
+is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The
+prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are
+blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size,
+and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose;
+and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch.
+
+Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams
+appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this
+pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are
+outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds.
+Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of
+tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination
+of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It
+appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian
+rugs.
+
+An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars,
+since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one
+of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug.
+For this reason and on account of its general character, it seems not
+unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century.
+
+Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is probable that
+in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced
+by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in
+1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still
+remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesques,
+palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resembled more
+nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning
+of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject,
+the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost
+exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern
+and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process
+of devolution originated from these antique pieces.
+
+In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the
+Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though
+affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an
+indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir
+George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens
+introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the
+time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of
+many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude.
+Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained
+their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established
+manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers
+to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their
+knowledge of patterns and technique.
+
+It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous
+peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now
+remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other
+country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred
+knots to the square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these
+carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half
+wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the
+Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral
+forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a
+field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the
+same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered
+with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every
+part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which unlike their
+Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically
+some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression
+of an actual event.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 22. OUSHAK CARPET
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet
+and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering
+is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a
+strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird
+with a winged beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of
+the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the
+attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural.
+The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the
+field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the
+border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian
+tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is
+probably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.
+
+Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are
+known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and
+Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Century, scarcely a vestige
+can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the
+days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets.
+It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been
+ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.[15] But of
+the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once
+covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains.
+
+[Illustration: CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS
+
+
+RUGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than
+any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers
+the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps. Thrown over other
+objects they form the table, made into saddle bags they take the place
+of trunks. The followers of Islam when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in
+token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in
+cities, also, rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the
+home. Indeed, without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every house,
+where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings,
+and lighter ones are hung as portières and tapestries. Yet it is in the
+assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used, though here the
+most valued are exposed only on great occasions.
+
+In the East a rug receives a particular name according to which of these
+special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost square piece that is
+used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the “Khali;”
+and the narrow strips or “runners” that are placed at its sides and ends
+are known as the “Kenares.” It is on the Kenares that the servants are
+required to walk and the less honoured guests to stand, for they are
+rarely of such fine quality as the former. Before the divan, that
+generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and
+velvet, are seats on which are placed carpets called “Sedjadeh.” They
+are nearly twice as long as broad, and since they are of moderate size
+and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes.
+The hearth rug, termed “Odjalik,” can generally be distinguished from
+others, as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at
+the extremity. However much any of these may be valued, the one that to
+every worshipper of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+“Namazlik,” or prayer rug, at one end of which is an arch in token of
+the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful Moslem spreads his rug with
+arch directed towards Mecca, and kneeling with the palms of his hands at
+each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the
+Mohammedans of Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the
+foot of an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer rugs
+sold in America have been made solely for trade and have never been used
+in worship. They may be beautiful, but special interest attaches to old
+pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father
+and son for over half a century have often pressed. In addition to these
+are other rugs with technical names, but a classification of much
+greater importance is that which depends on the country or district
+where they are woven.
+
+When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the United
+States, they were spoken of as “Turkish,” for the reason that importers
+purchased them from Turkish merchants of Constantinople. But when it
+became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries
+farther to the east, and that large numbers of them came from Persia,
+the name “Persian,” that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour,
+was at once applied; even to-day all classes of Oriental rugs are often
+spoken of as Persian. As objects of ornament or utility, their value is
+independent of their place of origin; yet it is known that the wool of
+the nap and the dyes used in some districts are superior to those in
+others, and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve
+with age far more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will wear
+better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is made is
+important in determining the quality and value, which otherwise only a
+critical examination, that few people are able to make, would show.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 23. SEHNA RUG]
+
+Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting the class
+of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our interest. When, for
+instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish weave with its nomadic
+designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem savage as an Apache often
+rested fully half a century ago, there is called up a picture of the
+dark-visaged tribesman, fearless and untamed as were his ancestors
+who contested the march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see
+him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to ourselves
+the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl
+bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots one by one. So if we
+would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should know what people made them, and
+whence and how they journeyed, before they reached our fireside.
+
+At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a
+rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This is partly due to
+the fact that even the great importing houses are often deceived.
+Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, even farther east, great fairs
+are regularly held. Here gather the representatives of tribes from far
+distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and
+abandon of the East while bartering the products of their different
+crafts. Here come the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces
+that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail
+to such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and labelled,
+before they are resold to the importing houses of Europe and America.
+Thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from
+different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there
+is frequent opportunity for errors of classification.
+
+The characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are
+given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed that these are
+infallible guides to the locality where they were made. Often a ruler,
+by fostering art, has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from
+other districts. Thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic
+of one district would be adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans
+that pass along regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual
+pilgrimages to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for
+the dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the general
+pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft, and pile; the
+knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and the peculiarities of
+the weave, it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to
+determine in what districts almost all Oriental rugs are woven.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which some of the
+rugs are known in America are not the same as those by which they are
+known in Asia. For instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the
+Tekke Khanate are known in the Orient as “Tekkes;” but as the great
+depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of Bokhara, they are
+generally known in this country as “Bokharas.” On the other hand, there
+are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the
+western. The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the classes
+represent the cities or districts where are woven the several different
+kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided chronologically. The
+names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory, but
+are probably the best that can be chosen. The fourth group, for example,
+has frequently been called the “Turkoman;” but as it includes some of
+the rugs of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the western
+and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here employed has
+the authority of some German writers of note. So, too, the rugs of
+Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan, are included with the
+Persian group; but it should be remembered that Herat, as well as the
+districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was once part of the old Persian
+Empire.
+
+
+  GROUP I. PERSIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Khorassan district:
+            Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.
+
+  (_b_) Shiraz district:
+          Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, Niris.
+
+  (_c_) Feraghan district:
+            Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Iran, Sarouk,
+              Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad, Muskabad, Mahal,
+              Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.
+
+  (_d_) Sehna district, or Adelan province:
+            Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian Kurdistan, Karaje.
+
+  (_e_) Tabriz district:
+            Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez, Suj-Bulak, Karadagh,
+              Afshar.
+
+  (_f_) Kurdistan district:
+            Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.
+
+
+  GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.
+
+  (_a_) West Asia Minor district:
+            Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak, Ak-Hissar, Demirdji,
+              Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta, Rhodian, Broussa,
+              Hereke.
+
+  (_b_) Central Asia Minor district:
+            Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian, Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar,
+              Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile, Yuruk.
+
+
+  GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.
+
+  (_a_) North Caucasian:
+            Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend, Lesghian, Chichi,
+              Tcherkess.
+
+  (_b_) Trans Caucasian:
+            Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis, Kutais, Kazak,
+              Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.
+
+
+  GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.
+
+  (_a_) West Turkoman sub-group, Western influence:
+            Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Yomud, Khiva, Afghan,
+              Beshir.
+
+  (_b_) East Turkoman sub-group, Eastern influence:
+            Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.
+
+  (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+
+  GROUP V. INDIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Northern India:
+            Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad,
+              Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.
+
+  (_b_) Southern India:
+            Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal, Malabar, Hyderabad,
+              Marsulipatam.
+
+
+GROUP VI. CHINESE.[16]
+
+
+  (_a_) XVII Century:
+            Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi (1662-1700).
+
+  (_b_) XVIII Century:
+            1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2. Yung-ching (1722-1736).
+               3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).
+
+  (_c_) Early and Middle XIX Century.
+
+  (_d_) Late XIX Century or Modern.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+PERSIAN RUGS
+
+
+IN the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow
+the present political divisions of territory, since great and frequent
+changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding
+changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with
+the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants,
+it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Afghanistan
+on the east. The woven products of all this territory have
+characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate
+them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly
+floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to
+naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover,
+their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in
+perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia,
+Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or
+highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in
+bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of
+colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian.
+The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures,
+or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some
+Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the
+patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more
+realistically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IV—BERGAMO RUG_
+
+_The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor
+traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and border,
+yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by
+departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic
+designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the
+background of the central field, on which are three upright panels
+containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and
+forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs,
+knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and
+lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive
+of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright
+stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now
+rarely seen._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political
+influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time
+when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the
+splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under
+one and the same dominant power, which at different times was held by
+Saracens, Seljukian Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the
+end of the Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger influence
+is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and Turks have blended
+with the early people of the whole territory, until not only do all
+resemble one another, but their craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore,
+with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still
+cling to the early Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their
+frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to a much less
+degree.
+
+A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical features of the
+entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people. To
+be sure the Euphrates and Tigris, that wind sluggishly through the great
+Mesopotamian valley, and the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that
+extend from Mt. Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have
+no counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is
+little vegetation, high table-lands where during rainless summer months
+the earth is parched, and little valleys of fertile soil that are
+watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges. Throughout this
+territory, wherever physical conditions are similar, the people follow
+similar pursuits. In the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the
+higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys are
+several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment of the
+East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple articles of metal,
+and weave artistic rugs.
+
+A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life pervades
+the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of a past
+associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana, Babylon and
+Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more immediate influence of
+the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago, rugs are still produced
+that in delicacy of weave, beauty of design, and harmony of colours
+surpass those of any other part of the world. In the weave of the best
+examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the
+Royal Bokharas. In the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of
+harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the best products of
+India alone compare, is united the touch of both artist and artisan. The
+fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of
+buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils, and frequently
+encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious
+whole. The fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour,
+with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful
+lines. Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged
+with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by some nomadic
+design. Surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes, some of
+which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes
+co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern. It is,
+however, principally in the colours, which are delicate yet rich,
+subdued yet lustrous, that these rugs surpass all others. Their most
+distinctive tones are blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that
+the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and wine
+colour in field, each being subordinated to other superimposed colours
+representing floral detail.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: MAP OF PERSIA]
+
+The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal precision
+throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is of uncertain
+antiquity and origin. It consists of a central figure that generally
+represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or rosette, about which are
+grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves. Probably
+both the central and encircling figures are of Persian origin, though
+the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish
+and attributed to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally
+drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of
+these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+and a central rosette, as in Plate O, Fig. 4 (Page 291). This Herati or
+Fish Pattern, as it is frequently called, appears in many of the old
+Persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces, particularly the
+Feraghans and Herats. A less frequently seen floral pattern, which has
+been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern
+rugs, is the Guli Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate O, Fig. 3). Of this
+plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the “chief of this world
+and the next.”
+
+It occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in several
+other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered
+informally over the field. Another floral pattern frequently seen is the
+Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate O, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina
+Khan, a former Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of
+Persian Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a
+network of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their
+different designs and colours; and between them often appear other
+flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured Hinnai, so as to
+destroy too great stiffness of design. As the flowers are relatively
+large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field, this
+is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns. A
+still more formal pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of
+the Persian rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah
+Abbas. It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal motive
+is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character.
+Between the large and formal palmettes, that are arranged with
+mathematical precision, are grouped with similar regularity smaller
+palmettes, connected by angular vines and leafy branches.
+
+Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns, such as the
+Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas. Others have the
+repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the pear, on a field of rich
+colour. The remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls,
+vines, or tendrils, drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves,
+flowers, and buds in beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human
+beings, demons, and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with
+the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in the
+remote past, have been transplanted from one country to another, and
+conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is interesting to
+observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as
+possible the influences to which they are due.
+
+
+HERATS.—On great lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia,
+the city of Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+commercially a most important position, so that its people long since
+became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries.
+During the XV Century it reached its greatest prosperity, and exerted an
+important influence on the art and culture of Western Asia. Before the
+art decadence that followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in
+1731, and the removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques,
+scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among this tracery were
+palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony, which were often most
+realistically drawn.[17] These rugs are of further interest, as they
+contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed, appears
+in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati pattern.
+
+The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the antique pieces
+and show a close relationship to those of Persia. Nor is this
+surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short of the high
+standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia, are still mindful
+of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the rugs are made across the
+border in Khorassan, and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of
+that province; but their tones of colour, consisting principally of red
+or blue in the field, and light green, yellow, and ivory in the border,
+as well as most of the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields
+are covered with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in
+the same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the Feraghans,
+because their fields are covered with the Herati or Fish pattern; but
+the borders of the Feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern,
+while the borders of these adhere to the traditional Herati design. It
+is also not unusual to see a large central medallion, in which blue or
+red predominates, separated by a field of lighter colour from the
+triangular patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24. BIJAR RUG]
+
+One of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders,
+that generally have three stripes, of which the central consists of a
+continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely
+bent, thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes
+are narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical border,
+the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their large, almost
+square shapes and rather coarse weave, are important aids in
+distinguishing this class from all others. Some of the rugs recently
+made are coarse; but the older rugs have excellent dyes, lustrous nap,
+and matured tones of well-blended colours.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[18] _Colours_, principally red and blue with
+minor quantities of green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes, rarely
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as long,
+measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.[19] The rows of knots
+are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_,
+of cotton, rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only depressed.
+_Weft_, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse diameter. For a short space
+a thread of weft crosses twice, that is across and back once, between
+every two rows of knots, then three times, and so alternates every
+several rows. _Pile_, wool of medium length, soft, and silky. _Border_,
+three to five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout and firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to twenty feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to
+three quarters length.
+
+
+KHORASSANS.—Among Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of
+the Sun. In its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds
+and flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times the
+Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome, then
+retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and
+inhospitable wastes.
+
+Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness
+have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots
+where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an Omar Khayyam
+and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed. Even before the Mongolian
+invasion several hundred looms, each employing four or five women, were
+busy in the town of Toon in Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east
+is the district of Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs
+of Herati pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand, in the
+southeastern part of the province, where formerly were woven pieces of
+superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred
+knots to the square inch. Their colours were of delicate shades; and it
+was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground,
+with which was contrasted the darker tones of the Herati or pear
+patterns. Over a century ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving
+rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present
+products fall far below the early standards.
+
+Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago
+and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule, they are of large
+size and have closely woven texture. They can be distinguished from most
+others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap, which is often due
+to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as
+because it is cut long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use
+of some shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently
+it is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other Persian
+rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their colours are
+generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times brilliant, as when
+a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion.
+
+The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to copying designs
+of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit
+Meshed, and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of
+weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all Persia. One pattern,
+however, based upon the treatment of the pear design, which is employed
+in many of these pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other
+districts. It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a
+field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+the same direction, and of two or three much smaller pears partly
+resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges. Unlike the
+pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval, these are elongated
+like those of Indian rugs; and within them, as well as in the field, are
+often small floral figures. This distinctive pattern is rendered more
+effective by the colour scheme; since frequently pears of red or
+magenta, defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled
+flowers, rest upon a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also
+frequently employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to see a
+central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of
+bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two medallions. When the
+centre contains a medallion, the triangular-shaped corners are set off
+by lines that are much simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.
+
+Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are they very
+wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as several guard stripes,
+is some characteristic pattern. Occasionally it contains the Herati
+design, but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with
+incipient flower forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+bird’s head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine. This stripe,
+illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2, (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met
+with in Khorassans as to be characteristic of them. The narrow guard
+stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Many are
+“left-hand.” Knots to inch horizontally, eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of warp hang
+loose at the back of some pieces. _Weft_, almost always cotton,
+occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, excepting at intervals of
+every six or eight rows of knots, where it crosses three or more times.
+_Pile_, wool of medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. _Border_,
+three to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+MESHEDS.—In few parts of the East have the weavers received greater
+inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed.
+To Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+within a mosque resplendent with façade of blue and white tiles, and
+with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the remains of Ali Riza,
+the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb that is viewed yearly by
+nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It was for a short time the
+capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified its mosques; and here Nadir Shah,
+whose remains lie in the mausoleum, held his court after the capture of
+Delhi. Within its walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not
+far away, among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva, Bokhara,
+Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of commercial
+importance.
+
+It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were made in
+the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian traveller[20]
+who visited it during the XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the
+floor of its mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which
+has never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the most
+magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a century the
+textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now seen are generally
+of recent manufacture.
+
+As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the same silky
+appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more evenly clipped. The
+pattern, however, is generally different, as seldom is the field
+completely covered with the pear design, but whenever used, it is of
+elaborate drawing and frequently very large. Nor is the characteristic
+Khorassan border stripe, illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of
+blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral vines, in which
+appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the rugs that now exist
+were made within the last fifty years, and are of large size and
+almost square shape. The colour scheme inclines to light and often
+brilliant tones, which at times are strongly contrasted with small
+masses of much darker shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and
+weft are rarely coarse.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25. KERMANSHAH RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose or pink, blue and
+white, with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally
+Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to fifteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool or
+cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of fine quality and
+medium length. _Border_, usually from three to six stripes, occasionally
+as many as eight, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Lower end_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven
+eighths length.
+
+
+ISPAHANS.—Still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour,
+surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a
+broad, well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by Tamerlane,
+who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose to such importance
+that in the XVII Century it contained within its walls several palaces,
+one hundred and sixty mosques, over two score of colleges, nearly two
+thousand caravansaries, and about three quarters of a million people.
+Now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few
+stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets,
+abandoned bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence
+of the former capital.
+
+Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for the
+purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most experienced
+artisans, to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of
+many of the early carpets. Here, in the days of its greatest prosperity,
+were founded many industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven
+some of the best of old Persian carpets. Though Herat is now regarded
+by some authorities as the centre where the so-called Ispahan rugs were
+made, it is improbable, as previously pointed out, that all of them came
+from there. But after the death of Shah Abbas the rug industry began to
+decline; and with the removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan
+ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt
+whether such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on Oriental
+Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon at Ispahan, were
+made there or were imported from other cities; but the weaving of rugs
+has never entirely ceased; and so great is the fame of the former glory
+of the city that even now Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the
+term “Ispahan” as an epithet of superiority.
+
+The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little
+resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves show little
+similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati designs are not
+uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with
+what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and in others the field
+contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small
+foliate and floral forms placed between them. Small figures of animals
+are also occasionally represented. The border is generally narrow and
+lacking in impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red or blue
+is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are green, yellow,
+and white. The weave has variations rarely found in other rugs; for the
+warp, which is usually cotton, may also be wool, or wool and cotton
+twisted together; and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton, and may
+cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs,
+or even once or twice in the same rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[21] _Colours_, principally red and blue, with
+minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows
+of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally
+wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together. Each thread
+of warp is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread
+of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots. If it is wool,
+it generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread. _Pile_,
+wool, of short or medium length. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or
+three chords. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and fringe.
+Occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_
+at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, six to fourteen feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIRMANS.—On account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it
+is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain ridges that
+separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the west, in a measure
+protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political
+and industrial conditions of Northern Persia, it has continuously for
+over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of
+rugs. Moreover, during all this period it has been noted for the
+excellence of their quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its
+fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs’ palaces.
+When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful shawls
+and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted French traveller
+Chardin, who lived in that country during part of the XVII Century, also
+spoke most favourably of them. Even after Nadir Shah removed many of the
+most skilled weavers to the northern part of Persia subsequent to
+ascending the throne in 1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city
+and massacred many of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry
+continued to prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of
+modern pieces.
+
+To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and
+dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious
+influences of market demands and aniline colours. And to it must be
+attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile art appears nowhere
+else in greater purity; for of all the rugs on the market to-day these
+conform more nearly in texture, colour, and design to the masterpieces
+of earlier times, and show none of the foreign influences appearing in
+pieces woven in the north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as
+well as religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in secret
+their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.
+
+For long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about
+Kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills, so
+that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes
+used in the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of
+such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep and
+partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and
+yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.
+
+It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman for
+roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict them so
+profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as filling vases
+set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon
+the field. They also weave them in the borders among green leaves, as
+placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as
+are seen in other Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the
+flowers of most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they are red
+contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in the field, and of
+golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border. Sometimes, instead of a
+profusion of roses, there are other flowers, such as the sunflower,
+suggesting the old Zoroastrian faith, the cypress, or the sacred
+“cocos.” Again, the general design may be modified from one strictly
+floral, and amid the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human
+beings; but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has five
+stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any other, and
+surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red;
+though now and then, according to the general colour scheme, a very
+pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26. KURDISTAN RUG WITH MINA KHANI PATTERN]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally grey or ivory, with minor
+quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The
+rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the
+weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads
+encircled by knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally wool of
+fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool,
+short, soft, and silky. _Border_, usually of five stripes and an outer
+edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging. _Both ends_,
+a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+YEZD.—In the centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan,
+is the city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still follow
+the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great desert of
+Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an oasis, where the
+drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants
+the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls
+within. At the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they
+are rarely seen in Western markets; yet on account of the historic
+interest in its people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products
+made in other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+also for its felt “namads,” which are generally too heavy to be
+transported, since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a
+superficial area of ten thousand square feet.
+
+
+SHIRAZ.—Near the centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by
+mountains is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim
+Khan, from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then it
+has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former
+glory has departed. And yet there still remain associations to kindle
+the imagination, for without the gates are the gardens that Persian
+poets have extolled in verse; the tombs of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far
+away are the spots where Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined
+palaces that Alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.
+
+As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced large numbers
+of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were woven before the XV
+Century. As is the case with modern pieces, all of them were
+distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool, which is to be
+attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and
+valleys. One of the oldest existing rugs of this district which
+displays the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in
+the following words:[22] “As soon as I had touched it, I was certain
+that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at
+Shiraz, or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft one
+that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are older than the
+eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes such rich and deep
+colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are
+equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool,
+which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes
+one think of translucent enamel. As a piece of colour this carpet is
+certainly one of the finest, and there are very few carpets that have
+greater charm, which even the best reproduction could not give. In its
+colours there is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window,
+where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and
+dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as the
+wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz.”
+
+On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is
+referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the two following
+centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high standard of excellence
+prevalent in the principal cities of Persia; but most of those pieces
+are now extremely rare, as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or
+for exchange with foreign rulers. This city experienced the art
+decadence that began with the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of
+Kerim Khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there.
+
+Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are
+certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the excellent
+qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven are still poorer.
+On a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly Persian; but
+they generally depart widely from the early traditions, and floral forms
+are very much conventionalised. In a large number of this class the
+field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines
+and angles. Sometimes they are as small as in the Sarabends, occupying
+the whole field as the principal motive; or they may be placed less
+prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be
+as large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another very
+common pattern, known as the “pole-medallion,” consists of a narrow
+perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on
+which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs.
+In other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian
+rug, and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric
+figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals
+scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no other Persian rug in
+which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The borders usually consist of a
+number of narrow stripes, or a wide one with narrow guard stripes. One
+of them, at least, almost invariably contains some form of vine and
+leaves, and not infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear
+in Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans on
+account of the resemblance in geometric designs.
+
+Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are not
+difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about the dark
+blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow. They
+are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them have a trait of lying
+unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven
+between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends, from
+which hang a loose fringe. The sides are overcast with heavy strands of
+wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the
+case with any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+coloured tassels.
+
+There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are superior
+to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the patterns are
+geometric; but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and
+a slightly different colour scheme.
+
+Not infrequently the term “Mecca” is applied to Shiraz rugs, and the
+impression is conveyed that they were made there. Nor is the statement
+always entirely devoid of truth; for each year caravans aggregating some
+two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to
+Allah, to walk around the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving
+behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred
+earth or a strip of the temple’s covering. Each of these pilgrims bears
+offerings for propitiation, of which a large proportion are rugs; and
+whatever their size, they are invariably the choicest the devotee can
+offer. Since the Mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their
+religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles
+not directly available for their use, they sell large quantities of such
+rugs, that find their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople.
+Furthermore, the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged
+along the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from
+these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz rugs that they and
+similar pieces which had never left Persia were called Mecca rugs. This
+deception is still encouraged by some dealers, because for many buyers a
+special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been
+carried on this pilgrimage as an offering.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with
+minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots is
+generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The other half
+knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not drawn tight against
+the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that their alignment is
+slightly irregular, and the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, almost
+always wool; in a few modern rugs goats’ hair is used. Each of the
+threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+occasionally one to each knot is depressed. _Weft_, wool of medium
+diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short to medium, and
+silky. _Border_, three to five stripes. Beyond the borders, at each end,
+is frequently a narrow band of pile. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting
+in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which
+generally consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green,
+and blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at
+regular intervals of one or more feet. _Lower end_, a broad web of
+coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and
+warp loops. _Upper end_, a broad web of coloured stripes, through which
+may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to
+nine feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27. GOREVAN RUG]
+
+
+NIRIS.—A resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles to the
+westward; for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool,
+obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges, and
+the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old
+capital. This resemblance exists mostly in the soft, floccy appearance
+of the nap, and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the
+sides. The webs of each end are broad and have long fringes; but
+generally those of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or
+more parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a rule,
+flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also an
+occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern of the
+Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand, they are more
+firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in the character of their
+weave, since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other, and the weft is of wool coloured red, whereas
+in the Shiraz it is frequently of cotton.
+
+The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in Sarabends, extend
+over the field in orderly array; but they are much larger and consist of
+an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another, yet grouped
+gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown
+jewels sometimes ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue,
+and the pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is covered
+with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The typical border
+has a broad central stripe of vine and flower, with narrow guards of
+simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil. Barber-pole stripes are also
+characteristic of the borders.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely
+pressed down, so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft
+conspicuous. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes, sometimes as many
+as seven. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or
+in short lengths of different colours, such as red, blue, green,
+yellow, and black. _Both_ ends, a broad web of coloured stripes, one row
+of knots, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to seven feet. _Usual
+width_, three quarters to four fifths length.
+
+
+FERAGHANS.—Stretching eastward from the base of Mt. Elwund is the plain
+of Feraghan. Its length does not exceed forty-five miles, nor its
+breadth ten or fifteen, yet here are clustered several hundred villages.
+On account of its altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered
+with snow in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls.
+But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and the sheep are
+grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a plain of fertility and
+industry. For generations it has been productive of large numbers of
+fine rugs, and it is still possible among its villages to find some of
+those old pieces that have been regarded by the Persians themselves as
+the best examples of the textile art.
+
+When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been carefully
+observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is surprising to note the
+many distinctions observable in a large collection. These patterns may
+conveniently be divided into two groups, namely: one in which the field
+is entirely covered with diaper designs, and the other in which the
+field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour.
+Probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is covered
+with the Herati design; those in which the field is covered with the
+Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field is covered with some
+other small diaper design.
+
+The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is found in the
+very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the crumpled leaf does not
+exceed a length of four or five inches, and the rosettes are
+proportionally small, so that the ground colour is almost entirely
+concealed, and at a short distance is not distinguishable; but there are
+other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length, and the figures
+less closely clustered, so that the ground enters prominently into the
+colour scheme. The prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is
+generally rose red, which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug;
+though the small designs have shades of green, yellow, white, and light
+blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but occasionally red or
+even ivory is used. In very few other rugs are the corners separated
+from the field, unless there is a central medallion; but in almost all
+Feraghans small triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with
+those of the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+serrated edges.
+
+Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes.
+The main stripe is about three times as wide as any other, and may have
+a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white; but in many of the best
+pieces it is moss green, with blue, yellow, or red appearing in the
+overlying pattern. Of different but corresponding shades is the colour
+of the ground and designs of other stripes. Probably three fourths of
+the Feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main
+stripe; but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine with rosette or
+palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very narrow, is invariably
+represented some reciprocal figure, as the trefoil or sawtooth; and on
+the other stripes are undulating vines, with floral or quasi-floral
+figures.
+
+The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs instead of
+the Herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring, though the
+general effect is much the same. In place of crumpled leaves and
+rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the Hinnai plants
+that brighten the mountains surrounding the Feraghan plain with their
+large yellow or ivory coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is
+slightly more prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich,
+is less red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though specimens are
+not frequently seen. In these the small figures of conventionalised
+flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or
+perpendicular rows. Moreover, they generally lack the rich colouring of
+the preceding sub-groups.
+
+The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old
+Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape, with serrated
+edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati figures cover its
+surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small
+conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of
+uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule, pieces of this group are of a
+more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire
+field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that
+blend and produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of the old
+pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short, many of those
+that remain are still serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and dark blue, with
+minor quantities of yellow, light blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Sehna,
+rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, seven to eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is usually concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of weft of fine
+or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots, or
+occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only
+once, so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+HAMADANS.—A little to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that
+overlooks a small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain
+is the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of Ecbatana,
+capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb, which tradition
+declares is the burial place of Esther and Mordecai. Within the
+encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and mosques; yet the present city
+of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has
+little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which
+for a short period was mistress of the world.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28. BERGAMO PRAYER RUG]
+
+Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it once
+produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk carpets, though no
+longer are any woven there. But its looms have been busy for the last
+few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels’ hair, which have such
+marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp
+of identification. The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces,
+which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+some are simply mats, others sedjadehs, and an unusually large number
+are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs
+consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion, surrounded by a field of
+contrasting colour, from which are set off the triangular-shaped
+corners. In the large sedjadehs and in the runners, which are sometimes
+twenty feet or more in length, are often three or more pole medallions,
+though the pole device may be omitted. These medallions and corners are
+covered with small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more
+frequently with floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a
+rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or
+comb-like teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is broken
+only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently it is marked
+with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint, like a delicate
+tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a broad edging, which is at
+least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured
+stripes combined, surrounds them. As it is usually of camels’ hair and
+without pattern, it is a very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe
+has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard
+stripes have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+trefoils.
+
+To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the
+figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the
+corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large
+conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel
+or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the
+old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] “An
+irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while
+the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it
+with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners,
+within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to
+be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a
+golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it
+evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._”
+
+Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern
+products with pile of wool or goat’s hair often dyed in garish colours.
+There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering
+tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported
+from there they were often classed as products of that city.
+
+Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel’s hair than any other class
+of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and
+outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with
+the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of
+the field and border. This lavish use of camel’s hair, the broad
+encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft
+passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel’s
+hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally,
+six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton,
+frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once
+without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots
+of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
+_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel’s hair and some wool; in recent rugs,
+mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four
+stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel’s hair. _Sides_, overcast,
+generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to
+twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+IRANS.—Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are
+woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the
+province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or
+colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few
+well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a
+noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so
+loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent
+backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the
+foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show
+distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled
+by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally
+they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as
+Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on
+account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A
+half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the
+direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_,
+cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out
+distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a
+rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely
+crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front
+when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that
+is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow
+web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAROUKS.—Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an
+altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of
+Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked
+until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open
+doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply
+openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open
+fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the
+atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours
+that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls,
+sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow
+lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these
+depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived
+weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+beautiful rugs made in all the East.
+
+Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with
+mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or
+surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a
+hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven
+there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities,
+though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of
+old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
+Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful
+pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three
+decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of
+life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern
+consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more
+concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the
+four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are
+lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one
+another.
+
+Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of
+field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate
+stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and
+flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The
+borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which
+appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented
+with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern,
+which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the
+harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers
+exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for
+occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the
+reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field,
+or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion
+wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the
+sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
+
+All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is
+hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such
+short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective
+by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and
+excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground
+colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+“Ispahans;” while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with
+consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and
+foliage motives.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with
+minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots
+to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely
+linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always
+doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_,
+cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter
+crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and
+velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as
+seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a
+tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both
+ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
+_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KASHANS.—Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient
+and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of
+Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of
+the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of
+Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with
+scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is
+due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into
+Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for
+which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand
+people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest
+artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom
+Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still
+exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and
+artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile
+masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it
+would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned
+his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
+
+According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came
+from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take
+the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is
+woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces,
+though the demand for them is small.
+
+On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market,
+though it is only within recent years that they have been generally
+known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on
+account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs;
+yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is
+a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great
+number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in
+these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short
+comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the
+field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the
+most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those
+unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is
+dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly
+balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the
+very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of
+bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of
+floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks,
+so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense
+of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite
+colour make them exceedingly handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_,
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly,
+sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_,
+generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small
+diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
+_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double
+overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SABABENDS.—Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the
+boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in
+Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as
+prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this
+distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is
+Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on
+the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan,
+Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less
+important centres of weaving.
+
+Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern
+flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs
+which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
+No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for
+generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there
+any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in
+respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists
+of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller
+ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are
+long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear
+figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from
+this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati
+design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or
+the date when the piece was woven.
+
+The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it
+is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the
+prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light
+red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue;
+and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old
+pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft
+rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing
+effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to
+the other colours of the pears.
+
+With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes,
+of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground
+colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears
+have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is
+usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field
+and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an
+outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be
+balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual
+to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+with three.
+
+The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which
+signifies the “city of Mir,” and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
+They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal
+Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted
+that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter
+each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
+Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which
+the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
+For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely
+woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with
+vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at
+back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or
+blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes,
+and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower
+end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine
+grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V—GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
+
+_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high
+type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine
+technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is
+the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of
+the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border,
+and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding
+part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable
+that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman
+the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
+The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no
+other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as
+products of the XVI Century._
+
+_Property of the Author_]
+
+
+BURUJIRDS.—About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the
+south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the
+population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are
+stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of
+Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the
+Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but
+on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be
+mistaken for Iran rugs.
+
+
+SULTANABADS.—Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of
+Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of
+a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher
+prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for
+Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent
+efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are
+supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid
+regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are
+constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that
+lie within a day’s journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But
+while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only
+are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a
+difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called
+Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others
+are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely
+woven.
+
+
+MUSKABADS.—In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the
+northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
+They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they
+have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red,
+yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft,
+the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely
+woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures
+such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In
+some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral
+form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of
+different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive
+of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the
+turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral
+pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant
+finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of
+medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on
+account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave
+they are very serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at
+back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of
+medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to
+five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
+_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very
+coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to
+seven eighths length.
+
+
+JOSHAGHANS.—Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of
+Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best
+carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir
+Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the
+northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse,
+and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last
+century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine
+Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all
+sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout
+the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high
+esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
+
+In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other
+pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work
+pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is
+occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which
+combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening
+spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the
+Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
+
+Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and
+beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The
+ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and
+the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of
+the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so
+that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven;
+and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than
+that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser
+quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to
+thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that
+the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or
+reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft
+generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually
+three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or
+black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+SEHNAS.—Seldom has prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one
+made a decade ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from
+the market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those woven
+before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of Ardelan, for
+to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of them. Nevertheless,
+there are still many looms among the four or five thousand families of
+the city, where true to early traditions are woven modern fabrics that
+maintain the same floral Persian patterns, the same colour, the same
+general character of weave; but they lack the fine technique of the
+older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising that these modern pieces so
+closely resemble the old in all save quality, when it is considered that
+Sehna is distant only fifty miles from the western border of Persia;
+that it is surrounded by Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven
+rugs with nomadic features; and that it is not far distant from other
+important rug centres.
+
+To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is possible at once
+to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is exceedingly short, and the weave
+is so distinctive that with eyes closed an expert will generally
+recognise them after rubbing the hand across the front and back. Their
+patterns, also, conform to well-established types, yet have sufficient
+variety to be always interesting. They may be conveniently divided into
+two groups: one represents the entire field covered with floral designs,
+and the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion at
+the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The former, which
+is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a small diaper pattern of
+the Herati design or floral figures daintily drawn. To obviate too great
+monotony, a number of the old pieces have the leaves and flowers so
+adjusted that the ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less
+often have small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs placed
+in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a rule,
+consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or red, containing
+at its centre a single medallion of contrasting ground colour, which is
+generally dark blue or even black. The four corners of the field have
+serrated edges and are covered with floral designs similar to those of
+the medallion. The borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist
+of three stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions
+they are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of yellow
+or red, are represented designs which are also similar to those of the
+medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that were less floral than
+more modern pieces, and the turtle design so common to Feraghans was
+often used. Isolated and adventitious designs, such as are seen in all
+nomadic rugs, are never found in these pieces, nor are the floriated
+scrolls that are peculiar to Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.
+
+As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both linen and
+silk are used for the warp, and silk for overcasting, but generally the
+warp is cotton and the overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has
+given its name to the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of
+China and Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been inconsistent
+in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the Sehna knot, but a
+surprisingly large proportion of both recent and comparatively old
+pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few other rugs ever adopt the same
+style of weaving; for a thread of weft passes between two rows of knots
+but once, so that at the back only alternate threads of white cotton
+warp appear between these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered
+appearance or quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not
+drawn tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are so
+closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are not
+uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number are now and
+then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine threads and the nap
+is very short, these rugs are exceedingly thin and, accordingly, are not
+well adapted for floor use.
+
+Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their fields of deep
+blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but unfortunately they are
+somewhat marred by the long slit in the centre made to fit the saddle.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light blue, and yellow. _Knot_,
+Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely
+pressed down, but the yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely silk. A single
+thread of small diameter crosses only once between every two rows of
+knots, so that the white spots of transverse warp exposed at back have a
+quincunx appearance. _Pile_, wool clipped very short. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting. _Lower end_, a
+short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper
+end_, short web and fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+fine grain but very rough. _Length_, three to seven feet. _Width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BIJARS.—One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on the road to Tabriz, is the
+city of Bijar, capital of the district of Gehrous. It is surrounded by
+barren mountains that rise out of high table-lands, where for miles
+scarcely a habitation or bush breaks the monotony, and where not even a
+blade of grass or flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth,
+except for a short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly
+all Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and willows
+falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet there still
+remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well as a population of
+five thousand people. Without doubt the importance of the city is partly
+due to the regiment of soldiers that the governor maintains to keep in
+subjection the bands of robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers,
+live throughout the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of
+fierce foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from the
+fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and Afghanistan
+meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and settled here. After
+them is named a small river that flows a short distance to the north and
+finally empties into Lake Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the
+name Saraks to the rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the
+Turkoman characteristics.
+
+By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and Kurdish rugs,
+the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual merit. The foundation
+is generally of wool; but unlike almost all other rugs with nomadic
+features one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other in
+the process of weaving, so that it is almost or entirely concealed.
+Bijars are accordingly pieces of great firmness and durability.
+Moreover, their threads of warp and weft are of coarse diameter, so that
+they are invariably thick even when the nap is not long. They are also
+distinctive in the effective massing of bright and strong colours.
+Perhaps the association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes,
+with vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the brilliant,
+joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of Asia; but by the
+weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard many of the Persian
+colours, which, however rich, are subdued and sombre, and adopt the
+brighter hues seen in some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not
+always the case with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste;
+and though crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel’s hair be brought in
+relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the effect,
+except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never displeasing.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31. KULAH PRAYER RUG]
+
+In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the oldest pieces
+are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive of the highest Persian
+art. In many pieces a central medallion and triangular-shaped corners,
+separated by a field of plain or slightly shaded colour, is a favourite
+pattern. But the defining lines are severe, and lack the delicate
+drawing characteristic of Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be
+covered with a lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive
+forms, consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an outer
+edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are often
+represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the undulating
+vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most Persian rugs.
+Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that have none of the
+earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful with their soft wool
+and lustrous colours, as well as interesting with their blending of
+Persian and Kurdish features.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, also blue, ivory,
+green, yellow, and chocolate. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the
+weft partly hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse
+diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, of medium length, usually wool, but
+frequently partly of camel’s hair. _Border_, of three stripes, often
+with an outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting in red or purple.
+_Lower end_, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+selvage. _Upper end_, a web with loose warp fringe and sometimes a
+braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned back and hemmed.
+_Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Length_, six
+to sixteen feet. _Width_, one quarter to three fifths length.
+
+
+KERMANSHAHS.—On an ancient highway between Bagdad and Teheran is the
+city of Kermanshah. As it is situated near the frontiers of northwestern
+Persia, facing the Turkish provinces, and is surrounded by mountains
+where once wandered bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no
+government, it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A
+century ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the villages
+of the vicinity in which were made “carpets of most beautiful colour and
+fabric.” Within later years the moat has filled with rubbish, the
+encircling walls have crumbled, and the deserted bazaars and
+caravansaries show that its present population of about twelve thousand
+is but a small part of what it has been. With its decline in political
+importance followed a decline in industrial activities; yet for a long
+time it remained a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir
+George Birdwood wrote that “the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which
+at the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in the
+palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are only
+disposed of as presents.”[25] And in 1890 a traveller[26] spoke of the
+weaving as follows: “It is a process carried on in homes, hovels, and
+tents by women and children.... The vegetable dyes used are soft and
+artistic, especially a wonderful red and the various shades of indigo.
+The dull, rich tints, even when new, are quite beautiful. The women
+pursue their work chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases
+make it much of a pastime.”
+
+From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained large
+quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for years have
+been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the modern Kermanshahs
+are made elsewhere in the work-houses of exporting companies. So
+noticeable is the resemblance in drawing and colouring of some of them
+to the Kirmans of Southeastern Persia, that they are offered now and
+then by dealers as real Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and
+artistic merit of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of
+floral expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may have
+serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and with or
+without pendants. The corners are defined by lines that do not always
+conform to those of the medallion; and the borders have always several
+stripes, of which the main one is usually but little wider than the
+others. In all these different parts are floral and foliage motives that
+find expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many simpler
+forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and vines.
+
+There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with, as it is
+not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes the cypress or
+the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the field of a rare old
+Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large panels, which like so many
+small rugs contained central fields that were alternately coloured blue
+and ivory. Surrounding each of these little fields, on which were
+represented the arch of a temple and the tree of life, were borders
+wherein were woven verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of
+the borders were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels
+was a wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In fact, a
+larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other Persian rugs have
+prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran inscribed in some part of
+them, but with very few exceptions they are recently woven and bear no
+evidence of devotional usage.
+
+The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are much lighter
+than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a field of ivory
+surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes a light rose red is
+used. Other colours are light blue, green, and buff, which are softened
+by the floccy quality of the excellent and moderately short-clipped
+wool. One feature common to almost all of them is the narrow edging of
+pinkish red that surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls,
+the soft light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the
+white or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are characteristics
+by which these rugs may readily be distinguished. As they come in all
+sizes from small mats to large carpets, and have tones that harmonise
+with almost any surroundings, they are a most popular class with those
+who care little for association and ignore the fact that they are
+chemically washed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally light rose and ivory,
+also blue, green, and buff. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly eleven to eighteen. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the
+weft is conspicuous. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter,
+sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, soft and of medium length. _Border_,
+frequently of three stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many
+stripes; also an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally
+blue. _Sides_, a double overcasting in same colour as edging. _Lower
+end_, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to fourteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+WESTERN KURDISTANS.—Within the land lying between the Anti-Taurus and
+Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have their
+sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as when in the dawn of history
+they were designated the “Warriors;” or centuries later, under the name
+“Carduchis,” opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his ten thousand
+Greeks. Now they are known as “Kurds,” of whom large numbers, wild,
+brave, and hospitable, live a nomadic life among table-lands partly
+covered with sycamores and oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty
+pine-crowned mountains, that for long months are enveloped in snow.
+Doubtless the cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich
+vegetation of innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in
+a measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when contrasted
+with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but the will of their
+chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty. “There was up to a recent
+period no more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the
+East than the court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like
+another Saladin, the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his
+clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting silken
+scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the time of the
+Crusades.”[27]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32. MELEZ PRAYER RUG]
+
+Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they cultivate the
+soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages of stone houses. Many
+of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah. Others have made their homes
+in the district of Kermanshah, and not a few have wandered as far as
+Khorassan. But wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their
+appearance; for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as well as
+graceful.
+
+There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the pastoral
+life and those who dwell in villages, or between the Kurds of Asiatic
+Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has produced a marked
+difference in their textile fabrics. Those woven by the tribes that live
+among the mountains that encircle Lake Van and extend to the north of
+Diarbekr embody the wild characteristics of the weavers. They are strong
+and coarse, with close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest
+Caucasian influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a
+large central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now and then
+Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field. Moreover, the
+colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs, but possess rich,
+strong hues obtained from native dyes that applied to the excellent wool
+give it a warm, lustrous appearance. Brown is very largely used. There
+are also dark reds and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow.
+Only the Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and long
+shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance possessed by
+no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the Mosuls; but as a
+rule the pile is longer, and they are more coarsely woven. In fact, the
+yarn is so coarse that it is not unusual to see pieces with only thirty
+or forty knots to the square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they
+rarely come in large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly
+oblong. They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact that each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+the back.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white, and the natural
+colour of the undyed wool. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+four to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+closely pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter,
+and often dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, occasionally camel’s or goat’s
+hair clipped long. _Border_, generally of three stripes. _Sides_, a
+heavy double overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in
+several different colours. _Lower end_, a narrow web, through which runs
+a coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, a narrow web, one or more
+rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe. _Texture_, very stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Length_, five to sixteen feet.
+_Width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+PERSIAN KURDISTANS.—Nowhere is the influence of association among
+weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the tribes
+settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is apparent in
+weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from those seen in the
+Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is only rarely of coarse goats’
+hair, and is generally soft, brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so
+that the drawing is clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more
+varied and of more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of
+green, rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The medallion
+in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which appear some form
+of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of large figures are often
+the more dainty Herati designs borrowed from the Feraghans and the
+Sehnas, or the pear design from the Sarabends. Now and then is seen a
+rare old piece with field completely covered with drawings of the tree
+of life and strange floral conceits; but the pattern that is
+pre-eminently typical of this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani,
+though it is occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or olive,
+rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a feature
+peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of the field to
+the other, so as to suggest that their wandering life often made it
+difficult to obtain the roots and herbs necessary to produce similar
+shades. As is rarely the case with other patterns, the naturalistic
+flowers that are pendent from the undulating vine of the main stripe and
+the flowers of the field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining
+stripes of the narrow border have most simple vines.
+
+Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly woven. To
+assure firmness, one thread of warp is depressed below the other in
+tying the knots; and the weft that is thrown across for filling is of
+fair quality. On account of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good
+colours it is still possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as
+objects of utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+qualities.
+
+A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and Bijar rugs;
+but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference in the weave serves
+to distinguish one from the other. As may be seen by examining the backs
+of typical specimens, in Mosuls every thread of warp lies in the same
+plane parallel with the surface of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans
+one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an
+acute angle to that plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right
+angles to that plane.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is no longer than wide and is frequently not so long.
+The yarn is loosely woven, so that each separate ply is distinct. The
+rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed
+and the weft partly hidden at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back;
+but sometimes each is equally prominent. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots, only rarely once. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally some camel’s
+hair of medium length. _Border_, three to four stripes. _Sides_, a heavy
+double overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, five eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAJES.—Dwelling near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are
+tribes who weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of the
+Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a marked
+difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses only once between
+two rows of knots, or in a few pieces two threads of weft pass side by
+side as though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft is
+inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their weft is
+almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with long nap of
+soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with border of three
+stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often consists of a small bush
+or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in formal array throughout the
+field. Sometimes the floral forms are placed within the diamonds formed
+by a trellis pattern, but more frequently they are arranged in rows like
+the pear designs of Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much
+conventionalised and suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern
+Caucasia; and in others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic.
+Another pattern frequently followed consists of three or four large
+diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to the
+other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating vine of
+well-known Persian character generally appears in one or more of the
+stripes. As these pieces are almost always comparatively old, the
+vegetable dyes that were used for colouring have mellowed, and have a
+richness of tone that is accentuated by the depth of pile and softness
+of wool. The prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue or plum and
+red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to twelve; perpendicularly,
+seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide,
+and occasionally is longer. The rows of knots, which have even alignment
+at back, are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool, rarely cotton; each
+of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium diameter crosses
+once between every two rows of knots; but in parts of the same rug two,
+three, or even four threads of small diameter will cross side by side as
+a single coarse thread. Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or
+four times. The filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the
+back, giving an even surface. _Pile_, wool, of medium length or
+moderately long. _Border_, of three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double
+overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and short
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to
+one half length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33. MELEZ RUG]
+
+
+TABRIZ.—Although Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is
+situated in a remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has
+been one of the most important centres in the Orient for the production
+of carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and some of
+the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven there during the
+reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this industry his royal patronage.
+This city has been for a long period on the great routes of caravans
+passing to Trebizond and Tiflis from the country to the south and east,
+so that it has become the principal mart of Persia for the export of
+rugs gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still continues
+to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the employ of foreign
+companies who prescribe the character of workmanship. As a consequence,
+the rugs are of good material, excellently woven; and though many of the
+old dyes are no longer used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on
+account of the mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+Oriental spirit is largely lacking.
+
+Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of Western
+buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of a large
+central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory, blue, or red
+that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a small diamond occupies
+the centre and is surrounded by a series of concentric medallions.
+Although in these respects they correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks,
+and Kashans, the patterns of their fields lack the long scrolls and
+interlacing branches, and consist frequently of short, slender stems
+supporting fronds, leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as
+to present almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is
+a delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and yet it
+is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers were Kurds.
+Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of Kirmans, or are
+realistically drawn compositæ surrounded by delicate leaves on graceful
+stems; some times the small designs are as formal as the palmettes of
+old Ispahans, from which they were doubtless copied; again, the
+naturalistic and conventional may be blended together in an harmonious
+whole. But whatever the pattern, the different parts show the perfect
+balance so frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four
+centuries ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many exceptions, since
+the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy any coloured
+drawing.
+
+The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these rugs are
+frequently compared, in the fact that in their central stripe the
+continuous vine of leaf and flower is less conspicuous; and in its place
+are often palmettes, pears, shrubs, or formal trees separated by
+foliated scrolls. Not infrequently the smaller stripes, also, have a
+repetitive pattern of leaf and flower, though in some of the many
+stripes is usually a well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a
+series of cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and
+contain verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years
+this tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is increasing.
+
+A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the adoption
+of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton, which is used for
+the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots are carefully tied, and
+the closely woven texture presents an appearance at the back similar to
+that of Sarouks; but the almost concealed weft is generally either white
+or pink. The weave compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the
+wool of the closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so
+silky, the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost square.
+
+_Type characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to twenty;
+perpendicularly, ten to twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, as a rule, is
+cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine diameter, and
+frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short and harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, from five to eight stripes and an outer edging. _Sides_, a
+two-cord selvage. _Both ends_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine texture. _Usual length_,
+nine to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+GOREVANS.—Of the many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for
+use, few are of such moderate price as the Gorevans, which, during
+recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the province of
+Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance suggests Occidental
+craftsmanship, but in every essential they are distinctly Oriental.
+Their stout weave, large size, and nearly square shape place them in the
+class of Persian pieces often called carpets, to which belong the
+Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are
+frequently larger than any of these, and are readily distinguished from
+them by their colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same
+light shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta, buff, dark
+blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once recognised, are
+rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor are the colours
+distributed in patches so small as to blend when viewed at a short
+distance, but are of sufficient masses to be separately observed and
+analysed.
+
+The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally covered
+with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions, of which the
+longer sides of the largest are often marked with conspicuous
+indentations such as are not seen in classes made in other districts.
+All of the medallions are covered with large designs, in which the
+artist has departed from the usual forms of vine, leaf, and flower, that
+poorly imitate the splendid examples of so-called “Ispahans,” and in
+many instances has represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest
+remaining Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves, and
+flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a European
+influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has disappeared in
+the extremely conventionalised forms that are placed with set regularity
+in the field. A very noticeable feature of these rugs is the manner in
+which the designs are coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a
+large figure in two strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink
+separated by a stiffly drawn line.
+
+The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The small
+stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral and leaf
+forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of the field. The
+main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star medallions, but in most
+instances has the turtle pattern, though its treatment differs from the
+usual form seen in Feraghans. A co-ordination in colour exists between
+field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of the
+medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of the other
+stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.
+
+All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the interest of those
+that follow traditional patterns; but their stout weave, warm colours,
+and archaic designs make them both serviceable and pleasing.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dull red, dark blue, and
+buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six
+to ten. The most conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back,
+is, as a rule, longer than wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed
+down, but the warp is rarely entirely concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent. _Weft_,
+cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A thread of weft
+crosses only once between every two rows of knots, or frequently twice.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes,
+occasionally four or five. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both
+ends_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_, rather loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to sixteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+BAKSHIS.—A close relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+comparatively modern product, and several other less known sub-classes
+of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in the east central part
+of the province of Azerbijan. One of these towns, located fifty miles to
+the southeast of Tabriz, is Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that
+were highly esteemed by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted
+by a spirit of commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of
+little artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34. RHODIAN RUG]
+
+
+SERAPIS.—The rugs known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab
+in the mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east. The
+large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as they are of
+similar shape and have similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule
+they are better woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of
+concentric medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically
+drawn. Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality and is
+in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are cheerful. A field
+of ivory or some light shade of buff usually surrounds the central
+medallions, on which appear soft and pleasing tones of smaller designs.
+Yet on the whole there is a tendency to employ richer and deeper tones
+than those of Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive shades
+of colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the
+other at back, and frequently doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton,
+of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually
+in red or buff. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops or short warp
+fringe. _Upper end_, a narrow web and warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to eighteen
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+HEREZ.—The city of Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province
+of Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to the
+sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that were followed
+with slight modification in many of the former Gorevans. In a measure
+the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in the medallion pattern of some
+of these pieces, but for their gracefully flowing lines are substituted
+more rectangular ones; and in place of many colours are few, of which
+blue and a reddish copper are particularly noticeable. Another
+well-known and interesting type consists of a field of white, on which,
+with formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red, blue,
+yellow, and green, archaic leaves and flowers supported by stems and
+tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form geometric lines and
+angles. At regular intervals the branching tendrils assume the shape of
+arches, of which in larger pieces there are frequently one or two dozen;
+and so closely do they resemble prayer arches that these rugs are
+sometimes mistaken for namazliks. The borders usually consist of three
+stripes. The outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple
+floral figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are large and
+almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally excellent.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, light blue, and
+reddish brown, also some yellow and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most
+conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than
+wide. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft
+is noticeable at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each thread is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, of cotton, seldom of wool, of moderately
+coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally of three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Lower end_, a very narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_,
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, nine to
+fifteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven eighths length.
+
+
+SUJ-BULAKS.—About fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same
+distance from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital
+of Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of the
+much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large garrison
+was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in this vicinity are
+strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in the strong texture, the
+excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark colours, the finish of sides
+and ends. The patterns also are largely Kurdish, but frequently show the
+influence of Persian association.
+
+In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used. One of them
+is generally the ground colour of the central field, and shows the
+Kurdish influence by a gradual shading from end to end; the other
+appears in the overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character.
+The drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of white,
+green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line the edges of
+the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have vines and floral
+forms.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and blue, with
+minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are, as a rule, pressed down, so that the
+alignment of each half knot is very uneven; but frequently this feature
+is not regularly maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here
+and there the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, but
+occasionally one is depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, of three to four
+stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue, red,
+or brown. _Lower end_, a web through which runs a parti-coloured cord,
+and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a braided selvage in addition to
+the web. _Upper end_, the same as lower, excepting that the web is
+occasionally turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to
+seven feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to three fifths length.
+
+
+KARADAGHS.—In the extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city
+of Tabriz and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh,
+which signifies the “Black Mountain,” On its slopes and in the adjoining
+valleys rugs have been woven for at least several hundred years, and at
+one time were well known in Europe, but few have reached this country.
+Most of them are produced for home use, so that they are, as a rule,
+well woven, of good material, and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in
+colour scheme, weave, and finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh,
+which immediately adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no
+other rugs of Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much
+disregarded and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.
+
+The field of many of these rugs is completely covered with
+conventionalised flowers of several different colours, so arranged that
+diagonal lines are of similar colours. Sometimes it is covered with a
+pattern of hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some repetitive
+pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and then some form of
+pole medallion, which the weavers have learned from their more southern
+neighbours, is substituted. The patterns of the borders are either
+mechanically drawn vines or contain geometric figures characteristic of
+Caucasian pieces. For guard stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly
+used.
+
+The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A favourite colour
+for the field is blue or a camel’s hair yellow; sometimes rose is seen.
+The nap of modern pieces is medium long and of old pieces is short. The
+weave of the latter is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and
+stout threads of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+appearance of many rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, so that the warp appears at back, and the weft is
+prominent. _Warp_, wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is
+equally distinct at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of moderate length. _Border_, three to six stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of rather coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+MOSULS.—Near the ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is
+the city of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east and west,
+but it became noted for its textiles from which was derived the name
+“muslin.” At length on account of pestilence, misrule, and the sack of
+armies its population and industries have dwindled; though it is still
+the capital and commercial centre of a district that lies between the
+high table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad, and
+that extends across the Mesopotamian valley to the mountain ridges
+bordering Western Persia. Within this extensive area are large stretches
+of rich pasture, where Abraham once fed his flocks, and where each year
+Kurdish nomads from the north drive their sheep when the winter snows
+cover their own hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians
+likewise mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+can be found anywhere in the Orient.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35. KONIEH PRAYER RUG]
+
+Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul are made by
+different races and show great diversity of character. It would, indeed,
+be often difficult to distinguish them if the weave were disregarded;
+for though they are prone to yellow and russet hues, and the long wool
+is floccy as well as lustrous, there is no pattern that can be
+considered truly typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as
+stars, latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however much the
+nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always shown by the way
+in which the severer features are softened. In fact, a very large
+percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are made by the tribes that
+wander as far east as the great mountain divides along the borders of
+Western Persia, and adopt patterns and colour schemes current in
+Azerbijan and Ardelan. It accordingly happens that medallion patterns
+resembling those of Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines,
+are seen. More frequently the field is covered with small figures common
+to Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully rounded
+lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as those of the Baku
+rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces appears evidence of some
+conventionalised floral form; but now and then a rare old piece is found
+which was woven in the plains of Mesopotamia, with field completely
+covered with a naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of
+the Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by a
+delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs seen in any
+rug.
+
+The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three stripes, one
+of which usually has some simple vine, and the others some well-known
+geometric pattern. It is, also, not unusual to find an outer edging
+surrounding the border. In a few of these pieces camel’s hair is used
+even to the extent of occupying the whole field; and goat’s hair or
+sheep’s wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly employed. One of
+the most usual colours is some shade of yellow. Reddish hues also
+prevail. These rugs frequently have the same pleasing effect of slightly
+graduated changes so common in the ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a
+whole the colour scheme is lighter. On the other hand, they follow the
+shading adopted in Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the
+sudden transition between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour
+so noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present remoteness of
+the Mosul district from important highways of travel, many excellent
+pieces, which with careful use should acquire the rich tones of those
+now old, are still woven there.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally yellow and brownish red,
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently
+longer. The yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of
+knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+_Warp_, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally of
+wool, of coarse diameter and frequently dyed red or orange, but
+occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a thread of weft crosses twice
+between two rows of knots, but sometimes crosses only once; or two or
+three threads cross side by side, as in Karajes. _Pile_, wool and
+occasionally camel’s hair, of medium length. _Border_, of three stripes
+with frequently an outer edging of solid colour. _Sides_ are generally a
+heavy double overcasting, but in a few pieces there is a two-cord weft
+selvage or double selvage. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe; occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web
+is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet. _Usual width_, two
+fifths to three quarters length.
+
+Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs, such as the Teheran,
+Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and Gozene, that were woven
+within the Iranian boundaries. Some of them are no longer produced, and
+others are woven in such small numbers that but few are exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36. KIR-SHEHR PRAYER RUG]
+
+The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of Persia. The
+typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some floral form
+occupying the central field, which is two or three times as long as
+wide. The weave resembles that of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes,
+each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent
+at the back, and both warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide,
+and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage.
+
+Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs known by
+that name were once made in a district not far from Kashan, where rose
+bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be covered with
+conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again they may contain
+roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals, as if viewed from
+above. The most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour, such
+as red, blue, and yellow softened by shades of brown and green. Even the
+weft and the webs of the ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a
+two-cord selvage, warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of
+warp to each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+came in large sizes, are no longer made.
+
+Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the district of
+Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in the past have
+furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The people are
+industrious, and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving. Some
+of their rugs closely resemble the Kurdish pieces, and others correspond
+with the Irans. In the technique of weave they often follow the
+Hamadans. On the outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad,
+where, also, rugs are woven for market.
+
+For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah on the
+west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been partly occupied by
+a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as Afshars.
+They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks of Asia Minor, and the rugs
+of both tribes have many points of similarity. The wool of the nap is
+generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep. The patterns
+incorporate some of the floral features of Persian rugs, though they
+display many Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close
+resemblance to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by
+observing a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres
+of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in Kazaks
+they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back, each half of a
+knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn closely against the warp,
+while in Kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is
+drawn closer.
+
+In the country about Gozene, in the watershed of the Euphrates river,
+are made a few rugs for local use, though they occasionally reach
+Western markets. The pattern, which is very simple, usually consists of
+some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of
+maroon. Many of this class have a double foundation of warp; and
+frequently, at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel
+with the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the fact
+that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some
+knots and the right half of others. Occasionally, also, a knot is tied
+about four threads of warp. In other rugs of this class which have a
+single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of Mosuls.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their floral
+character, which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from
+side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure. Some of these
+vines have been evolved from arabesques, and others from naturalistic
+tendrils, but all are graceful. In a few pieces the stripes contain rows
+of detached flowers, rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet
+unobtrusive colours, that are always in perfect harmony with those of
+the field. Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the
+exception of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most
+elegant, pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago.
+
+
+_Primary Stripes._—In Plate E, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a
+typical Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century
+carpets. It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of
+such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe the angular and
+serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.
+
+One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate E, Fig. 2, bears
+a resemblance to the Herat stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had
+a common origin, since they were designed in adjoining and freely
+communicating districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of
+each flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+heads of birds.
+
+[Illustration: Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs]
+
+The so-called turtle pattern, Plate E, Fig. 3, has probably been derived
+from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early
+as the beginning of the XV Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The
+rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent “turtles” suggest the
+Herati pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically drawn
+and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and Serapis.
+
+A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral bushes, is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 4. It is also seen in some of the old rugs of
+Northwestern Persia. Another Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the
+Herati pattern, is represented in Fig. 5.
+
+A single row of pears (Plate E, Fig. 6) is a characteristic Luristan
+stripe.
+
+The dainty pattern of Plate E, Fig. 7, in which the vine has been
+abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device, shows a
+not unusual Herez stripe.
+
+As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never crowded, and
+represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers. A stripe commonly
+seen in this class is represented in Plate E, Fig. 8. It is also seen in
+the Bijars.
+
+On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh district, which is
+separated only by the Aras river from Caucasia, its stripes show a
+combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other Persian
+pieces. Plate E, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a rosette,
+and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans. Plate E, Fig. 10,
+represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled
+star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine.
+
+A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower, which is
+frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 11.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and
+roses that now and then is seen in old Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are
+also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs
+of Northwestern Persia.
+
+The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate E, Fig. 14, is
+sometimes seen in stripes of Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is
+a characteristic of this class.
+
+Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former are often
+more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate E, Fig. 15, is a
+stripe from an old and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and
+King Solomon’s eight-pointed star.
+
+Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes is the
+well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white
+ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this
+stripe (Plate E, Fig. 16). Its presence at once indicates that the piece
+is either a Sarabend or an Iran copy.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear pattern of a Meshed stripe.
+The graceful form, resembling in a measure the Indian drawing, is
+peculiar to these stripes.
+
+The Kirman stripe (Plate E, Fig. 18) invariably contains red roses
+naturalistically drawn, surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems.
+This is one of the most beautiful of Persian border patterns.
+
+Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah stripe, one of
+which appears in Plate E, Fig. 19, with mechanically drawn flowers,
+leaves, and vines.
+
+The formal pattern (Plate E, Fig. 20) of octagons surrounded by
+latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of Shiraz rugs, and
+indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic
+influences.
+
+The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral
+form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of these stripes is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 21.
+
+Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the
+borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of the former is
+represented in Plate E, Fig. 22.
+
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—The ornamentation of a large
+proportion of secondary stripes of Persian rugs consists of running
+vines, which fall within two divisions, according to the absence or
+presence of pendants.
+
+Plate F, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from an inner stripe of a
+Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at
+each flexure.
+
+In Plate F, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as Gorevans.
+Similar stripes are very common. As there is no pendant, the character
+of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures,
+one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE F. SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF PERSIAN RUGS]
+
+In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate F, Fig.
+3) consisting of an angular vine, from each flexure of which spring
+small designs like three-leaf clover.
+
+Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as the Bijars
+and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate F, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a
+serrated leaf, and the other is a small rosette with short curving
+tendrils.
+
+A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate F, Fig. 5. At
+each flexure is a flower of four petals, and from alternating flexures
+spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine. Stripes of
+similar drawing appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 A. D. A
+further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in
+Plate F, Fig. 6.
+
+One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F,
+Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor carpets woven during the XIII Century,
+and also in some of the earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is
+seen in modern Persian rugs.
+
+A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F, Fig. 8.
+This pattern is seen in a large number of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls,
+Bijars, Kurdistans, and Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged
+to almost the form of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.
+
+In another stripe (Plate F, Fig. 9), taken from a Feraghan, there is no
+particular enlargement to the vine, and the alternating pendants are
+buds and flowers of four petals.
+
+A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads is shown in
+Plate F, Fig. 10. In this the vine represents serrated leaves, and
+suggests one of the Shirvan patterns.
+
+A very similar stripe (Plate F, Fig. 11), taken from a Sehna, should be
+compared with those of Figs. 8 and 10, as it serves to illustrate the
+evolution of vine patterns. In fact, if a very large number of stripes
+were arranged in proper order, they would show almost imperceptible
+gradations from one type to another.
+
+One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish tribes,
+is shown in Plate F, Fig. 12; and in Fig. 13 is another vine with
+pendent pear alternating with a rosette.
+
+Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate F, Figs. 14 and 15,
+for instance, is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at
+the sides and the ends of some moderately old Persian rugs. The former
+pattern bears a resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a
+series of connecting links.
+
+A graceful pattern that is seen in Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of
+Northwestern Persia is represented in Plate F, Fig. 16. It was probably
+derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17) which is constantly used in a
+tertiary stripe, is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral
+design. It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends,
+Bijars, Sarouks, and Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan
+rugs, and in almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a tertiary
+stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate F, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost
+in the dim past, and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic
+meaning.
+
+A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its well-authenticated
+age, contains the “Y” pattern shown in Plate F, Fig. 19. It is found in
+some Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.
+
+One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate F, Fig. 20, is
+frequently found in modern Persian rugs, as well as in Iranian carpets
+woven six centuries ago.
+
+[Illustration: COLOUR PLATE VI. PERSIAN GARDEN CARPET
+
+This carpet and the one at the Naesby House, Sweden, which it resembles
+in pattern but not in colouring, are, so far as known, the only complete
+carpets of this type. The Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle
+of the XVIII. Century; this is undoubtedly much older.
+
+A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL “GARDEN” CARPET (Reputed to have been made
+for Shah ’Abbās for Safavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.
+
+31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.
+
+[_Statement of the owner_]
+
+ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., LONDON.]
+
+The pattern represents a Persian garden divided into four sections by
+two intersecting streams, which are bordered by rows of cypress trees,
+alternating with bushes on which are birds. These sections are similarly
+divided by smaller streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each
+side, into plots containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks
+rest above the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+mellowing influence of time.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Bijar       │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Feraghan    │   [G]   │   S  │ 8-13│ 7-18│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Gorevan     │    G    │      │ 6-8 │ 6-10│     │   c   │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Hamadan     │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-12│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Herat       │    G    │  [S] │ 8-11│ 6-12│ [w] │   c   │    │   │[d]│ h │
+  │Herez       │    G    │      │ 5-10│ 6-12│     │   c   │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Iran        │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-11│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-11│  w  │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Joshaghan   │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 8-13│ [w] │   c   │    │ e │   │ d │
+  │Kashan      │         │   S  │16-20│16-24│     │   c   │[l] │   │   │ h │
+  │Karadagh    │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 7-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Karaje      │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-12│  w  │  [c]  │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kermanshah  │         │   S  │12-18│11-18│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Khorassan   │         │   S  │ 8-13│12-20│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Kirman      │         │   S  │11-20│11-20│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT           │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            +─────┬───────┬────┬─────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│  P  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼─────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Bijar       │ w   │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │            │     │       │    │     │   │   │ [S] │   │   │   │
+  │Feraghan    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Gorevan     │     │   c   │    │ 1-2 │   │ S │     │   │   │ F │
+  │Hamadan     │[w]  │   c   │    │  1  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Herat       │ w   │  [c]  │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │            │     │       │    │[3-4]│   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Herez       │[w]  │   c   │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Iran        │     │   c   │    │2/[1]│ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│ w   │   c   │    │ 1-2 │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Joshaghan   │ w   │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Kashan      │     │   c   │[l] │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Karadagh    │ w   │       │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Karaje      │ w   │  [c]  │    │  1  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Kermanshah  │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │[L]│ F │
+  │Khorassan   │[w]  │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │            │     │       │    │[6-8]│   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Kirman      │ w   │  [c]  │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴─────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Bijar       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     f    │
+  │            │ [S] │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │Feraghan    │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      m    │     m    │
+  │Gorevan     │     │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Hamadan     │  W  │   │ T │   │    m/s    │      m    │     f    │
+  │Herat       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Herez       │     │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Iran        │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│  W  │[K]│[T]│ F │    m/s    │      m    │     f    │
+  │Joshaghan   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      f    │     m    │
+  │Kashan      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  │Karadagh    │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    m/f   │
+  │Karaje      │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/l    │      c    │     l    │
+  │Kermanshah  │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Khorassan   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │    m/f   │
+  │Kirman      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Persian     │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-13│  w  │       │    │ e │ d │   │
+  │Western     │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │    G    │      │ 4-7 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Mahal       │    G    │   S  │ 7-12│ 6-12│     │   c   │    │ e │ d │   │
+  │Meshed      │   [G]   │   S  │ 8-15│12-17│ [w] │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Mosul       │    G    │      │ 5-7 │ 7-9 │  w  │  [c]  │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Muskabad    │    G    │   S  │ 6-11│ 6-11│     │   c   │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Niris       │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-15│  w  │       │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Sarabend    │         │   S  │ 8-13│ 9-13│     │   c   │    │ e │   │ h │
+  │Sarouk      │         │   S  │12-18│12-20│     │   c   │[l] │   │[d]│ h │
+  │Sehna       │    G    │   S  │11-20│12-24│     │   c   │[l] │ e │   │   │
+  │Serapi      │   [G]   │   S  │ 6-10│ 7-12│     │   c   │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Shiraz      │   [G]   │   S  │ 7-12│ 8-12│  w  │       │[g] │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Tabriz      │    G    │      │12-20│10-22│     │   c   │[l] │   │   │ h │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT           │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬─────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│  P  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼─────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Persian     │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Western     │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │[K]│[L]│   │
+  │Mahal       │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Meshed      │  w  │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Mosul       │  w  │  [c]  │    │2/[1]│ O │[S]│  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Muskabad    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Niris       │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Sarabend    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │ [W] │   │   │ F │
+  │Sarouk      │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Sehna       │     │   c   │    │  1  │ O │   │ [W] │   │   │ F │
+  │Serapi      │     │   c   │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │[F]│
+  │Shiraz      │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │  w  │       │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Tabriz      │ [w] │   c   │[l] │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴─────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Persian     │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Kurdistan │  W  │   │   │ F │     l     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Western     │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Kurdistan │  W  │[K]│ T │ F │     l     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Mahal       │ [W] │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Meshed      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   m/f    │
+  │Mosul       │W/[S]│   │[T]│ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Muskabad    │ [W] │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Niris       │  W  │ K │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     l    │
+  │Sarabend    │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/f   │     f    │
+  │Sarouk      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  │Sehna       │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      m    │     m    │
+  │Serapi      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Shiraz      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     l    │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │  W  │   │[T]│ F │     m     │     m/c   │    m/l   │
+  │Tabriz      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+
+ALL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently
+grouped together and called “Turkish” rugs; but a more natural
+classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and
+those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges
+that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river
+from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces
+that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the
+Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of
+Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other
+hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those
+woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them
+separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.
+
+Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the
+Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more
+classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in
+the shadow of the walls where Crœsus lived and among villages where
+Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who
+still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched,
+across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes
+of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of
+the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander’s conquering
+army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.
+
+When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a
+distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persian
+rugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there
+arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs
+of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the
+price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which
+large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although
+many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by
+their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and
+southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with
+seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One
+of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a
+small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the
+principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.[28] Almost
+all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself
+has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic
+spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of
+the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent
+with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to
+reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs
+possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of
+designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they
+represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further
+changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+characteristics exist in the old pieces.
+
+The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are
+the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may
+be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The
+colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the
+Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and
+yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese
+rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender,
+and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a
+few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside
+one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the
+artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+combinations.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ASIA MINOR]
+
+The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of
+other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main
+patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent
+inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal
+figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays
+distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian;
+the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives
+that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms
+and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged
+separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of
+invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel
+them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing
+of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the
+majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results;
+for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well
+as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any
+other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as
+well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for
+in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a
+background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above
+which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.
+
+Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of
+rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals,
+birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the
+religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the
+country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so
+characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic
+of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal
+trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all
+Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which
+are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country. There
+are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs,
+and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.
+
+These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result
+of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural
+art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national
+existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at
+different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of
+dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters
+that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the
+Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences
+of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer
+rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact,
+the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and
+design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic
+development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from
+years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques;
+yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and
+study.
+
+
+BERGAMOS.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean
+Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It
+is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring
+with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same
+name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had
+taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the
+seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments,
+philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars
+gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly
+encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that
+was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing
+cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any
+reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling
+relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more
+recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed
+there.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37. ANATOLIAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when aniline
+dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the Hellespont. Almost
+without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of
+colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool. An
+observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red
+that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly, and
+forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently
+of the drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the dyer
+who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool, and
+to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and
+weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs, that these
+pieces command as high a price as old Kirmans of similar age.
+
+In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs: in shape
+they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the exception rather than
+the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern, as
+is usually the case with other classes. They may have low tent-shaped
+arches like those of Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped
+sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may
+have shapes unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not
+used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the field.
+Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides at upper and
+lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks. As is not
+the case with many of the Persian rugs, the field surrounding the
+medallion is almost always covered with small designs, arranged with
+careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the
+centre. Eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently
+used, but there is a leaning to floral designs, which, however, are
+often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most
+prominent of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the
+Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form.
+The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more frequently seen in
+the main border stripe. Undulating vines do not find favour among the
+Bergamo weavers, and small isolated geometric designs are largely
+employed in the narrow border stripes, while larger, more complex
+figures often replace the floral in the main stripe.
+
+In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to
+avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected visitor surprise
+the weaver while at work, he may be required to part with a bit of his
+frock, which is then attached to the wide web of the end; should a
+similar occurrence of ill omen follow, another bit of different material
+and colour may be sewn upon this; and as a crowning talisman, a button
+may be affixed to both. Small cowrie shells from the Ægean shores are
+often used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, white, and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five and one half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+eleven. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, dyed
+red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool; generally of medium length but frequently
+long. _Border_, from one to four stripes; most frequently of three.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or
+blue, with occasionally some green or yellow. _Both ends_, a web, that
+is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed by broad
+longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may be black, white,
+brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil eye is frequently
+attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Usual
+length_, three to seven feet. _Usual width_, three quarters to nine
+tenths length.
+
+
+GHIORDES.—Whether, as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that
+lies a day’s journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of the
+ancient Gordion where tradition says the father of Midas dedicated his
+chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark which bound the pole
+to the yoke, it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there
+one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all
+other parts of Asia Minor, but equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia
+during the same period. Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still
+higher; yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of
+colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven in the
+previous century by the protégés of Tamasp and Shah Abbas.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38. MUDJAR PRAYER RUG]
+
+So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district differ from
+the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so great is their
+inferiority, that they have little interest; but fortunately it is still
+possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty
+years of age, and others still older are in the hands of collectors or
+in museums. In determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as
+weave and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or
+even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of rich, deep colour.
+Similarly, in the case of blues, greens, yellows, and even the ivories
+that rarely occupy the field, a riper and richer colour marks the
+greater age. Likewise with the drawing, greater painstaking and higher
+artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the
+oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best types are
+found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two
+hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the extremely old pieces there
+is an approach to archaic forms.
+
+The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are the kinds
+most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours, to be sure, are
+much the same, though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in
+the odjaliks. Their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric
+figures, some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive
+of Caucasian influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to
+be associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common to
+the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the distinction is
+most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform colour that make the
+namazliks so effective are wanting, and instead are frequently seen
+hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded
+latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the
+centre. At both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels
+containing quasi-floral forms, and stiff conventions occupy the
+intervening corner spaces.
+
+In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes prayer rugs,
+with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate
+drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made with unusual care, since
+they were intended for religious purposes. The pattern represents an
+entrance into a mosque; and it is not improbable that some of the
+earliest rugs were copied directly from archways, many of which still
+exist in Mohammedan countries.[29] Near the base of all Ghiordes arches,
+at each side, is a shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a
+single pilaster or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll
+work or floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other rugs they
+have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the shoulders and the
+mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very
+obtuse angle; and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that
+culminate in a blunted apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of
+the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche, though floral forms
+may take its place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost
+without exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner side of
+the arch and from all sides of the border against the field. In the
+spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or leaf form; though
+these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric
+figures. Above the spandrel is a panel, which may contain some floral
+form, scroll device, or verse from the Koran; and another panel, though
+generally with different design, is almost invariably placed beneath the
+field. A scroll resembling a large S (Plate O, Fig. 9, Page 291)
+frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms found in
+Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable.
+
+The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as
+is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of stripes, which
+generally consist of a wide central one, two secondary, and two or more
+small guard stripes. The drawing is distinctly floral, yet is widely
+different from the Persian. A design (Plate G, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or
+rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+design, and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves.
+But the more usual design (Plate G, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and
+fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate
+units face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like drawing with
+clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field,
+contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The secondary stripes have
+generally repetitive leaf forms; and running through the guard stripes
+is a simple vine, ribbon, or wave design. Occasionally, however, the
+typical Ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near
+district of Kulah, and instead of the broad central stripe are several
+narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral
+figures (Plate G, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these rugs is the
+linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool, for the
+reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age; and
+another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine
+specimens. The nap is always short, and the rugs are closely woven.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+_Warp_, wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally
+some cotton, clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three
+cords, or only infrequently an added selvage of silk. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+the corners. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of very fine grain, but
+slightly rough. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KULAHS.—About fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction,
+is the Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of
+race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited, intermarried, and
+become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another. It is not,
+therefore, surprising that some of their rugs should have similar
+technique of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general
+pattern and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the most
+experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them. In fact
+it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of
+them. In the Kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor
+are the prayer arches so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns
+the corners of some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field
+usually contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side of the
+field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between
+most of them.
+
+As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost unknown; but it
+is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble prayer rugs in the
+following respects: the borders are almost identical; the central fields
+contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground;
+both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space
+between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+spandrels of the prayer rugs.
+
+On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs
+are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true that the arch is
+flatter than that of any other rug of this group, and is defined either
+by plain sloping lines, or more frequently by stepped edges, so that it
+lacks the classic beauty of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the
+Rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are
+delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in
+any other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side of
+the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp,
+or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate with their bright
+tones the subdued richness of the ground colours. Sometimes, however,
+these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that
+represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other
+trees with many leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon
+in Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+shipped many years ago, and where they are known as “Friedhofteppiche,”
+or “Grave Rugs,”
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39. DAGHESTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+distinguishing features are in the borders, which are invariably of
+several stripes. Instead of the large central stripe with floral and
+repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands,
+from five to ten in number and about an inch in width, that contain rows
+of minute floral forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature
+of the Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe
+containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate G, Fig. 13
+(opp. Page 192), which also are peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it
+may seem, these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by
+successive degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13-a, 13-b,
+13-c, and 13-d of Plate O (Page 291). There is still another border design
+that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and
+so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the “Kulah
+stripe” (Plate H, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists of a
+repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is in reality a
+degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by observing some of the very
+old border stripes. Between the inner secondary stripe and the field is
+usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design, or a
+simple vine-like form, as in Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158). Often a
+part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the
+remaining parts have been compressed, so as to leave small detached
+figures like a row of “f’s,” as in Plate H, Fig. 2. It is not unusual to
+see both vine and detached figures in the same rug.
+
+Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel, and
+borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a yellow tint that
+is described both as golden brown and apricot; blue also is occasionally
+seen, and white is very rare. But whatever the colour of the field, that
+of the spandrel is generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and
+the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often
+appear in the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or
+blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye, since it shows
+no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have;
+yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the
+lustre peculiar to many other classes, some of them are as beautiful as
+Ghiordes.
+
+Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like are
+produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a Western market
+and taste, is the most noticeable difference, for the latter are
+inferior to the former in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with
+the wool of many is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows
+slight usage.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, brownish yellow, and
+blue, with minor quantities of green, dark brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes, Knots to inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven
+to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+the back. _Weft_, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter, sometimes
+dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft consists of a coarse
+thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating
+with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side
+once between the next two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or
+medium length. _Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a coloured mixed
+selvage of two, three, or four cords. _Both ends_, a coloured web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to three quarters length.
+
+
+OUSHAKS.—Fifty miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous
+during the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs. But
+with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed, so that
+half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the
+excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the
+interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the weavers of the
+surrounding country. Since then, however, its population has steadily
+grown, and the weaving industry has thrived, until now it is one of the
+most populous cities of Asia Minor, with looms more numerous than those
+of any other city. The weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most
+of whom are Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses,
+they are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and American
+demands.
+
+Important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs.
+Some are known as “Turkish Kirmans,” in which Persian designs are
+frequently introduced, others are of still finer workmanship, but the
+oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as “Yapraks.” These are
+distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue, of
+which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are massed to
+produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and weft, which are
+dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and often of an inferior
+grade of wool. Many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use,
+but are well adapted for salons and public halls.
+
+With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour, Oushaks would
+be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking
+pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan Solyman the Magnificent brought
+from the northwestern part of Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI
+Century. Some of them appear in the paintings of old masters, and when
+contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in
+the craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced designs
+once represented in the fields, only large stars and diamonds, defined
+by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity, remain. All of
+the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as
+sub-patterns are omitted. As works of art, the modern products are
+little esteemed; but their durability, depth of pile, and wealth of
+colour make them excellent objects of utility.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and green.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to eight;
+perpendicularly, four to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+longer than wide. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down.
+_Warp_, wool. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, usually of three stripes. _Sides_, generally a double
+overcasting, occasionally a selvage. _Both ends_, generally a web
+coloured red and a warp fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back
+is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, carpet sizes. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+AK-HISSAR.—Almost seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short
+distance to the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the
+White Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+in this district; and in recent years the work-house system has been
+established, and large quantities, that bear some resemblance to the
+modern products of Kulah and Oushak, have been exported.
+
+
+DEMIRDJI.—Half a century ago the town of Demirdji was almost
+uninhabited; but as a result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs
+and the disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at the
+historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant; but the
+fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected
+than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.
+
+
+KUTAYAH.—On the main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus
+with the Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+Anatolian plateau, wool and goat’s hair have been for a long period
+important articles in its trade. Both of them are now used in the local
+manufacture of rugs, which in a measure resemble the products of Oushak.
+
+
+SMYRNA.—The location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its
+connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior,
+have made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of
+weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies
+who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result, the Smyrna rugs are
+mere copies of well-known types of other Turkish pieces, or, as is
+generally the case, of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to
+meet the requirements of European and American tastes. Many of the rugs,
+to be sure, are well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality
+of character.
+
+
+MELEZ.—About seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from
+the Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now little
+known, but was once the market place of an important rug-producing
+district, which included a large part of the classic province of Caria.
+Accordingly, the pieces that came from there were sometimes called
+Carian, but are more generally known as Melez.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 40. KABISTAN RUG]
+
+On their face they show a close relationship to the Anatolians, and
+also, though in a less degree, to many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is
+to be expected of the products from one corner of the country, they have
+a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is
+covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged
+geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a rule the fields are not much
+wider, and often less wide, than each of the adjacent borders. Within
+this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs, which are
+widely different from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive
+of Chinese ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree
+forms (Plate O, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover, projecting in regular
+order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe, next to the
+field, are sometimes seen thumb-like figures, that fit against one
+another like the cogs of a wheel (Plate H, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this class.
+
+Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as wide as the
+remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the Ladiks. Very
+frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are
+conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems; but now and then
+the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric
+figures, and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs.
+The secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or
+the reciprocal sawtooth.
+
+The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical examples the
+lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of
+the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees, and are then
+deflected towards its centre, to return again to its sides. The
+resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the
+field at the base of the mihrab, which in conjunction with the upper
+sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This
+effect, moreover, is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of
+diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field.
+The sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule, fringed
+with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and in the
+spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a
+trellis-like sub-pattern.
+
+This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet
+noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case with many
+Bergamos, the principal tone is a dark red, which generally appears in
+the central field, and is also used almost without exception in the
+broad end webs, the side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white
+for the spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in
+other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve, which is
+present in almost every old Melez. Not always are these tones pleasing,
+as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed; but there are other pieces,
+now rapidly growing scarce, of which the colours are exceedingly rich
+and harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, with minor
+quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or
+slightly longer. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the
+warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of small
+diameter, dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length
+and sometimes short. _Border_, wide, from three to seven stripes.
+_Sides_, a selvage of two to four cords, usually coloured red. _Lower
+end_, a red web and loose warp fringe. _Upper end_, a red web, a braided
+selvage, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at
+back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half to
+six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+ISBARTA.—In the town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of
+Konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+“Spartas.” Like many other pieces made to meet the Western demand, they
+lack spontaneous individuality, but are often of excellent quality and
+coloured in delicate tones, arranged harmoniously.
+
+
+RHODIAN.—Even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering
+the southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them were
+more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the Island
+of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous Grecian and the more subtle
+Oriental arts. Here was the inspiration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the Mohammedan
+and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan mythology; and there
+is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the
+valiant knights of St. John made an impression on the weavers. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour
+full of suggestion, and that the drawing of the long central panels
+should remind one of cathedral windows.
+
+Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few now
+remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors. Some are
+odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with the exception of
+a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have colours and weave that
+bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many instances to one hundred years or
+more. On the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual
+hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle; and on
+the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which, though
+characteristic, never equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs.
+It is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.
+
+Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the
+full length of the field, and terminate at one end in flat and often
+serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and placed transversely above
+them is a low panel, that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves,
+vandykes resembling those of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia
+Minor rugs. In fact, these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing
+two or more prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs give
+force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a different
+ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never gaudy, yet
+exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and in the overlying
+figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter
+colouring. Furthermore, one of the most usual of these designs, arranged
+like pole medallions, consists of large eight-pointed stars with
+effulgent rays of brilliant hues. As we look at some of the rare old
+pieces with this pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with
+bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of “dim religious
+light.” Sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree
+of life extending from one end of the panel to the other. An equally
+common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in
+the form of a medallion (Plate O, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of these
+leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at
+the corner a small rectangular spot; but the remaining sides that form
+the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated, so as to produce
+much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are
+also frequently seen latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with
+different colours for separate squares.
+
+Between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and
+small designs. The latter consist principally of geometric and
+semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the octagonal disc, and the
+geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah rugs. No other design is more
+prevalent than the last, which may be found in all parts of these rugs.
+Sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower
+forms so common in spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most
+conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of
+underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as
+in the border stripe of Plate G, Fig. 13, (opp. Page 192), which shows
+the foliate origin of the latter.
+
+The name “Makri” is frequently applied to these rugs, since they were
+often bought in the city of that name, which is one of the harbours of
+Southwestern Asia Minor nearest to Rhodes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+considerable yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at
+back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is slightly
+depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, coloured
+red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots, rarely only once, and sometimes as many as four times. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped long. _Border_, two to three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or blue.
+_Lower end_, a web, either red or of several colours, and long warp
+fringe hanging loose or braided. _Upper end_, a web, either red or of
+several colours, beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage; also a
+long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Length_, four to seven
+feet. _Width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 41. KUBA RUG]
+
+
+BROUSSA.—At the base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles
+from the Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on account of
+the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country,
+rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The fabrics are stoutly made
+and compare favourably with those of Smyrna.
+
+
+HEREKE.—In the town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish
+factory, where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country
+about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from Kirman to
+instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns have been largely
+copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces, it is not surprising that
+many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of Persia.
+
+
+KONIEHS.—At the base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of
+Central Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is
+all that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising the
+importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east
+and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields, orchards, and gardens
+which face a great barren plain, established there a Mussulman capital,
+that became noted for its opulence and culture. In later years it
+successfully resisted the assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but
+subsequently it declined, until now the only remaining vestiges of its
+former importance are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the
+famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.
+
+In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements offered to
+the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced
+sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that grew not far to the
+north lived the kermes, from which were obtained the vermilion dyes
+famous even through Persia. The political and commercial importance of
+the city, as well as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there, but on
+account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied
+Europe, few found their way into channels of trade.
+
+Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but other kinds
+are as frequently seen. All of them contain both geometric and floral
+forms. The geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in Eastern
+Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and
+barber-pole stripes; and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn
+palm leaves and the tree-of-life design.
+
+Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of
+the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and
+rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end; again it may be
+exceedingly flat; but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of
+Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as a rule, are stepped or serrated.
+Furthermore, it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each
+step or serration into the spandrel, which is filled with small floral
+and geometric forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp;
+and arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row of
+conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These floral or
+foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class. The
+borders are more geometric than those of almost any other Asia Minor
+rugs, and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff
+formality.
+
+Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by
+the excellence of the colour scheme, which occasionally rivals that of
+the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or blues are almost invariably found
+in the fields, where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their
+richness; and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow,
+green, and white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable solely
+for their durability.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of
+knots are not very firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+two to five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. _Sides_, generally
+a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an overcasting. _Both
+ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, only moderately firm. _Weave_
+at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half
+to six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+LADIKS.—On the ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the
+village of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among
+the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern,
+though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the early prototypes
+that have been classed among the masterpieces of Asia Minor. Few of
+these old rugs remain, and they are often badly worn in spots; yet they
+display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century, and rival
+the Ghiordes in beauty of design.
+
+As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish countries,
+the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the
+namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the central fields of many
+of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions, often three in number,
+that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures. Between the
+fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels, on
+which are represented rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the
+most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their
+origin is uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity Hoa, the
+reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also geometric,
+consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the central contains
+an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very
+ornate. One of the central stripes often adopted is represented in Plate
+G, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms are
+present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh, mechanical
+drawing.
+
+In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their interesting
+arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a large number of them
+the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border,
+the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch, and the
+panels are larger than in any other prayer rug. Occasionally arches
+resembling those of the Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs are seen; but they are
+to be regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms.
+Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations, each side of
+the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration, then
+rises again to form the niche. The arch is often fringed with
+latch-hooks, and extending above the apex of each serration and the
+niche are perpendicular devices that may, also, be a development of the
+latch-hook, since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory
+origin. But whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of
+the arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar to the
+Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of reciprocally
+drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves
+and pomegranates. These are generally five in number, and are so
+gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the
+vandykes, from which they spring, are ornamented with a profusion of
+latch-hooks. The central fields are sometimes without ornament, but as a
+rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the
+central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders.
+The latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and
+consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with
+rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised
+leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at each side are very angular
+vines with three-cleft leaves, and in the narrow innermost stripe is
+generally a ribbon pattern.
+
+All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly
+contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks, like those of the
+Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue, red, or
+brown, that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs.
+But as is not the case with Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast
+between the colours of centre and ends; yet the tones are always in
+perfect harmony. Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more
+exquisite finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and
+in the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+Ladiks.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 42. CHICHI RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally nine to twelve; perpendicularly, ten to thirteen. A half
+knot as it appears at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are
+pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, wool. One of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a red
+added selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow web and warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to seven feet. _Usual width_, three
+fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIR-SHEHRS.—To the north of the great salt desert and in the southern
+part of the province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands
+between two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine
+fleeces, and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding
+country. On account of the excellence of wool, water, and natural dyes,
+as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel, many
+of the old rugs were excellent pieces, free from the taint of Western
+influences, and possessing the charm of individuality. It was due,
+moreover, to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants, and
+the Turkomans who roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the
+influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of
+red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green, for which they
+had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost
+any other weavers; yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic
+sense is rarely shocked, since the individual colours are good and the
+tones are harmonious. Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending
+of floral and geometric forms.
+
+Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats, others small
+sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The serrated sides of
+the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of
+the rather narrow fields, are formed of several parallel lines of
+different colour. In a not unusual rug, for instance, eight narrow lines
+separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red
+appeared in the following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender,
+yellow, red, and blue. The inmost line is frequently fringed with
+tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend in a row along the
+sides of the field. From the niche is usually suspended the design of an
+inverted tree of life, and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar
+devices. It is not unusual to see two arches, and there are sometimes as
+many as four, placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field
+is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and the
+horizontal panel, which may be placed at either end of the field,
+contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts.
+
+On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most characteristic
+features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two of the stripes of a
+peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow, but three or four of the
+narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation
+to those of the Kulah. When contrasted with them the broad central
+stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony, for they are
+distinctly floral and suggestive of Persian influences.
+
+On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs are soft
+and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others of the
+Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the presence of
+grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch. The nap of these
+old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is of medium length; though
+in modern pieces it is often longer, and the weft and webs are coloured
+as are those of Bergamos.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and green, also some
+blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+five to nine; perpendicularly, five to ten. A half knot as it appears at
+back is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not
+firmly pressed down, so that in places the warp shows. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug. A
+thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots,
+varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+five to eight stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+cords of different colours. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+ANATOLIANS.—To all of Asia Minor was once applied the term “Anatolia,”
+which signifies the Land of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this
+country might well be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia
+might be called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh, are
+often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of rugs known as
+Iranians, so is there a special type known as Anatolians. They are,
+however, a mixed lot, that come from parts of a wide stretch of
+territory, extending over the interior table-land to the home of the
+Kurds, and incorporating ideas received from many districts. It is,
+accordingly, difficult to define them as a type; but, as a rule, they
+are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows, with
+moderately long nap of soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a
+colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.
+
+Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora and Konieh,
+lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake Tuz Gul. Here can be
+obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in some of the old pieces
+appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther
+to the west, but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms.
+Eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a
+very old design with the shape of ram’s horns is frequently used. In
+many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is the
+greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which occasionally are
+their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant; but in
+either case they rarely contain more than three stripes, and not
+infrequently only one. Red, blue, green, and brown are the usual
+colours, but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used.
+
+Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus mountains,
+is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With the exception of
+wool and dyes they have little to their credit; for their usual
+unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long uneven nap, and
+braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, green, brown,
+and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+generally as long as wide, or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, yet the warp is frequently concealed at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed, A
+thread of weft crosses two, three, and four times between two rows of
+knots frequently varying in the same piece. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, two and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, one half to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAMANS.—At the foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that
+stretches northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the removal of
+the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the northwest, it was
+the seat of a Turkish government extending to the Mediterranean Sea; but
+to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several Saracenic
+mosques covered with rich arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the
+early period almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former
+importance of the city, it is not improbable that they compared
+favourably with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the
+other hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar to many
+of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour, obtained
+from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of Karaman.
+The pile is long, the weave is never very firm, and at each end is a
+coloured web.
+
+
+SIVAS.—In the city of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the
+villages of the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from
+time immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and ends,
+the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh effect of the
+strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found
+in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west. In the weave is a
+hint of Persian influence; for not only are both warp and weft of
+cotton, but the warp is of small diameter and well spun, and one of the
+two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The
+pattern, on the other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known
+types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends,
+and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those
+seen in Bergamos. On the white field surrounding the medallion are often
+small rosettes and floral figures. The corners of the field may be
+fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal T’s, and contain a
+rosette at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form.
+Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of floral and
+geometric figures, as well as their formality of drawing, which is
+accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are most suggestive of
+Occidental conventions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 43. TCHERKESS RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and white; also dull
+blue, green, and light yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half
+knot, as it appears at back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots
+are pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+cotton, well spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes
+doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of
+short to medium length. _Border_, narrow, one to three stripes. _Sides_,
+an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places, and with weft
+encircling inner cord of selvage. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is only slightly coarse. _Usual
+length_, three and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+MUDJARS.—Near the river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of
+Mudjar, which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a wider
+range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink, all of which
+may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug of Asia Minor
+contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in the broad borders of
+old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work.
+Many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches
+in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which is distant only twenty-five miles to the
+north; and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs
+of vandykes borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of
+life often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers may extend
+into it from the sides. Some of the best examples are very handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, yellow, blue, green,
+and ivory, also mauve and pink. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. _Warp_,
+wool. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently
+equally prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, broad, of three to four stripes.
+_Sides_, a three-cord selvage, frequently red. _Both ends_, coloured
+webs and fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_, moderately coarse. _Usual
+length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters
+length.
+
+
+NIGDES.—Near the base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part
+of the province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach Europe.
+Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by their high
+geometric arches. The borders often show the influence of the Kurdish
+tribes, and contain patterns common in the Mesopotamian valley; but
+their colour scheme of red, blue, and yellow more closely resembles the
+Anatolian. Most of them are of small size and are poorly woven.
+
+
+TUZLAS.—Another class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas.
+They are generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who
+live about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are well
+woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns. The prayer
+arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the
+Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not infrequently the
+borders have rosettes similar to those of Bergamos. The principal
+colours are red, blue, green, and ivory.
+
+
+KAISARIYEH.—One of the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of
+silk textiles is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient Cæsarea, near the
+eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were made
+there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both in
+workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their dyes are
+aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are prayer rugs with
+arches resembling the Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more
+conventional. Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia
+Minor pieces are also woven there.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VII—LADIK PRAYER RUG_
+
+_The rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the
+best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the beautiful border stripe
+of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the
+central field, and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so
+peculiar to these rugs. It is interesting to see how the pattern of the
+innermost stripe, which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and
+sides, is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed near
+the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and Rhodian lilies of
+the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of the “evil-eye.” Such
+irregularities, denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the
+charm of Oriental rugs._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+
+YURUKS.—Suggestive of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of
+Turkoman descent known as Yuruks. This term means “Wanderers;” and they
+are well named, since throughout the western part of Asia Minor they
+follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the rich pastures among the
+mountain tops of the interior, where they live in summer, to the
+fertile, sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna
+and the slopes of Mt. Olympus may be seen their black goat’s-hair tents,
+where the unexpected guest is always welcome.
+
+In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives, unaffected
+by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are different from
+those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so are these rugs entirely
+distinct, resembling more than anything else the work of the wild Kazaks
+of the Caucasus. In them will be recognised the same long nap, the same
+massing of colour, the same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple
+designs. The colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and
+yellows being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder, blue,
+green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The patterns show
+the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may contain crude,
+unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric
+designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the
+pear designs as well as floral forms, but the drawing is always far from
+realistic.
+
+Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes, and
+stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but their patterns show a
+want of all artistic feeling. Now and then, however, comes to light a
+piece that has stood the wear of more than a century, showing the touch
+of a higher craftsmanship, and with colours softened by each succeeding
+year.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine.
+The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not
+show at back. _Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of
+medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses two, three, or four times
+between every two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool,
+clipped long. _Border_, from four to six stripes, occasionally with an
+outer edging. _Sides_, generally a heavy double overcasting, but
+occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. _Lower end_, a
+coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, and
+warp loops; or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose. _Upper
+end_, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord,
+a braided selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+together at short intervals. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES
+
+Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but slight
+relationship to either the geometric patterns of the Caucasian, or the
+floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule the geometric features
+either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral
+designs, and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly
+arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with
+pendent flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by
+Caucasian weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns.
+They are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful colouring and
+delicate drawing.
+
+_Primary Stripes._—Several different stripes peculiar to Ghiordes prayer
+rugs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page
+192). The first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that
+there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The seed-like processes
+of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The second, which is found in
+many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the same pattern more conventionalised,
+with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost
+octagonal-shaped. The third is a still greater evolution of the same
+pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are
+placed at three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a
+very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a few
+old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar to those of
+Kulah rugs (Plate G, Fig. 12) are sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE G. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS]
+
+One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs
+is shown in Plate G, Fig. 6. It is a broad stripe with wide, vine-like
+bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure
+of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 7, is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe
+of the Ladik prayer rugs. The principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and
+rosettes identical with Persian forms, that are probably
+conventionalised roses. Another stripe, in which the lily is replaced by
+a conventionalised vine, is shown in Plate G, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in Ladik
+and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 9, 10, and 11,
+each of which shows a conventionalised leaf.
+
+One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate G, Fig. 12. It
+might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes, but as will
+be evident by observing a large series of Kulahs it serves the function
+of a single broad stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a
+ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by Ghiordes
+weavers.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe that appears both in Kulah
+and Rhodian rugs. As previously explained, its origin is probably
+floral, though the drawing is geometric. A formal stripe found in
+Bergamos, and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is
+represented in Plate G, Fig. 14.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate G illustrate the border stripes of Melez rugs.
+Each contains regularly spaced rosettes, separated by conventionalised
+leaf forms. A much more geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes
+are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+Plate G, Fig. 17.
+
+A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some Koniehs is
+shown in Plate G, Fig. 18.
+
+In Plate G, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented two stripes characteristic
+of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of
+bushes separated by the lily design. It is occasionally found in the
+Melez also.
+
+A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided
+into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in Plate G, Fig. 21.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk border stripe such as is
+frequently seen in modern pieces.
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—In Plate H, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page
+194), are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes
+and Kulah rugs. The first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the
+second has doubtless been derived from it.
+
+A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad band of
+perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs, is shown in
+Plate H, Fig. 3. The arrangement of three leaves in angles of
+quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of Plate
+G, Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).
+
+Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in Plate H,
+Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is also found in Kulahs is a vine and
+flower subject to many modifications.
+
+A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in
+Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very graceful, is
+shown in Plate H, Fig. 6.
+
+Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a secondary
+stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is illustrated in Plate
+H, Fig. 7. This resembles a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the
+pendent leaf is characteristic of Asia Minor.
+
+Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate H represent two tertiary stripes often seen in
+Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate the evolution of patterns; for in the
+same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the
+simple ribbon pattern of Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158), and also in
+the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of
+these and a continuous row of “_ff_” designs, as in Plate H, Fig. 2.
+
+The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is also seen
+in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is illustrated in
+Plate H, Fig. 10. A somewhat similar stripe is shown in Plate H, Fig.
+11. The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved from
+a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in Figs. 4 and
+12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE H. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA
+MINOR RUGS]
+
+In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate H are illustrated the swastika and S
+stripe, which are seen now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs,
+and also in Caucasian rugs.
+
+One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes, representing
+processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the
+stripe, is shown in Plate H, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and
+17 of Plate H, representing a row of small rosettes and a row of
+octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez rugs.
+
+The very angular vine shown in Plate H, Fig. 18, is sometimes seen in
+Koniehs.
+
+A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate H, Fig 19), found in a few
+Anatolians, represents a fret pattern, which was probably copied from
+some monument.
+
+The chain pattern (Plate H, Fig. 20) is occasionally seen as a tertiary
+stripe in the Ghiordes. It appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several
+centuries ago, and has been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes
+the lines are angular, and again the S’s are separated by small round or
+square dots.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    s = silk
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    j = jute
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Anatolian   │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Bergamo     │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Ghiordes    │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-16│  w  │  c    │[s] │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Karaman     │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-13│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 5-10│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Konieh      │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 6-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kulah       │    G    │      │ 5-10│ 7-12│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Ladik       │    G    │      │ 9-12│10-13│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Meles       │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 6-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Rhodian     │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 7-9 │  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Sivas       │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 9-15│     │  c    │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Youruk      │    G    │      │ 5-7 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬──────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT             │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│   P   │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Anatolian   │  w  │       │    │  2-4  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Bergamo     │  w  │       │    │  2-6  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Ghiordes    │  w  │   c   │[s] │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Karaman     │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │ S │ W/S │   │ L │   │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │  w  │       │    │  2-6  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Konieh      │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Kulah       │  w  │       │[j] │ 2/[1] │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Ladik       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Meles       │  w  │       │    │   4   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Rhodian     │  w  │       │    │2/[1-4]│   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Sivas       │  w  │   c   │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Youruk      │  w  │       │    │  2-4  │ O │[S]│  W  │[K]│ L │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Anatolian   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Bergamo     │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/l    │      f    │    m     │
+  │Ghiordes    │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │    m     │
+  │Karaman     │ W/S │   │ T │ F │     l     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Konieh      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │   m/f    │
+  │Kulah       │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │    l     │
+  │Ladik       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   m/f    │
+  │Meles       │  W/S│   │   │ F │   m/[s]   │     m/c   │    l     │
+  │Rhodian     │  W/S│   │   │ F │     l     │     m/c   │   m/l    │
+  │Sivas       │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │    f     │
+  │Youruk      │  W  │ K │[T]│ F │     l     │      c    │    l     │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+ASIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is rugged, that during the Middle
+Ages it was ruled by the illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the
+physical charms of its women made them favourites in the slave markets
+of Constantinople, the character and history of that country are to-day
+almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when the bards of
+ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and hung the Golden Fleece
+from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country of wonderful interest. Above
+its gorges, rivalling those of the Himalayas, rise mountains higher than
+the Alps. On the southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant
+vegetation of tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and
+in meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil. The
+river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags are the
+resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude with bear, wolf,
+and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.
+
+Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here follow
+his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine climber, botanist,
+mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the confines of this region are
+spoken some seventy languages by as many distinct clans, each of remote
+origin. Some are the descendants of the early dwellers; some are the
+Aryan stock that found its way to Europe before the beginning of
+history; still others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam
+which recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in ancient
+times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many generations have
+the present inhabitants remained among their mountain strongholds,
+unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they have been regarded as a type
+sufficiently pure and characteristic to give its name to the great
+Caucasian race.
+
+Though enjoying greater isolation than surrounding countries, the
+Caucasus at different times and in different ways has felt their
+influences. During the Augustan age of Tamara’s rule she attracted by
+her brilliancy, taste, and industry foreign courtiers and artisans.
+Hardly was she dead before Genghis Khan’s horde of conquering Mongols
+poured over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her daughter’s
+beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with their Mohammedan
+armies. For long succeeding years Persia struggled with Turkey for the
+mastery of the country, and was about to take it when Russia grasped the
+prize, but only after Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated
+vast armies.
+
+Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on the native
+art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman, Turkish, and
+Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few small geometric
+figures, that there is any evidence of the Turkoman influence; but it is
+not unusual to see border stripes and field designs adopted from the
+Turkish rugs. Some of these stripes represent both geometric and floral
+patterns, either copied directly or derived with slight modifications
+from rugs woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia.
+The Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It doubtless
+inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a large number of
+Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable from Baku rugs, as well as
+many other figures that first appeared in the rugs of Persia.
+
+Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct characteristics, which
+have a boldness and virility that are to be attributed in a measure to
+grand and rugged scenery as well as to centuries of struggle for
+independence, since in art the influence of environment is most
+apparent. They lack something of the sobriety, artistic drawing, and
+delicate colouring of those woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of
+fallen empires, and in the gardens of the East; they contain on the
+other hand, both in line and colour, the forceful expression of
+untrammelled thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of
+colour, in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character that is
+not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF CAUCASIA]
+
+
+DAGHESTANS.—In no part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in
+Daghestan, “the mountain country.” Nor is it surprising that this
+province should produce distinctive types, when it is considered that it
+has a length of over two hundred miles; that its topography is
+diversified by glaciated mountains, barren steppes, and fertile valleys;
+and that it is occupied by numerous clans, many of whom differ in origin
+as well as religion. Some of the rugs come from the city of Derbend on
+the Caspian Sea; some come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others,
+called Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other parts
+of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large
+numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became known as
+Daghestans.
+
+Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it is often
+difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which acquired the trade
+name of Daghestans are different from almost all other Caucasian pieces.
+This is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea
+and a nearly impassable mountain range, which render communication with
+surrounding territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where
+in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces spurious
+colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption of new designs,
+so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely
+used.
+
+It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are found many
+of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The dark, rich reds and
+blues of the fields, which are brightened by the ivory, light blue,
+green, and yellow of the small designs, resemble the fine colouring of
+choice Persian carpets. But the patterns are totally dissimilar; for it
+is only in a few rare old pieces, in which are copied some designs such
+as the lotus, or the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any
+likeness to the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.
+
+The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the short nap
+and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition.
+With the exception of conventionalised pears, the three-leaf sprig,
+which is commonly seen in the field, and the narrow border stripes of
+carnations, almost all of the figures are geometric; and are so
+carefully drawn, so closely clustered, that they represent an appearance
+frequently compared to mosaic work. Even when the patterns represent
+large medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or are
+divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or tessellated
+figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form or other the
+latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of small designs, the
+octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and animals, human beings,
+and the pear are not infrequently seen.
+
+As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan, namazliks as
+well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception of the unobtrusive
+arch of the namazlik, which is represented in Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61),
+there is little difference between them. There is never any panel as in
+Asia Minor rugs; nor is there a noticeable spandrel, since the space
+above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the
+field.
+
+As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by
+coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms
+employed; and these, with the exception of the carnation design, are
+rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe;
+the serrated line is also employed; and it is not unusual to find next
+to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are
+small dotted lines.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally
+longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+alignment is even and the warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back;
+occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short. _Border_,
+three to five stripes. _Sides_, a selvage of two, three, or four cords,
+or occasionally a weft-overcasting. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots
+or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is also a narrow
+braided selvage. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine
+grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_, one half to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 44. BAKU RUG]
+
+
+KABISTANS.—Within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the
+southern part of Daghestan have become known in Western markets as
+Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type that takes
+the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by
+the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans are merely a variety of
+Daghestans. Both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour
+scheme and patterns, so that many of each class are indistinguishable
+from one another.
+
+On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference
+between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic
+environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is
+by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an
+almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia
+descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the
+line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while
+the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be
+unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and
+it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs,
+like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that
+are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the
+finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in
+weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with
+equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the
+two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular;
+while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of
+the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of
+cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is
+of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a
+selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow
+selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to
+follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
+
+A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in
+Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order
+white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually
+connected (Plate O, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the
+rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered,
+the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long
+process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design.
+Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+represented in Plate J, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this
+pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and
+design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
+
+Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric
+figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of
+similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be
+covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks
+are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are
+large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the
+centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into
+smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, also some red,
+ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in
+Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a
+double overcasting or selvage. _Lower end_, a narrow web, not
+infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual
+length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one half to three quarters
+length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 45. SHIRVAN RUG]
+
+
+KUBAS.—Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan,
+in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about
+which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to
+be the residence of a Khan. For a long period previous to the treaty
+of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant
+in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the
+oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on
+the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or
+design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who
+inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
+
+In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment
+than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted
+Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with
+graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown,
+streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish
+display of large flowers _en masse_, and not detached from one another
+or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In
+each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen
+in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or
+Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some
+well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that
+has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to
+resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early
+Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any
+other Caucasian rug.
+
+Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The
+field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures
+defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre
+of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns
+consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed
+large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star
+enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the
+eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the
+different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the
+enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a
+dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting
+principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft,
+velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of
+richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which
+is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that
+they are frequently mistaken for one another, and can only be
+distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of
+weave.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown,
+occasionally some green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, fine
+wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, one to three stripes. _Sides_, a blue double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a
+knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.
+_Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+DERBENDS.—Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea,
+where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana,
+and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century “Derbend,” which in
+their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been
+visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when
+entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century;
+Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an
+easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to
+the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no
+longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the
+modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that
+find a market in the city.
+
+Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that
+reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may
+be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the
+Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work
+pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral
+mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of
+which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of
+moderate length. At the back of these older rugs is sometimes
+displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed
+closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both
+warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much
+farther to the south.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 46. SOUMAK RUG]
+
+In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products
+are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are
+ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior
+Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap,
+looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of
+Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat’s
+hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in
+the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian.
+Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which,
+fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or
+green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly
+contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour
+scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many
+of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans.
+Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking
+in artistic qualities.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve.
+Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The
+rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+at back. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, generally
+wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium
+diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently
+it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread
+of coarse diameter crosses only once. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three
+cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_ have a web,
+frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to seven
+feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+LESGHIANS.—On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend
+eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous
+tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages
+would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of
+life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them
+strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the
+snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents,
+where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost
+impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the
+Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire,
+and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
+
+It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would
+partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny
+atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the
+peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both
+patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength
+and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and
+slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of
+fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs
+excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the
+selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
+
+The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven
+south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated
+designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc,
+eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or
+three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few
+and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and
+frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting
+individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, brown wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+at back, or doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, an
+added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two,
+three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and
+a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual
+length_, five to eight feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+CHICHIS.—On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the
+valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of
+pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy
+Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work
+of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain;
+but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the
+Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their
+general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All
+floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a
+delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring
+note is eliminated.
+
+Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the
+field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices
+surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may
+be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the
+rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor
+inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of
+various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are
+outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are
+invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this
+horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row
+narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these
+small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and
+appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light
+blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead
+their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the
+valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S
+forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so
+as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides
+and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated
+line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the
+field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very
+few other classes.
+
+Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide
+as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and
+design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric
+figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral
+drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type
+generally seen (Plate I, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of
+about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal
+to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it
+not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the
+rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the
+reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of
+eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of
+Daghestans.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, blue, and red,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The
+rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen
+at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+short or medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two
+or three cords. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual
+width_, five eighths to three quarters length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 47. KAZAK PRAYER RUG]
+
+
+TCHERKESS.—The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that
+reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea
+for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to
+the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called
+“Tcherkesses,” a Tartar term for “cutter of roads” or highwaymen; and
+they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as “Adighies” or
+Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though
+their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the
+markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago
+finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a
+hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar,
+migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other
+races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
+
+Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those
+who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on
+account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come
+to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent
+pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic
+tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some
+of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a
+better understanding of this class.
+
+Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and
+nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture,
+boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks
+so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are
+constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all
+classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field
+and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+figures sometimes called “sun-bursts,” that are often regarded as crude
+copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they
+have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the
+XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so
+common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are
+sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there
+are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five
+extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the
+blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground
+is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost
+invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the
+serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently
+woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour
+rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and tawny yellow,
+with minor quantities of blue and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as
+it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only
+twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as
+four or six times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both ends_, as a rule have
+a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally
+either web or selvage may be omitted. _Texture_, very firm. Weave at
+back of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+BAKUS.—No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour
+and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that
+the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great
+mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the
+narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral
+oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from
+all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and
+night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the
+ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of
+fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of
+different religions and different races have been felt here.
+
+The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours,
+that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There
+are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black,
+as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in
+the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them
+are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there
+striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VIII—SOUMAK RUG_
+
+_The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting
+Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not
+only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen.
+Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that
+for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow,
+and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal
+trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have
+been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the
+cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent
+quality of this rare piece._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley_]
+
+An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs,
+which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (Plate O, Fig.
+6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to
+floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also,
+they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which
+they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the
+rug as they do in Sarabends.
+
+At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a
+large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines
+suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their
+origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners
+are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are
+serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs,
+crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like
+those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of
+these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are
+represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs
+woven within the last century.
+
+The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is
+always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral
+form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is
+a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from
+Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered
+that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for
+centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
+
+These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their
+characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on
+account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of
+Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful
+delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central
+medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow,
+and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back,
+occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other. _Weft_, usually
+cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a weft overcasting or a narrow
+weft selvage. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+SHIRVANS.—Between the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship
+easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races among
+whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through
+Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from the same
+sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more completely under the
+sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily to the influence of the
+Persian weavers, as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which
+are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs
+than in those of Daghestan. On the other hand, the technique of weave as
+well as finish of sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the
+refinement observable in the Daghestans.
+
+The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In them the
+foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other Caucasian
+rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment.
+Sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the
+field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices; but
+they are most frequently found in the borders. Other old pieces contain
+lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be
+designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the fields of
+most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions, stars, and diamonds
+similar to those of Daghestans, although the drawing inclines to greater
+simplicity of outline and detail; and they have greater diversity of
+colour, as tones of blue, red, green, and brown in a field of ivory are
+not unusual.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 48. KAZAK RUG]
+
+The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere
+mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit.
+Some of them resemble those found in both Daghestans and Kabistans, but
+generally the designs are drawn less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly
+because, as a rule, they are not so closely woven and the nap is not
+quite so short. Now and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks
+are seen; and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal
+parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices.
+
+There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that rarely, if
+ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat the appearance of
+pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole
+field and contains broad incisions at each side, which nearly divide it
+into three or four rectangular sections. Within each of them are
+octagonal figures, and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the
+panel so as to leave small corners to the field. Each part often
+contains small designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and other
+animal or human forms. With slight modifications this pattern is
+sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate C, Fig. 11, Page 61), but
+the section at one end is more completely an octagon, and the remainder
+is an oblong rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the
+same form of arch that is common in Daghestans.
+
+Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is
+amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their
+borders, which have a well balanced harmony of colours. They have seldom
+less than three, nor more than five stripes, of which the secondary are
+often as interesting as the primary. The best known is the one with
+serrated leaf and wine glass, represented in Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page
+226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans that it is
+almost typical of them. If the figures of the field contain latch-hooks,
+they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe.
+Such a one appears in Plate I, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian
+pattern (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally seen. A
+very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate J, Fig. 8, is only used
+when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern.
+Now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal
+row of pear designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs
+of carnations (Plate K, Fig. 1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen,
+but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and
+colour scheme. On the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in
+the selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones are
+not always so rich or harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the transverse warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three to five
+stripes. _Sides_, generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a
+double selvage, occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_, a web,
+one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four to six feet.
+_Usual width_, one half to four fifths length.
+
+
+SOUMAKS.—Seventy miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same
+distance to the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus
+begin to descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the last
+century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing centre of
+silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of
+Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take thither their rugs, from
+which its own weavers often borrow patterns. By a corruption of the name
+of the city, their fabrics are called Soumaks, though they are more
+popularly known as Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the
+back, as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+India.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 49. KARABAGH PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of pile that
+make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by
+themselves; but even apart from these characteristics, they are as
+distinct a type as any in Caucasia. On the fields of most of them are
+three or four diamond-shaped medallions, that occupy nearly the full
+width of the field and extend from one end to the other. Almost without
+exception they are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal
+sides to represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from
+very old Armenian rugs; and it is possible that once the crosses had
+a religious significance, as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of
+this type were a Christian sect; but the present weavers are mostly
+Mohammedans. At the centre of the medallions and in the triangular
+spaces at the sides are flattened octagons, which are generally
+ornamented with some star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger
+patterns and surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs,
+which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more frequently
+seen in this class than in any other, as for instance, the knot of
+destiny (Plate O, Fig. 17, Page 291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like
+a bird’s claw, which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries
+ago. Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom entirely
+lost.
+
+There are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern, and
+with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones.
+They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral designs. One recently
+examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows
+of innumerable dainty figures, which were evidently the conventionalised
+forms of small flower bushes. Not a single other design appeared in the
+field, yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it
+exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to five, are
+generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow well known
+Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the running
+latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has the simple form
+shown in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230); but now and then the more
+elaborate drawing of the Georgian stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil,
+which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running vine and rosette,
+such as the one in Plate K, Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a
+secondary stripe. The primary stripes, on the other hand, although most
+dissimilar to those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves,
+that no one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device.
+
+The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which even in the
+warp displays a silky character. The dyes are faultless, though the
+colours never acquire a lustre. Red and blue are largely employed, but
+they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces; and in both
+old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other
+Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, brown, some
+yellow, and white. _Knot_, flat stitch. Knots to inch horizontally eight
+to fourteen; perpendicularly, six to sixteen. _Warp_, wool; each thread
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots
+in old rugs, and between every second and third row in modern rugs.
+_Border_, two to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a double selvage of
+several cords, occasionally an overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web, one
+or more rows of knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. _No
+nap._ _Usual length_, five and one half to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to three quarters length.
+
+
+SHEMAKHAS.—Flatly woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha
+tribes. Some of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the
+Caucasus a short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that
+occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme
+the best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as “Royal
+Daghestans;” yet they are seldom seen and little known. In fact, they
+are frequently mistaken for Persian fabrics on account of the subdued
+richness of their deep reds, blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the
+patterns which are largely floral.
+
+Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known Georgian
+pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the secondary
+stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also resemble the Soumaks in
+the coloured woollen selvage of the sides, and in the narrow coloured
+web of “herring-bone” weave and knotted fringe of the ends. In some, the
+field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures
+containing conventionalised flowers; in others, it is merely a
+background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms;
+and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not
+frequently found in Caucasian pieces.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is almost hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, two to
+three stripes. _Sides_, a blue selvage of two or three cords. _Both
+ends_, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a knotted selvage or
+several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, four to
+eight feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+TIFLIS.—When it is considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the
+Georgian capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what has been
+written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference
+to a type peculiar to this city and district. This is undoubtedly due to
+the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced
+there, and that the old pieces are few and but little known.
+
+Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are
+dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of their moderately
+long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz or a Meshed; the colour
+scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones, such as
+blue, green, rose, and ivory; the weave of delicate and fine threads is
+as close as that of old Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to
+determine the type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft which
+crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed
+a brown or dull red, and strung with great exactness; and the knots are
+tied with care. There is also something distinctive in many of the
+patterns; for however interesting they may be, precision of drawing is
+often combined with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for
+instance, may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part
+may represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars, occupying
+the full width of the field; and still another part may be entirely
+occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining these may be other
+pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and
+other strange devices. Likewise, many different colours may be placed in
+close relation, yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that
+the effect is not harsh. Some sort of tree-form is not unusual; but on
+the whole, the designs of both field and border are geometric.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter,
+usually dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses from three to five
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, soft wool of medium
+length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting
+or narrow selvage. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, six to
+eleven feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KUTAIS.—Among a large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen
+a few pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line both
+banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses; in the
+valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom
+beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of
+Caucasia, and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would
+have a striking individuality of their own; but they are little known as
+a distinct class. In fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks
+that they are constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a
+more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly woven,
+less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices. Moreover, as
+this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks had settled
+permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not improbable that some of its
+patterns were copied by them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 50. GENGHA RUG]
+
+A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear designs, which
+are found in a very large number of the rugs. The extension of the
+narrower end, instead of being a short, curved hook, is generally more
+developed, so that it may be as long as the major axis of the pear and
+frequently stands almost at right angles to it. Also attached to the
+sides of the pear are rectangular bead-like processes (Plate O, Fig. 6c,
+Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is divided into a number
+of bands parallel with the sides; and through them run vines, from which
+the pears are suspended. Or the pears may be arranged in regular order
+on the field without the bands and vines. Sometimes the field is reduced
+to a very small space by a broad border consisting of a number of
+stripes, some of which are often of striking patterns. One of them is
+represented in Plate I, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree of
+life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.
+
+A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis rugs, as in
+each the weft usually crosses several times; it is generally coloured
+blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of yarn. The wool of the nap
+is of the same fine quality; but the warp of the Kutais rugs, which is
+almost invariably of wool, frequently consists of a brown and white
+thread twisted together; and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the
+alignment at the back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in
+Kazaks.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and white,
+with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven.
+A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The
+rows of knots are slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than
+in Kazaks. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_,
+wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses three
+times, occasionally only once, and again four or five times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length or long. _Border_, three to five stripes.
+_Sides_, either a double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+firm. _Weave_ at back, generally of medium fine grain but occasionally
+coarse. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KAZAKS.—Of the warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along
+the southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations of
+Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a few crossed
+the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake Gotcha and Mt.
+Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives; but there still lingers
+the inherited spirit that generations ago won for them the name Kazaks,
+which denotes to the Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a
+Marauder. All of these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country
+come principally from the southern district, where may also be found the
+fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the native
+people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most distinct type, to
+which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They have bright, rich colours,
+of which a liberal amount of green is almost invariably present, though
+sparingly used in other Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them
+in the length of the nap; and no other class has such noticeable
+patterns of incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and in
+their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same relation to
+other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and Yuruk tribes bear
+to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.
+
+In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and many
+Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large patterns.
+Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal panels, which may
+be entirely plain except for a simple design fringing the edges; or as
+is more frequently the case, it may be occupied by large, slightly
+elongated octagons, within which are represented smaller figures.
+Occupying almost the entire field of other pieces are large patterns
+like medallions, perfectly balanced with reference to the centre and
+subdivided into small sections, each of which contains individual
+motives. A few of this class, also, have the “sunburst” pattern, so
+characteristic of the Tcherkess.
+
+At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal pattern, but
+contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs characteristic of
+nomadic weavings; but even these are generally arranged with the idea of
+symmetrical balance. For instance, at the centre may be a large
+geometric figure surrounded at equal distances by pairs of smaller and
+similar figures. Not infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower
+half, or of the right and left side, shows an almost perfect
+correspondence, notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most
+common of these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with
+latch-hooks, and what are known as the “tarantula” device. Of the
+innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are the most
+common; crude animal and human figures are also seen.
+
+Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little distinction between
+namazliks and sedjadehs. It is small and less graceful than that of Asia
+Minor pieces, and follows stiff lines in harmony with the general
+pattern. It is, however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has
+the shape of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened;
+but not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow bands
+that form the arch are extended transversely from each side of the base
+to the borders; and occasionally they are continued down the sides of
+the field to form at the bottom a figure similar to the square-shaped
+arch. Now and then a comb, or small figure of diamond shape, on which to
+place the bit of sacred earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab;
+and now and then crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are
+to be rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.
+
+However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there more than
+one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have generally only the
+reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the barber-pole or dotted lines.
+The absence of important secondary stripes, however, brings out more
+prominently the drawing and colouring of the main one. The most common
+pattern is what is known as the “tarantula” represented in Plate I, Fig.
+8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7),
+which was undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug,
+as the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is also
+seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in Plate I,
+Fig. 15, which, when represented in bold, rich colours on an ivory
+field, makes a most effective and beautiful border stripe. Other border
+stripes frequently employed in these rugs appear in Plate I.
+
+Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of other tribes
+have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they often resemble though
+they lack their spirit and character. The very modern Kazaks, also, are
+often of poor quality, but those made two generations or more ago were
+carefully and stoutly woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of
+vegetable colours. There is always something interestingly barbaric in
+their long, almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their
+bold designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, green, and yellow,
+also some blue, white, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is hidden at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft generally crosses only twice between every two rows of
+knots, but occasionally three or four times. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting attached
+in figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having from
+three to five cords. _Lower end_, a red or brown web and warp loops, or
+a braided selvage and fringe. _Upper end_, a red or brown web,
+occasionally a braided selvage or several rows of knots, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+KARABAGHS.—To the southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras,
+that divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+signifying “Black Vineyard.” On account of its geographic position, it
+has been subject to the Shahs for long periods, during the many
+struggles between the two countries. It is, moreover, separated from the
+rug-producing district of Karadagh by the river only; and its southern
+border is less than eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to
+which many of its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only
+natural to expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not at all
+true in the case of a large percentage of the modern products.
+
+Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and wretchedly
+dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of them resemble Kazaks
+in their geometric figures; but differ from them in their workmanship,
+since one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed; they are
+much more loosely woven; they are not so large; nor for the most part
+are they so heavy. Other pieces often lack the symbolic and other small
+designs that render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the
+central field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue, on
+which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript devices.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 51. ROYAL BOKHARA RUG]
+
+It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven half a
+century ago, with less obtrusive colouring and more chaste patterns.
+Many of the old pieces are oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length
+almost twice the breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to
+smaller and nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not
+always religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle of the
+sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble from Mecca, as
+is shown in Plate C, Fig. 12 (Page 61). The particular piece from which
+this was drawn was over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as
+long. Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers with long
+angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish red.
+
+The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one stripe
+usually contains a concession to the Persian and another to the
+Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may be of Iranian
+character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it may be the well-known
+crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may be a running vine of simple
+form.
+
+Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in artistic finish
+the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is carefully executed; the
+colours are rich; the weave is fair; but like the rare old rugs of
+Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom seen.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are only slightly
+pressed down, yet the warp is generally concealed at back. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the
+other at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, generally a double selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of
+different colours; occasionally a double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a web and warp loops, or a braided
+selvage, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+web, a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one
+half to three quarters length.
+
+SHUSHAS.—About seventy miles to the southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha,
+capital of Karabagh. Nearly two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir
+Shah on an almost inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern
+boundary of Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now
+about twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras river.
+In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are frequently
+imported to this country and sold under several names, yet are of a
+distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the surrounding country
+but differ from them in their richer and more subdued colours as well as
+in the stoutness of weave. One thread of warp to each knot is doubled
+beneath the other, whereas in the rugs of the desert tribes it is only
+depressed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the
+warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two or three cords, often attached to the sides in
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+GENGHAS.—Over the land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in
+Caucasia, Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol. During
+the period when the Persian rule extended over the country, it was the
+residence of a Khan and an important centre of trade. As it was then
+known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings of these nomads, which were
+marketed there, acquired that name.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 52. PRINCESS BOKHARA RUG]
+
+Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas incorporated
+from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more than anything
+else, and are frequently mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions
+are very marked: they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and
+they are less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly pressed
+down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from four to eight
+times between two rows of knots, which are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the narrow filling of weft is sometimes even four times as wide as
+a row of knots and presents a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme
+of numerous pieces, which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs,
+is often a preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic
+pattern. The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with latch-hooks
+and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large central figure
+surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well as apparently
+meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human, animal, or floral forms.
+The borders, likewise, include a wide scope of patterns. It is,
+therefore, largely by the character of the weave, quality of material,
+and finish of sides and ends, that these pieces can be distinguished
+from other nomadic products.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and white,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots
+are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally goat’s hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter and usually dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots, but generally three and frequently as
+many as six or eight times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+three or four stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+cords. _Lower end_, a web, usually coloured red, and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web to which a braided selvage is often added, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have been derived
+from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are characterised by geometric
+patterns, which distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible
+to trace them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated from leaf
+and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are symbolic and others are
+crude copies of familiar objects. The more artistic and realistically
+drawn floral patterns appear in the less conspicuous secondary stripes;
+but on the other hand the primary stripes contain a number of unusually
+interesting patterns, which have been copied for centuries.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES.—The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate I, Fig. 1,
+opp. Page 226) appears so frequently in Shirvans as to be almost
+typical. It is also occasionally seen in Daghestans and Kabistans; but
+probably originated in Southern Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found
+similarly drawn in rugs woven in that district about 1500 A. D. It is a
+pattern that scarcely varies with time or locality except in the number
+of serrations to the leaf and in the shape of the cup.
+
+Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I, are
+sometimes seen in Kazak and other nomadic rugs. It is not improbable
+that they have a common origin with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.
+
+In the stripe represented in Plate I, Fig. 4, is a series of wine cup
+rosettes that are occasionally seen in the old rugs from the Shirvan
+district. In fact, the wine cup design is a favourite there.
+
+Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is shown in
+Plate I, Fig. 5. This is an old nomadic pattern not frequently seen.
+
+Fig. 6 of Plate I, represents the well-known Chichi border stripe,
+composed of rosettes separated by diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To
+the rosettes are attached tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once
+some Persian vine and flower.
+
+What is known as the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks
+and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as well as in a few very modern Asia
+Minor pieces. Though its resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is
+really a rosette to which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that
+frequently contain smaller designs at their centres.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula pattern (Plate
+I, Fig. 8), that was possibly derived from the stripe with an
+eight-pointed star (Plate K, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+probable that the inspiration is Iranian and that it is intended for
+rosette and double vine. This stripe is found in Kazaks, Genghas,
+Tcherkess, and other nomadic rugs.
+
+Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate I, Fig. 9, that is now and
+then seen in old Tiflis and other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests
+a geometric rosette and double vine.
+
+Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in Plate I, Fig.
+10, is used by the nomadic weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal
+pattern found in a Caucasian primary stripe.
+
+The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate I, Fig. 11 is once in a while
+seen in old rugs of the Daghestan country.
+
+On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in Plate I,
+Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a common origin. Both are found in
+rugs of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts, and the former is
+occasionally seen in rugs of Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious
+devices are placed at the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.
+
+Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate I, Fig. 14, which is
+commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and kilims. It is purely geometric and
+resembles one used in Western Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from
+which it may have been derived.
+
+Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in Plate I,
+Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived from much more ornate forms, which
+may be seen in a XVI Century Asia Minor piece that is in the British
+Museum. It is now seldom copied, but was once a popular pattern for the
+Kazak and Kutais weavers.
+
+Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of Caucasian
+stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 of
+Plate I, represent patterns found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs.
+The last one is also occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The
+patterns shown in Plate I, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes sometimes
+seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.
+
+A much more interesting stripe because of its well authenticated
+antiquity, is the one shown in Plate J, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is
+found in rugs made in Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according
+to Dr. Martin has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the
+result of copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.[30]
+These stripes are seen in comparatively recent pieces, but principally
+in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the latch-hook
+is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more probable that
+originally they were intended for leaves. In a few stripes the design is
+elongated, and in place of a single crossbar there are several, forming
+a figure that slightly resembles a poinsetta, which is the term
+occasionally applied to it by weavers.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 2, which is found in Kazak and other
+nomadic rugs, is interesting as representing a vine of which the pendant
+flower is replaced by a T formed by latch-hooks.
+
+In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate J, are patterns of stripes found in rugs of
+the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As they are several centuries old,
+they may be derived from Armenian patterns, to which they show kinship.
+Both patterns are at times reversed as the result of copying.[31] A
+stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar origin is
+seen in Plate J, Fig. 5.
+
+Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian origin, are the
+separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular rows, form the “churn”
+stripe of Plate J, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs with a
+length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base in the ground.
+Then hanging a goat’s skin filled with milk over each of the sides, and
+seating themselves in the middle, they turned first one then the other.
+As might be expected, these stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.
+
+Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate J, represent stripes sometimes seen in Shirvans.
+The latter is undoubtedly derived from the prayer patterns that are
+often used in these rugs.
+
+What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate J, Fig. 9. It is
+found in Daghestans, Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas.
+Though a primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the
+border, but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more artistic
+rugs.
+
+Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from those of
+other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate J. The last is
+interesting on account of the leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE J. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+The stripes seen in Plate J, Figs. 13, 14 and 15 are found only in
+nomadic rugs. The last is interesting principally on account of the
+swastikas.
+
+And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan classes appear
+in Plate J, Fig. 16. It is an archaic pattern copied from a most
+interesting Daghestan prayer rug.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 17 is sometimes adopted in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia, such as the Kutais and Kazak.
+
+Another very old pattern found in the borders of the Daghestan-Shirvan
+classes is shown in Plate J, Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow
+tertiary stripes known as “barber-poles,” it differs from them by being
+very much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally contain
+short, oblong dashes.
+
+A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs from the
+districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern of Plate J,
+Fig. 19. It is particularly characteristic of old Daghestans and
+Kabistans, but must have been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia,
+as it can be traced through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic
+characters used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.
+
+Plate J, Fig. 20 represents a “bracket-chain” pattern that probably
+originated in Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+Caucasia.
+
+In Plate J, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing scorpions, that is very
+rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22 is a stripe representing birds,
+sometimes seen in Bakus.
+
+
+SECONDARY AND TERTIARY STRIPES.—As the pattern shown in Plate K, Fig. 1
+(opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers representing carnations, it has
+been called the “carnation pattern.” It is very common in Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans.
+
+Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design like a
+three-leaf clover, shown in Plate K, Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine
+with leaf and flower shown in Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately
+used in place of the carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary
+stripe. The latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral
+stripe. It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian extraction.
+
+Another floral pattern from the same district is seen in Plate K, Fig.
+4. It often accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks,
+with which its stiff drawing harmonises.
+
+Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in the same
+classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes represented in Persian
+stripes that show the influence of nomadic weavers.
+
+Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the rugs of
+Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate K, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
+All are old patterns. The third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven
+about 1250 A. D. The fourth is found in some of the oldest remaining
+rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back two and a half centuries;
+and a pattern similar to the last is seen in some Persian carpets made
+about 1650 A. D.
+
+Plate K, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes sometimes seen in Chichis and
+a few other Caucasian rugs.
+
+A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very attractive on
+account of its delicate colouring, is shown in Plate K, Fig. 13, and
+another is shown in Fig. 14. Both are used principally in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia.
+
+The stripe represented in Plate K, Fig, 15, is found in very old rugs of
+the Daghestan and Derbend types; and there is a tradition among some of
+the native weavers that the designs originally represented boat hooks
+used by the sailors of the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to
+suppose that the early weavers imitated objects of utility before those
+of mere ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it
+is equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.
+
+Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which generally
+appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate F, Fig. 17 (opp.
+Page 158). It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of
+Persian, in Indian, and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+The dainty Chain pattern of Plate K, Fig. 16 has a well authenticated
+antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century, from
+which it was probably derived. Without doubt it was a favourite pattern
+three centuries ago, as it appears in some of the early paintings in
+which Oriental carpets are represented.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE K. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF
+CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to give it a
+more graceful form.
+
+As the purely geometric pattern of Plate K, Fig. 17 is entirely lacking
+in ornamental features, it is used principally to separate more
+important stripes. Occasionally it is found in such rugs as the Chichis
+and Shirvans.
+
+Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an inside stripe
+is seen in Plate K, Fig. 18. This is evidently an archaic form and is
+found principally in pieces of the Shirvan district.
+
+The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns (Plate K,
+Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less important stripes of not only
+Caucasian but a number of Persian rugs. The former pattern appears
+constantly on the monuments of ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some
+symbolic meaning. The latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and
+Phœnix carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88) which was woven about 1350
+A. D.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │ CAUCASIAN  │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Baku        │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Chichi      │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Daghestan   │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-15│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Derbend     │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-12│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Gengha      │    G    │      │ 6-8 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │            │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │Kabistan    │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-16│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Karabagh    │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 7-10│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Kasak       │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kuba        │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-13│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kutais      │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 7-12│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Lesghian    │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 6-11│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │[h]│
+  │Shemakha    │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 7-13│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Shirvan     │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Shousha     │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 6-11│  w  │       │    │   │ d │ h │
+  │Soumak      │         │      │ 8-14│ 6-16│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Tcherkess   │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Tiflis      │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 6-10│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │        WEFT         │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  CAUCASIAN │     │       │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│  No.  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Baku        │  w  │       │   2   │ O │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Chichi      │  w  │       │   2   │ O │[S]│  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Daghestan   │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Derbend     │  w  │  [c]  │ 2/[1] │[O]│ S │  W  │[K]│   │ F │
+  │Gengha      │  w  │       │  2-4  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │            │     │       │ [6-8] │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Kabistan    │  w  │   c   │[2]/[3]│ O │ S │W/[S]│   │ L │   │
+  │Karabagh    │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │W/[S]│[K]│ L │ F │
+  │Kasak       │  w  │       │2/[3-4]│ O │ S │W/[S]│   │ L │ F │
+  │Kuba        │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │[K]│   │ F │
+  │Kutais      │  w  │       │3/[1-5]│ O │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Lesghian    │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Shemakha    │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │ W/S │   │   │ F │
+  │Shirvan     │  w  │  [c]  │   2   │[O]│ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Shousha     │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Soumak      │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │ W/S │ K │   │ F │
+  │Tcherkess   │  w  │       │2/[4-6]│   │ S │ W/S │ K │   │ F │
+  │Tiflis      │  w  │       │  3-5  │ O │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  CAUCASIAN │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Baku        │  W  │ K │   │ F │     s     │      m    │  m/f     │
+  │Chichi      │  W  │ K │   │ F │    m/s    │      m    │   m      │
+  │Daghestan   │  W  │ K │   │ F │     s     │      f    │  m/f     │
+  │Derbend     │  W  │[K]│   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/l     │
+  │Gengha      │W/[S]│   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   l      │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │Kabistan    │W/[S]│   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/f     │
+  │Karabagh    │W/[S]│[K]│ T │ F │     m     │      c    │   l      │
+  │Kasak       │W/[S]│[K]│   │ F │     l     │      c    │   f      │
+  │Kuba        │W/[S]│[K]│   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/l     │
+  │Kutais      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │  m/f     │
+  │Lesghian    │  W  │ K │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   f      │
+  │Shemakha    │ W/S │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │  m/f     │
+  │Shirvan     │  W  │ K │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │  m/l     │
+  │Shousha     │  W  │   │[T]│ F │     m     │     m/c   │  m/f     │
+  │Soumak      │ W/S │ K │   │ F │           │      m    │   m      │
+  │Tcherkess   │ W/S │ K │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   f      │
+  │Tiflis      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │   f      │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+THE land that extends eastward about fourteen hundred miles from the
+Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the Chinese Empire, and northward
+for a similar distance from the Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and
+Afghanistan to the steppes of Western Siberia, is one of the least
+civilised parts of the eastern continent. Here until within a few recent
+years, the people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian Empire
+on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet made little
+impression on their uncultured natures. To these circumstances it is
+largely due that the rugs termed Central Asiatic, which come from this
+district, still possess to a large degree the originality of design,
+virility of character, and beauty of colour that are so rapidly
+disappearing from the woven products of countries more subject to the
+influence of Western civilisation.
+
+These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural sub-groups,
+which include:
+
+1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country as Royal
+and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and Beshires, all of
+which are made in Turkestan;[32] and the Afghan, of which part are made
+in Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.
+
+2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which re made in
+Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands made in Eastern
+Turkestan.
+
+3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in Beluchistan.
+
+No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of colour and design
+than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered that their prevailing
+tones and their simple, geometric designs are such as would readily be
+adopted by people with primitive ideas of ornamentation, it seems
+probable that they have been copied with only slight modification for a
+great many centuries, even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets
+were woven during the short period when Samarkand was capital of the
+East. This is probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the
+world has been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of philology,
+dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had come to dispel the
+mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand years later it was overrun by
+Cyrus and added to the dominion of the Medes and Persians. In the V
+Century A. D., Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following century
+Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later it was again
+overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted the vanquished to
+the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries had rolled away the Mongol
+hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it; and once again it suffered
+desolation under the iron hand of Tamerlane, “Scourge of Asia.” But in
+spite of these waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types, however
+much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap is invariably
+short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the predominating
+colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon appears. They are,
+moreover, the best woven and the most beautiful of the Central Asiatic
+rugs.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TURKESTAN]
+
+Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to the
+influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of Chinese, they
+are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter. Not
+improbably this is because Tamerlane had gathered at Samarkand noted
+artists and artisans from China, whose influence continued long after
+his death. And as traditional patterns have been transmitted for
+centuries, there is little doubt that some of the modern rugs, even
+though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In these
+pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an
+elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with
+early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even
+gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics.
+
+The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the Central
+Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman rugs than to
+any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of
+Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat’s
+hair selvage at the sides peculiar to Afghans and Tekkes. On the other
+hand, many of the patterns both of field and border resemble Persian
+workmanship; so that placing these rugs in the same group with the
+Turkoman and Turko-Chinese rugs, which are not made in an adjoining
+territory, is slightly arbitrary.
+
+
+ROYAL BOKHARAS.—The best known district in Turkestan is the Khanate of
+Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the lofty Pamir mountains
+in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus
+river, on the west. Situated in its northern half and near the centre of
+a fertile valley is its capital, Bokhara, “The Noble.” Though noted for
+its cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These and
+its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days
+when the great caravans that came from China, India, Persia, and Russia
+made it one of the great marts of the East.
+
+On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of the Kirghiz
+steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,[33] the Afghans who dwell north
+of the Paropamisus range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the
+west, came and bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these
+rugs were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan, Orenburg, or
+Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place, the term Bokhara
+was often applied to each of the different classes. Thus we hear of
+Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and
+Khiva Bokharas.
+
+Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only are the
+best woven, but are made of the finest material; even the warp of many
+of them is of soft, silky white wool. The old rugs were made in the city
+and suburbs of Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old
+and new are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon. Of
+these quarters, which are either plain or contain a small triangle of
+contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite are always white or cream
+coloured, and the other pair are of some shade of red. Small triangular
+figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons, as well as
+small diamond, oval, or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major
+axis. In the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and
+the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which
+is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs, that
+careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs
+shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally placed octagons of both
+these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures, that are usually of the
+same design regardless of the shape of the octagon. In large rugs the
+centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark
+blue colour.
+
+It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this class of
+Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven, velvet-like
+pieces. A few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk; and all
+have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of
+lighter red and ivory, that convey an idea of opulence and dignity
+worthy of a king.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, sixteen to
+twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp
+is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden. _Warp_, fine white
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, fine wool, or occasionally
+silk, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes divided by smaller coloured
+lines. _Sides_, a blue double overcasting. _Both ends_, a narrow web and
+short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to ten feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four
+fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 53. TURKOMAN RUG WITH KATCHLI PATTERN]
+
+
+PRINCESS BOKHARAS.—The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are woven by the
+Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate of Bokhara. They are
+nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by
+perpendicular and horizontal bands. Because of this pattern they are
+called “Katchlis,” a word derived from the Armenian language signifying
+“like a cross.” The bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate
+with those in part of the border; but not infrequently the designs of
+the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one, and in a
+few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure. It is generally
+believed that the well-known Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field
+and the border is intended to represent the tree of life, but some
+native weavers suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance;
+the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad diagonal lines with
+serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the
+mosque. A very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks. One of
+their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped
+prayer arch, which is in a panel entirely within their upper border.
+
+Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality, the
+warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool, and the weave is
+coarser. Also, the tones of colour are more sombre, and of browner
+shades; but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the
+ground, on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and
+dark blue, are exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within
+recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for
+commercial purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red or brown, with
+minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at
+back and the weft partly hidden. _Warp_, brown wool or goat’s hair; each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length;
+occasionally some goat’s hair is used. _Border_, three stripes,
+separated by narrow lines. _Sides_, a double overcasting or a double
+goat’s hair selvage of three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual
+length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to
+four fifths length.
+
+
+TEKKES.—A little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost unknown
+tribe called the “Tekke,” a term which is said to denote a mountain
+goat, and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men
+rode over rough mountain sides. About the beginning of the XVIII Century
+they packed their _khibitkas_,[34] and after moving southward to escape
+from the attacks of a more powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the
+southwestern corner of Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further
+eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds,
+whose ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating and
+cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred thousand. One
+fourth of them then moved eastward; and after settling on the banks of
+the Tajand, not far from the Persian town of Saraks, they attacked the
+inhabitants of Merv and captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful
+people, they occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+Daria.
+
+Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to
+fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid, hundreds or
+even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to
+blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the passes that looked down
+into the fertile valleys of Northern Persia. Stealthily creeping through
+them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash
+away with young women and children. If pursued, they would stab their
+captives, and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the deserts
+and carry away both camels and wares.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 54. TURKOMAN PRAYER RUG, WHICH ACCORDING TO A.
+BOGOLUBOW HAS THE TYPICAL PINDÉ PATTERN]
+
+Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the Russians,
+who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the Caspian
+and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the Tekkes harassed. At length in
+January, 1881, came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on
+the fortress of Geok Teppe, where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and
+seven thousand women and children had taken refuge. With the fall of
+that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the power of
+the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose ancestors for
+countless centuries had roamed the desert, recognising no master,
+yielded finally to the advance of civilisation.
+
+These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally
+known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with excellent weave and
+sterling dyes can still be found. As few of them were designed for
+mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred
+years old, and even these are rare. Indeed, any that are now forty years
+old should possess great interest, as they were woven at a time when the
+Tekkes were still a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The
+prayer arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not infrequently
+there are three arches in the same horizontal panel, which, as a rule,
+is above the field, but occasionally below it. In a great many of these
+rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field; and in
+the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually
+small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern
+shown in Plate L, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost invariably in
+the outer stripe.
+
+There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if the very
+spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground colours are brightened
+by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious
+beauty. A few would seem to speak of the early Zoroastrian faith, for in
+their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the
+burning altars of fire worshippers.
+
+The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which
+it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made for doors of the
+khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and
+hemmed, and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in
+length, by which they were suspended. Other pieces have webs at both
+ends. Many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those
+intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing
+large octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+Royal Bokharas.
+
+Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which they
+resemble, by their goat’s hair selvage at the sides, by one thread of
+warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back, and by their
+coarser character. There is, however, a great similarity in the colours,
+though in the Tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, brown, or plum,
+with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen.
+The rows of knots are slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, or occasionally goat’s hair of short or medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes, separated by coloured lines. _Sides_, a
+three-cord double goat’s hair selvage. _Lower end_, a wide coloured web
+and long warp fringe. _Upper end_, a braided selvage turned back and
+hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back of moderately fine grain. _Length_,
+five to eight feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+KHIVAS.—On the west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two
+hundred miles above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva.
+Most of the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad’s life
+or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by innumerable canals,
+crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as melons, peaches, and
+pomegranates. A large population, also, inhabits the city of Khiva,
+which before the building of the Siberian railway, was on one of the
+direct highways between east and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand
+camels regularly passed through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to
+Astrakan in fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as
+well as its own rugs and manufactured articles.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IX—SAMARKAND RUG_
+
+_Although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known
+as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand. Undoubtedly it was woven in
+some part of Turkestan that lies between these two cities; yet with the
+exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and
+lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese ornamentation.
+Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of rich deep blue, are
+six conventionalised butterflies, and near them are four clusters of
+pomegranates. At each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree
+of life, which under different forms appears so persistently in the
+woven fabrics of the East. The delicate drawing of these motives is
+accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad
+border of well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+colour is combined with unsolved symbolism._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and Bokhara
+tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and
+colours; yet they contain important differences. Those made by the Khiva
+tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect of constant struggles against
+the rigours of the desert and the fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the
+north. The wool is also coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer
+to the inch. Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive
+of Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+that separate each row of knots, are noticeable at the back, whereas
+in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible.
+
+Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the following
+description of an antique goat’s hair carpet from Khiva by Dr.
+Birdwood.[35] “The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each lozenge
+being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends terminate in a
+fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made
+entirely by the nomad women about Khiva, the head worker tracing out the
+design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed
+materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving.”
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of
+knots are but slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is generally of
+goat’s hair. _Both ends_, a web, one or more rows of knots and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+YOMUDS.—When, in 1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their
+homes in the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about one
+hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of the dreary
+sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the terrible heat of summer,
+they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of
+more favoured spots. Sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border
+of the Caspian Sea as far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the
+sandy trackless wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.
+
+Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of colour. The
+prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon, but is sometimes
+rose, plum, or dark brown; and the remaining shades correspond with the
+blue, green, brown, and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the
+ivory ground of the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour
+than the field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre
+that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.
+
+There are several distinct types, of which only one is well-known. Its
+pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser designs show that there
+has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of Caucasia. Covering the
+field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that
+suggest those of the Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been
+developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the
+latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In
+the border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and a
+geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are usually red
+and striped, are broad and have a fringe of goat’s hair, sometimes
+braided into ropelike tassels, but more often hanging loose.
+
+The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent,
+and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs.
+Their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory
+colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes;
+their border contains the running latch-hook.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s
+hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, either
+a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a goat’s
+hair double selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad,
+reddish brown web through which, as a rule, run coloured lines or
+several narrow stripes, and a long warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BESHIRES.—On the Amu Daria and not far from Afghanistan is a small
+district from which the rugs known as Beshires now and then find their
+way to this country. As it is not far from several routes of caravans,
+these rugs show a relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes.
+Their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found
+in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the web crossed by
+several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish brown, that are usual
+in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric
+figures of the Yomuds and some Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a
+striking character of their own. Not infrequently the field is covered
+with broad, irregular scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in
+any other class of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis
+pattern, which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral
+forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have simple designs that
+incline to the geometric; but a few are of fair width and are ornamented
+with rosettes and conventionalised leaves. In namazliks, which are
+rarely seen, the prayer arch lies within the field. Almost all of this
+class found in this country are old rugs; and on account of their rich,
+harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always
+pleasing and interesting.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and brown, with
+minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide.
+The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally goat’s hair. Each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly
+depressed. _Weft_, wool or goat’s hair of medium or coarse diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes, occasionally
+only one. _Sides_, a goat’s hair selvage of two to four cords. _Both
+ends_, a wide web, crossed with several coloured stripes. _Texture_,
+stout. _Weave_, coarse. _Length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+AFGHANS.—One of the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known
+in this country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these names are
+unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the latter is
+that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of Khiva, and that
+they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor are they strictly
+Afghans, since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and
+fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu Koosh Mountains northward
+across the eastern part of the Khanate Bokhara, and are made by the
+tribesmen of both countries. In fact, they differ considerably from the
+rugs of Central and Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to
+those of floral pattern woven about Herat.
+
+Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and Teutonic
+races have met and blended; and across it have passed the armies of the
+greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist some of the most untamed
+races of the East, feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands, or
+cultivating patches of valleys, through which flow icy streams to form
+the Amu Daria. Here the rights of hospitality are held sacred, but
+wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal.
+
+When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people are taken
+into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs should be strong
+and firm in texture, bold in design, positive and striking in colour.
+Most of them are large and almost square in shape, though mats are not
+uncommon. The traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows,
+usually three in number, of large octagons, that are almost in contact.
+Between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs, which
+consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in
+others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and
+contains within its centre an eight-pointed star.
+
+With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble those of
+Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details are drawn as
+regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They are invariably divided
+into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a
+three-leaf clover. The field contains but few adventitious designs and
+they are rarely animal, as the Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the
+most common of these designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and
+Yomuds, is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel
+trappings. The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine.
+The sides have an added selvage of brown goat’s hair; and the ends
+are finished with reddish brown webs, from which hang loose fringes of
+dark wool or goat’s hair.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 55. TURKOMAN RUG OF THE SALOR TRIBES]
+
+As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours, which
+however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the field consist
+of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters of the octagon are
+of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field. In
+some pieces this red is blood colour, or nearly crimson, standing out in
+bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of
+green, orange, yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug;
+lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent
+in the red webs of the ends.
+
+Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in texture than
+most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine
+wool and goat’s fleece, as well as richness of tone, that is very
+attractive. They are exceedingly durable and moderate in price.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat’s hair; each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s hair. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a goat’s hair double
+selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad web of reddish
+brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow
+stripes, and a long fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAMARKANDS.—A little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+“Strewer of Gold,” has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis.
+Forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton; to
+vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear, peach, and pomegranate; and to
+gardens of fragrant flowers. Here is Samarkand, “The Mirror of the
+World.” Few cities as old remain after passing through so many
+vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its gates, the
+Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane seized and made it the
+magnificent capital of one third of the known world. His tomb and other
+remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was
+fostered here the art, the luxury, and the splendour of the East.
+
+The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward
+from the city and are often called “Malgarans.” They are not to be
+compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and
+mosques of the capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special
+interest, as in them are combined features derived from both Eastern and
+Western Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once
+part of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on one
+of the great highways of caravan travel between China and Western Asia,
+the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It appears in the
+colours that are in strong contrast; in the general pattern that shows
+little affinity for those of Persian or West Asian rugs; and even in the
+weave, in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp
+and pile.
+
+The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder,
+with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs
+and border stripes. Or again, the field may be blue, soft brown, gray,
+or tan, with which the colours of the designs and borders, that may
+contain red, yellow, and blue, invariably appear in strong contrast.
+
+Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists principally of
+rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in the centre; and if
+there be many, one is at each corner. They are usually ornamented with
+Chinese scrolls or some geometric design, as an eight-pointed star; but
+dragons, birds, or fishes are not uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers
+of Persian design, with eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion,
+and others of larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design in
+fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is further
+covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic flower forms. The
+borders are equally distinctive, and unlike those of Chinese rugs are
+relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging
+of uniform colour. One of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating
+vine; another a continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with
+frets, the barber-pole design, or a design which by some is regarded as
+the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the waves. In most pieces warp
+and weft are loosely woven, and the pile is of a medium grade of wool;
+but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and yellow.
+_Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly,
+five to eight. Each half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or
+longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the warp shows at back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally
+wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse diameter
+and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice, between every two
+rows of knots, and occasionally three times. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes with a pink edging. _Sides_, a red or
+pink overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back, rather coarse.
+_Length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, one half to three fifths
+length.
+
+
+KASHGARS AND YARKANDS.—Among the foothill plains at the western end of
+the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar and Yarkand,
+that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo visited there.
+Situated in populous and fertile districts, each has been a city of
+political and industrial importance; but on account of the great divides
+that separate them from Western Turkestan, Persia, and India, their
+commerce has been principally with Thibet and China. Thus it has
+happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics
+reached Europe and America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet
+even in the remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the
+culture of silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different
+periods they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence.
+
+These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the Chinese
+Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known
+Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much nearer to West
+Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to place them in the
+Central Asiatic group.
+
+As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship
+entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing.
+Octagonal forms, animals, and even mythical creatures are often
+distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly Chinese
+character. The narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and
+fret forms are often similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The
+colours, which lack the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often
+light; but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and
+red which show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting
+on account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes of
+this group.
+
+
+BELUCHES OR BELUCHISTANS.—“When creating the world, the Almighty made
+Beluchistan out of the refuse” are the words of an old proverb, that
+refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting
+rugs of the East. In fact, the thought is not surprising when the
+desolate character of the country is considered; for a sandy, waterless
+waste stretches over the greater part, and only in a corner to the
+northeast and in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water
+small valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land and
+farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia, untamed tribes of
+Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep, goats, and large numbers
+of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely made looms, bear little
+resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the Indian weavers to
+the east or to those of Kirman to the west. Nor are they closely related
+to the Turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped. In fact, they
+possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people. To
+these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured
+with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been chemically washed
+by dealers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 56. YOMUD RUG]
+
+One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are their tones
+of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage. They are
+principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with purple cast, and a
+dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge, particularly when
+appearing in the webs. Frequently, too, dull tones of green are seen.
+Contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably
+some ivory which appears as small detached figures in part of the
+border, or as outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric and
+represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs. Or they
+may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with large lozenges,
+or medallions, all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks.
+Still others have some crudely drawn flower design, as the Mina Khani,
+that tells of Persian influences.
+
+A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a large
+rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and frequently higher
+than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of three or four stripes.
+The main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running
+latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil, though occasionally they are
+replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern.
+
+Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the
+end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the
+rug is still serviceable. They are usually coloured in harmony with the
+colours of the field, and are marked with embroidered lines or simple
+designs. No other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen, due to
+the soft, fine wool of the pile, which in old pieces is short and
+closely woven, giving a play of colours, and velvety appearance
+unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of
+Beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are
+of rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of very
+old rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and brown,
+with minor quantities of white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are usually pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+_Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+of coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally camel’s
+hair, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy goat’s
+hair selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad embroidered
+web with warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual
+width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more geometric
+than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in
+them, though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders
+of the ends. Even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their
+identity. Octagonal figures, stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common.
+In fact, the group as a whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and
+Chinese groups more than the Persian.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES
+
+The stripe shown in Plate L, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 250) is one of many found
+in the rugs known as Royal Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as
+the small tent-like designs, which may have been derived from the
+headstalls of horses, are almost always found in it.
+
+A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with the pattern
+of the field, appears in Plate L, Fig. 2. It represents a continuous
+series of designs shaped like a Y, that were doubtless derived from
+forms of trees. More frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated
+diagonal lines, that originally may have been intended to represent
+foliage, is seen.
+
+Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes and Khivas
+is shown in Plate L, Fig. 4. It forcibly suggests the Chinese fret.
+Sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary
+stripe.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently seen in Tekkes, which is
+interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks
+similar to those of Caucasian rugs. Without doubt this is only one of
+the many instances illustrating the migration of designs.
+
+Plate L, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar to Yomuds. The running vine
+is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks, which are a
+constant feature of this class.
+
+Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of
+latch-hooks is shown in Plate L, Fig. 7. Pendent from the vine are other
+hooks shaped like frets.
+
+Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented in Plate
+L, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the
+proportion of length to width is greater; and it is probable that they
+were copied from a wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen
+in Beluchistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE L. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS]
+
+Plate L, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically drawn vine found in Beshires.
+
+Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate L, Figs. 10 and 11.
+
+In Plate L, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the most typical and interesting
+stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands. The first is supposed to represent
+the sacred mountain of Chinese lore rising out of the waves. The second
+is a vine with leaves and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.
+
+A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is seen in
+Plate L, Fig. 14.
+
+
+SECONDARY STRIPES
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a well-known form of a secondary
+stripe found in Royal Bokharas.
+
+A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in Plate L,
+Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines
+found in other groups.
+
+Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate K, Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are
+frequently found in Yomuds, and occasionally in Beluchistans.
+
+In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in Caucasian and
+Persian rugs, are very frequently used.
+
+The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate L, Fig. 17, is a
+Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian influence.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very
+large number of Afghans and in some Khivas.
+
+Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in Plate L,
+Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of
+Persian origin, and the swastikas suggest Chinese origin.
+
+In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small barber-pole
+stripes are constantly employed.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │  ASIATIC   │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Afghan      │    G    │  S   │ 5-8 │ 7-10│  w  │       │[g] │ e │ d │   │
+  │Beluchistan │         │  S   │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │[g] │ e │ d │   │
+  │Beshire     │         │  S   │ 6-9 │ 8-11│ [w] │  [c]  │ g  │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Princess    │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 8-12│16-24│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Royal       │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 8-12│14-18│  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │Tekke       │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 7-12│ 9-14│  w  │       │[g] │   │ d │   │
+  │Khiva       │    G    │  S   │ 6-10│ 8-14│  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │Samarkand   │         │  S   │ 6-8 │ 5-8 │ [w] │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Yomud       │   [G]   │  S   │ 7-12│ 9-17│  w  │       │ g  │ e │[d]│   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬──────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │          WEFT            │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  ASIATIC   │ w = │ c =   │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ g  │ No.   │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Afghan      │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Beluchistan │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Beshire     │ [w] │  [c]  │ g  │ 2/[1] │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Princess    │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Royal       │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │[S]│  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Tekke       │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Khiva       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Samarkand   │ [w] │   c   │    │   2   │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Yomud       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │  ASIATIC   │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Afghan      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    f     │
+  │Beluchistan │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/l    │
+  │Beshire     │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    f     │
+  │Princess    │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │    f     │
+  │Royal       │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/s   │    f     │
+  │Tekke       │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │[T]│ F │    m/s    │     m/f   │    f     │
+  │Khiva       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │    f     │
+  │Samarkand   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    m     │
+  │Yomud       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    f     │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+INDIAN RUGS
+
+
+THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are
+unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics,
+that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
+Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain
+stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship
+is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of
+large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared
+with other kinds of rugs.
+
+The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear
+to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished
+without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the
+Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made
+till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his
+patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture
+of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years,
+but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent
+fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in
+all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in
+vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as
+follows: “The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the
+chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own
+houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their
+manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are
+so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute
+private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age
+or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their
+sons, should they have become skilled in their father’s art. Upon the
+completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
+It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has
+always been produced.”
+
+After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the
+production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
+This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian
+Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the
+extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique
+carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
+Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of
+the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were
+removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the
+weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of
+free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes,
+and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were
+often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed
+that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly
+half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former
+condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis;
+and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
+
+Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
+European companies have established factories where natives are employed
+making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
+Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian
+products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are
+looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
+Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business
+depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline
+dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality,
+representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking;
+and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European
+patterns.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
+
+Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as
+similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the
+jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the
+northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts
+and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is
+convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and
+Southern India.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are
+Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh,
+Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
+
+
+SRINAGAR.—From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of
+Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province,
+Srinagar, the “City of the Sun.” To a large extent, they resemble the
+far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where
+winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The
+pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent
+quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly
+pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
+The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show
+European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central
+field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with
+vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool
+for which this district is renowned.
+
+
+AMRITSAR.—On account of famine and several other causes, a large number
+of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making
+shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870,
+deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus
+gave an impetus to that industry.
+
+Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as
+some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one
+of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition
+of Indian rugs at the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not
+been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and
+valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their
+patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the
+factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a
+marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique
+of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the
+square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying
+a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and
+the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is
+unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a
+rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
+The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are
+possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not
+exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
+
+There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from
+others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be
+a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of
+recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been
+followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the
+products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
+
+
+LAHORE.—About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar
+was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the
+reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of
+Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known
+carpet now in the possession of the Girdler’s Company of London. Some of
+the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and
+brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule,
+the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both
+woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory
+system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the
+capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
+It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their
+products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the
+character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each
+knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in
+lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in
+other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf
+and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less
+crowded.
+
+
+MULTANS.—One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which
+during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by
+early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are
+of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the
+jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last
+sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an
+unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of
+other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external
+influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display
+uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also
+possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they
+are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are
+seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally
+only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot
+encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a
+single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who
+have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their
+products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is
+usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
+As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours
+are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some
+of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On
+the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little
+artistic merit.
+
+
+AGRA.—Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison
+walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+“saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by
+the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for
+the ex-Empress Eugenie.” Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
+Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is
+looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots
+blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are
+very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the
+case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms
+at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported
+on elephants.
+
+
+ALLAHABAD.—Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to
+it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad,
+capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political
+importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its
+industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers
+produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and
+are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
+Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
+
+
+MIRZAPUR.—When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very
+populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not
+surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century
+ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account
+of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is
+coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited
+extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the
+harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These
+rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic
+qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief
+requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+have been made to raise their standard.
+
+
+JUBBULPUR.—Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur,
+capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School
+of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather
+than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: “The
+foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile
+which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple
+as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which
+will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were
+shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first
+unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it
+during the last four or five years.” Within recent years few have been
+exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
+
+
+SINDH.—Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the
+foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for
+pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
+
+
+JAIPUR.—In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial
+centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain
+in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant
+in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The
+vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The
+texture of weave is excellent.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras,
+Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in
+Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
+
+
+MADRAS.—Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a
+century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan,
+were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as
+Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent
+Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of
+colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present
+products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are
+made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the
+Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are
+copied from antique carpets represented in the “Vienna Carpet Book,”
+others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that
+give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
+
+
+MARSULIPATAM.—Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the
+Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the
+British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest
+produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that
+could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior
+materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The
+patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave
+way to crude drawing until “these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have
+sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves.”[36] Few of them
+are any longer imported into this country.
+
+
+ELLORE.—Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of
+Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of
+weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in
+Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he
+had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point
+of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of
+connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few
+districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
+In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms
+operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
+
+In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and
+the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the
+uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of
+craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the
+rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior
+order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their
+weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
+Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903,
+said: “The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom
+designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but
+unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the
+old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines
+unskilfully applied.”
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 59. AFGHAN RUG]
+
+In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet. The warp is
+of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp. The pile is of an
+inferior quality, as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep
+after death, known as “dead” wool, or as “Chunam” or “limed” wool, since
+it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately vegetable dyes do
+not produce in it the same results as in “live” wool; and since the
+scarcity of wool in Southern India frequently necessitates its use,
+aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed. The number of
+knots to the square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but both
+geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.
+
+
+VELLORE.—Almost a hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of
+Vellore, where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on
+their own looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in
+the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the only
+rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the largest is
+about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be obtained. The
+product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands,
+restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers.
+According to the order, the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or
+aniline dyes; they may have warp and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and
+they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured
+horizontally and perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as
+promiscuous as those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with
+a corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort has
+been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+craftsmanship.
+
+
+BANGALORE.—The principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred
+about Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of which the
+largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were constantly occupied in
+making rugs to order. The number of knots to the square inch varied
+greatly according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number of
+weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district, as well
+as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most carefully. The
+closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes; and
+the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp and weft, are regulated by
+the requirements of the trade, which is conducted largely by two or
+three English firms.
+
+
+HYDERABAD.—Splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in
+the cities of Hyderabad and Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The
+weave was exceedingly fine, and the colours were brilliant but
+harmonious. Now few rugs are produced in these cities, and they have
+poor patterns and wretched colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CHINESE RUGS
+
+
+THE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit was almost unknown to the
+Western world until the close of the last century, when a few pieces
+reached Europe, where they aroused the just admiration of art
+connoisseurs. About the beginning of this century a larger number, which
+were obtained during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of
+homes, temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City, between the
+years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public auctions for
+prices that stimulated collectors in China to search for more. But they
+have proved to be scarce when compared with other Oriental rugs, so
+that, as yet, the general public are only slightly familiar with them.
+
+Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written records
+are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many were made in
+Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to Persia and India.
+But it is more probable that they were woven in Eastern China, where
+other branches of art reached a remarkable development under the
+patronage of wealthy mandarins and the imperial court. Even if they are
+not the product of an indigenous growth, the knowledge of weaving may
+easily have been acquired from Western Asia; since it was not unusual
+several centuries ago to import weavers from one country to another to
+instruct native craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of them,
+and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of them, not only
+are unlike those of any other groups, but have well-known Chinese
+elements. A more distinctive feature are the colours, which are
+relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow, and blue, are of shades
+unlike what are seen in other rugs. Even more distinctive than these are
+the reds, which never have the primary colours found in other groups but
+resemble the tints of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon.
+Similar tones are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and
+floral ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic still are
+the small designs which are so related to the philosophic and religious
+thought of the people and to the industrial and social life that their
+Chinese origin is unmistakable.
+
+Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern China, it is
+not possible satisfactorily to assign them to different classes based on
+locality; yet without doubt important distinctions, observable also in
+the early paintings and porcelains and resulting largely from
+differences of race and character of country, exist between those woven
+in Northern China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and
+those woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such marked
+local distinctions as are found in other groups never existed in Chinese
+rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate more to stages in development
+of the textile art, so that the natural classification is based on the
+successive periods when they were woven.
+
+The absence of written and traditional history regarding the weaving of
+these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle to such
+classification. By a careful examination of large numbers of rugs, it is
+possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy in series that
+represent progressive forms of ornamentation and design from the archaic
+to the modern. A most important aid to this arrangement is the
+interdependence so conspicuous in the several arts of China; for designs
+of innumerable articles with well-established ages, especially of the
+ceramic art, have been copied by the weavers.
+
+Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in determining the
+period to which rugs belong. An important distinction, for instance,
+often exists in the manner in which the material is spun. If pieces of
+yarn be taken from old rugs and carefully examined, as they are
+untwisted, the simpler, cruder methods of spinning practised in former
+days are often apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the
+wool was very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 60. BELUCHISTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+More important often in determining the relative age of a rug than
+either design or technical peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of
+colour; for however excellent were the original dyes and whatever care
+was exercised in their application, they slowly changed under the
+mellowing influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human
+process. Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours
+were peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century, and azure
+blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow with a lemon or
+citron cast is found principally in pieces woven since the beginning of
+the XVIII Century; and green is rarely found in pieces woven before the
+middle of the XVIII Century. Aniline dyes were not introduced into China
+much before the year 1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be
+regarded as not more remote than the period when the ornamentation and
+designs it contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more
+recent, as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a rug to
+consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the weaving and designs,
+but also the evidence of colour.
+
+Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from other
+groups and divide them into separate classes; they also have many
+features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot. In all but the
+earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton; each thread of warp is
+equally prominent at the back; and the weft, which is coarser than the
+warp, crosses twice between two rows of knots. The nap of both old and
+modern rugs is almost always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or
+cotton. The sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer
+threads of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper end has a
+narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they are generally
+more loosely woven. These and other features of resemblance and of
+distinction will be more fully noticed in considering the rugs of
+different periods.
+
+In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately associated
+with the religious and philosophic thought of China. One of them is the
+Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of eternity, which is an old
+Chinese emblem, though more frequently found in rugs of Samarkand and
+Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band and the Joo-e. There are also
+mythical creatures, as the dragon, emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin,
+partly deer, partly unicorn; the Fung-Kwang or phœnix; and the
+lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the figure
+Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and butterfly,
+denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the two fishes, which
+are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess board, which are symbols of
+the literati.
+
+It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung dynasty
+(960-1280 A. D.), when for nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed,
+literature and art flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained
+with imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist. Nor
+do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan dynasty
+(1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious Mongol prince,
+Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later rugs were used in kindred
+arts of these and preceding periods.
+
+
+MING RUGS.—The oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near
+the end of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII
+Century. It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and India
+were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other branches of
+Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work that had preceded.
+Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in the splendid
+accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort that marked the Tang
+and Sung dynasties.
+
+Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship, archaic
+designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were woven with warp
+and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally for wealthy mandarins or
+the imperial court, had pile of silk attached to warp and weft of
+cotton; and others were made entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but
+constituting the most sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers’ art,
+were the rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.
+
+The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over patterns.
+Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and are arranged in
+horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to leave small diamond-shaped
+spaces between diagonally placed octagons. Within these designs are
+often the emblems of happiness or longevity, floral motives, and
+sometimes archaic dragons. In another well-known pattern the field is
+completely covered with a swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals
+with diagonal rows of bats, emblematic of happiness. Occasionally a
+field of plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with an
+all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling some of
+the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of most
+conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn stems.
+
+The essential feature, however, of a large number of these rugs, and one
+that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a central medallion
+surrounded by a field that is either plain, that is marked with a
+subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is known as the “tiger skin”
+pattern, consisting of waving lines repeated throughout the field. The
+medallions may be either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case,
+rounded; but the defining lines are angular and generally represent
+frets. Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from them
+originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the shape of
+the central medallions and the designs which cover them suggest most
+forcibly that they were copied from old mirror backs. The corners of the
+fields may contain simple scrolls, but more frequently they correspond
+closely in drawing with the central medallions.
+
+The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow, and
+generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and surrounded
+with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters of the rugs of this
+period have a stripe with a pattern of swastika-frets. Two of these
+stripes, which are very old patterns, are illustrated in Plate N, Figs.
+1 and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that have two
+border stripes with figures belong to a later period. Many of the oldest
+borders are without figured stripes, and consist merely of one or more
+stripes of plain colour.
+
+The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep, rich tones.
+Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally used in the outer
+edging that surrounded the field or in the narrow border stripes; but
+more frequently the same colour effect was obtained by the use of
+corrosive dyes that in time have often eaten the wool almost to the
+foundation of warp and weft. Wools dyed with corrosive browns are also
+used in the fields and enhance the effect of designs of contrasting
+colours, which stand out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull
+yellow and shades of blue, are also seen in the borders. The field is
+usually richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of time on
+what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and light blues,
+sky blue, and robin’s egg blue, as well as jade green and bottle green,
+are also found in these old pieces. In the metal and silk rugs the glint
+of silver even though tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown
+deeper and richer with age.
+
+
+KANG-HI.—During the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued
+from 1644 to its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars
+waged between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But during the
+reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art revived and enjoyed one
+of the most splendid periods of its history. There is, however, a
+noticeable difference between the rugs that belong to the early and to
+the late part of this reign; so that it is convenient to divide them
+into the early Kang-hi pieces, that were woven during the last part of
+the XVII Century, and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were
+woven at the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the reign of a
+particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader distinction of
+assigning them to different centuries is frequently adopted.
+
+In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of the late
+Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period, but there was a
+freer use of colour and a more decorative ornamentation. Many of the
+figures are still geometric. Frets are conspicuous in the fields of
+large numbers of these pieces. The dragon also is a favourite motive;
+but in the scrolls that represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in
+the conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a medallion in
+the centre of the field, in which others are grouped with regularity;
+while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of the rugs in which the
+fields are covered with sundry objects, as scrolls, vases, altar pieces,
+and sacred plants, also belong to this period. The borders of these and
+late Kang-hi pieces have frequently an outer edging of brown and a
+single border stripe with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has
+a well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+conventionalised dragons and frets that appear in the central
+medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however, there
+is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme of the late
+Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is largely employed in
+rugs of this period.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 61. TURKOMAN SADDLE-BAGS]
+
+The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi period in the
+remarkable development of decorative art as applied to porcelains,
+produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven at the same time.
+Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit to earlier Chinese style.
+The fields were not infrequently covered with sub-patterns of fret work,
+on which medallions appeared more prominently. The geometric figures
+were largely supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central
+medallions and corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised
+dragons, the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or the
+peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character, and there
+is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had a strong
+influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of this class, the
+foliate and floral forms no longer appear as sub-patterns but become the
+prominent feature in the decoration of the field; and the
+conventionalised flowers are arranged with precision in diagonal or
+perpendicular lines. To this period also belong rugs of a distinct type,
+in which the field represents a blending of pictorial and symbolic
+ideas, as, for instance, a homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where
+butterflies flit among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus,
+emblematic of longevity, wander.
+
+The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still continued,
+but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate designs in many of the
+figured stripes. It is not unusual to see single or double vines with
+conventionalised flowers; and though the drawing is mechanical, the
+relationship to Persian art is apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the
+swastika-fret is used. A noticeable difference also exists in the colour
+scheme of many of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display
+brighter colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+giving it a golden hue known as the “imperial yellow.”
+
+
+YUNG-CHING.—During the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though
+many of the old patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more
+ornate forms begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor in Chinese art, so that the
+use of colours and ornamentation followed broader lines. To this period
+are assigned most of those rugs in which designs are defined by lines of
+contrasting colour that has been so treated that the lines are depressed
+and throw the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however,
+to definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this period;
+since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was gradual; and the
+effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable factors in determining
+age, depends somewhat on their exposure to the elements and to use. But
+broadly speaking, figures of leaf and flower were more frequently
+adopted than in preceding periods and designs became less
+conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon and citron shades of yellow,
+also, became more prominent during this period.
+
+
+KEEN-LUNG.—The long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was
+one of the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century, as well
+as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a more
+cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for not only are
+many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese, but others are of a
+Persian character, and others still suggest Mohammedan influences
+observable in the products of Turkestan and India. Moreover, many of the
+designs show a delicate shading that is not observable in the rugs made
+during the early part of the century. As a whole they are the most
+ornate of Chinese rugs. Woven after the inspiration of Persian
+masterpieces had left its strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and
+decoration in kindred arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent
+in the drawing of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of
+early philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+craftsmanship.
+
+In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff conventional
+forms which continued through the XVII and the early part of the XVIII
+Century, disappeared. In their place was a greater refinement of design,
+a greater accuracy of drawing, which found expression in floral forms
+that reached their highest development at this time and became
+characteristic of it. Occasionally they are represented in profile as is
+usually the practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+viewed from above. Some of them, as chrysanthemums, peonies,
+sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and naturalistic. The fields of
+many of these pieces are covered with such flowers carefully arranged in
+harmonious groupings of leaf, bud and flower, but never with the formal
+and exact balance of old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with
+them in the same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion; and
+occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule these
+medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the latter part
+of this period they display elaborate ornamentation that distinguishes
+them from earlier ones; but now and then they contain fabulous
+creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few instances they are
+entirely replaced.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE X—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and subdued rich
+colouring are the characteristics of this unusual piece. The knots of
+the fine woollen yarn are tied with a precision not frequently seen in
+Chinese rugs, and the shortness of nap discloses the faithfulness with
+which an artist of no ordinary ability has represented plants and
+flowers. Their soft tones stand out in relief against a background now
+darkened and enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are of
+uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without reason,
+to the Kang-hi period._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the Taoist
+symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards, scrolls, and the
+lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of state, fruits of
+abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of longevity and happiness.
+To this class also belong many of the pieces which have neither
+medallions nor corner pieces, but have fields completely covered with a
+pattern of continuous foliate stems and conventional flowers, repeated
+with exact precision of drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is
+completely covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the “Grain of Rice” rugs, also,
+were woven during this period.
+
+The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few pieces is
+the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often the T pattern. The
+key patterns represented in Plate N, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as
+well as the dotted line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all
+of these rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces both
+stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one geometric, in
+which case the wider, that, with very few exceptions, is the floral, is
+the inner one. Very rarely the border contains two floral stripes; and
+now and then Buddhist emblems and other devices are introduced.
+
+The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is accompanied
+by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these rugs may
+conveniently be grouped in three sub-classes. The first is the Blue and
+White, with ground of ivory or ashy white and designs that have shades
+of light or dark blue. The second comprises those in which the ground is
+some shade of yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or
+apricot. Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or
+imperial yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red. The
+third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is some shade
+of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed strawberry, apricot red,
+or a deep salmon pink, which is rare. The overlying designs may be a
+shade of blue, ivory white, yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of
+both field and border are sometimes the same but are more frequently
+complementary. As a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and
+rich colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+Chinese loom.
+
+The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century, repeat with slight
+modification the patterns of the preceding period, though there is a
+tendency to use larger and coarser designs. The colours, too, are
+similar, yet they lack the deep richness that is matured only with the
+lapse of great time. Many of these rugs, as well as some woven still
+later, before the introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes,
+are beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+technique observable only in those produced before the beginning of the
+XIX Century.
+
+
+MEDALLIONS
+
+The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs is not
+only interesting but is an important aid in determining their age; yet
+it should be remembered that approved patterns were often repeated even
+after the introduction of more elaborate styles. Many of the oldest
+medallions were copied from bronzes or mirror backs, and their drawing
+is geometric except as embellished by some conventionalised figures of
+the dragon. By a process of evolution these figures, in turn, were
+converted into scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf
+and flower patterns.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a “Shou” design of octagonal
+shape, copied from an old rug which was probably woven during the early
+part of the XVII Century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE M. MEDALLIONS IN CHINESE RUGS]
+
+Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate M, represent fret-covered medallions, which
+also are found in rugs of the same period. The first is probably the
+oldest pattern; and the last, to judge by the panel surrounding it, was
+apparently copied from a bronze mirror back.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in
+Plate M, Fig. 2, but with the dragons replaced by frets.
+
+A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate M, Fig. 6. It
+shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons, of which the heads alone
+betray their origin. Such medallions are found mostly in the earliest
+rugs.
+
+By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate M with the preceding, it is apparent that
+its scrolls had a similar origin, but in this one the dragon heads have
+entirely disappeared. The design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi
+rugs.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 8, is represented a medallion that closely resembles
+some of the earliest period; but the more accurate drawing and clearer
+definition of lines shows that it is a later copy. It is found in late
+Kang-hi pieces.
+
+To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas
+represented in Plate M, Fig. 9.
+
+Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in Plate M, Fig.
+10. The particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period; but there is little doubt that similar medallions
+appeared in older rugs.
+
+In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate M, are represented two medallions with
+foliate designs that were largely employed in the early Keen-lung
+period. A comparison of the first with Fig. 13 of Plate M, shows an
+interesting step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.
+
+A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in Plate M,
+Fig. 14, in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands.
+
+Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately
+drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in Plate M, Fig. 15.
+Wreath-like borders, such as are seen in this and the preceding one, are
+found in XVIII and XIX Century pieces.
+
+
+CHINESE BORDER STRIPES
+
+The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite
+sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age of Chinese
+rugs. As was seen to be the case with medallions, the earliest stripes
+were purely geometric. In others, still very old, appeared forms of
+conventionalised dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls
+and these by ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that
+earlier designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+age is merely contributory.
+
+Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in
+the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate N (opp. Page 274), represent
+three old forms, which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the
+Kang-hi time. The pattern of Plate N, Fig. 4, in which alternate
+swastikas are reversed, is also very old.
+
+The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate N, Fig. 5. It
+is found largely in Kang-hi rugs, and if used in more recent fabrics, is
+often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated
+here, the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the
+stripe.
+
+The shading of Plate N, Fig. 6, which is somewhat similar to Plate N,
+Fig. 4, is characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.
+
+In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate N, are Key and T patterns, which are
+found in rugs of the Kang-hi and subsequent periods, but rarely in
+earlier pieces. When employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the
+XVIII Century they are often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are
+of great antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised
+clouds and thunder.
+
+A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in Plate
+N, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets represent bodies of which
+conventionalised heads alone betray their origin. The graceful scroll in
+the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms. This stripe is
+seen in old Kang-hi rugs.
+
+The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe
+(Plate N, Fig. 12) that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period. It shows the influence of older traditions on
+which are ingrafted the later inspiration.
+
+Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate N, Fig. 13) seen in what are
+known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung period. In different parts of
+the border appear the Buddhist emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law,
+and knot of destiny, separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE N. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CHINESE
+RUGS]
+
+The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and later rugs is
+shown in Plate N, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, which illustrate three stripes
+that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese
+rugs of the last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.
+
+The stripe illustrated in Plate N, Fig. 17, on which are represented
+halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms, is found
+in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the XVIII Century, as
+well as in more subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in
+which it is found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+conceits that suggest Persian influences.
+
+In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate N, are represented simple stripes
+found in XVIII Century rugs. The last of these, which is found in
+Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal
+trefoil so common in Persian pieces.
+
+The simple dotted stripe (Plate N, Fig. 22) was rarely employed before
+the middle of the XVIII Century, but has been constantly used since
+then.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+KILIMS
+
+
+KILIMS have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility, as
+some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the Egyptians and
+Babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets. The
+different links in this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not
+unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft
+hanging from one side, first suggested the greater durability and warmth
+that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts
+of yarn.
+
+It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise
+been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different steps in this
+evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue.
+The earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive
+weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple
+fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags, and consisted of
+a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced
+style, induced by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of
+patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft.
+As these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern,
+their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back, giving an
+appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in Soumaks. The third and
+most finished style, representing much higher workmanship, was produced
+by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should
+be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the
+same.
+
+Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East. The first
+not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is frequently
+substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the only floor
+covering, or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets. It
+often replaces the heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for
+all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is
+found among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate
+finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they
+receive. The third, which is the more elegant product, is invariably not
+only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns. In this
+country, the last two are used principally for portières and couch
+coverings; but in the Orient they still serve, as they have from the
+remotest times, for floor coverings; and because of the custom of
+removing the shoes when entering a house, last for a great many years.
+
+Though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim
+weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern; and
+embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple
+design, or as is frequently the case in Shirvans, to make more prominent
+the separate horizontal compartments.
+
+When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs,
+and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture.
+There are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch, measured
+at the front or back; but in pieces of the finest workmanship, there may
+be as many as fifty, and in the crudest only eight or nine. At the sides
+of the kilim, the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at
+the sides of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are
+braided about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from
+which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.
+
+The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt is made to
+copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the rectilinear. If a
+straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal, or in the
+direction of the weft, it will often be several inches in length; but a
+straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length. This is
+because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to
+another or to the adjoining field, but are turned back at its defining
+edges, so that an opening is left, which would impair the strength of
+the fabric if it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary that the
+edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned to advantage, as
+this unevenness or fringing softens lines that otherwise would be
+harsh. Defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different
+colours, which either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when
+it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour with kilim
+weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at
+one end. Even when they completely surround the field, there is
+generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of
+side and end. Prayer arches are found in some of the kilims, but their
+outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs.
+
+The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished, are largely
+responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads of weft of every hue
+that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces; yet the
+colouring never appears the same, since there are lacking the lustre and
+deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile, in which appears an
+almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the
+light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the
+part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of pile,
+the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the
+irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the devices of
+latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an
+impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are large, the effect
+of the colour is always severe; but when the field is covered with
+innumerable small figures, it is greatly softened.
+
+As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect
+the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great age remain.
+The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained
+by Dr. M. A. Stein, the archæological explorer, from the ruins near
+Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an ancient settlement, which was buried
+by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth century _anno domini_. The
+weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims, and has about
+fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish yellow, and
+red, containing very small geometric designs. With this one exception,
+so peculiarly preserved, there are probably very few over a century old.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 62. SRINAGAR RUG]
+
+Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets
+are woven, very few classes are recognised. This is because it is
+difficult to distinguish between most of them, and such differences as
+exist are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.
+
+The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed a breadth
+of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are far superior to
+all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness of design, quality of
+material, and character of workmanship. Their patterns, including
+border, are identical with those of the piled rugs; and the colours, to
+which at a short distance the small figures of the Herati design give
+the effect of blending, are the same. As is not the case with other
+kilims, the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from
+fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an
+inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as
+they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which they are
+true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble tapestries and
+are unfit for hard usage.
+
+A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are Shirvans.
+Their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal
+compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower
+bands. Not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are
+hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures; and through the more
+narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another
+peculiarity, occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform
+colour fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a
+border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands; and
+the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp. The colours are always
+pronounced, because of lack of shading, and consist mostly of red, blue,
+and ivory. Yellow and green are also used. These kilims are much heavier
+than the Sehnas, and also larger, as the average size is about five by
+nine feet; and some are even seven by twelve feet.
+
+From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a large number
+of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that the general name of
+Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are still made there by many of
+the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman origin, who wander over the Taurus
+mountains, and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average
+size is about four and a half by eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts farther to
+the east.
+
+A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the Kurds, and
+dependent on the district in which they are made, is observable in their
+kilims, as those which come from the Persian border have carefully drawn
+designs, that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous
+watershed of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely
+woven, and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in
+more artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have large
+diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others have horizontal
+bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called
+Bagdad portières; in many are wide spaces without designs; but whatever
+the pattern, there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the
+web at the end.
+
+In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually classed as
+Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are used mostly for
+portières or curtains, are divided perpendicularly into equal halves,
+that at times are united by stitches. The tribes that make them also
+make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches
+suggesting the Ghiordes design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet
+the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as “Kis-kilims” or
+girl’s kilims. These are made with the utmost care, since they are
+intended as a bride’s gift to her husband; and a sentiment of romance,
+and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of
+her accomplishments, contribute to influence the weaver. Sometimes even
+a lock of hair is added as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.
+
+The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are, accordingly,
+not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently
+be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of the largest kilims. Most
+of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider.
+
+The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known as “Merv
+Kilims,” since they are woven by Turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert
+near the old capital of Merv. The brilliant colours found in the
+products of more Western tribes are entirely wanting, and in their place
+are the few subdued, rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman
+weavings. These pieces are stoutly woven, and since the pattern is
+represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs are
+largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines
+on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented
+with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A heavy embroidered selvage, from
+which hang loose threads of warp, often occurs at the ends. These kilims
+are noted for their durability, and are usually of large size.
+
+In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus river, are
+woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is not the case with
+almost all the rugs of India. They are made by the women in their own
+homes and display an individuality which also is rare in Indian textile
+fabrics. In a monograph on “Carpet Weaving in the Punjab,” Mr. C.
+Latimer says: “The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs between
+them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by
+local tradition originally copied from the robes of the Pharaohs of
+Egypt.”
+
+Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the
+delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs;
+though they never display high, artistic perception or poetic instinct,
+nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the
+workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of
+art, and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of
+dignity, possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS
+
+
+THE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from
+it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is
+particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm
+depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line
+and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves
+a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes,
+almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known
+types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to
+the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed
+descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long
+personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is
+impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it
+easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
+
+The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of
+these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known
+patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the
+rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may
+generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their
+floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United
+States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other
+four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+remembered:
+
+   (_a_) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns;
+   and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have
+   geometric.
+
+   (_b_) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs
+   of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs
+   of the Asia Minor group.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 63. XVIII CENTURY CHINESE RUG]
+
+   (_c_) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond
+   shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
+
+   (_d_) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton
+   warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and
+   almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen
+   warp.
+
+   (_e_) That about one third of the Persian group have one of
+   the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the
+   other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the
+   case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes
+   of other groups.
+
+   (_f_) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side
+   finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both
+   overcasting and selvage.
+
+   (_g_) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both
+   light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and
+   harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have
+   colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the
+   rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue,
+   and brown.
+
+   (_h_) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the
+   Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare
+   exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with
+   woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with
+   cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
+
+   (_i_) That the few classes of rugs which have very long
+   end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes
+   with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central
+   Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+   Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
+
+Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above
+statements that:
+
+
+  (1) A rug is from Persia or Central Asia,—
+        If it has a Sehna knot.
+
+  (2) A rug is probably Persian,—
+        If the patterns are distinctly floral;
+        If the warp is cotton;
+        If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+          under the other.
+
+  (3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor, Caucasia, or Central Asia,—
+        If the pattern is geometric;
+        If the sides are selvaged.
+
+  (4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or Caucasia,—
+        If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.
+
+  (5) A rug is probably from Caucasia,—
+        If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.
+
+  (6) A rug is probably from Central Asia,—
+        If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+          and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;
+        If it has long webs at the ends.
+
+
+Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some
+of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another.
+They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups,
+depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material
+of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug
+will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+consideration.
+
+                                                      { Kashan
+                                                      { Kermanshah
+                                                      { Khorassan
+                                  { Sehna Knot (A)    { Kirman
+         { One thread of          {                   { Meshed
+         { warp to each knot      {                   { Mir Sarabend
+         { doubled under and      {                   { Sarouk.
+         { hidden at back.        {
+         {                        {                   { Gorevan
+         {                        {                   { Herat
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (B) { Herez
+         {                                            { Serapi
+         {                                            { Tabriz
+         {
+         {                                            { Feraghan
+  Cotton { Each thread of         { Sehna Knot (C)    { Mahal
+   Warp  { warp equally prominent {                   { Muskabad
+         { at back or             {                   { Royal Sarabend
+         { one slightly depressed {
+         {                        {                   { Gulistan
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (D) { Iran
+         {                                            { Joshaghan
+         {                                            { Luristan
+         {                                            { Sultanabad
+         {
+         {                        { Sehna Knot (E)      Sehna
+         { Quincunx effect        {
+         { of weft at back.       { Ghiordes Knot (F) { Hamadan
+                                                      { Ispahan (modern)
+
+
+It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all
+classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the
+technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have
+woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp;
+some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes
+knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may
+have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+twice between two rows of knots.
+
+
+           { One thread of warp to each knot doubled    (G) { Bijar.
+           { under at back                                  { Niris[37]
+           {
+           {                                                { Karadagh.
+  Woolen   {                                                { Suj-Bulak
+  Warp,    { Each of the two threads of warp to a knot      { Kurdistan.
+  Ghiordes { equally prominent at back, or one slightly (H) { Afshar.
+  Knot.    { depressed                                      { Mosul.
+           {                                                { Shiraz.[38]
+           {
+           { Quincunx effect of weft at back            (I) { Karaje.[39]
+
+
+
+With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as
+follows:
+
+
+                                                   { Gorevan.
+                                                   { Mahal.
+  Rugs invariably of carpet size                   { Muskabad.
+                                                   { Serapi.
+                                                   { Sultanabad
+
+                                                   { Bijar.
+                                                   { Herat.
+                                                   { Kermanshah.
+  Rugs frequently, but not always, of carpet size  { Khorassan.
+                                                   { Meshed.
+                                                   { Sarabend.
+                                                   { Tabriz.
+
+                                                   { Hamadan.
+  Rugs frequently seen as runners                  { Karaje.
+                                                   { Kurdistan.
+                                                   { Mosul.
+
+
+Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, “A” includes those that have
+the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans,
+Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others;
+and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In
+sub-group “B” the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap.
+The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+are designs of archaically drawn leaves, and have generally the
+so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of
+the classes of sub-group “C,” the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven.
+The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much
+coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans
+are the best woven of sub-group “D.” At the back of Luristans each half
+knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few
+Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and
+Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups “E” and “F,” the
+weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in
+Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two
+classes. The Bijars of sub-group “G” are much stouter than the Niris and
+have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled
+under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer
+than those of Bijars. Sub-group “H” contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks
+and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations
+the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western
+Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic
+character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very
+stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the
+back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as
+the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment
+of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have
+Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the
+weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
+
+Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence
+for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are
+important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
+
+A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan,
+or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
+
+If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah,
+Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or
+Sultanabad.
+
+If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend,
+Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 64. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a
+Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
+
+If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the
+rug may be a Feraghan.
+
+If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a
+Persian Kurdistan.
+
+A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap
+is long.
+
+It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the
+ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design
+or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the
+Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends
+generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered
+with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts
+project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris
+if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
+
+It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the
+sides are finished with a selvage.
+
+Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished
+at once from all others. For instance:
+
+The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of
+moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders
+of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular
+vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one
+or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes
+are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and
+have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
+
+Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati
+or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The
+only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the
+Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
+
+Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of
+camel’s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only
+once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the
+back.
+
+Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered
+with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a
+broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle
+pattern. They have usually the same colour tones, which once seen are
+not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older
+and of better colours.
+
+The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are
+softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have
+concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in
+other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that
+correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging
+that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing
+and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once
+distinguish these pieces from all others.
+
+Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven,
+and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
+
+The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be
+distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends.
+They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds,
+Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the
+touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
+
+Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious
+designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small
+tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the
+Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and
+a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
+
+The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their
+short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks
+and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm,
+texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook
+appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The
+Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
+
+Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their
+texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great
+irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two,
+the Mahals are the better grade.
+
+A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot
+doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
+
+Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few
+exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs. They can
+be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the
+back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
+
+The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of
+Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the
+Karadagh.
+
+The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull
+colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right
+half of some knots and the left half of others.
+
+
+The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot
+conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a
+coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at
+the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have
+woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a
+distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the
+Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one
+thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining
+classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore,
+Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more
+than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and
+Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always
+constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller
+designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of
+considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch
+of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to
+Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
+
+Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of
+exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of
+resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long
+webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft.
+The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and
+their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the
+rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other
+Oriental rug.
+
+Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field, are
+almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in
+the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the
+central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is
+the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs,
+consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed
+with latch-hooks.
+
+The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the
+numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the
+border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device
+represented in Plate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
+
+The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the
+main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all
+others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and
+Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
+
+A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three
+triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
+
+As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of
+grass-green colour than any other rug.
+
+The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another
+like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in
+distinguishing Melez rugs.
+
+On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and
+other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the
+Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor
+rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads
+of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half
+knot appears very distinct from the other.
+
+
+A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all
+have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides
+that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover,
+classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances,
+as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to
+long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar
+selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp
+to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh,
+Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the
+Lesghian from the northern part.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE O. No. 1, Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani
+design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c,
+d, e, f, Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of Asia
+Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11, Combs. No. 12,
+Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14, 15, conventionalised
+leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a, b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot
+of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives of Daghestans and Kabistans.]
+
+The Soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at
+the back is unlike all other rugs. At the sides is a carefully woven
+selvage, and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun
+threads. The rugs of Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who
+dwell nearer the mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue
+or bluish green, similar ends of a narrow web of “herring-bone” weave
+and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of rich blues,
+reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are almost identical
+with them, except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the
+back, whereas in the Shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed. When
+once these selvages, the narrow end-webs of “herring-bone” weave, and
+the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known Georgian
+stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is rarely found in any but these
+three classes.
+
+The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs,
+and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are dull.
+
+Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are almost
+invariably present, and large designs surrounded by numerous small
+nomadic figures are the general features of a Kazak. The Tcherkess has a
+striking resemblance to it, so that they are constantly mistaken for one
+another; but the Tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern
+usually consists of what is known as the “Sunburst” resting on a field
+of dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of three
+stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and the two
+guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.
+
+The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of small
+geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by
+diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate I, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).
+
+Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the
+Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.
+
+Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by
+the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many
+times, between every two rows of knots, which are not appressed, so that
+the weft, as it encircles the warp, appears at the back like a narrow
+beaded surface.
+
+Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different patterns that
+it is not always easy to distinguish the classes; but it will be some
+assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated
+leaf (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the
+Shirvans, and that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228)
+is peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 65. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike other groups, but may
+naturally be divided into three sub-groups, which are also distinct from
+one another and contain well-defined classes, viz.:
+
+   (_a_) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva,
+           Yomud, and Beshire.
+
+   (_b_) Samarkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand.
+
+   (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The Afghans are almost
+always of large size, and may be recognised at once by the broad web of
+the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in
+perpendicular rows. The Royal Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not
+so wide, the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally
+by diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes have
+the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes of this
+sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs have entirely
+replaced the octagons.
+
+The rugs of sub-group “b” almost always have cotton warp; whereas the
+rugs of sub-groups “a” and “c” invariably have woollen or goat’s hair
+warp.
+
+The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to Chinese
+rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably
+have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese usually have only one or
+two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show Chinese influence.
+
+The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours may be
+identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end.
+
+In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the pattern
+first of all attracts attention; and if it be one peculiar to a single
+class, it is an important guide. But in the great majority of cases,
+this will not be sufficient. It is, therefore, desirable to observe if
+the designs be floral or geometric, if the colours be subdued or
+obtrusive, if the knot be Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton or
+wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of
+the class. The pattern and these few technical details are the only
+characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different
+kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of them, such evidence is far
+from conclusive. The back should be even more carefully examined than
+the front; because here are shown those subtle, but nevertheless
+positive distinctions, relating to the manner of tying the knot and the
+treatment of warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then, if each
+thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the
+same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent; or if one
+to each knot be depressed below the other, or if it be doubled under the
+other so as to be concealed. It should also be noticed if the weft be
+coloured or uncoloured, of fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread
+of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between
+every two rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down
+upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width,
+if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp,
+and if it is loosely or closely spun. Only by consideration of all these
+different points, and sometimes even more, such as the nature of the
+colours, the character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is
+it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PURCHASING RUGS
+
+
+AS those who have expert knowledge of the value of Oriental rugs are
+exceedingly few, compared with those who admire and wish to own them,
+the object of this chapter is to make suggestions regarding a proper
+selection, when purchasing, and to point out some of the pitfalls that
+beset the inexperienced.
+
+In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities are to be
+considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.
+
+Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it was woven,
+or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule is greatly
+exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered. One is the
+condition resulting from wear; though at times this is misleading, since
+of two pieces, one may have been handled with almost religious
+solicitude and the other exposed to the elements and to hard usage.
+Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural wear is sometimes
+counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since, as has been shown in the
+case of antique carpets, the character of drawing changed with
+succeeding periods. Even when the patterns of old carpets are copied in
+modern pieces, a distinction is usually discernible to a careful
+observer. The colours, too, play an important part in determining age;
+for not only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of Persian; but
+the mellowing influences of time, acting through the agencies of
+exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be produced by any
+artificial process.
+
+Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic numbers
+woven above a word denoting “year.” If they are indistinct on account of
+the length of the nap, they may be more clearly read in reverse order at
+the back. In the following lines, each of them is represented below the
+one in our own notation, to which it corresponds.
+
+0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+[Illustration: Arabic numerical symbols]
+
+These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan year,
+which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the middle of
+July 622, or a little before the actual flight from Medina. It should
+also be remembered that the lunar and not the solar year is considered
+in Moslem chronology; which, according to our reckoning, gains about one
+year in every thirty-three and seven tenths years. To calculate, then,
+the year of our time corresponding with the year expressed in the rug,
+from the number should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths
+part of itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding year
+would be A. D. 1247 less 37 (or 1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates
+appear in old rugs, they are generally to be depended on, but in modern
+ones they are more likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater
+age.
+
+With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently be divided
+into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made over two
+centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago; and modern rugs
+made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or within the last fifty
+years.
+
+The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as it is
+impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques and palaces.
+Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those that are owned in
+Europe and America. They consist principally of the products of Persia,
+Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many belong to the museums and the
+remainder to sovereigns and wealthy collectors. Like rare porcelains and
+old paintings, their value increases with each passing year; and the
+prices received for them range according to the fancy and caprice of the
+purchaser. They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 66. KURDISH PRAYER KILIM]
+
+The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging to the
+previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently prized to be
+placed in art museums, some belong to collectors, large numbers
+embellish the halls and drawing rooms of people of refinement, and
+others are yearly brought from the Orient; but dealers and the public
+already realise that their numbers are limited. Even now they are
+searched for in the remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and
+in a few years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have
+been exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though some
+are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are treated with
+aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are exceptionally good
+and frequently contain rare tones characteristic of the first class.
+Moreover, large numbers contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in
+mysteries that increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the
+choicest stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are beginning to
+disappear from the market, the prices at which they may be purchased are
+moderate compared with the prices of more modern pieces.
+
+The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven within the
+last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the newest, have
+colours that compare favourably with those of older pieces; but a large
+number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some woven by nomads or dwellers
+in remote villages, without thought of sale, have designs and
+workmanship such as have characterised the fabrics of these people for
+past generations; but others, which are the products of the work-house
+system, though well woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous
+individuality. Age alone has little influence in determining the value
+of these modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things being
+equal, they cost less than the old and the antique rugs.
+
+The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless carpets
+that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of Caucasia and
+Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to be found it would be
+almost priceless. The antique carpets of Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz,
+and Tabriz, woven over three centuries ago, are more valuable than
+others of equally good workmanship, of which relatively large numbers
+remain. So, too, of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the
+venerable age of the real antiques, those which are now difficult to be
+obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than those
+which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as the Joshaghan,
+Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of age, are no longer
+woven. Modern products from the same districts may adopt the old names,
+but they are not the same. Accordingly, it will be only a short time
+when they too will disappear from the market. Good examples of such
+pieces should therefore receive more careful consideration on the part
+of purchasers and collectors, as their value is increasing with each
+passing year.
+
+Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of its age or
+the locality where it was made, and is due to its peculiar type. For
+instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver threads and the so-called
+Garden Carpets of Iran represent types rather than localities. Likewise
+the Hunting Carpets of Persia, the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and
+the Dragon Carpets of Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile
+craft of no well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of
+modern rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+on account of their age, but also because they represent these rare
+types.
+
+A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable rugs which
+centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and only those
+intended for palaces or temples have been preserved. It is but natural,
+then, that the antique carpets representing the highest art of their
+time should be not only rare but also beautiful. Yet even in them is
+often a distinction that affects their value. Fortunately, very many of
+the larger number of rugs of less age, but classed as old, likewise
+possess artistic beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+colouring.
+
+It will be noticed that almost without exception careful drawing
+accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly due to the facts
+that the more excellent the weave the easier it is to clearly define
+patterns; and that on shortness of nap, which as a rule is found in
+closely woven rugs, depends accuracy of delineation. The charm of rugs
+often depends, also, on the graceful flow of lines, the careful balance
+of different parts of patterns, and the proper co-ordination between
+border and field. Careful attention should accordingly be given to the
+drawing when selecting a rug.
+
+The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on the
+colouring, since, as has been elsewhere expressed, drawing, which is
+intellectual, finds its highest development in the Occident, and
+colouring, which is sensuous, finds its highest development in the
+Orient. It at once suggests sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique
+carpets that remain and in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all
+the colours employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony,
+and are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is most
+agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are produced in
+parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which, like discordant
+notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The most pleasing effect is
+when colours of border and field are complementary, yet so in harmony as
+to accentuate the qualities of each.
+
+There are also colours which, independent of their association, are in
+themselves good or bad. The best are found in the antique carpets woven
+when the art of the dyer was an honourable profession. The colours are
+also very good in still later pieces; but for a century now some of the
+finest have not been used, and even the secret of producing them has
+been lost. Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions,
+so that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but the
+most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial processes,
+often display harsh and garish colours. This distinction is in a measure
+due to the fact that old colours were largely produced by vegetable dyes
+and the modern are too often produced by aniline. Not infrequently both
+vegetable and aniline colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes
+the quantity of aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely
+objectionable; but as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is
+so tainted.
+
+One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing some of the
+natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it brittle, so that it is
+less able to stand wear. Another is that in time some of the dyes, which
+have been applied collectively to produce a single colour, will fade or
+even disappear, so that the final colour may be a most undesirable shade
+not in harmony with those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle
+and become harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application of
+weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if produced by
+aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if produced by vegetable
+dyes. Many native weavers can distinguish by placing the wool in their
+mouths, when they experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as
+vegetable or aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to
+assume that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the colour
+spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of the vegetable
+colours will fade; and when fresh they will run during the first washing
+in water, but afterwards they are little affected either by water or
+weak acids.
+
+Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were used, there is
+a marked distinction in the appearance of old and of recently woven
+rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure to sun and weather. The
+effect of time, imperceptible at first, is shown in rich tones of
+remarkable softness and beauty, that add greatly to the value of a rug.
+It accordingly happens that artificial processes are adopted to create
+as far as possible the same results without the lapse of time. Some of
+these are as novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of
+King-te Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+porcelains.[40] Henry Savage Landor says[41] that “to manufacture
+‘Antique Carpets’ is one of the most lucrative branches of modern
+Persian carpet making. The new carpets are spread in the bazar in the
+middle of the street, where it is most crowded, and trampled upon for
+days or weeks, according to the days required, foot passengers and their
+donkeys, mules and camels making a point of treading on them in order to
+‘add to age’ in the manufacturer’s goods. When sufficiently worn down
+the carpet is removed, brushed, and ordinarily sold for double or treble
+the actual price, owing to its antiquity.”
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE XI—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best workmanship of
+the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful drawing of leaf,
+fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty colouring of blue, yellow,
+brown, and apricot on a field of ivory that are so characteristic of
+this time. The usual balance of designs throughout the field is
+maintained with precision; but, as is not always the case, different
+motives occupy corresponding positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and
+fruit may be balanced with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The
+conventional drawing of the corners and the somewhat formal panel that
+surrounds the central medallion give to the pattern strength of
+character while they detract nothing from its beauty._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give softened
+effects to the colours are known as “washing.” Most of those in vogue in
+the Orient, such as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In
+this country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+business of firms, who guard the secret of their different methods. Some
+use ammonia, borax, and soap, which also do very little injury to the
+rug. Others use chloride of lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid,
+that remove some of the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair
+its qualities for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the
+extent that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed with
+an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the colours never have
+the same richness as those which have been softened by natural processes
+operating for a long period of years. To be sure, rugs that have been
+washed are often more attractive than they were in their raw colours;
+but the older, more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time
+are always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a large
+percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country, have been
+treated by some artificial process to soften their colours or give them
+the appearance of age. It is generally necessary, when selecting a large
+rug for a floor covering, to accept a washed piece; but when a smaller
+rug or a runner will meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose
+the older unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs
+but little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish between those
+that are artificially aged and those that are not. In the case of
+others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly with a wet rag; when, if
+acid or chloride of lime has been used, it can generally be detected by
+the odour.
+
+The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the fineness of
+the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools acquire a velvety
+appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and a lustre compared with
+which other rugs look harsh and coarse. For instance, the rugs of Shiraz
+and Meshed, the Beluchistans, and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre
+of their colours; but on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor
+and Caucasia have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India
+which are made of dead or “Chunam” wool, seem lifeless.
+
+When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully observe if
+the patterns are well drawn and their different parts show a proper
+balance. He should observe if the colour tones are harmonious with one
+another, if each colour in itself is good, and if they have been
+softened by natural processes acting for a long time. And he should
+notice if the wool is coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen
+and glint in the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up
+the artistic beauty of a rug.
+
+The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to museums and
+collectors receives small consideration, though even with them the more
+perfect their condition the more valuable they are. But in case of the
+great majority of rugs, which are intended for use as well as for
+ornament, their utility is an important consideration to the purchaser.
+Rugs that have warp and weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture,
+will wear better than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one
+thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of warp
+equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is also to be
+preferred to short, since it protects the foundations of the knots from
+wearing and becoming loose.
+
+Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor to see if
+it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be examined by
+daylight and not by electric light, which gives a false impression of
+colour and sheen. It should be held up with the back turned to the
+purchaser, and carefully examined for weak spots through which the light
+may pass; since, when so held, many pieces which seem in good condition
+when lying on the floor, resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should
+also be carefully inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with
+slight tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but for
+protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition. Sometimes
+the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that continual fraying of the
+nap is prevented with difficulty. Sometimes the selvage or overcasting
+of the sides is broken and some of the threads of warp are injured. Or
+the sides may be well protected by a stout overcasting; but on
+examination it will be seen that it is not the original finishing, and
+that some of the border has disappeared. Again, it may have been
+overcast too tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus
+expose the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of rents,
+that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have been removed,
+so that they are no longer of their original length; or parts of the
+border are gone, or even the whole of it has been replaced by the
+border of another rug; yet all so deftly done that the changes are
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to be
+discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable. Broken
+threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can be replaced
+with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be straightened by
+loosening here and stretching there; borders that curl can be flattened
+by removing the yarn and overcasting again more carefully. In fact, if
+the nap be not so worn that the foundation of warp and weft is exposed,
+it is far better to choose an old rug with some rents than a new one
+with garish aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low; since
+often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface of brighter
+colours standing out in relief, on account of the worn blackish nap that
+surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can be had by buying a rug which,
+because of some imperfection that is not serious, has been passed by;
+and now and then a piece reeking with dirt has proved, when properly
+cleansed, to be a gem.
+
+The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but little
+consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most important
+indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is one of the most
+necessary conditions for utility. The warp is best observed at the ends.
+In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in some of the Persian, it is of
+cotton; in others it is of wool or goat’s hair. In the Chinese rugs the
+diameter of the threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the
+threads of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily be
+observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it consists of fine
+spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of coarse wool or cotton. The
+number of knots to the square inch does not of itself demonstrate the
+quality of texture, since a rug may have only a few knots of coarse
+diameter and be firmly woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter
+and be loosely woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally
+more knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the yarn that
+forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves are drawn tight
+and well pressed down, and if the threads of weft are carefully
+inserted and have a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost
+invariably it will be found that if the back of a rug shows good
+material, and has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking
+weaving, the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+drawing.
+
+The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on their
+size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and character, is
+constantly increasing; for the reason that their number is limited and
+each year they are more highly appreciated. It is, therefore, impossible
+to affix even approximate prices; but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale
+in 1910, when some thirty pieces were sold at auction for an average of
+about $9,400, will serve as a guide. The following are some of the
+pieces sold and the prices realised:
+
+
+  Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4 inches, attributed
+    to Western Persia, at end of XVI Century, and purchased by
+    the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.                          $5,600
+
+  Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on page 86                 5,600
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        4,700
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        3,500
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 11 inches by 4 feet
+    10 inches                                                      12,300
+
+  Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet 2½ inches by 6 feet
+    5 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque        35,500
+
+  Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet 11 inches by 5 feet
+    10 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque and
+    purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.             15,200
+
+  Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34 feet 5 inches by 16 feet
+    8 inches, flat stitch                                           8,600
+
+  Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size 16 feet 4 inches
+    by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+    of Art, N. Y.                                                  19,600
+
+  Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of Ardebil, XVI Century,
+    size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5 inches                     27,000
+
+
+The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently old to
+belong to the antique class also depends as much on the technique of
+weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the size; yet even this must
+be taken into consideration. In proportion to their size the most
+expensive of these rugs are the Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia;
+the Ghiordes and Ladiks from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans
+from Caucasia; and the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia.
+Considering both utility and attractiveness the least expensive are
+probably the Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks
+from Asia Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans and
+Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is the case with antique carpets, the
+prices of all old rugs in good condition are steadily advancing.
+
+There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to increase
+with each year, since on account of the gradual opening of Oriental
+countries to the markets of the world, and the greater demand for rugs,
+the wages of weavers are increasing. Some of them, as the Tabriz,
+Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now
+made almost exclusively under the direction of the work-house system,
+and are sold at prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time
+the prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.
+
+When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are generally
+preferred on account of their soft colouring and refined patterns, that
+harmonise with the furnishings of most reception rooms. Less expensive
+and more showy are the Gorevans, which are suitable for halls or dining
+rooms. In the Afghans, which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined
+durability with a moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian
+rugs, as the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly good
+texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs required both for
+ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul, Bergamo, Tcherkess,
+Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.
+
+As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can be
+practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too much
+circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with intention, a dealer
+will declare that the wool of a rug which has been coloured with aniline
+dyes has been coloured with vegetable dyes only; that a rug washed with
+acid has matured naturally; that a new rug which has been artificially
+worn almost to the knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs
+to the class desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a
+Bijar for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a reputation
+which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is difficult to learn
+the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do well to make an effort to
+test its reliability by inquiring about the qualities of some class of
+rugs with which he is familiar before purchasing others; and if there
+appears to be any intention to deceive, he should at once look
+elsewhere. In any event, he should take a guarantee that the rug
+purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public, and
+will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake has been
+made.
+
+At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the fairest
+prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are being closed or
+where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur, when every opportunity is
+given the purchaser to thoroughly examine in advance pieces which are
+sold without reservation to the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare
+pieces are sometimes bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule,
+unless the purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully
+examined a coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a rug.
+The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too favourable
+impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of other real or
+fictitious purchasers and the words of the auctioneer too often lead
+beyond the dictates of good judgment. At such times one would do well to
+remember the old words _caveat emptor_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Yerkes sale.
+
+[2] Stewart Dix, in “Arts of Old Japan.”
+
+[3] The influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as
+expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt,
+and there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the native
+rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile and the boundless
+desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing
+country, and none of its ancient rugs remain, it will only be briefly
+referred to in this work, though symbolic designs which had their origin
+there during the Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign
+weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.
+
+[4] It is said that he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor
+and Constantinople.
+
+[5] This is a product of flowers of the genus _Delphinum_ that grows in
+the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from Afghanistan.
+
+[6] In a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.
+
+[7] Most Sehna knots are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a
+large proportion of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.
+
+[8] As far as the writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention
+to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For this
+reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would
+otherwise be necessary.
+
+[9] A few of the weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a
+double foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice
+between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is this method
+followed in other districts.
+
+[10] Sir George Birdwood has made the statement that “A deep and
+complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in India,
+pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the carpet itself
+prefigures space and eternity, and the general pattern or filling, as it
+is technically termed, the fleeting, finite universe of animated beauty.
+Every colour has its significance; and the design, whether mythological
+or natural, human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their symbolism,
+wherever they are introduced, generally following that of their colours.
+The very irregularities either in drawing or colouring, to be observed
+in almost every Oriental carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are
+seldom accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+evil eye and insure good luck.”
+
+[11] The equivalent of 106 feet square.
+
+[12] See his work, “The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil.”
+
+[13] Ismael reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.
+
+[14] 1586-1628.
+
+[15] These will be considered in a later chapter.
+
+[16] This group includes both antique and modern rugs.
+
+[17] Robert Kerr Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor
+of the audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in 1818,
+“was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those of that manufacture
+being the richest that can be made.”
+
+[18] By “Type Characteristics” is meant the characteristics of such
+types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are exceptions to
+these types.
+
+[19] As this is the case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this
+feature will be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.
+
+[20] Ibn Batutah.
+
+[21] Of modern Ispahans.
+
+[22] “Burlington Magazine,” December, 1909.
+
+[23] In “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[24] Sidney Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that “the dyes of
+Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in Persia.”
+
+[25] “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[26] Mrs. Elizabeth Bishop in “Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan.”
+
+[27] Encyclopedia Britannica.
+
+[28] It is also to be noted that within the last few years large numbers
+of pieces bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+Constantinople.
+
+[29] One of the most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a
+most beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might well
+have been taken for a weaver’s model. As in many prayer rugs, the
+engaged columns support a high arch over which a panel rests above a
+figured spandrel. The outlines of each of these parts suggest most
+forcibly the drawing of the prayer rug, and the resemblance is carried
+even further; for corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled
+masonry that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+of the entrance at each side of the arch.
+
+[30] One of these is represented in Dr. Bode’s “Knupfteppiche,” where it
+appears as a secondary stripe.
+
+[31] An intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.
+
+[32] A. Bogolubow, in his excellent work “Tapis de l’Asie Centrale,”
+divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two principal groups, the Salors
+and Yomuds, each of which includes sub-groups. These are again
+divisible into many tribes, almost all of whom weave. As their rugs,
+though resembling one another, show different characteristics, they
+might properly be separated into numerous classes; but since only a few
+of them are known in this country, they alone will be described.
+
+[33] “Desert of Red Sands.”
+
+[34] A tent in which an average of five people live.
+
+[35] In “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[36] Dr. Birdwood.
+
+[37] Sometimes Sehna knot.
+
+[38] Sometimes one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the
+other.
+
+[39] Rarely Iran, Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.
+
+[40] It is stated that in the short space of a few weeks he created
+valuable antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very greasy soup,
+where they were duly boiled for a month, and after that placing them in
+the “foulest drain of the neighbourhood,” where they remained until
+seasoned.
+
+[41] In “Across Coveted Lands, 1903.”
+
+[42] All references of an unimportant character are indicated by the
+page number only.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX[42]
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abbas, Shah, 88, 89, 169, 211;
+    pattern named after, 105;
+    sent artisans to India, 111;
+    rug industry declined after death of, 112.
+
+  Abraham, 23, 31.
+
+  Acacia used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Accadians, 23.
+
+  Adighies, 209.
+
+  Afghan rugs, 293, 304, 305;
+    geometric designs of, 62;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 56, 57, 235.
+    Rugs described, 243, 244, 245;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Afghan tribes, 90.
+
+  Afghanistan, 41, 103, 233, 243, 244;
+    camel’s wool of, 82.
+
+  Afshar rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, 113.
+
+  Agamemnon, 166.
+
+  Agra, 255, 257.
+
+  Agra rugs described, 257.
+
+  Akbar, Shah, 28;
+    received assistance from Shah Abbas, 29;
+    established rug weaving at Lahore, 94;
+    imported Persian weavers, 253;
+    carpet factory of, 256.
+
+  Ak-Hissar, 175.
+
+  Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+    Rugs described, 175, 176.
+
+  Ak-kal, oasis of, 238.
+
+  Albana, 204.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 169, 181, 246;
+    destroyed Shiraz, 115;
+    built walls at Derbend, 204.
+
+  Alhambra, 25.
+
+  Ali Riza, Imam, 110.
+
+  Allahabad, 258.
+
+  Allahabad rugs described, 258.
+
+  Altai Mts., 29;
+    original home of the Turks, 26.
+
+  Altman, Benjamin, 85.
+
+  Alum, used as a mordant, 40, 41.
+
+  Amritsar, 255, 258.
+
+  Amritsar rugs, 101, 257, 305.
+    Rugs described, 255.
+
+  Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.
+
+  Anatolia, 163, 182;
+    the “Land of the Rising Sun,” 187.
+
+  Anatolian rugs, 101, 176, 190, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63.
+    Rugs described, 187, 188, 189;
+    border stripes, 195.
+
+  Angora, 27, 185, 187;
+    goat’s wool, 32.
+
+  Anilines. _See_ Dyes.
+
+  Animal carpets, 86, 87.
+
+  Anjuman Industrial Art School, 259.
+
+  Anoschar, 76.
+
+  Anti-Taurus Mts., 140, 187, 190.
+
+  Arabia, 24, 29, 32.
+
+  Arabic features in rugs, 85;
+    notation, 296;
+    symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, 141.
+
+  Arabs, in Persia, 103;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Ararat, Mt., 103, 219.
+
+  Aras river, 151, 157, 224.
+
+  Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, 28;
+    mosque of, 82, 127.
+
+  Ardebil carpet, 15;
+    described, 83, 84.
+
+  Ardelan district, 100, 129, 133, 153.
+
+  Armenia, 209;
+    origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Armenian rugs, 91, 170, 209, 220;
+    designs derived from, 64, 65, 67, 209, 214, 215.
+    Rugs described, 91.
+
+  Armenians in Persia, 103;
+    in Mosul, 103.
+
+  Artaxerxes, 103.
+
+  Aryan races, in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 103;
+    in Caucasia, 197;
+    in Turkestan, 234;
+    floral ornamentation employed by, 62.
+
+  Asburg used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Astrabad, 241.
+
+  Astrakan, market for Bokharas, 235;
+    for caravans from Khiva, 240.
+
+  Auctions, 306.
+
+  Ayyampet, 259.
+
+  Azerbijan province, 26, 145, 147, 148, 149, 153.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Baber, Shah, 28.
+
+  Babylon, 23, 24, 74, 102, 103.
+
+  Bagdad, 81, 138, 152;
+    carpets covering the floors of, 25;
+    captured by Tartars, 27,
+    by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Karaman subject to, 188.
+
+  Bakshis rugs described, 148.
+
+  Baku, 210, 214.
+
+  Baku rugs, 101, 292;
+    pear design in, 70, 129, 153, 198, 202.
+    Rugs described, 210, 211, 212;
+    border stripes, 229.
+
+  Bangalore, 259, 261.
+
+  Bangalore rugs, 101, 259.
+    Rugs described, 261.
+
+  Barbarossa, Frederic, 181.
+
+  Bardini, Stefano, 85.
+
+  Bastard teak used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Bedouins, 103.
+
+  Belshazzar, 24.
+
+  Beluches, in Kirman, 113;
+    untamed tribes of, 248.
+
+  Beluchistan, 233.
+
+  Beluchistan rugs, 205, 234, 239, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 56, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    geometric designs in, 62;
+    S design in, 64;
+    zigzag line in, 66;
+    reciprocal trefoil in, 160, 230.
+    Rugs described, 248, 249;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Beni-Hassan, tombs of, 74.
+
+  Bergamo rugs, 101, 289, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prevailing colour tone of, 178.
+    Rugs described, 166, 167, 168;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Berlin gallery, 92.
+
+  Beshire rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    zigzag line in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 243;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Bibikabad, town of, 154.
+
+  Bibikabad rugs described, 155.
+
+  Bijar, 129, 136.
+
+  Bijar rugs, 100, 153, 256, 286, 288, 302, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, 143.
+    Rugs described, 136, 137;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Birbul’s blue used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Birdwood, Sir George, cited, 62, 70, 94, 122, 138;
+    quoted, 59, 241, 253, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Birjand, 108.
+
+  Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, 138.
+
+  Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, 79, 227, 228.
+
+  Bogolubow, A., cited, 233.
+
+  Böhler, J., cited, 79.
+
+  Bokhara, 100, 110, 245;
+    captured by Genghis Khan, 26;
+    the “Noble,” 236.
+
+  Bokhara rugs, 100, 243, 305;
+    goat’s hair in, 32;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53.
+
+  Bokhara, Princess, rugs, 101, 233, 235, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 237, 238;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Bokhara, Royal, rugs, 101, 103, 233, 241, 242, 243, 244, 293, 304;
+    compared with Princess, 237;
+    the arch compared with that of Tekkes, 239.
+    Rugs described, 235, 236;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Border stripes, defined, 59;
+    Persian, described, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160;
+    Asia Minor, described, 192, 193, 194, 195;
+    Caucasian, described, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231;
+    Central Asiatic, described, 250, 251;
+    Chinese, described, 273, 274, 275.
+
+  Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 94.
+
+  Brahoes, 248.
+
+  British Museum, 82.
+
+  Broussa, 181.
+    Rugs described, 181.
+
+  Buckthorns used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, 16;
+    on symbolism, 58;
+    the lotus an emblem of, 69.
+
+  Buddhist emblems, 271, 274.
+
+  Burujird, 131.
+
+  Burujird rugs described, 131.
+
+  Butea fondosa used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Butti lac used as a dye, 39.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cæsarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.
+
+  Caïcus valley, 166.
+
+  Cairo, Caliphs in, 25;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Caliphate, 20, 76.
+
+  Caliphs, 24, 25, 77, 90, 91, 115;
+    prayer rugs in time of, 85;
+    Ispahan under, 111;
+    Kirman rugs in palaces of, 113;
+    Tabriz rugs known in days of, 145.
+
+  Caliph Hisham, carpet of, 76.
+
+  Camel’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Carduchis, 140.
+
+  Caria. _See_ Melez.
+
+  Chaldees, 23;
+    symbolism derived from, 66.
+
+  Chardin cited, 113.
+
+  Charles Martel, 25.
+
+  Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, 112.
+
+  Che-Hwang-te, 26.
+
+  Chichi rugs, 100, 290, 292;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Kazaks contrasted with, 220.
+    Rugs described, 207, 208;
+    border stripes, 226, 231.
+
+  Chinese fret, 67, 165;
+    influence, 293;
+    medallions, 272, 273.
+
+  Chosroes I, “Spring of Chosroes” carpet made for, 76.
+
+  Chunam wool, 261, 301.
+
+  Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, 131.
+
+  Cinnabar used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.
+
+  Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, 112.
+
+  Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, 80.
+
+  Coccus cacti used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus ilicus used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus lacca used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochineal used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, 86.
+
+  Coconada, 259.
+
+  Colour, the artistic value of, 18;
+    the symbolism of, 59, 72.
+
+  Cone design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Constantinople, 27, 98, 99, 118, 181, 197, 209;
+    Persian weavers taken to, 28;
+    silk carpets sent to Sultan of, 87.
+
+  Conventions in art, 16.
+
+  Cordova, 25.
+
+  Cossacks, 218, 219.
+
+  Cotton, used in weaving 30;
+    mercerized, 30.
+
+  Cow’s hair used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Crocus used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Crœsus, 163.
+
+  Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Ctesiphon, 76, 102, 103.
+
+  Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, 85;
+    in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, 92, 166, 202, 229;
+    reputed inventor of, 183.
+
+  Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Curcuma used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cyrus, 24, 115, 181; Turkestan overrun by, 234.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Daghestan, 198, 206, 214.
+
+  Daghestan rugs, 205, 212, 213, 216, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    effulgent stars in, 91;
+    Cufic borders of, 92;
+    Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, 167;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    designs in, 211;
+    colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of, 214;
+    mosaic drawing of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 198, 199, 200;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230.
+
+  Daghestan, Royal, 216.
+
+  Damascus, 17;
+    antique carpets of, 95;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Dari, 211, 257.
+
+  Darius, 215.
+
+  Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, 259.
+
+  Delhi, 28, 110.
+
+  Demirdji, 164, 176.
+
+  Demirdji rugs described, 176.
+
+  Deodorus, 74.
+
+  Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, 281.
+
+  Derbend, 199, 204.
+
+  Derbend rugs described, 204, 205;
+    border stripes, 230.
+
+  Designs, geometric, 62, 64, 185;
+    floral, 62, 64, 68, 185;
+    almond, 70;
+    animal, 89, 83, 91, 112, 114, 126, 137, 165, 200, 211, 213, 225, 248;
+    antilope, 72;
+    arabesques, 71, 79, 81, 83, 94, 104, 156, 175;
+    barber-pole, 117, 118, 119, 153, 182, 200, 215, 229, 242, 246, 251;
+    bat, 71, 266;
+    birds, 71, 87, 91, 119, 114, 137, 165, 229, 246, 270, 292;
+    bird of paradise, 71;
+    butterfly, 71, 246, 266, 269, 270;
+    camel, 72;
+    chessboard, 271;
+    chrysanthemum, 271;
+    cloud-band, 67, 90, 106, 265, 274;
+    cocos, 114;
+    comb, 67, 208, 213, 221;
+    conch, 274;
+    cone, 70;
+    crab, 71;
+    cross, 67, 92, 236, 237;
+    crown jewel, 70, 112;
+    daisy, 64, 69;
+    diamond, 91, 141, 145, 177, 200, 203, 212, 223;
+    djinni, 72;
+    dog, 72, 213;
+    dragon, 71, 246, 266, 268, 273, 274;
+    dragon and phoenix, 92;
+    duck, 71, 81, 87;
+    eagle, 71;
+    Euphrates flower, 69, 189;
+    fish, 165, 246;
+    fung-kwang, 266;
+    fungus, 269;
+    gazelle, 95;
+    goat, 72;
+    Joo-e, 265, 274;
+    key-pattern, 27, 267, 274;
+    knot of destiny, 274;
+    ky-lin, 265;
+    lamp, 165, 170, 182;
+    latch-hook, 67, 74, 117, 145, 155, 167, 169, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186,
+      187, 189, 200, 202, 203, 212, 215, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228, 231,
+      242, 249, 250, 251, 278, 282, 288;
+    lily, 167, 170, 172, 184, 193, 230;
+    lion, 72, 95;
+    lion-dog, 266;
+    lotus, 64, 68, 69, 89, 199;
+    lozenge, 62, 91, 123, 141, 206, 220, 225, 249;
+    lyre, 271;
+    mango, 70;
+    medallion, 60, 86, 87, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 121, 123, 126, 134,
+      138, 139, 145, 149, 169, 183, 189, 200, 212, 214, 215, 220, 267,
+      269, 271, 272, 273;
+    moon, 65, 69;
+    octagonal disc, 66, 92, 180, 200, 206, 213, 220, 275; palm, 70;
+    palmette, 70, 71, 89, 90, 94, 106, 121, 177;
+    peacock, 71;
+    pear, 70, 106, 109, 110, 116, 129, 142, 145, 153, 165, 191, 200, 201,
+      207, 218, 219;
+    peony, 104, 270;
+    phœnix, 72;
+    pole-medallion, 117, 152, 179;
+    pomegranate, 69, 167;
+    reciprocal sawtooth, 78, 121, 130, 209, 221, 231;
+    reciprocal trefoil, 121, 130, 160, 165, 208, 215, 221, 249;
+    river loop, 70;
+    rose, 62, 69, 139, 193;
+    rosette, 70, 94, 104, 121, 188, 193, 201, 207, 208, 221, 226, 230,
+      290, 292;
+    running latch-hook, 67, 242;
+    sacred mountain, 265;
+    scorpion, 71;
+    S design, 64, 91, 92, 170, 195, 206, 208, 211, 213, 220;
+    serpent, 71;
+    serrated leaf and wine cup, 64;
+    shield of David, 66;
+    Shou, 266, 272;
+    star, 62, 65, 71, 93, 112, 183, 200, 203;
+    effulgent star, 201, 211;
+    eight-pointed star, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187, 193, 206, 207, 208, 210,
+      213, 220, 236, 244, 246, 250;
+    stork, 71, 266;
+    sun, 65, 66, 69;
+    sunburst, 209, 220, 292;
+    sunflower, 69, 271;
+    swastika, 64, 65, 194, 229, 246, 248, 271, 273;
+    tarantula, 71, 209, 220, 221;
+    tiger, 95;
+    tree, 137;
+    tree of life, 60, 68, 182, 186, 189, 219, 237;
+    tri-cleft leaf, 78, 91, 184, 199, 208, 211, 215, 226;
+    turtle, 71;
+    vandyke, 179, 183, 184, 187, 189, 290;
+    wheel of law, 266;
+    zigzag line, 66, 67.
+
+  Diaper pattern, 102, 263.
+
+  Diarbekr, 141.
+
+  Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird,76.
+
+  Distaff, 36.
+
+  Dix, Stewart, quoted, 16.
+
+  Djinni. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.
+
+  Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, 92.
+
+  Dragon and Phoenix carpet, 65, 231.
+
+  Dragon carpets, 91, 298.
+
+  Dravidians, 28.
+
+  Dyeing, 37; process of, 42, 43.
+
+  Dyes, 30;
+    of Sultanabad, 131;
+    of Oushak, 174;
+    of Amritsar rugs, 256;
+    Aniline dyes introduced into India, 254, into China, 265;
+    objection to, 299;
+    how to distinguish, 299, 300.
+
+
+  E
+
+  East India Company, 254.
+
+  Ecbatana, 103, 122.
+
+  Elburz Mts., 103.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, 25.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 29.
+
+  Elizabethpol, 224.
+
+  Ellore, 259, 260.
+
+  Ellore rugs described, 260.
+
+  El Mirz li alla, Caliph, 77.
+
+  Elwund Mt., 120, 122, 129.
+
+  Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, 140.
+
+  Ends, finish of, 57.
+
+  Esther, Queen, 122.
+
+  Evil eye, superstition of, 59, 168.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fairs, Oriental, 99.
+
+  Farsistan, wool of, 31;
+    antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, 115.
+
+  Fatimid Caliphs, 90.
+
+  Feraghan district, 125, 129, 131.
+
+  Feraghan rugs, 100, 132, 133, 142, 147, 153, 156, 285, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 55;
+    small designs in, 60;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    Guli Hinnai pattern of, 105;
+    pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, 106.
+    Rugs described, 120, 121, 122;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Filling, 52.
+
+  Firdousi, 110.
+
+  Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flame design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flax used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Floral design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Friedhofteppiche, 172.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gall nuts used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Ganges river, 17, 258.
+
+  Ganja. _See_ Gengha.
+
+  Gehrous district, 136.
+
+  Gengha, 224.
+
+  Gengha rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54.
+    Rugs described, 224, 225;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Genghis Khan, 26, 78, 198, 234.
+
+  Geok Teppe, 238.
+
+  Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Georgian pattern, 213, 215, 228, 230, 292.
+
+  Ghiordes, 164, 168, 175, 176, 206.
+
+  Ghiordes rugs, 65, 101, 183, 184, 191, 289, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    Karabaghs compared with, 225.
+    Rugs described, 168, 169, 170, 171;
+    border stripes, 192, 193, 194, 195.
+
+  Gibbon cited, 25.
+
+  Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, 67.
+
+  Girdler’s Company, India carpet presented to, 94, 256.
+
+  Goat’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Gobi desert, 21, 26, 29.
+
+  Goodyear, Prof., cited, 69.
+
+  Gorevan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 287, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, 131;
+    relation of Bakshis rugs to, 148;
+    relation of Herez rugs to, 149.
+    Rugs described, 146, 147, 148;
+    border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Gotcha lake, 224.
+
+  Gozene, 156.
+
+  Gozene rugs, 100, 154, 289;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54.
+    Rugs described, 54.
+
+  “Grain of rice” pattern in Chinese rugs, 271.
+
+  Granada, 25.
+
+  Guebres, in Kirman, 113;
+    temple at Baku of, 210.
+
+  Guli Hinnai pattern, 104, 120, 121;
+   illustrated, 291.
+
+  Gulistan rugs, 100, 154, 286.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Gulistan treaty, 203.
+
+  Gyze, Georg, 92.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hafiz, 115.
+
+  Hair, of cow, 30, 33; of horse, 33.
+
+  Hamadan, 122, 129, 136, 143, 155.
+
+  Hamadan rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54, 55;
+    similarity of some Irans to, 125;
+    similarity of Karajes to, 144;
+    similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 122, 123, 124;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Hang Chow, 266.
+
+  Harris, Henry T., quoted, 40, 260.
+
+  Havell, E. B., cited, 260.
+
+  Hegira, 296.
+
+  Hemp used in weaving, 30, 33, 261, 263.
+
+  Herat, 105, 110, 244, 285;
+    captured by Nadir Shah, 29;
+    so-called Ispahans probably made at, 89, 112.
+
+  Herat rugs, 69, 89, 100;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    cloud-band in antique rugs of, 67;
+    ground colour of, 95;
+    influence on Indian weaving of, 255.
+    Rugs described, 105, 106;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Herati pattern, 89, 94, 104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 120, 121, 129, 132,
+    134, 142, 152,153, 157, 165, 170, 201;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Hereke, 181.
+
+  Hereke rugs described, 181.
+
+  Herez, 149.
+
+  Herez rugs, 101, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+      Rugs described, 149, 150;
+    border stripes, 157.
+
+  Herodotus, 74.
+
+  Herring bone weave, described, 47;
+    in Shemakhas, 216, 217, 292.
+
+  Himalayas, 41.
+
+  Hindu Koosh Mts., 244.
+
+  Hoa, 183.
+
+  Holbein, Hans, 92, 93.
+
+  Holbein rugs, 298;
+    octagonal disc in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 92, 93.
+
+  Homer, 69, 74, 110, 163.
+
+  Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, 26;
+    Mongolian capital established in Persia by, 78.
+
+  Hunting carpets, 298;
+    symbolism in, 72.
+    Carpets described, 82.
+
+  Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, 257.
+
+  Hyderabad, 259, 262.
+
+  Hyderabad rugs described, 262.
+
+  Hyder Ali, 261.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, 110.
+
+  Iconium, 181.
+
+  Imari ware, 17.
+
+  Imeritia, 218.
+
+  India Museum, 122.
+
+  Indigo used as a dye, 38, 40.
+
+  Indigofera used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Indus river, 17, 24, 29.
+
+  Irak-Ajemi, 124, 127, 129.
+
+  Iran rugs, 100;
+      similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 124, 125;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Irtish river, 26.
+
+  Isbarta, 178.
+
+  Iskenderoon gulf, 163.
+
+  Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, 82;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, 84;
+    carpets made at Herat during reign of, 89;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, 127.
+
+  Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Shah Abbas transferred his court to, 29;
+    probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were made at, 89;
+    description of city, 111.
+
+  Ispahan blue, 42.
+
+
+
+  Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, 69;
+      made at Ispahan, 89;
+      sombre tones of, 90;
+      red fields of, 95;
+      blues and reds of the antique, 127;
+      palmettes of the antique, 145.
+    Modern rugs described, 111, 112, 113.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, 94;
+    Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, 253.
+
+  Jail system of India, 254.
+
+  Jaipur, 255, 259.
+
+  Jaipur rugs described, 259.
+
+  Japan, 17.
+
+  Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design, 70;
+    Srinagar on the, 255.
+
+  Joshaghan district, 132.
+
+  Joshaghan rugs, 100, 286, 298;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50.
+    Rugs described, 132, 133;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Jubbulpur, 255, 258.
+
+  Jubbulpur rugs described, 258, 259.
+
+  Jute, used in weaving, 30, 33;
+    in Kulahs, 174;
+    in Vellore rugs, 261;
+    in Bangalore rugs, 262.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kaaba, 117.
+
+  Kabistan, 199.
+
+  Kabistan rugs, 101, 204, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      effulgent stars of, 91;
+      Cufic borders of, 92;
+      patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 200, 201, 202;
+      border stripes, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Kain, 108.
+
+  Kaisariyeh, 190.
+
+  Kaisariyeh rugs described, 190, 191.
+
+  Kaiser Friedrich Museum, 79, 92.
+
+  Kang-hi rugs, 78, 101.
+    Rugs described, 268, 269;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Karabacek, Dr., quoted, 74.
+
+  Karabagh district, 222, 224.
+
+  Karabagh rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+      technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      Karadaghs compared with, 151;
+      Shushas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 222, 223.
+
+  Karadagh district, 151.
+
+  Karadagh rugs, 100, 286, 289.
+    Rugs described; border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Kara-Geuz district, 155.
+
+  Kara-Geuz rugs, 100, 154.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Karaje rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 143, 144.
+
+  Kara Kum desert, 241.
+
+  Karaman, 188.
+
+  Karaman rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 188.
+    Kilims, 278, 279.
+
+  Kashan, 115, 127, 155.
+
+  Kashan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 35, 51, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    pattern of Sarouks like that of, 134;
+    correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, 145.
+    Rugs described, 127, 128, 129;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Kashgar rugs, 101, 234, 282, 292.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248.
+
+  Kashmir, 70, 255;
+    goat’s wool of, 32, 114.
+
+  Katchli, derivation of, 237;
+    pattern used in Tekkes, 239, 293.
+
+  Kazak rugs, 101, 290, 292, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141;
+    Afshars compared with, 155;
+    Yuruks compared with, 191;
+    Tcherkess compared with, 209;
+    Kutais compared with, 222;
+    Genghas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 219, 220, 221, 222;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229.
+
+  Kazakje, 220.
+
+  Kea-king dynasty, 272.
+    Rugs described, 272.
+
+  Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, 270, 271, 272;
+    border stripes, 274, 275;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Kenares defined, 97.
+
+  Kerim, Khan, 115;
+    royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, 116.
+
+  Kermanshah, 83, 129, 138.
+
+  Kermanshah rugs, 134, 137, 147, 160, 285, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146;
+    Amritsars mistaken for, 256.
+    Rugs described, 138, 139, 140;
+    border stripes, 38.
+
+  Kermes used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Key pattern, 27.
+
+  Khali defined, 97.
+
+  Khibitkas, defined, 238;
+    rugs made for doors of, 239.
+
+  Khiva, 110, 240, 241, 244.
+
+  Khiva rugs, 100, 233, 235, 242, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 240, 241;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Khorassan, 107, 115, 127;
+    wool of, 31;
+    Herats made in, 106;
+    Kurdistans in, 141;
+    Yomuds in, 241.
+
+  Khorassan rugs, 60, 100, 117, 288;
+    left-hand knots in, 48;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    resemblance of Mesheds to, 110.
+    Rugs described, 107, 108, 109, 110;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Khotan, 278.
+
+  Kidderminster, 260.
+
+  Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, 75;
+    pattern in Shirvan, 227.
+    Kilims described, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281.
+
+  King-te Chin, 300.
+
+  Kirghiz, steppes, 235;
+    tribes, 240.
+
+  Kirman, 113, 115, 203, 206, 248;
+    wool of, 31;
+    carpets made during Caliphate at, 90;
+    early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, 181.
+
+  Kirman rugs, 100, 285, 297, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 51, 53;
+    resemblance of Kermanshahs to, 138;
+    flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, 145;
+    some old Bergamos as valuable as, 167.
+    Rugs described, 113, 114, 115;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Kirmans, Turkish, 174.
+
+  Kir-Shehr, 185.
+
+  Kir-Shehr rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of, 167;
+    prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of, 183;
+    often called Anatolian, 187;
+    prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of, 189;
+    prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of, 190.
+    Rugs described, 185, 186;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Kis-kilims, 280.
+
+  Kizil Arvat, 241.
+
+  Kizil Irmak river, 185, 189.
+
+  Kizil Kum, “desert of red sands,” 235.
+
+  Knights of St. John, 28, 179.
+
+  Knots, Ghiordes, 48;
+    Sehna, 48;
+    right-hand, 48;
+    left-hand, 48;
+    peculiarities of, 48;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Konieh, 188, 190.
+
+  Konieh rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of, 186;
+    prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of, 187.
+    Rugs described, 181, 182, 183;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Koran, 72.
+
+  Kuba, 199, 202.
+
+  Kuba rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+    Rugs described, 202, 203, 204;
+    border stripes, 228.
+
+  Kublai Khan, 266.
+
+  Kulah, 164, 171, 174.
+
+  Kulah rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 64;
+    lily pattern in, 167;
+    Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, 171;
+    geometric leaf of, 180;
+    prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, 186.
+    Rugs described, 171, 172, 173, 174;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Kur valley, 207, 214.
+
+  Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, 105;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141.
+    Rugs described, 142, 143;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Kurdistan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 57;
+    Karajes compared with, 143;
+    ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of, 154;
+    some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, 155.
+
+  Kurdistan, Western, rugs, 100, 286;
+      described, 140, 141, 142.
+    Kilims, 280.
+
+  Kurds, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 187, 191;
+    located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, 238.
+
+  Kutais, 218.
+
+  Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 218, 219;
+      border stripes, 227, 229.
+
+  Kutayah, 176.
+
+  Kutayah rugs described, 176.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lacquer, 17.
+
+  Ladik rugs, 101, 167, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    pomegranate design in, 70;
+    border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of, 177;
+    vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, 179;
+    nap of, 186;
+    Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, 187;
+    vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, 189.
+    Rugs described, 183, 184;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Lahore, 255, 256;
+    royal factory at, 94.
+
+  Lahore rugs, 101, 305.
+    Rugs described, 256, 257.
+
+  Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, 300.
+
+  Laristan border stripe, 157.
+
+  Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Latimer, C., quoted, 281.
+
+  Lattice-work pattern, 119, 121, 133, 134, 137, 204.
+
+  Lemons used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Lesghian rugs, 101, 199, 290.
+    Rugs described, 206, 207.
+
+  Lesghian tribes, 206, 207.
+
+  Limes used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Linen, in Sehnas, 135;
+    in Tabriz, 146;
+    in Ghiordes, 171;
+    in Sarouks, 127;
+    in Kashans, 128.
+
+  Loom, described, 44;
+    illustrated, 45.
+
+  Lotus. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Luristan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Madder used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Madras, 259.
+
+  Madras rugs described, 259, 260.
+
+  Mahal rugs, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    similar to Muskabads, 131, 132.
+
+  Maharajah, 259.
+
+  Makimonos, 180.
+
+  Makri rugs, 180.
+
+  Maksoud, 84, 127, 128.
+
+  Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, 26.
+
+  Malgaran, 246.
+
+  Manchoos, 268.
+
+  Mangishlar peninsula, 238.
+
+  Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, 91;
+    referred to Kirman weavings, 113;
+    visited Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Marsulipatam, 259, 260.
+
+  Marsulipatam rugs described, 260.
+
+  Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 89, 90, 116,
+    227.
+
+  Maya ruins, swastika on, 65.
+
+  Mecca, 77, 98;
+    pilgrimages to, 99;
+    bit of earth from, 221, 223.
+
+  Mecca rugs, 117, 118.
+
+  Medallions. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Medes, 23, 24, 66, 234.
+
+  Medina, 77, 296.
+
+  Melez rugs, 101, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    sometimes called Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 176, 177, 178;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Mersherski, 88.
+
+  Merv Kilims, 280, 281.
+
+  Meshed, pilgrimages to, 99, 108.
+
+  Meshed rugs, 100, 147, 217, 288, 301.
+    Rugs described, 110, 111;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in, 78, 79, 80,
+    82, 85, 86, 91, 93.
+
+  Michelangelo, 16.
+
+  Mina Khan, 105.
+
+  Mina Khani pattern, 105, 142, 152, 249;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Ming dynasty, 78, 81, 266, 268;
+    coat of arms of, 92.
+
+  Ming rugs, 101, 298.
+    Rugs described, 266.
+
+  Mirabad, 130.
+
+  Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, 267, 272, 273.
+
+  Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.
+
+  Mirzapur, 255, 258.
+
+  Mirzapur rugs described, 258.
+
+  Mohair, 174.
+
+  Mohammed, 24;
+    epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, 104.
+
+  Mohammedans, 98, 103, 113, 237, 257;
+    dominant in Southwestern Asia, 25;
+    invaded India, 28;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110;
+    prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite, 165;
+    Caucasia invaded by, 198;
+    influence on weaving by, 58, 270.
+
+  Mongols, captured Bagdad, 26;
+    gained foothold in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 62;
+    in Caucasia, 198;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Mordants, 40.
+
+  Mordecai, 122.
+
+  Moslems, 70;
+    preserved art treasures, 76;
+    green sacred to, 85.
+
+  Mosul district, 152.
+
+  Mosul rugs, 101, 286, 287, 302, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    Western Kurdistans confused with, 141;
+    Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with, 143;
+    resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of, 156.
+    Rugs described, 152, 153, 154;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Mt. Ararat, 103, 219.
+
+  Mt. Ida, 163.
+
+  Mt. Kazbek, 206.
+
+  Mt. Olympus, 181, 191.
+
+  Mudjar, 189.
+
+  Mudjar rugs, 101, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    frequently classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 189, 190;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Multan, 255.
+
+  Multan rugs described, 257.
+
+  Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, 67.
+
+  Musée des Arts Decoratifs, 79.
+
+  Muskabad district, 131.
+
+  Muskabad rugs, 100, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 131, 132;
+      border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, 29;
+    influence of, 103;
+    art decadence following capture of Herat by, 106;
+    destruction of Herat by, 110;
+    weavers removed to Northern Persia by, 113, 132;
+    Shemakha almost destroyed by, 214;
+    Shusha built by, 224;
+    overthrow of Mogul dominion by, 254.
+
+  Namads, 115, 122.
+
+  Namazlik, 98, 150.
+
+  Netsukés, 17.
+
+  Nigde, 190.
+
+  Nigde rugs, 101;
+   classed as Anatolians, 187.
+   Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Nijni Novgorod, 235.
+
+  Nimrod, 23.
+
+  Nineveh, 23, 102;
+    drawings on walls of, 74;
+    Mosul near ruins of, 152.
+
+  Niris lake, wool obtained near, 31.
+
+  Niris rugs, 100, 204, 286, 287, 304.
+    Rugs described, 119, 120.
+
+  Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets, 82.
+
+  Nomadic influence, 106;
+    characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, 58, 153.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oak gall, used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Odjalik, 97.
+
+  Omar Khayyam, 108, 110.
+
+  Onosma echioides used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Orenburg, 235, 240.
+
+  Oriental art, 16.
+
+  Ottoman Turks, 27, 28.
+
+  Oushak, city and district, 164, 176.
+
+  Oushak rugs, type of modern, 94;
+    evidences of Persian treatment in, 166.
+    Rugs described, 174, 175.
+
+  Outer edging in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Hamadans, 123;
+    in Sarouks, 126;
+    in Bijars, 137;
+    in Kermanshahs, 139;
+    in Mosuls, 153.
+
+  Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Oxus river (Amu Daria), 23, 24, 235, 238, 240, 243, 244.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Palais de Commerce at Lyons, 80.
+
+  Palm design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pamir plateau, sheep of, 31;
+    mountains of, 235.
+
+  Paropamisus Mts., 235.
+
+  Parsees, 103;
+    symbolism derived from fire worship of, 58, 71;
+    at Baku, 211.
+
+  Parthians, 24.
+
+  Patna rugs, 101.
+
+  Paul, St., 166, 181.
+
+  Pear design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pergamus, 166, 168.
+
+  Persepolis, 103.
+
+  Phasis river, 197.
+
+  Pile of rugs, 47.
+
+  Pliny, 74.
+
+  Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, 65;
+    Chinese cloud-bands in, 67;
+    lotus in, 69.
+    Carpets described, 88;
+    bright hues of, 90.
+
+  Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.
+
+  Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, 106, 138.
+
+  Prayer arches, 60, 62;
+    illustrated, 61, 63.
+
+  Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.
+
+  Priam, 166.
+
+  Prometheus, 197.
+
+  Punjab, 255, 256, 257.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Ratanjot used as a dye, 16.
+
+  Rembrandt, 16.
+
+  Rhodes, Isle of, 28, 178.
+
+  Rhodian rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 178, 179, 180;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Rion river, 218.
+
+  River loop. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Robinson, Vincent, cited, 80, 81, 86, 88, 254, 258, 259.
+
+  Rubens, 16.
+
+  Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Runners, 97.
+
+  Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saadi, 115.
+
+  Saddle-bags, 117, 135, 249.
+
+  Safavid dynasty, 29, 81, 83, 84, 85, 89, 103.
+
+  Saffron used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Salors, 233.
+
+  Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, 27;
+    the “Mirror of the World,” 245.
+
+  Samarkand rugs, 101, 233, 265, 282, 293;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50;
+      swastika in, 65.
+    Rugs described, 245, 246, 247;
+      border stripes, 251.
+
+  Samo-Kien, 246.
+
+  Sarabend rugs, 285, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    pear design of, 70, 116, 119, 144, 153;
+    turtle border in, 71;
+    pile of, 133.
+    Rugs described, 129, 130;
+    border stripes, 158, 160.
+    Mir-Sarabends, 130.
+    Royal Sarabends, 130.
+
+  Saracenic art, 21;
+    influence, 58, 80, 88, 166.
+
+  Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by, 94;
+    Persia under dominion of, 103;
+    Baku in possession of, 210.
+
+  Saraks, town of, 136, 238.
+
+  Sarawan district, 129, 131.
+
+  Sarouk, 125.
+
+  Sarouk rugs, 134, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    animal carpet with weave similar to that of, 86;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    patterns of Bijars compared with those of, 137.
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146.
+    Rugs described, 125, 126, 127;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Sassanides, Kingdom of, 24;
+    elaborate carpets made during rule of, 74;
+    capture of capital of, 75.
+
+  Savalans, 131.
+
+  Sedjadeh, 97.
+
+  Sehna, 48, 129, 133.
+
+  Sehna rugs, 100, 286, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    medallions of, 60;
+    turtle border in, 71.
+    Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from, 142.
+    Rugs described, 133, 134, 135;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Sehna kilims, 278.
+
+  Seljukian Turks, effect on art, 26;
+    powerful in Asia Minor, 27;
+    overthrow by Genghis Khan, 78;
+    invasion of Southern Persia by, 90;
+    monuments in Armenia of, 91;
+    dominion in Persia of, 103;
+    Konieh surrendered to, 181.
+
+  Selvage, weft selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    mixed selvage described, 56.
+
+  Serapi rugs, 285;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 148, 149;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Shah Abbas pattern, 198, 206.
+
+  Shemakha, city of, 214.
+
+  Shemakha rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+   Rugs described, 216, 217;
+      border-stripes, 228.
+
+  Shield of David. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Shiites, 58;
+    animal designs permitted by, 72;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110.
+
+  Shiraz, wool of, 31;
+    city of, 115.
+
+  Shiraz rugs, 100, 286, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    latch-hooks in, 67;
+    resemblance of Niris rugs to, 119;
+    pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, 201;
+    wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, 217.
+    Rugs described, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+    border stripes, 158;
+    saddle-bags, 117.
+
+  Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Shirvan rugs, 101, 290, 292, 293, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, 117;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    pattern of Chichis resembling that of, 207;
+    geometric design of Bakus seen in, 211;
+    some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, 225.
+    Rugs described, 212, 213, 214;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231.
+    Kilims, 278.
+
+  Shusha, 224.
+
+  Shusha rugs, 101, 290.
+    Rugs described, 224.
+
+  Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, 49.
+
+  Silk, used for weaving, 33;
+    indigenous to Asia, 33;
+    cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, 247;
+    used in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Yezd rugs, 115;
+    in Hamadans, 122;
+    in Kashans, 128;
+    in Sehnas, 134, 135;
+    in Ghiordes, 178;
+    in Hereke rugs, 181;
+    in Kaisariyeh rugs, 190;
+    in Royal Bokharas, 236.
+
+  Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, 87;
+    made at Kashan, 128.
+
+  Sindh, 255, 259.
+
+  Sindh rugs described, 259.
+
+  Sirab, village of, 148.
+
+  Sivas, Seljukian gate at, 170;
+    city of, 188.
+
+  Sivas rugs described, 188, 189.
+
+  Smyrna, 164, 175, 176;
+    Yuruks at, 191.
+
+  Smyrna rugs, 101;
+    Broussa rugs compared with those of, 181;
+    Indian rugs compared with those of, 254.
+    Rugs described, 176.
+
+  Solyman, King, the ring of, 66;
+    pomegranates cultivated in days of, 69;
+    his emblem of an eight-pointed star, 158.
+
+  Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, 28;
+    weavers taken to Asia Minor by, 94, 175.
+
+  Soumak rugs, 290, 292;
+    weave of, 47;
+    designs of cross in, 67;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91, 209;
+    Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, 203;
+    patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 214, 215, 216;
+    border stripes, 228, 230.
+
+  Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, 231.
+
+  South Kensington Museum, 15, 83, 259.
+
+  Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, 25.
+
+  Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.
+
+  Spindle, 34, 35.
+
+  Spinning, 34, 35.
+
+  Spring of Chosroes carpet described, 76.
+
+  Srinagar, 70, 255.
+
+  Srinagar rugs described, 255.
+
+  Stebbing, Edward, cited, 82;
+    quoted, 83, 84.
+
+  St. Sophia, 19, 28.
+
+  Star design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, 278.
+
+  Strabo, 74.
+
+  Stripes. _See_ Border.
+
+  Suj-Bulak, town of, 150.
+
+  Suj-Bulak rugs, 286.
+    Rugs described, 150, 151.
+
+  Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sultanabad, 129, 131, 132.
+
+  Sultanabad rugs, 286;
+      Indian rugs compared with those of, 254, 256.
+    Rugs described, 131.
+
+  Sumach used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Sumerians, 23.
+
+  Sung dynasty, 266.
+
+  Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, 58, 72, 91, 99, 165, 254.
+
+  Swastika. Illustrated, 291. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Symbols in colours and designs, 18, 19, 20, 58, 59, 72.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tabriz, 136, 145, 148, 151, 227;
+    captured by Solyman the Magnificent, 28, 94;
+    dyers from, 40;
+    an important art centre, 89;
+    a mart for rugs, 99;
+    Herat carpets in hall of governor at, 106.
+
+  Tabriz rugs, 286, 287, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 55;
+    Chinese cloud-band in, 67;
+    medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, 149.
+    Rugs described, 145, 146.
+
+  Taj Mahal, 94, 257.
+
+  Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, 83.
+
+  Tamara, Queen, 197, 198.
+
+  Tamarind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Tamasp, Shah, 28, 82, 169;
+    Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, 84;
+    silk rugs made during reign of, 87;
+    Herat an important art centre during time of, 89;
+    Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, 145.
+
+  Tamerlane, 172, 254;
+    Mongols united by, 27;
+    Ispahan sacked by, 111;
+    artists gathered at Samarkand by, 234;
+    Samarkand made capital by, 246;
+    Multan captured by, 257.
+
+  Tang dynasty, 266.
+
+  Tanjore district, 259.
+
+  Taoist symbols, 271.
+
+  Tao-Kwang, 272. Rugs described, 272.
+
+  “Tapis de l’Asie Centrale” quoted, 233.
+
+  Tartars, 26, 220;
+    Turkestan conquered by, 234.
+
+  Tartary, 31, 32.
+
+  Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.
+
+  Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, 290, 292, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91;
+    long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of, 141;
+    sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 208, 209, 210;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tcherkess tribes, 209.
+
+  Teheran, 138;
+    caravans to Meshed from, 110.
+
+  Teheran rugs described, 154, 155.
+
+  Tekke, derivation of name, 238.
+
+  Tekke rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of, 235;
+    similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, 242;
+    designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of, 244.
+    Rugs described, 238, 239, 240;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Terek valley, 207, 208.
+
+  Terminalia citrina used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, 26;
+    mart for rugs, 99;
+    caravans from Tabriz to, 145;
+    capital of Georgia, 217.
+
+  Tiflis rugs, 298;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53;
+    resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of, 219.
+    Rugs described, 217, 218;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tiger skin pattern, 267.
+
+  Timurids, invasion of, 103, 136;
+    designs due to, 80, 166.
+
+  Titian, 16.
+
+  Toledo, 17.
+
+  Toon, 108.
+
+  Trebizond, 145, 163.
+
+  Turanian races, geometric designs among, 62.
+
+  Turkish Kilims, 280.
+
+  Turmeric used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Turtle border, 121, 132, 157;
+    probable origin of, 71, 79.
+
+  Tuz Gul, lake, 187, 190.
+
+  Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Type characteristics, not invariable, v;
+    term defined, 107.
+
+
+  U
+
+  Urumiah lake, 150, 155, 224.
+
+  Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, 31.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valonia used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Value of antique carpets, 15, 16, 304.
+
+  Vambery, Prof., cited, 241.
+
+  Van lake, 141, 152, 224.
+
+  Vandykes. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Vellore, 259, 261.
+
+  Vellore rugs described, 261.
+
+  Victoria and Albert Museum, 93.
+
+  Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, 80, 259.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Warangal, 259, 262.
+
+  Warangal rugs described, 262.
+
+  Warp, arrangement on loom, 46;
+    characteristics of, 51, 52;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Washing, materials for weaving, 33, 34, 36;
+    artificial, 300, 301.
+
+  Weaving described, 46, 47;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  “Wedding of the Foundling,” 92.
+
+  Weft, arrangement of, 47;
+    technical characteristics of, 52, 53, 54, 55.
+
+  Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, 181.
+
+  Williams, C. F., 78, 79, 93.
+
+  Whistler cited, 17.
+
+  Wise men of the East, 127.
+
+  Wool, of the camel, 30, 32, 124, 153, 249;
+    of the goat, 30, 31, 142, 241, 245, 249;
+    of sheep, 30, 31;
+    of the yak, 30, 33;
+    spinning, 33;
+    washing, 33, 36.
+
+
+  X
+
+  Xenophon, 99, 140, 181.
+
+  Xerxes, 115.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yak’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Yaprak, 175.
+
+  Yarkand, 247.
+
+  Yarkand rugs, 234, 265, 282, 293.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Yarn, 35.
+
+  Yerkes sale, 15, 82, 86, 304, 306.
+
+  Yezd, 110, 115, 222.
+
+  Yezd rugs described, 115.
+
+  Yomud rugs, 205, 233, 235, 293, 304;
+    colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, 243.
+    Rugs described, 241, 242;
+    border stripes, 250, 251;
+    saddle-bags, 242.
+
+  Yomud tribes, 235;
+    robbed of their land by Tekkes, 231, 241.
+
+  Yuan dynasty, 266.
+
+  Yung-ching, 269.
+
+  Yung-ching rugs described, 269, 270;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Yuruk rugs, 289, 290, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 191, 192;
+    border stripes, 194.
+
+  Yuruk tribes, 155, 163, 191, 220.
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zabalpur rugs, 101.
+
+  Zagros Mts., 21, 103, 140.
+
+  Zarafshan river, 245.
+
+  Zoroaster, 18, 58, 210.
+
+  Zoroastrians, 69.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+       Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="cover" id="cover"></a><img src="images/cover.jpg"
+    width="550" height="570" alt="cover" title="cover" />
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE I</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the
+  Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.
+  Described on Pages 83 and 84.</i></p></div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a><a href="images/frontisz.jpg">
+    <img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="550" height="303" alt="SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL" title="" /></a>
+  </div>
+
+  <h4>SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL,<br />
+  Size: 34 ft. 6 in. by 17 ft. 6 in.</h4>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <span class="i4"><span class="smcap">Translation of
+      Inscription.</span></span> <span class="i0">&nbsp;</span>
+      <span class="i0">I have no refuge in the world other than thy
+      threshold,</span> <span class="i0">My head has no protection
+      other than this porchway;</span> <span class="i0">The work of
+      the Slave of this Holy Place.</span> <span class=
+      "i10">Maksoud of Kashan.</span> <span class="i13">946 A. H. =
+      1540 A. D.</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <h4>FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON &amp; CO.,
+  <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>,<br />
+  <small><span class="smcap">34 Wigmore Street, London</span>,
+  W.,</small></h4>
+
+  <h4><small>And Sold by them in 1892 to</small><br />
+  THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON,
+  LONDON.</h4>
+
+  <hr />
+
+  <h1>ORIENTAL RUGS</h1>
+
+  <h3>ANTIQUE AND MODERN</h3>
+
+  <h5>BY</h5>
+
+  <h3>WALTER A. HAWLEY</h3>
+
+  <h5><i>WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR<br />
+  EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS<br />
+  AND FOUR MAPS</i></h5>
+
+  <h5>NEW YORK<br />
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY<br />
+  1927</h5>
+
+  <h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1913<br />
+  By John Lane Company</span></h5>
+
+  <h5>Printed in U. S. A.</h5>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id=
+  "Page_v">v</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>PREFACE</h3>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/s.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="S"
+  title="S" /></span>INCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr.
+  John Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in
+  these fabrics has so largely increased that the author feels
+  warranted in offering this monograph, which aims to treat the
+  subject in a way that will not only appeal to the general reader
+  but be of value to the student.</p>
+
+  <p>In the chapter entitled &ldquo;Rug Weaving Before the XVIII
+  Century&rdquo; is a brief review of some of the notable
+  achievements in this branch of art; and in order that the public
+  may as far as possible have access to the masterpieces described,
+  the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
+  New York have been given unusual prominence. The chapters on
+  &ldquo;How to Distinguish Rugs&rdquo; and on &ldquo;Purchasing
+  Rugs&rdquo; should prove serviceable to those who are collecting
+  or are buying for use; and the chapter on &ldquo;Weaving&rdquo;
+  contains many details which have not previously received from
+  connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.</p>
+
+  <p>The descriptions of all but the least important classes of
+  rugs in the Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic
+  groups include not only a general statement of their most
+  striking features, but also a technical analysis that is termed
+  &ldquo;Type Characteristics.&rdquo; It should be understood,
+  however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but are
+  remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+  acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove
+  valuable to every owner of a rug as a means for its
+  identification.</p>
+
+  <p>It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance
+  received by the author since he began the study of rugs; for
+  sometimes a mere suggestion has started a line of investigation
+  resulting in interesting discoveries. He has freely consulted
+  well-known authorities, who are quoted in the body of the work;
+  and has received valuable suggestions and assistance from Messrs.
+  T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George Harootunian and
+  Frank Loftus, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id=
+  "Page_vi">vi</a></span> Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson, of
+  New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of
+  Tabriz; and P. de Andrea &amp; Co., of Constantinople. He
+  gratefully acknowledges the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams,
+  of Norristown, Penn., and James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to
+  study their valuable collections; and the permission of Dr.
+  Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of Decorative Arts in the
+  Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the carpets of the
+  museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+  particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors
+  and firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for
+  illustrations: Miss Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses
+  Palache, and Messrs. Nathan Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa
+  Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E.
+  L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C. Merritt, of Pasadena,
+  Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C. F. Williams,
+  of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+  Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran &amp; Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.;
+  Messrs. B. Altman &amp; Co., Benguiat &amp; Keresey, Wm.
+  Baumgarten &amp; Co., Jones &amp; Brindisi, Jos. Wild &amp; Co.,
+  W. &amp; J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of New York City. He
+  is also indebted to Vincent Robinson &amp; Co., Ltd., of London,
+  for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+  owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+  Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of
+  the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.</p>
+
+  <p class="name"><span class="smcap">Walter A. Hawley.</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">New York</span>, June, 1913.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id=
+  "Page_vii">vii</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"><small>CHAPTER</small></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class=
+      "smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">II</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Physical Features and
+      History of Rug-producing Lands</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">III</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Materials</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Dyeing</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">V</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Weaving</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Designs and
+      Symbols</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Rug Weaving before the
+      Eighteenth Century</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Classification of
+      Modern Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IX</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Persian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">X</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Asia Minor
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Caucasian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Central Asiatic
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Indian
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XIV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Chinese
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Kilims</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XVI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">How to Distinguish
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XVII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Purchasing
+      Rugs</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_295">295</a></td>
+    </tr>
+     <tr>
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id=
+  "Page_viii">viii</a></span></p>
+<hr />
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id=
+  "Page_ix">ix</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Coloured Plates</span></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TOC">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"><span class="smcap">Plate</span></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10">&nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of
+      Ardebil</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href=
+      "#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a><br />
+      <span class=
+      "smcap"><small>Opposite&nbsp;Page</small></span></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">II</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Oushak Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pii">40</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">III</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Mosul Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#piii">66</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IV</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bergamo Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#piv">102</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">V</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pv">130</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Royal Persian Garden Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><i>Between&nbsp;pages&nbsp;<a href=
+      "#pvi">160&nbsp;and&nbsp;161</a></i></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ladik Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pvii">190</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">VIII</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Soumak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pviii">210</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">IX</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Samarkand Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pix">240</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">X</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kang-hi Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#px">270</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">XI</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pxi">300</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Halftone Engravings</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Halftone Engravings" border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">Plate</td>
+      <td class="right5">1</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Khorassan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p01">22</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">2</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Meshed Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p02">26</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">3</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kirman Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p03">30</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">4</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Shiraz Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p04">34</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">5</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Niris Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p05">36</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">6</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Feraghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p06">42</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">7</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Feraghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p07">46</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">8</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Hamadan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p08">52</a></td>
+     </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">9</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sarouk Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p09">56</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">10</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sarabend Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p10">58</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">11</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Carpet from Northwestern Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p11">64</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">12</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Carpet from Northwestern Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p12">68</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">13</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Compartment Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p13">70</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">14</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p14">72</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">15</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p15">76</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">16</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Persian Animal Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p16">78</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">17</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p17">80</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">18</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">So-called Ispahan</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p18">84</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">19</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Armenian Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p19">86</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">20</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Asia Minor Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix
+      Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p20">88</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">21</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans
+      Holbein</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p21">92</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">22</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id=
+      "Page_x">x</a></span>Oushak Carpet</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p22">94</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+     <td class="right5">23</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Sehna Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p23"> 98</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+     <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+     <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Persia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m1">104</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">24</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bijar Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p24">106</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">25</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kermanshah Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p25">110</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">26</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p26">114</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">27</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Gorevan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p27">118</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">28</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Bergamo Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p28">122</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">29</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p29">126</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">30</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Ghiordes Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p30">132</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">31</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kulah Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p31">136</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">32</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Melez Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p32">140</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">33</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Melez Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p33">144</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">34</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Rhodian Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p34">148</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">35</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Konieh Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p35">152</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">36</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p36">154</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">E</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pe">156</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pf">158</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Asia Minor</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m2">164</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">37</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Anatolian Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p37">166</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">38</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Mudjar Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p38">168</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">39</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Daghestan Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p39">172</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">40</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kabistan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p40">176</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">41</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kuba Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p41">180</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">42</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Chichi Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p42">184</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">43</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Tcherkess Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p43">188</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">G</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pg">192</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">H</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#ph">194</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Caucasia</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m3">198</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">44</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Baku Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p44">200</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">45</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Shirvan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p45">202</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">46</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Soumak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p46">204</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">47</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kazak Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p47">208</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">48</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kazak Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p48">212</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">49</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Karabagh Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p49">214</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">50</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Gengha Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p50">218</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">51</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Royal Bokhara Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p51">222</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">52</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Princess Bokhara Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p52">224</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">I</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pi">226</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">J</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pj">228</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+       <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">K</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pk">230</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Map of Turkestan</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#m4">234</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">53</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p53">236</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">54</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Rug with Pind&eacute;
+      Pattern</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p54">238</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">55</td>
+
+      <td class="left80"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi"
+      id="Page_xi">xi</a></span>Turkoman Rug of the Salor
+      Tribes</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p55">244</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">56</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Yomud Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p56">248</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">L</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+      Central Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pl">250</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">57</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beshire Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p57">254</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">58</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beshire Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p58">258</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">59</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Afghan Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p59">260</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">60</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Beluchistan Prayer Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p60">264</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">61</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Turkoman Saddle-bags</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p61">268</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">M</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Medallions in Chinese Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pm">272</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+<td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+      <td class="right5">N</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+      Chinese Rugs. 274</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pn">272</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">62</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Srinagar Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p62">278</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">63</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">XVIII Century Chinese Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p63">282</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">64</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p64">286</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">65</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Keen-lung Rug</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p65">292</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right5 padr1">&rdquo;</td>
+
+<td class="right5">66</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Kurdish Prayer Kilim</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#p66">296</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Black and White Engravings</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Black and White Engravings">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10"></td>
+
+      <td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate A</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">An Upright Loom</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pa">45</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate B</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Technicalities of Weaving</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pb">49</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate C</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and
+      Central Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pc">61</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate D</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#pd">63</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="right10">Plate O</td>
+
+      <td class="left80">General Designs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#po">291</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4><span class="smcap">Charts</span></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Charts">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Periods when Antique Carpets were
+      made</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#c1">96</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Persian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian
+      Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">Technicalities in the weave of Central
+      Asiatic Rugs</td>
+
+      <td class="right10"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id=
+  "Page_15">15</a></span></p>
+
+  <h2>ORIENTAL RUGS</h2>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+  <h4>INTRODUCTION</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/i.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="I"
+  title="I" /></span>T is not altogether surprising that in a most
+  materialistic age many of a race distinguished more for its
+  utilitarian than artistic accomplishments should fail to see in
+  Oriental carpets high artistic expression; yet during the last
+  twenty years choice specimens have been sold for sums which not
+  only are very large, but show a tendency to increase with each
+  succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the Ardebil
+  carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+  exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art,
+  was purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a
+  length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen
+  and a half, the price of &pound;2500, which was the sum paid, was
+  at the rate of twenty dollars per square foot. At an auction sale
+  in New York in 1910,<a name="FNanchor_1" id=
+  "FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> a
+  woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters
+  wide was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four
+  hundred and ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug
+  seven feet and two inches long by six feet and four inches wide
+  was sold for the sum of $35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred
+  and thirty dollars per square foot. As it was the general opinion
+  of connoisseurs that the prices paid for these two rugs were low,
+  and as it is well known that these rugs are not more valuable
+  than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable to assume
+  that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare that
+  at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square
+  foot is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum
+  of one thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some
+  antique silk rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id=
+  "Page_16">16</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of
+  the value of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for
+  wear than new rugs that can be bought of an American factory at
+  twenty cents per square foot, they might with reason reply that
+  they are works of art, woven in those days when Michelangelo,
+  Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in their studios; that
+  they are as scarce as the paintings of these masters; and that
+  they might justly be compared with them in beauty and artistic
+  execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes it
+  impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with
+  a brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines,
+  scrolls, and arabesques was often represented by lines that in
+  abstract beauty of form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had
+  ever produced from his palette colours which equalled in
+  brilliant sheen and marvellously changing hue those of the woven
+  masterpieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with
+  those art critics of Europe and America who assert that in an
+  aesthetic sense the people of the Orient are cultured to a
+  standard beyond the comprehension of the Western world, should
+  remember that the taste for any kind of art is based on
+  convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+  Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for
+  paintings and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the
+  highest expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes
+  greater delight in his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven
+  fabrics. There is, too, a marked difference in treatment. The
+  Occidental demands that in art &ldquo;everything should be stated
+  with the utmost fullness of a tedious realism before he can grasp
+  its meaning&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_2" id=
+  "FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and
+  fails to recognise the more subtle beauty of various forms of
+  Oriental art. The Oriental, on the other hand, is far less
+  realistic and is better satisfied if his subject suggests
+  abstract qualities that depend for their fullest appreciation on
+  those quickening experiences that at different times have touched
+  the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which prevails
+  in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal spirit
+  is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+  and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the
+  highest aim of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is
+  largely this difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for
+  the difference in taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate
+  these rugs must view <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id=
+  "Page_17">17</a></span>them not only with an eye trained to see
+  the beautiful harmonies of colour and design, but with the
+  artistic temperament of the Oriental.</p>
+
+  <p>By study and cultivation the European as well as the American
+  is growing to value more highly the products of Oriental art.
+  When the old sea captains carried on trade with Japan, they
+  imported into Europe large quantities of Imari ware, which the
+  Japanese purposely decorated with crude and vulgar colours to
+  meet the less refined taste of the Europeans, who regarded many
+  of them as fine specimens of ceramic art and studiously copied
+  them in their factories. But so great has been the change in
+  artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally as
+  objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese
+  Makimonos, in which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the
+  essential thought, formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans
+  as the paintings of semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as
+  did Whistler, that they are often the products of great genius
+  and that they express thought and feeling with marvellous power.
+  There has been a similar growth in the appreciation of Oriental
+  rugs. Even within the last generation this growth has been
+  apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old worn pieces
+  which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+  dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of
+  the many who, too late, have learned that to-day they can
+  scarcely be bought at any price.</p>
+
+  <p>The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the
+  better we realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and
+  learn to value the products of any one field. Japan has awakened
+  the admiration of the highest art critics for its bronzes, some
+  of which exceed in size any other castings in the world, and for
+  its netsuk&eacute;s, which are the smallest of carvings. Its
+  blades of steel are superior to those of Damascus and Toledo; and
+  its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its artistic
+  products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+  country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention
+  of silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in
+  porcelain, that was manufactured even in those days when Caesar
+  was marching with his legions against the barbarous races of
+  Central and Northern Europe, that China has surpassed the world
+  and set a standard that probably will never again be reached. In
+  the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges stand temples,
+  erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+  be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id=
+  "Page_18">18</a></span>fore which the beholder, even if familiar
+  with the wonders of St. Peter&rsquo;s, is lost in admiration of
+  the intricate delicacy of detail, the majesty of proportions, and
+  the gorgeous splendour of colour with which some of the spirit of
+  the East is expressed in material form. When we realise that in
+  these different lines of artistic effort the genius of Asia has
+  rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become the
+  better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven
+  fabrics, in weaving which every class of every country of Asia
+  has been engaged from time immemorial, are to be regarded as
+  works of the highest art.</p>
+
+  <p>However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is
+  principally in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest
+  and admiration. The colours which are derived from vegetable or
+  animal dyes grow more mellow and beautiful with passing years,
+  and applied to wools of finest texture acquire a lustre and
+  softness which in the choicest specimens are like the radiant
+  throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn day.
+  The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+  pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind
+  with its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none
+  other. Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect
+  harmony of tone. It is in this richness, suggestiveness, and
+  harmony that the greatest artistic value lies.</p>
+
+  <p>That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they
+  do not exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen
+  perception of music, is a faculty granted to one person but
+  denied to another. Even to those who take delight in colour there
+  are different degrees of appreciation. &ldquo;The fact is,&rdquo;
+  said John Ruskin, &ldquo;we none of us enough appreciate the
+  nobleness and sacredness of colour.&rdquo; But as the ear can be
+  cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be
+  cultivated to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate
+  the beauties of Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this
+  faculty to its fullest extent.</p>
+
+  <p>And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs
+  interest us. They suggest something of the life and religious
+  thought of the people who made them. Some seem redolent with the
+  fragrance of flowers, others reflect the spirit of desert wastes
+  and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in the colours and designs of
+  some appear the symbols of that mysticism with which the minds of
+  the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to commune with the
+  unseen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id=
+  "Page_19">19</a></span> forces of the universe were imbued; and
+  though the original meaning of many of these symbols has been
+  forgotten, the study of others leads to a better understanding of
+  the life-thought of the weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has
+  come the highest expression of many forms of artistic
+  achievement, and that the Western mind is now assigning to its
+  woven fabrics their proper place in the galleries of art, we may
+  begin the study of Oriental rugs with the assurance that the
+  further it is pursued the greater will be the appreciation and
+  delight. It will take us among strange and interesting people,
+  and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+  Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to
+  the land of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days
+  is reflected in tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the
+  Western world grows old, there will rise again from crumbling
+  ruins another nation that will revive the poetic and artistic
+  genius of the East with all the majesty and creative power of the
+  past.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id=
+  "Page_20">20</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+  <h4>PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like
+  every other artistic impulse, is subject to the influence of
+  physical environment. This influence is not alone that to which
+  an individual weaver has been subjected, but is the transmitted
+  effect of the accumulated experiences of many generations. It
+  appears in the colours which simulate tones displayed by varying
+  phases of nature, and also in the designs or symbols which,
+  derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+  partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly
+  imaginative and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental
+  forces. Moreover, the quality of material used depends almost
+  exclusively on the climate and physical conditions of countries
+  where it is produced. Accordingly, the artistic and essential
+  characteristics of rugs are better understood by a knowledge of
+  the salient physical features of the countries where they are
+  woven.<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p>
+
+  <p>The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs
+  are China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan,
+  Caucasia, and Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may
+  be regarded as a geographic unit; and though there is much
+  diversity of detail, there is also much in common. From near the
+  western boundary of Asia Minor a vast plateau stretches eastward
+  into Central Asia, increasing in altitude towards the east.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id=
+  "Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three
+  thousand feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and
+  crosses the northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand
+  to five thousand feet. Continuing eastward through Southern
+  Turkestan and Afghanistan it increases in altitude until it has
+  risen to nearly twelve thousand feet in the lofty table-lands of
+  Central Asia, where it begins to descend as it extends farther
+  into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of this plateau a
+  spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian seas, to
+  form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+  of about seven thousand feet.</p>
+
+  <p>The general topographic features of this plateau include great
+  stretches of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which
+  there is no drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On
+  almost every side it is bounded by mountain chains and is
+  intersected by transverse ridges that lift still higher peaks
+  where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the deserts and large
+  parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so that there
+  are but few important river courses.</p>
+
+  <p>The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively
+  small, and consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys,
+  through which flow perennial streams. From time immemorial these
+  streams have been used for irrigation, and the inhabitants of the
+  districts have prospered by abundant harvests. In one or another
+  of these valleys have been built the principal cities, within the
+  walls of which were imposing temples that stimulated religious
+  fervour, schools of learning to quicken the intellect, and
+  gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds delighted
+  the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+  religion, and art received their highest development. In them
+  lived the most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and
+  the products of the loom were of the finest quality.</p>
+
+  <p>Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated
+  tracts consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these
+  tracts are naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at
+  present are used only for pasturage, and over them numberless
+  tribes of fierce nomads drive their flocks of sheep. On the other
+  hand, where the land has no drainage to the sea, so that the
+  streams and rivers that flow into it empty into small lakes or
+  are finally absorbed, the soil becomes impregnated with alkali
+  deposited from the waters, and the grass is<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> scanty.
+  There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+  animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the
+  rain falls only during a few months of the year, and more
+  abundantly in the higher altitudes, so that the nomads are
+  constantly searching for fresh pasturage, and moving from the
+  lowlands, where the grass dies after the rainy season, to the
+  higher altitudes, from which they return again at the approach of
+  winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle for
+  pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.</p>
+
+  <p>The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to
+  place, the strife resulting from the difference in quality of
+  pasture, have affected the temperament and character of the
+  people. The boundless stretches of land, the clear atmosphere,
+  the burning desert sands, the delicate mirage, and the starry
+  heavens, have made men hospitable, thoughtful, devotional;
+  constant wanderings have made them independent; the struggle for
+  pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These qualities are
+  reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which lack the
+  high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large proportion
+  of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and fire
+  worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the
+  same as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old
+  pieces, woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend
+  less harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but
+  they frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer
+  seen in the modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the
+  thoughts and feelings of a people, there are no rugs from the
+  Orient more worthy of study than the rare old pieces woven by
+  nomadic tribes.</p>
+
+  <p>Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign
+  enemies, as well as political struggles at home, have had an
+  important influence on all art. It will be of interest,
+  therefore, to briefly review the histories of Central and
+  Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made for over three
+  thousand years, in order to understand the different racial
+  influences which have affected their artistic development.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p01" id="p01"></a><img src="images/plate01.jpg"
+    width="550" height="871" alt="Khorassan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 1. Khorassan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and
+  Euphrates dwelt in the remote past a race of unknown origin
+  called Sumerians, and to the north of them lived another people
+  known as the Accadians. These races built canals, cultivated the
+  soil, established towns, and invented the cuneiform writing. They
+  lived in harmony <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id=
+  "Page_23">23</a></span>with one another, and continued to prosper
+  until about 3000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when the
+  Semitic race of the Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land,
+  subdued them. The Chaldees, however, allowed the conquered races
+  to retain part of their lands, adopted their civilisation, and
+  about the year 2500 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> built the
+  city of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim
+  was laid by the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the
+  surrounding country, by developing its trade and commerce, the
+  Babylonians became a wealthy and powerful nation; and by
+  encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they became noted for
+  their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and knowledge of
+  mathematics and astronomy.</p>
+
+  <p>About the year 2000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> a number
+  of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham, migrated with their flocks
+  to the upper valleys of the Tigris and founded Nineveh. A century
+  later the land occupied by colonists who settled about Nineveh
+  was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and in power until,
+  in 1300 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, it gained its first
+  victory over Babylon; and during the next four hundred years,
+  though meeting with occasional reverses, it extended its rule
+  over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria, and received tribute
+  even from Egypt. It thus became the first great conquering power
+  in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of Nineveh,
+  surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+  supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared
+  from the land now known as Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were
+  inhabited by Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern
+  Persia, was similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin.
+  Subsequently, but at an exceedingly remote period, from the
+  region about the Oxus river in Western Asia two branches of the
+  great Aryan family migrated to Iran. One of these, which settled
+  in the northern part, was known as the Medes; the other, which
+  settled in the southern part, was known as the Persians. Both
+  Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the course of
+  centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the first
+  to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+  viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606
+  <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> and destroyed it. Babylon now
+  became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and under Nebuchadnezzar
+  it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred square miles, and
+  surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These walls enclosed
+  parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon be<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>came famous
+  for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.</p>
+
+  <p>While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in
+  Iran. Cyrus, leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against
+  the Medes and conquered them. But not satisfied with making the
+  Persians rulers of Iran he extended his conquests westward, and
+  in the year 538 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, by diverting the
+  waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his banquet hall
+  and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of all
+  Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+  Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year
+  331 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when Alexander the Great
+  defeated their armies under Darius, the Persian Empire melted
+  away.</p>
+
+  <p>Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving
+  first took definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and
+  Nineveh, of the Medes and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar,
+  and Cyrus, where a few remaining monuments attest the delicate
+  textiles of those early days, that in more recent ages have been
+  woven the most perfect carpets of which there is any
+  knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p>During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor,
+  Caucasia, and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and
+  Romans, to whom petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and
+  secure in their mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance.
+  About the year 226 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> an able
+  leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+  Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) and his grandson Chosroes II
+  (590-628 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) ruled over the country
+  from the Oxus on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and
+  from India on the east to Assyria on the west. This was a period
+  of prosperity and luxury, the glory of which continued until the
+  middle of the VII Century, when it was overthrown by a new power
+  rising from a most unexpected quarter.</p>
+
+  <p>In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee,
+  dates, and myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land
+  hitherto almost unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the
+  religion which, suited to the temperament and desires of the
+  Bedouins, united them into a fanatic, militant body of
+  conquerors. After his death his successors, known as the Caliphs,
+  extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly overran
+  Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+  into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+  resistance.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id=
+  "Page_25">25</a></span> From the Greeks, by whom they were known
+  as the Saracens, they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading
+  Egypt, conquered it after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria.
+  A little later the Arabs became masters of Northern Africa, and
+  settling there intermarried with the native races. Near the
+  Straits of Gibraltar their African descendants, known as the
+  Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711 they vanquished a
+  powerful army that opposed them. During the following year they
+  subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+  Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the
+  infantry of Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of
+  the most decisive battles of history, they were defeated with
+  terrible slaughter and Christian Europe was saved.</p>
+
+  <p>These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political
+  and religious significance, but also an important influence on
+  art at a time when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism.
+  Fond of magnificence and luxury, the Caliphs founded great
+  capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and Spain, and built palaces that
+  have histories which sound like fairy tales. Bagdad on the banks
+  of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred canals, one hundred and
+  five bridges, and nearly a million people, with its countless
+  baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace, where was
+  collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+  possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon
+  states that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury,
+  hung thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which
+  were of silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay
+  twenty-two thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise,
+  the Caliphs surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of
+  which, unfortunately, but few traces now exist; but the Castle of
+  the Alhambra still remains as a powerful reminder of their taste
+  and artistic genius. It is largely to the influence of this race
+  that were due many of the beautiful Spanish rugs such as Queen
+  Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England from Cordova and
+  Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover, in some of
+  the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during the
+  XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic
+  art.</p>
+
+  <p>For about five centuries the militant power of these
+  Mohammedans was dominant in Southwestern Asia when another
+  conquering race appeared. The great wall of China, which was
+  built over two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id=
+  "Page_26">26</a></span> hundred years before Christ by the famous
+  Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions of the Tartars,
+  turned westward many wandering hordes from the more fertile
+  pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+  was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the
+  Irtish and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in
+  Turkestan. Many centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes
+  pressing westward and to reach fresh pastures, different branches
+  of them migrated southward and westward. About the year 1000
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> one of these branches known as
+  the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek
+  Shah, in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it
+  extended its power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it
+  destroyed the capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants.
+  To this Turkoman race should probably be accredited the earliest
+  Mongolian influence on Persian textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were
+  ranging that part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of
+  Gobi in search of pasture and water. One of their number gathered
+  about him a few followers, and by his own genius gained the
+  ascendency over his tribes. He then allied himself with another
+  powerful tribe, and reducing to obedience all the Mongolians who
+  dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in 1206, in the presence of
+  his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis Khan. After becoming
+  the ruler of millions of nomads of the great central plateau of
+  Asia and conquering part of China, which was then enjoying a
+  period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western Asia.
+  Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+  learning that some of the Sultan&rsquo;s garrison were concealed
+  he ordered the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered
+  after three days&rsquo; siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants
+  were slaughtered. Herat appeased his anger by opening its gates.
+  Even his death did not stop the ravages of the Mongol horde that
+  captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the Tigris and
+  Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+  grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital
+  in the province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for
+  over a century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p02" id="p02"></a><img src="images/plate02.jpg"
+    width="550" height="641" alt="Meshed Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 2. Meshed
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was
+  felt in Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local
+  art by the settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia
+  Minor during the early part of the XI Century, it was
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id=
+  "Page_27">27</a></span>inappreciable as compared with that of
+  Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+  Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the
+  C&aelig;sars, and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was
+  plundered for forty days, and other important cities of Asia
+  Minor and Persia similarly treated, there was no longer the same
+  incentive to work, so that art for a time languished. But in some
+  cities the artistic spirit of the people prevailed over the loss
+  of independence, and the more skilled workmen were encouraged by
+  their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the Persian
+  carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+  Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+  advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore
+  not surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art
+  has been recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in
+  the southwestern part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known
+  as the &ldquo;key pattern,&rdquo; as well as other less familiar
+  designs of distinctly Mongolian origin, appeared for the first
+  time in some of the carpets and metal work of this period.</p>
+
+  <p>Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great
+  battle-grounds of the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and
+  XIII Centuries not only Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman
+  Turks under Murad and Bajazet, rose in influence until all Asia
+  Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, was subject to them. But
+  still another power from the far East was to overrun Asia and
+  divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.</p>
+
+  <p>Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol
+  hordes were again united and again attempted the conquest of the
+  world. From the walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from
+  the Steppes of Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious
+  armies overcame all opposition. Never was conqueror more
+  rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At Ispahan, seventy thousand
+  inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste and the people
+  were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when taken, a
+  pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a monument
+  to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+  of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks
+  were defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of
+  Mongol invasion receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned
+  to his capital at Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years
+  of his life by surrounding himself with a brilliant court
+  and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id=
+  "Page_28">28</a></span> by building palaces and temples, which he
+  adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious barbarities
+  he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+  predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+  Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV
+  Century European travellers saw innumerable art treasures,
+  including carpets of wonderful workmanship and beauty.</p>
+
+  <p>The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India.
+  This country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the
+  Aryan race, which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained
+  dominant until the VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans
+  invaded it, and were still in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed
+  the mountains and attacked Delhi. After the lapse of more than a
+  hundred years his descendants, Baber, Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose
+  to power. The magnificence of their courts and the splendour of
+  the temples which they built stimulated Indian art; and under the
+  instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to settle in
+  that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+  weaving.</p>
+
+  <p>With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in
+  Persia and Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed
+  in quick succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the
+  church of St. Sophia became a mosque.</p>
+
+  <p>After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of
+  the Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new
+  dynasty in Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid
+  periods in its history. Within a few years victories extended his
+  empire from the Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus
+  to the Persian gulf. This was the land of ancient Iran, over
+  which from his court at Ardebil he ruled until his death. In the
+  early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp, which lasted from 1524 to
+  1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the Turkish ruler,
+  Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from the
+  Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he
+  captured Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and
+  Georgia.<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> But the lost territory was
+  soon regained and the new Persian capital was established at
+  Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of the
+  greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id=
+  "Page_29">29</a></span>monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah
+  Abbas the Great who, after ten years of internal strife,
+  succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia, restoring
+  tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his country
+  from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such as
+  it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to
+  Ispahan, where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he
+  encouraged art even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study,
+  a number of the most skilled artists of Persia. These in time
+  returned and exerted an influence that appeared in the more
+  elaborate designs of carpets of a subsequent period. It is also
+  probable that he rendered valuable assistance to Akbar of India
+  in founding carpet-weaving in that country. He ruled from 1586 to
+  1628. This period, during which America was a wilderness and
+  England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with the
+  feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+  art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art
+  decadence began.</p>
+
+  <p>In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of
+  years ruled it with horrible cruelty; but they were finally
+  defeated by Nadir Shah, who captured Herat in 1731, extended his
+  dominion into Georgia, and recovered some of the lost territory
+  from the Turkish Empire in the West. After his death the
+  sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in time it was confined
+  to its present limits.</p>
+
+  <p>It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in
+  history the southwestern part of Asia has been subject to
+  invasion, and to constant struggles between the different races
+  of the East for supremacy. Even from the desert of Gobi, the
+  flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the deserts of Arabia have
+  poured forth armies to devastate the land. One victorious power
+  after another has extended its sway from the banks of the Indus
+  to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+  present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which
+  can be understood only by taking into consideration the value of
+  these racial influences that have contributed to it some of its
+  most interesting and subtle charms.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id=
+  "Page_30">30</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+  <h4>THE MATERIALS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>S was the case with the earliest shepherd
+  weavers, many nomads living in unfrequented parts of Asia spin
+  the wool taken from their own flocks, then colour it with dyes
+  brewed from roots and herbs that they have personally gathered,
+  and finally weave it according to well-known patterns into
+  fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the manufacture of
+  an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the shepherds
+  the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after colouring,
+  they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+  patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps
+  involving the industries of producing the different materials and
+  the crafts of dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a
+  full understanding of any Oriental woven fabric.</p>
+
+  <p>The materials that were formerly used in weaving were
+  generally of animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and
+  camels. To a more limited extent silk and cotton also were used,
+  and occasionally hair of the yak, cow, and even human hair. In
+  later years, when there arose a western demand for eastern
+  fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to produce an article
+  as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger quantities
+  of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+  materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and
+  are affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility,
+  they acquire qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly
+  local character.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+    <a name="p03" id="p03"></a><img src="images/plate03.jpg"
+    width="300" height="600" alt="Plate 3. Kirman Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 3. Kirman
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least
+  half the Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To
+  be sure, in Japan the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few
+  of the districts of Asia Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton
+  or silk; and in districts where the camel is still a beast of
+  burden its wool and fine hair are often substituted for other
+  kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>countries
+  of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is preferred
+  to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+  alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun
+  and twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the
+  remotest times the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham
+  of old, have been shepherds, who followed their calling because
+  over the steppes of Tartary and the great plateaus that extend
+  through Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread
+  vast pasture lands that seem better suited than any other parts
+  of the world for the nourishment of sheep with fine fleeces. In
+  fact, a part of these districts seems to be the natural habitat
+  of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty mountain
+  chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+  Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the
+  &ldquo;Roof of the World,&rdquo; still wander great bands of
+  magnificent native sheep with enormous horns and brownish grey
+  wool, from which it is believed sprang the vast flocks that now
+  browse on every hill and mountain slope of Western Asia.</p>
+
+  <p>Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this
+  native stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep
+  with longer and more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are
+  different grades, as the quality depends in a measure on the
+  climate and pasturage as well as on the care of the sheep. Thus
+  in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some deterioration; but in
+  the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of Western Asia and
+  in the pastures of particular localities the wool is long, fine,
+  and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the flanks
+  of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+  Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+  produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover,
+  the sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by
+  some of the nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only
+  shelter them but cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a
+  soft and silky quality that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in
+  many parts of India, on the other hand, is poor; for not only are
+  the serrations, on which largely depends its value for textile
+  purposes, less numerous than in better varieties, but it is harsh
+  and contains many long hairs that do not well unite with it and
+  that take up very little dye.</p>
+
+  <p>The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet
+  appears in some rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as
+  pile. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id=
+  "Page_32">32</a></span> goats of Kashmir, which live in the cold
+  climate of a table-land three miles above the ocean level,
+  produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it grows near
+  the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+  only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting
+  for the most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next
+  importance and finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat,
+  known to commerce as mohair. Formerly there was not much demand
+  for it, but now, on account of the consideration that it has
+  received in the carpet factories of recent Sultans, it is found
+  in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it grows to an average
+  length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and its soft,
+  lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky and
+  brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+  wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the
+  fleece of the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since
+  it is apt to be coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of
+  the goat mix well with the wool of the sheep. There is, however,
+  a much finer grade growing next to the skin, which may be removed
+  with a knife when it is exposed by combing the longer fleece in a
+  direction reverse to that in which it lies. The tougher grades
+  are preferred to any other material by weavers of the
+  Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+  the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard
+  usage. Goat&rsquo;s hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for
+  warp. Unless mixed with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as
+  it is not sufficiently pliable.</p>
+
+  <p>Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of
+  the camel which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In
+  the tropical countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but
+  in more northern latitudes it yields a crop which increases in
+  quantity and improves in quality as the climate grows colder.
+  Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in most of Persia and Turkestan
+  the yield is small, in the table-lands of Eastern Persia and
+  Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty plateaus of
+  Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool is
+  obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+  moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the
+  older camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is
+  finer and lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what
+  is obtained from the unborn. The best grade has been more highly
+  esteemed than the wool of any other animal, and rugs in which it
+  constitutes the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id=
+  "Page_33">33</a></span> pile are more valuable than those in
+  which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom woven in modern
+  rugs, but dyed wool or goats&rsquo; hair of similar colour is
+  often substituted for it.</p>
+
+  <p>The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the
+  mountain tribes of Tartary, and is never found in any of the
+  choicer grades of rugs. Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow
+  is employed to a limited extent in the pile of nomadic rugs,
+  where it may be distinguished by its coarse and wiry character.
+  In old rugs of which the pile is much worn cows&rsquo; hair will
+  now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle brushes.
+  Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made
+  it possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken
+  advantage of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of
+  time has left no impress is from the fleece of the proverbially
+  despised black sheep. Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus,
+  and even a plum are obtained from different varieties. Likewise a
+  wide range of rich chestnut colours are furnished by the
+  camel.</p>
+
+  <p>It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of
+  his flocks and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of
+  fixed habitations have employed other kinds of material also.
+  Where the sensuous luxury of the East called for magnificent
+  carpets, they were often woven almost entirely of silk, which was
+  easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the mulberry trees that
+  grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern Asia. Silk
+  rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and Persia.
+  For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+  sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely
+  adopted, particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on
+  account of its cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however,
+  almost entirely as warp and weft and rarely as pile that it is
+  used. Though much less durable than wool, its white colour is far
+  less likely to darken with age; yet there is a poorer variety
+  which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a dark colour.</p>
+
+  <p>In the preparation of these different textile materials wool
+  requires the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not
+  washed, and the lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the
+  fact that it is dyed in its naturally greasy state; but in other
+  parts the grease and dirt are carefully removed. This cleansing
+  is a craft that has been transmitted from parent to child, and is
+  practised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id=
+  "Page_34">34</a></span> according to different methods in
+  different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+  abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the
+  water is hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the
+  country, it loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or
+  other chemicals are required to counter-act this unfavourable
+  quality. After the wool has been thoroughly washed it is
+  carefully dried in the sun and open air.</p>
+
+  <p>The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and
+  combing. The sorting consists of the separation of black and
+  light wool, or of an inferior from a better grade; and the
+  picking consists of the removal of burrs or foreign particles.
+  The object of combing is to effect an orderly arrangement of the
+  wool so that it is ready for spinning. One method, corresponding
+  to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between rows of
+  upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+  has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+  method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient,
+  consists of &ldquo;teasing&rdquo; with the cord of a heavy bow,
+  which is suspended or held firmly by the left hand over the wool,
+  while with the right hand the cord is made to vibrate either by
+  striking it with a wooden instrument or plucking it, so that the
+  fibres of wool are separated and assorted by the vibrations.</p>
+
+  <p>When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the
+  distaff and then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the
+  common spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both
+  wool and cotton; in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels
+  of different design and about the height of a man. The natives of
+  districts more remote from civilisation still cling to the
+  primeval spindle, which sometimes consists of no more than a
+  rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a foot in length with
+  a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic tribes of Asia
+  Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+  convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches
+  in length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the
+  linen by twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are
+  similarly attached to these when the stone is suspended and
+  twirled. As the fibres become closely twisted together more
+  fibres are added until on account of the length of the thread
+  thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The thread is then
+  wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so as to
+  leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+  attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id=
+  "Page_35">35</a></span>has been spun, it is removed from the
+  stone and the process begun again.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p04" id="p04"></a><img src="images/plate04.jpg"
+    width="550" height="740" alt="Plate 4. Shiraz Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 4. Shiraz
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily
+  be carried anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half
+  barbaric shepherd following his flock, while he spins with simple
+  distaff and spindle or stone, as did his ancestors thousands of
+  years ago. On the end of the distaff, that rests beneath his left
+  arm, is the ball of wool from which he selects and twists the
+  fibres, while he deftly turns the short spindle or twirls the
+  stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand. The threads
+  spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of small
+  diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+  with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular,
+  and those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest
+  diameter in order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are
+  the most irregular in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the
+  most highly valued by all weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used
+  for yarn, since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore,
+  are twisted together to form a double thread. A simple device
+  used by many nomadic tribes for this purpose consists of two
+  short sticks crossing at right angles, and another piece with end
+  like a crochet needle perpendicular to them. The threads which
+  are attached to this piece pass through a hole at the
+  intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by twirling
+  them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted to
+  make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of
+  a professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never
+  the work of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile
+  of a few rugs such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone
+  is used; whilst for the pile of most rugs the double thread is
+  again doubled, trebled, or quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two,
+  three, or four ply, and even yarn of six ply is sometimes used. A
+  distinction also exists in the manner of twisting together double
+  threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since according to the
+  custom of different tribes they may be twisted so loosely that in
+  the length of an inch they do not describe more than a single
+  revolution or so tightly as to describe several.</p>
+
+  <p>Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was
+  spun in the Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost
+  incredible disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to
+  methods transmitted from father to son and to resist as
+  pernicious <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id=
+  "Page_36">36</a></span> every attempt at innovation that makes a
+  precise analysis of rugs possible. Accordingly, the evenness or
+  unevenness of single threads, the looseness or tightness with
+  which double threads are twisted together to form yarn of
+  different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few
+  of the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of
+  different districts.</p>
+
+  <p>Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the
+  dyer, and in order that it may properly absorb the dye it is
+  often washed and rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is
+  first soaked in warm water and carefully rinsed in cold water. It
+  is then placed in a copper pot or vat containing boiling water to
+  which has been added carbonate or sulphate of soda and potash,
+  and stirred for about an hour. After this thorough cleansing it
+  is again washed very carefully in soft water and thoroughly dried
+  in the sun.</p>
+
+  <p>The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to
+  the materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule,
+  is unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the
+  world, and is prepared by patient races who know little of the
+  value of time. The simple labour required is in itself prosaic
+  enough, yet without a doubt the earlier spinners and weavers,
+  while following their flocks with minds free from all conventions
+  and limitations of art, discerned the elemental forces of nature
+  in all their freshness and power, and from them drew inspiration
+  that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and delicate tracery
+  of the woven carpets.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p05" id="p05"></a><img src="images/plate05.jpg"
+    width="500" height="868" alt="Plate 5. Niris Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 5. Niris
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id=
+  "Page_37">37</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+  <h4>DYEING</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/h.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="H"
+  title="H" /></span>OWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental
+  art in any field, their most pleasing effect has always been
+  associated with colour. Without it the beauty of the lustre tiles
+  of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of China, and the delicate
+  textiles of Western Asia would fade into insignificance. It is
+  indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints chosen by the
+  touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments that
+  awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+  This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of
+  Asia and is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the
+  earliest carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in
+  a lesser measure are reflected in modern fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p>If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful
+  association of different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates
+  the picture that delights the sense, a fair measure is also due
+  to the artisan who not only controls the secrets of the dyes, but
+  has mastered the difficult knowledge of their proper application;
+  for the beauty of the finished woven product depends on the
+  judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on anything else. From
+  father to son for many generations has been transmitted a
+  knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal products of
+  root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use, by
+  which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest
+  woven fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more
+  technical knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since
+  modern designs are no longer more than the imitation of those in
+  older carpets; and so important is it regarded that a successful
+  dyer is a man of distinction in his tribe.</p>
+
+  <p>The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give
+  the innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are
+  received from remote countries, but most of the plants from
+  which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id=
+  "Page_38">38</a></span> they are extracted grow in marshes and on
+  hills and plains where the nomads wander with their flocks. Many
+  of them are used without blending, but even some of the seven
+  primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a number
+  of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+  infinite number of rich and delicate shades.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo.
+  This is derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of
+  the genus <i>Indigofera</i>, that grow to a height of four to six
+  feet in the East Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat
+  containing water. In about twelve hours fermentation ensues; and
+  after this subsides the liquid is drawn off into another vat,
+  where after one or two hours of agitation the indigo forms as a
+  precipitate. Many different species of this plant grow wild
+  throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+  produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all
+  dyes, as by using it in conjunction with others an infinite
+  variety of shades result.</p>
+
+  <p>Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (<i>Rubia
+  tinctorum</i>), that grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern
+  Asia, Its colouring properties were known to the ancients; and
+  for a long period it has been cultivated in Asia Minor, where the
+  succulent roots of the second and third years&rsquo; growth are
+  regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds are derived from
+  the insect cochineal (<i>Coccus ilicis</i>) that lives on oaks of
+  the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+  the Arabs as &ldquo;kermes,&rdquo; signifying Red Dye. After the
+  discovery of America another species (<i>Coccus cacti</i>) was
+  found that was more productive of dyeing qualities. The females,
+  which alone are valuable, are plucked from the trees and killed
+  by exposing them to vapours of acetic acid, or placing them in
+  hot water, or in an oven. From their dried bodies, of which over
+  fifty thousand are necessary to make a pound, the dye is
+  produced. As both these dyes are noted for their fastness, they
+  are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+  cochineal is preferable to madder.</p>
+
+  <p>The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are
+  from the berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the
+  leaves of the sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every
+  part of the world. An orange tinge is derived from the turmeric
+  extracted from the short root stocks of a plant of the genus
+  <i>Curcuma</i>. From time immemorial a beautiful yellow has been
+  obtained from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id=
+  "Page_39">39</a></span> saffron. It is the product of the stigmas
+  of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+  thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet
+  the dye is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven
+  hundred thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has
+  something of a stimulating effect on the human system, it has
+  been taken by the Persians when mixed with their rice.</p>
+
+  <p>With none of these three basic colours was any national
+  feeling associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of
+  blues. The Turkomans of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better
+  reds than any other colour, and the best yellows, even if
+  generally inferior in positiveness to blues and reds, were those
+  of the Chinese.</p>
+
+  <p>Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result
+  from the application of a single dye, the many thousand different
+  tints can only be produced by the blending of two or more.
+  Moreover, the qualities of the same dye vary greatly, as they
+  depend on the soil where the plant grew, the time of year when it
+  was removed, and the weather and other conditions prevailing
+  during the dyeing.</p>
+
+  <p>In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in
+  carpets it is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded
+  appearance, due probably to the fact that one of the dyes of
+  which it is formed by blending is less permanent than the other.
+  The Chinese greens obtained from the buckthorns are generally the
+  best.</p>
+
+  <p>Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and
+  reddish brown from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron
+  pyrites has been largely used in both old and modern rugs; but
+  unfortunately the dye has a corrosive effect on the wool, so that
+  the black knots of old rugs are often worn to the warp.</p>
+
+  <p>In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (<i>Butea
+  frondosa</i>) make a favourite dye, from which are produced, by
+  blending with other dyes, a large number of shades ranging from
+  deep yellow to brownish copper tones. Another well known dye is
+  <i>Butti lac</i>, obtained from an insect, <i>Coccus lacca</i>,
+  that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+  cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra
+  cotta, and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants
+  with which it is blended.</p>
+
+  <p>Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used
+  either singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour
+  effects are produced by the application of different mordants,
+  which it is necessary to use for the reason that without them
+  many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id=
+  "Page_40">40</a></span> fibrous materials are unable to absorb a
+  large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all mordants is
+  alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed in
+  the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate
+  rind, which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best
+  known. Valonia also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons,
+  the fruit of the tamarind, and the mango.</p>
+
+  <p>In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the &ldquo;Carpet Weaving
+  Industry of Southern India&rdquo; are a number of directions from
+  an old manuscript owned by a dyer who stated that he was the
+  descendant of twenty generations of dyers who originally came
+  from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy from a Persian book of
+  dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few of these are
+  given below, because they show not only the dyes and mordants,
+  but also the methods employed.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind
+  and sift lighter than the light dust of the high hills; soak for
+  ten hours; keep stirring it; put in the wool and soak for many
+  hours. Boil for three hours; wash in kurd water, water in which
+  kurds and whey have been well beaten up; leave for three hours,
+  and then wash and beat again in water.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for
+  twelve hours, grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some
+  <i>Terminalia citrina</i>, pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix
+  thoroughly. Boil; put the water into the hot bath and keep
+  stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings water, and boil
+  steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash with a
+  beating and dry.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, <i>Terminalia
+  citrina</i>, oak galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for
+  twenty-four hours. Put in the wool; soak it for twenty-four
+  hours, then boil for two or three hours. Dip in a soda-bath,
+  wash, and dry.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and
+  alum, and steep for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty
+  or thirty hours; boil the water for two or three hours and give a
+  soda-bath wash; dip in acidulated water; and wash again with
+  beating.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from
+  four to six days in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time,
+  stirring constantly till a rich deep colour comes where some has
+  stood for a few minutes in a thin glass bottle and settled. Then
+  strain through two cloths, and put in pomegranate rind and good
+  iron-filings water. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id=
+  "Page_41">41</a></span>Add mineral acid; steep wool for
+  thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well, and
+  dry.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE II&mdash;OUSHAK CARPET</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar
+  to those of the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in
+  Asia Minor during the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the
+  central field, the rich red of the medallions, and the golden
+  yellow of the leaves are entirely unlike the more subdued hues
+  found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting with them are the
+  more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which display in
+  their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal pattern
+  of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+  are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the
+  early Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the
+  ennobling qualities of beauty and harmony.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pii" id="pii"></a><img src="images/plate_ii.jpg"
+    width="550" height="774" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,<a name=
+  "FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class=
+  "fnanchor">5</a> and alum. Mix well with any hot water, not
+  boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil for three hours.
+  Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and dry in
+  shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg,
+  cinnabar and alum. Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four
+  hours, boil for four and a half hours, wash with a beating, and
+  dry in shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of <i>Cupressus
+  sempervirens</i>, seeds and seed pods of babul (<i>Acacia
+  arabica</i>), iron-filings water, and alum. Steep over night. Now
+  add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours, then boil
+  for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then wash and
+  dry in the sun.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (<i>Onosma echioides</i>), a
+  thought of cochineal, manjit (<i>Rubia cordifolia</i>) or lac
+  colour a very little, and cinnabar. Add water, soak them for
+  twelve hours, put in wool, and steep for thirty-six hours; cook
+  it for three hours, then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely;
+  afterward dry in the shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a
+  little cochineal for richness, and soak from four to six days;
+  strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric; let
+  it stand for three hours. Put wool in and steep for twenty-four
+  hours, then boil for two hours. Take out the wool and add mineral
+  acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more. Wash fifteen minutes
+  when cold, and dry in the shade.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add
+  water and keep for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip,
+  and soak the wool for thirty hours. Cook it for several hours,
+  and dry in the shade after beating and good washing.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night
+  in water, steep the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake
+  out, and dry in shade.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in
+  all parts of the Orient, not only for the reason that soil,
+  moisture, and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but
+  because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft
+  secrets transmitted from their forefathers. Thus it happens that
+  different parts of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42"
+  id="Page_42">42</a></span>rug-producing countries adhere to
+  particular tones that help to identify the locality where the
+  fabrics were woven.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced
+  about the year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper
+  and less complicated in their application, have to such an extent
+  transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number
+  of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a
+  former century are no longer produced. Thus the superb blue of
+  the fine old Ispahans, as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated
+  manuscripts, belongs to a lost art. The disadvantages of the
+  aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency to make the fibres
+  of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the colours
+  will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+  others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes,
+  the resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the
+  other hand, not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade
+  they mellow into more pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to
+  encourage the use of old vegetable dyes; but unless the laws
+  which have been enacted in parts of Asia to restrict the
+  importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in
+  the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+  dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the
+  time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that
+  of properly applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands
+  infinite pains in its technique, as well as a lifetime to
+  acquire. It is in itself a separate profession practised by
+  artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that
+  transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts
+  to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of these
+  professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+  on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+  experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the
+  different kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of
+  their low dwellings are jars or vats containing liquid dye of
+  various colours. Suspended above them, from hooks driven into
+  beams, are the yarns from which, after immersion in the proper
+  vats, the liquids are allowed to drain. After this the yarns are
+  exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning
+  sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the preparation of
+  the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn in
+  correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id=
+  "Page_43">43</a></span>as the exposure to the glare and heat of
+  the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment,
+  on which the colour results depend. This complicated process by
+  which, for instance, the infinitely different shades of a red, a
+  blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes
+  but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+  precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost
+  to instinct is the guide.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p06" id="p06"></a><img src="images/plate06.jpg"
+    width="500" height="826" alt="Plate 6. Feraghan Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 6. Feraghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning
+  of <i>tempus fugit</i> or seen the glitter of Western gold, when
+  his dyeing and weaving were proud callings, in which entered his
+  deepest feelings. Then the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow
+  softer and more lustrous, were almost exclusively used; but now
+  throughout all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so
+  that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use
+  half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines of
+  travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among
+  rugged mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their
+  hand-spun yarn as did their fathers&rsquo; fathers.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id=
+  "Page_44">44</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER V.</h3>
+
+  <h4>WEAVING</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/n.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="N"
+  title="N" /></span>EAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may
+  occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the
+  most interesting rugs that now reach the Western markets. In all
+  probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands
+  of years ago, for it would be impossible to construct a simpler
+  loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few
+  feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed excepting two,
+  which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in
+  each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+  and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short
+  distance above the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more
+  frequently the case, roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in
+  the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them. In
+  the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the
+  warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to
+  thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other end is tightly
+  stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam.
+  Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+  perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways
+  as the work progresses. But among a very large number of those
+  tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures
+  for their flocks and herds, it is customary to let the loom lie
+  flat on the ground, while the weaver sits on the finished part of
+  the rug.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id=
+  "Page_45">45</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pa" id="pa"></a>
+    <img src="images/platea.jpg" width="550" height="1076" alt="Plate A.--An Upright Loom." title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate A.&mdash;An Upright
+    Loom.</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in
+  villages or cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are
+  not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or
+  stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug. Of the several
+  devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work, the
+  crudest consists of a plank used as a seat, which rests on the
+  rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides
+  of the rug. As <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id=
+  "Page_46">46</a></span>the work progresses, the plank is raised
+  and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+  upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of
+  small diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The
+  lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam,
+  and the other ends may either be wound several times around the
+  upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights
+  attached to them. Such a loom is generally used for weaving very
+  large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work
+  progresses.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pa">A</a> (Page 45) is represented a loom
+  commonly used in many parts of the Orient. When preparing it for
+  weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable
+  distance apart, and about them the warp is wound in the way a
+  figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully transferred to
+  two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams. If it
+  has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack;
+  but if desired the tension may be further increased by different
+  devices. Two other rods, known as &ldquo;Healds,&rdquo; are then
+  attached to the front and back threads of warp; or in the case of
+  a single rod, it is attached to the back threads, as shown in the
+  Plate. A lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp
+  that cross below the upper beam, and another is placed below it
+  where, if necessary, it is supported in position by loops. When
+  the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the lower
+  end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+  tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between
+  the front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to
+  these back threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now
+  in front of the others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the
+  rug is narrow, only one shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide,
+  or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness, a
+  shuttle is passed across from each side. Every thread of warp is
+  in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it
+  passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+  advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance
+  between the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The
+  object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing
+  forward the threads of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple
+  manner, as will be seen by studying the drawing; since when the
+  tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward,
+  the tension of the front threads is also increased by displacing
+  the lease rods which thereby stretches them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p07" id="p07"></a><img src="images/plate07.jpg"
+    width="550" height="824" alt="Plate 7. Feraghan Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 7. Feraghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id=
+  "Page_47">47</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The products of the loom are divided according to their weave
+  into three separate classes. The simplest of these are the
+  kilims, which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft
+  to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are
+  occasionally added.</p>
+
+  <p>A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of
+  warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft
+  which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the
+  old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the
+  new rugs. In the narrow, perpendicular lines that define both
+  borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two
+  adjacent threads of warp; but in other parts of the rug it is
+  made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at
+  the front, and after encircling them at the back, recrossing them
+  again at the front. It is then continued across the next pair of
+  adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of these
+  rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn
+  appears as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes
+  diagonally across four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement
+  is reversed in each succeeding row, the surface has an uneven
+  appearance sometimes termed &ldquo;herring bone&rdquo; weave.</p>
+
+  <p>By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When
+  making them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each
+  pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a
+  horizontal row. A thread of weft is then passed, as often as
+  desired, between the threads of warp and pressed more or less
+  firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots, when they are
+  trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another horizontal
+  row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn of
+  weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+  completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds
+  from left to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but
+  rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots
+  are tied in rows parallel to the sides. It is still more
+  infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by
+  working from the centre to the right and left, and to the top and
+  bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be discovered by
+  rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed that the
+  knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction, which
+  is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or
+  as is generally the case, from top to bottom.</p>
+
+  <p>The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend
+  somewhat <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id=
+  "Page_48">48</a></span> on the number of knots in any particular
+  area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the rug may be compact even
+  though the number of knots be small; and if the yarn is fine, the
+  rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of knots have
+  not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+  &ldquo;filling threads&rdquo; of weft, and still the number of
+  knots be large. A square inch is a convenient size for
+  measurement; but since all parts of a rug are not woven with
+  equal compactness, the measurement should be made in several
+  places if exactness be required. In loosely woven pieces, such as
+  the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less than
+  twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely
+  woven, as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several
+  hundred.</p>
+
+  <p>These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna.
+  The Ghiordes are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in
+  some of the rugs of India, and in most of the rugs of Persia.
+  They are named after the town of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where
+  some of the finest Asiatic pieces were made, and which tradition
+  states was once the ancient Gordion, noted even in the days of
+  Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn appear
+  together at the surface included between two<a name="FNanchor_6"
+  id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>
+  adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed, so
+  that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot
+  becomes. The three different ways of tying this knot are shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of which
+  the second is known as a &ldquo;right hand&rdquo; and the third
+  as a &ldquo;left hand&rdquo; knot. The Sehna knots, which are
+  used in the Turkoman, Chinese, many of the Persian, and in some
+  of the Indian rugs, take their name from the city of Sehna in
+  Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp
+  and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface, one at
+  each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread
+  of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle, the
+  knots are known as &ldquo;right-hand&rdquo; or
+  &ldquo;left-hand&rdquo; knots,<a name="FNanchor_7" id=
+  "FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> but
+  in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction. If the
+  pile of a rug is carefully parted, the two ends of yarn forming a
+  Sehna knot can be separated; but with the Ghiordes knot this is
+  impossible, as will be understood by studying Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+  knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the
+  Sehna knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer
+  definition of pattern, appear in rugs of shorter nap.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id=
+  "Page_49">49</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pb" id="pb"></a><img src="images/plateb.jpg"
+    width="550" height="792" alt="Ghiordes knots." title="" />
+
+    <p class="indent"><span class="smcap">Plate
+    B</span>.&mdash;Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+    5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+    Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14,
+    Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three
+    threads of weft passing between two rows of knots.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id=
+  "Page_50">50</a></span>The nice distinctions in the technique of
+  weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with
+  Oriental rugs. The general pattern, which next to colour is the
+  characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention, is often
+  the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The more
+  experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+  examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the
+  peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve. This,
+  perhaps, is because only those who have made a special study
+  would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or
+  locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and
+  inserting the weft. The different methods of treatment by
+  separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford a most
+  important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+  classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave
+  differentiating it from all other classes. To be sure, there are
+  exceptions to the established type which are inevitable; since,
+  for instance, a man from the Feraghan district might marry a
+  woman from the adjoining Hamadan district, who, to please her
+  husband, might weave a rug with pattern common to his district
+  but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with
+  from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular district
+  adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to
+  any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+  weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no
+  elements calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is
+  mechanically followed with stereotyped precision. An innovation
+  in pattern, by copying some strange designs that strike the
+  fancy, is far more likely. These distinctions in weaving may be
+  conveniently divided into those that affect the knot, the warp,
+  and the weft.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Knot.</span>&mdash;Not only may a knot
+  be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but it may have other
+  distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may be of fine
+  or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the back,
+  where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+  Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the
+  knots of other rugs, as the Samarkand, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> Bijar,
+  Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and Kazak are tied with coarse yarn.
+  Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or coarse, all specimens of any
+  class will show a remarkable conformity. Also in some rugs the
+  knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while in others the
+  yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined the
+  back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+  the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for
+  a Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly
+  woven. Again, as a result of using yarn in which the double
+  thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very
+  tightly twisted together, there is some difference in the
+  direction or slant of the strands forming the yarn, where it
+  shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced. For
+  example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands
+  of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the
+  most part in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other
+  rugs, as Mosuls, Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn
+  slant irregularly. Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and
+  Yuruks, as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather
+  far apart, each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands
+  out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges;
+  while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna, each half is very
+  closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as Sarabends and
+  Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the back
+  have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the
+  warp, as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft;
+  while in such rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally
+  consists of several ply, the length exceeds the width; and in a
+  few rugs the length is less than the width.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Warp.</span>&mdash;The appearance of
+  the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the
+  two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If, for instance, in any
+  Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single
+  perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+  be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+  single knot lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown
+  in Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 7 and 7a (Page 49), in which
+  the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the
+  threads of warp, and the latter the appearance of the rug at the
+  back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans, Feraghans,
+  Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah, Persian-Kurdish,
+  or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that one
+  thread of warp to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id=
+  "Page_52">52</a></span> each knot is depressed, so that the back
+  has a slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Figs. 8 and 8a). And in the case of a Bijar or
+  Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp, included in every
+  knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from
+  view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a double
+  thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate
+  <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and
+  Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot. To be sure, it occasionally
+  happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each
+  thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others
+  may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another class
+  some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+  entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+  remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads
+  of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of
+  closeness with which the threads of warp are strung, also partly
+  to the method of inserting the threads of weft or
+  &ldquo;filling&rdquo; between the rows of knots; but more than
+  all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled
+  when they are tied.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">The Weft.</span>&mdash;In the character
+  and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more
+  serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the
+  rugs of different tribes and districts. So subtle are some of
+  them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study,
+  and are appreciated by few except native weavers. Nevertheless,
+  to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known
+  classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the weave
+  are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to
+  differentiate one class from another. The fine brown weft of the
+  Bokhara, or equally fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost
+  concealed between firmly tied knots; the fine thread of cotton
+  weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only
+  by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the coarse thread of cotton
+  weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the
+  Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and
+  recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in
+  Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+  that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in
+  Genghas; the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and
+  recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the
+  very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the
+  warp in old Bergamos, &mdash;are features peculiar to these
+  separate classes with which <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>every rug expert is familiar.
+  The weft of many other classes is equally distinctive, though
+  there are exceptions to the types. It should be remembered,
+  however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and
+  fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only
+  fifty years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for
+  commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same
+  classes thirty years ago.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+    <a name="p08" id="p08"></a><img src="images/plate08.jpg"
+    width="450" height="835" alt="Plate 8. Hamadan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 8. Hamadan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which
+  it is made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in
+  which it is spun, to its loose or compressed condition between
+  separate rows of knots, as well as to the number of times it
+  crosses the warp between them, and to whether it is inserted with
+  much or little slack. Most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a
+  natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish brown, a blue,
+  or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used, they are
+  almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+  as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the
+  same piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and
+  Bergamos, is of a very small diameter, and of others, as the
+  Hamadans and Kurdistans, it is of relatively large diameter. In
+  some classes, as the Karajes and Genghas, the weft is tightly
+  spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans, Mosuls, and
+  Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres of
+  wool give a rough appearance to its surface.</p>
+
+  <p>Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very
+  firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while
+  other weavers compress it only to a slight degree; as, for
+  instance, in the Afghan, Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are
+  pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the
+  back and the transverse threads of warp are entirely covered;
+  whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or Kazak between every
+  two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of
+  warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of knots are
+  pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+  halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend
+  slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the
+  length of the rug, or each of them may lie in a straight line at
+  right angles to the warp. Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis
+  rugs, for example, it will be noticed that as a rule the line
+  thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an even, clear cut line at
+  right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais part of one knot
+  extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this unevenness is even
+  more <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id=
+  "Page_54">54</a></span> conspicuous. Or again, if typical
+  Shirvans, Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be
+  noticed that in Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot
+  encircling the two adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined
+  at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as
+  to present a serrated appearance, but that the alignment formed
+  by knots of Daghestans is nearly even, and that of Kabistans is
+  intermediate. To be sure, there are exceptions to this rule, but
+  these features are remarkably constant.</p>
+
+  <p>The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between
+  two rows of knots varies with the practice of different
+  localities, but is almost constant in each locality. Weavers of
+  Sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two
+  rows of knots, which winds in front of and behind alternate
+  threads of warp, with the result that the back of these rugs have
+  a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute portions of
+  exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles. In
+  Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before
+  and behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of
+  the weave is very similar to that of Sehnas.<a name="FNanchor_9"
+  id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a>
+  In almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice, that is, across
+  and back once, between every two rows of knots so as to
+  completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a few rugs,
+  as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that is,
+  twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+  Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred
+  and fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many
+  times; and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different
+  parts of the same rug. In Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Figs. 15,
+  16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the appearance of the back
+  of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once, twice, and three
+  times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are likewise rugs
+  in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+  instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of
+  weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many
+  Herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive
+  rows of knots, then three times between the following several
+  rows, and so continue to alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a
+  thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a
+  single coarser thread of jute.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id=
+  "Page_55">55</a></span>As the shuttle passes back and forth, the
+  thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack, so that when it
+  is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the
+  warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so that it has a
+  tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for instance, a
+  Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority of
+  them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of
+  knots, be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft
+  crosses with hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out
+  clearly and well defined at the back; but that in the Feraghan
+  the weft crosses with much slack, so that it folds about the
+  warp, which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the
+  back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once with very
+  slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack. These
+  features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+  constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a
+  fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp.
+  If, for instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between
+  the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its
+  mould, it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each
+  thread of yarn has a similar shape of moderately deep
+  undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate
+  how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as the
+  Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations,
+  but they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft
+  be removed from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan,
+  one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight
+  undulations, while the other thread will have deep undulations.
+  The weft of the Herez, Herats, old Khorassans, and Koniehs have
+  the same peculiarities, excepting that the thread with very
+  slight undulations is of three or four ply, while the other is of
+  a single ply.</p>
+
+  <p>The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb,
+  and scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been
+  tied, to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the
+  second, to press firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim
+  the nap with care, so that the finished product may present an
+  even and compact appearance.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">Finish of Sides.</span>&mdash;As the sides
+  are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts
+  strengthen them in different ways, which may be designated as
+  Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+  Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not
+  euphonious, suggests the method employed. <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> In Weft
+  Overcasting (Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 11, Page 49) the
+  thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to which the
+  knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung
+  at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+  knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the
+  next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is
+  wound about the heavy cord there. As this process continues, the
+  cords at the sides are completely overcast with the thread of
+  weft. When the sides have a Double Overcasting (Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the cord that
+  has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+  threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft
+  Selvage (Plate <a href="#pb">B</a>, Fig. 13) is made by placing
+  two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of
+  the warp, and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight
+  fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a
+  plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate <a href=
+  "#pb">B</a>, Fig. 14) is used among nomadic tribes such as the
+  Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs receive an unusual amount of
+  hard wear, so that an extra selvage is necessary. In adding this
+  extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy
+  cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is wound over
+  it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+  cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the
+  weft, but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn
+  that winds about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles
+  two or more adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage
+  is &ldquo;Mixed,&rdquo; or made by the weft encircling only one
+  or two of the heavy cords, and then an extra yarn is wound about
+  these and the remaining cord or cords. Moreover, the Double
+  Overcasting and Double Selvage may be &ldquo;attached&rdquo; more
+  firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in
+  figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp
+  between the two rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus
+  &ldquo;attached,&rdquo; it is somewhat similar to a two-cord
+  Double Selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though
+  they are sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they
+  seem, skill is required in both overcasting and making the
+  selvage; for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to
+  curl. This is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs,
+  the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by
+  inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+  stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the
+  defect.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p09" id="p09"></a><img src="images/plate09.jpg"
+    width="550" height="856" alt="Plate 9. Sarouk Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 9. Sarouk
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id=
+  "Page_57">57</a></span><span class="smcap">Finish of
+  Ends.</span>&mdash;The ends, which receive more attention than
+  the sides, are treated in several different ways; and in many
+  rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end. The
+  simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the
+  threads of a kilim, and extend beyond the pile as a web, which
+  may be exceedingly short, or, as in Beluches and Afghans, several
+  inches long. Frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed
+  by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp; or the
+  upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not unusual to
+  find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web, selvage,
+  or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+  forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes
+  each separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a
+  foot or more in length are twisted together in cords; and again
+  they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to
+  form a network from which hang the loose ends. Very frequently
+  the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond
+  the web at the lower end of the rug, or else are braided about
+  the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though the warp and weft
+  are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web of the ends
+  is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly those
+  of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+  Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still
+  others, as Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other
+  articles to avert the evil eye.</p>
+
+  <p>In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect
+  of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of
+  the ends have frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes
+  composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have
+  been removed, and that recent overcasting of the sides may take
+  the place of former selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends,
+  with all the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably
+  constant in their methods, are technical peculiarities that are
+  uninteresting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in
+  rugs, yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever
+  would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes.
+  Though admitting of exceptions, these peculiarities are real and
+  definite, yet their analyses often require the subtlest
+  perception of small though exact distinctions, without which
+  expert understanding would be impossible.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id=
+  "Page_58">58</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+  <h4>DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/h.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="H"
+  title="H" /></span>OWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich
+  modulations of colour, Oriental rugs would quickly lose their
+  fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least
+  some partial expression of the simple lives of the people, of
+  their religious feelings, and of that veiled mysticism which
+  pervades the thought of every Eastern race.</p>
+
+  <p>In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable
+  reminders of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the
+  goat or camel, or realistically drawn rose and lily; but even
+  these are suggestive of associations.</p>
+
+  <p>Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+  influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs
+  and colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs
+  have been transmitted from the earliest times, and were once
+  associated with different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old
+  Babylonians the sun and moon, which are sometimes seen in the old
+  pieces, represented particular deities; and very many of the
+  oldest Chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their
+  deities. In the early religion of Iran, which over 1000 years
+  <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> was reduced to a system by
+  Zoroaster, the elements were worshipped, so that designs
+  representing these elements would likewise represent the divine
+  forces they personified. This ancient fire worship of the
+  Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of Persia,
+  and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+  Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with
+  the spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that
+  is frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan
+  followers, the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in
+  the use of designs, as the former employed animal figures and the
+  latter prohibited them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p10" id="p10"></a><img src="images/plate10.jpg"
+    width="500" height="790" alt="Plate 10. Sarabend Rug" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 10. Sarabend
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id=
+  "Page_59">59</a></span>There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a
+  manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient
+  races. It was but natural that the early weaver engaged in
+  tedious sedentary work, often requiring many months of constant
+  application to complete, should endeavour to express therein not
+  only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+  thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though
+  poorly defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to
+  interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe,
+  from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class=
+  "fnanchor">10</a></p>
+
+  <p>The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly
+  decorative. Even a casual examination shows that in all of them
+  the coloured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding
+  a central field. The former serves much the same function to the
+  latter as a frame to a picture; yet its office is in no wise
+  subordinate. Nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in
+  determining the place of its origin. For this reason it is well
+  to clearly define the special names which in this work are
+  applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+  designated &ldquo;Stripes,&rdquo; though they are frequently
+  spoken of as separate borders. At or near the centre of the
+  border is the main stripe, which is generally accompanied by a
+  much narrower pair, one on each side, known as &ldquo;Guard
+  stripes.&rdquo; Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+  &ldquo;Ribbon stripes,&rdquo; and those of only one or two knots
+  in width are called &ldquo;Lines.&rdquo; The latter are of solid
+  colour or have the simplest geometric device. The decoration of
+  the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple; but in the main
+  stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly
+  elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in character
+  with those of the field.</p>
+
+  <p>The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id=
+  "Page_60">60</a></span>borders. Frequently they are covered with
+  a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures, as in
+  many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other hand, are entirely
+  covered with repetitive patterns, as in the Turkomans; or with
+  intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper and floral
+  patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+  consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated
+  formal designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on
+  which are represented smaller figures, as in some of the old
+  Sehnas and Feraghans. Occasionally the medallions are so large as
+  to extend to the sides and ends of the fields, and thus separate
+  the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections, such as are
+  characteristic of a number of Persian and one or two Caucasian
+  rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are covered with
+  large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is only
+  within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+  colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was
+  a saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+  gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of
+  Asia Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream,
+  relieved only by a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life,
+  or some other emblem of immortality.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id=
+  "Page_61">61</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pc" id="pc"></a><img src="images/platec.jpg"
+    width="550" height="851" alt="Plate C.--Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate C.&mdash;Prayer
+    Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic
+    Rugs</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center3">No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No.
+    3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk. No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No.
+    6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8, Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan,
+    Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh. No. 10, Kazak. No.
+    11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13, Beluchistan.
+    No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a
+  peculiar importance, as weavers of certain sections of the
+  country adhere so strictly to time-honoured traditions that the
+  shape of the arch, or mihrab, which is the principal feature,
+  often denotes the class, as well as the group, to which they
+  belong. Some of these arches are illustrated in Plates <a href=
+  "#pc">C</a> and <a href="#pd">D</a> (Pages 61 and 63), from which
+  it will be seen that in Persian rugs they are formed by
+  gracefully curving lines, but that in rugs of other groups, with
+  the exception of a very few old Ghiordes pieces, they are
+  geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the several
+  classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+  which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the
+  Bokharas, which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the
+  Caucasian group they have a marked resemblance to one another and
+  also to those of the Turkoman rugs, but are larger than the
+  latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia Minor rugs rises
+  higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian, and
+  extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them
+  a panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second
+  panel is placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia
+  Minor and Caucasian prayer rugs <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>is woven a small rhomboidal
+  figure, where the suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth
+  that he has brought from Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches
+  are crude figures, where are placed the hands during the act of
+  worship. More than one arch is the exception; but now and then
+  are seen two and even four, one above the other, or several
+  parallel to one another. These and other special features
+  associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+  subsequent chapters.</p>
+
+  <p>The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the
+  general pattern are distinguished as geometric and floral
+  ornamentation. The former is adopted in those countries where the
+  population is principally nomadic; and the latter is the accepted
+  style in countries where exist numerous towns and cities in which
+  the arts have been cultivated and where a large percentage of the
+  population have enjoyed an advanced state of society. Thus in
+  Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan geometric
+  designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+  Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+  Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the
+  statement that the geometric designs are found among the lower
+  Turanian and the floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most
+  probable that the adoption of the geometric or floral style of
+  ornamentation is due not so much to racial distinctions as to the
+  state to which the textile art had advanced among the different
+  peoples and to the waves of influence that at times spread over
+  the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor had patterns
+  that were more geometric than those of later times, and during
+  the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+  were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+  subsequently.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id=
+  "Page_63">63</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pd" id="pd"></a><img src="images/plated.jpg"
+    width="550" height="866" alt="Plate D.--Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs" title=
+    "" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate D.&mdash;Prayer
+    Arches of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center3">Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7,
+    Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9, 10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez.
+    No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14, 15, Konieh. No. 16,
+    Anatolian.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears.
+  Even in the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly
+  geometric, some vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the
+  fields of Caucasian rugs, in which are represented squares,
+  octagons, triangles, diagonals, lozenges, stars, etc., the
+  weavers have depicted designs that are almost as geometric as
+  those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been influenced;
+  but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs are
+  distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+  both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating
+  in pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in
+  those of earlier date. Among &gt;<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> the woven fabrics of India
+  and Persia, however, few traces of the geometric pattern remain;
+  but vines, leaves, and flowers form the favourite theme for
+  decoration.</p>
+
+  <p>The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of
+  growth, that reached its highest development in the Persian
+  carpets of the XVI and XVII Centuries; and since then till the
+  present time they have continued as the most characteristic
+  features of the rugs of that country and India. They represent
+  the highest technique of the weaver. In the borders are generally
+  represented vines from which are pendant rosettes, palmettes, or
+  flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+  antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically
+  portrayed. On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is
+  often the rose, pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy.
+  But if the rug is more modern, in its field of uniform colour may
+  be represented a central medallion covered with delicate tracings
+  enriched by bright-coloured conventionalised flowers.</p>
+
+  <p>In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular
+  designs or motives that give them a distinctive character and
+  render the greatest assistance in distinguishing the groups and
+  classes. Thus the serrated leaf and wine cup (Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in Caucasian
+  and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate
+  <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some
+  Chinese character, is found almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not
+  only are all designs important as aids in classification, but
+  they have a special interest, as it is maintained by writers of
+  the highest authority that when employed by the earliest weavers
+  each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+  been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now
+  employ them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they
+  did centuries ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the
+  weaver. They therefore deserve the most careful study.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p11" id="p11"></a><img src="images/plate11.jpg"
+    width="550" height="779" alt="Plate 11. Carpet from Northwestern Persia" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 11. Carpet from
+    Northwestern Persia</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote
+  past or have been more universally employed than has been the
+  figure <img class="floatInsert" src="images/ssign.jpg" width="22" height="27" alt=
+  "Symbol: S" /> or <img class="floatInsert" src=
+  "images/hssign.jpg" width="22" height="28" alt="Symbol: horizontal S" />. It appears in
+  each of the groups of Oriental rugs excepting the Chinese; and
+  two of the forms it assumes are exceedingly like the arms of the
+  swastika and parts of the fret as occasionally seen in Chinese
+  designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found except in the borders,
+  which may have been copied from those of other countries. It is
+  very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>Tekkes, and
+  Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the
+  Persian group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not
+  a single class of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor
+  group, with the exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not
+  sometimes represented. It may be seen near the corner of the Asia
+  Minor &ldquo;Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix&rdquo; carpet of the XIV
+  Century, illustrated in Plate <a href="#p20">20</a> (opp. Page
+  88); and appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are
+  believed to be even older. That it was associated with sun
+  worship and regarded as an emblem of light and the deity is the
+  accepted belief. It is possible, however, that it was intended by
+  some weavers to represent the serpent, which among many different
+  races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably no other design has been more universally employed
+  than the swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North
+  American Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the
+  monuments of the Nile, and on the temples of India. Widely as is
+  its distribution, its most usual form of intersecting right
+  angles is found in each of these countries. It is not improbable
+  that it originated in China, where it is a most common decorative
+  motive, and was almost invariably represented in the borders and
+  in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the beginning of
+  the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the rugs of
+  Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+  appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+  universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+  primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and
+  prosperity has never been lost. Some of its different forms are
+  shown in Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Figs. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d, 5e, and
+  5f (Page 291).</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal trefoil (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17,
+  opp. Page 158) is a very usual design in Caucasian and Persian
+  rugs; it is often found in some of the rugs of India and in
+  Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other classes of the
+  Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups. Its
+  origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the &ldquo;Polish
+  Carpets&rdquo; and other antique Persian carpets of strictly
+  floral pattern, where its drawing is more elaborate than in
+  modern rugs, it is not improbable that it is the conventionalised
+  form of the lily or a spray bearing three leaves, and that it has
+  the emblematic significance of the tree form.</p>
+
+  <p>Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been
+  associated with their religion, so that it is surprising that so
+  few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id=
+  "Page_66">66</a></span> emblems of them are recognised in rugs.
+  In the theology of the Chaldees, from which the earliest weavers
+  must have received inspiration, the sun was regarded as one of
+  their principal deities and the moon as another. The sun is
+  generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+  intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals
+  intersecting at right angles; the moon is represented by the
+  crescent. Of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed
+  star, another inheritance of those ancient times when all
+  primitive races worshipped the heavenly bodies. It represented
+  the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and it is believed,
+  too, that it represented the deity to the Medes, ancestors of
+  many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among some
+  Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged
+  in the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing
+  a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed
+  of precious stones of different colour. A star now and then seen
+  in rugs with colours so arranged is known as
+  &ldquo;Mohammedan&rsquo;s jewel design.&rdquo; The six-pointed
+  star, a Jewish symbol for the &ldquo;shield of David,&rdquo; was
+  adopted as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars
+  are chiefly nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the
+  rugs of China or India, they are only occasionally found in those
+  of Persia, and are of most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 10, Page 291), usually about two and a half
+  inches in diameter, on the face of which and extending the full
+  width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses placed at right
+  angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it is of the
+  same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of the
+  Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#p21">21</a> (opp. Page 92). It is a very old motive, and is
+  sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of
+  the earth. It is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs; and
+  is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all Caucasians, in some rugs
+  from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many
+  of the rugs of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as
+  well as in the Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic
+  group, though in some instances it appears as little more than a
+  serrated line. It is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of
+  some of the Western Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century.
+  According to Mr. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id=
+  "Page_67">67</a></span> John Mumford, &ldquo;even in the oldest
+  Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+  implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+  represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in
+  India, China, and Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE III&mdash;MOSUL RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the
+  weavers of the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the
+  Mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old Mosul. The central
+  field is of camel&rsquo;s hair that shades from a rich dark
+  chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other, and is
+  enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the
+  river&rsquo;s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small
+  geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the
+  eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border, and some of
+  the drawing are nomadic characteristics. The dainty vine and
+  flower of the narrow guard stripes, on the other hand, show
+  Persian influence. This piece represents a type of which few now
+  remain.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><small><i>Property of the Author</i></small></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+    <a name="piii" id="piii"></a><img src="images/plate_iii.jpg"
+    width="300" height="853" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most common designs is what has been called the
+  &ldquo;latch-hook.&rdquo; When there is a long succession of
+  latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the
+  hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called
+  &ldquo;running latch-hooks.&rdquo; Since they appear in the
+  Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix rug (opp. Page 88), that was probably
+  woven about the end of the XIV Century, they are evidently a very
+  old design, which not improbably was derived from the Chinese
+  fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+  perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to
+  shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one
+  colour to another that is entirely different. As such a device is
+  unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely
+  seen in any Indian or Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz
+  that frequently adopts geometric patterns; but it is found in all
+  the rugs of Caucasia, Central Asia, and in most of those of Asia
+  Minor. It is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil.</p>
+
+  <p>In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both
+  Greek and Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of
+  the Soumak rugs, and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or
+  Armenian rugs, in which they were probably woven with the intent
+  to convey a religious significance; but in many instances crosses
+  are not used symbolically.</p>
+
+  <p>The design of a comb (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 11, Page
+  291) is a Mohammedan emblem suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is
+  not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the
+  instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely
+  against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs, and
+  rarely in those of other groups.</p>
+
+  <p>In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three
+  or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the
+  Chinese cloud-band (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 7). It
+  appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV Century, and was
+  conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan, as well
+  as in many of the &ldquo;Polish Carpets.&rdquo; Later it was
+  introduced into Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of
+  the strictly nomadic weavings. It appears in only a very few of
+  the modern rugs, and these are mostly Persian. Nor is
+  it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id=
+  "Page_68">68</a></span> recognised in its usual form in any of
+  the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it
+  originated with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed
+  the abode of the Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa
+  Major, of which the stars of the Big Dipper were represented in
+  early art as enveloped in a band of clouds; but in more
+  conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band
+  remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and the
+  deity.</p>
+
+  <p>In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as
+  a twig, vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most
+  naturalistic, again they are partly conventionalised, or so
+  disguised, as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs, that only by
+  study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin
+  be established. This universal adoption of floral form was due to
+  something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful, since in
+  every country of the East some part of the tree or plant was
+  emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life had a
+  religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+  in the Garden of Eden grew the &ldquo;Tree of Knowledge of Good
+  and Evil;&rdquo; and in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John
+  speaks of &ldquo;The Tree of Life which bore twelve manner of
+  fruits and yielded her fruit every month, and the leaves of the
+  tree were for the healing of the nations.&rdquo; From this
+  passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in
+  the Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches
+  that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits
+  and the companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of
+  China is the Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the
+  Sea of Jade, that confers immortality on the fortunate who may
+  gather and eat its fruits; also the tradition of the mountain top
+  where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and
+  mount to heaven. Even among the ancient Chaldees was a story of a
+  tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth. In different
+  countries the Tree of Life is represented by different kinds; in
+  Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a cedar; in
+  Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+  symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p12" id="p12"></a><img src="images/plate12.jpg"
+    width="550" height="805" alt="Plate 12. Carpet from Northwestern Persia" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 12. Carpet from
+    Northwestern Persia</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center2">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in
+  Oriental symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Figs. 16a, b, and c), since the Egyptian, Assyrian,
+  Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence. It was,
+  perhaps, first employed emblematically<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> in the
+  valley of the Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the
+  inhabitants of India where the floating blossom is regarded as an
+  emblem of the world. It was inseparately associated with Buddha,
+  and its religious significance must have extended with the spread
+  of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a large number of designs
+  that apparently are not related in form as derived from it
+  through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+  development of the textile art in Persia it appears most
+  realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially
+  the so-called Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It
+  is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of India,
+  and is a favourite design for Chinese weavers. But in other
+  modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive, and is so
+  conventionalised as often to escape notice.</p>
+
+  <p>If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early
+  woven fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met
+  with greater favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose,
+  which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the East,
+  appears in a large number of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor.
+  Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in many old Persian rugs is
+  an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses. Almost
+  equally popular is the lily, which is characteristic of many of
+  the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia Minor. The
+  &ldquo;Euphrates flower,&rdquo; which grows by the river banks of
+  the Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an
+  all-over pattern in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern
+  Caucasia. Less frequently seen and still less frequently
+  recognised, as they are generally woven in small figures, are the
+  daisy, anemone, crocus, narcissus, pink, and violet. All are
+  depicted chiefly on account of their associations and beauty, and
+  whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is
+  generally no more than that of their colours. There are, however,
+  in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers, which were
+  accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+  worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than
+  the pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia
+  and embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In
+  the days of King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where
+  the Israelites, like modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing
+  its juice with sugar and spices. At the time of Homer it was
+  cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows wild over vast tracts of
+  Syria, Persia, and Asia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70"
+  id="Page_70">70</a></span> Minor. Yet it rarely appears
+  conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+  rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+  whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many
+  of the old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it
+  refers emblematically to its religious associations rather than
+  symbolises, as has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as
+  expressed in the Turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a
+  pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore-tell the
+  number of her children.</p>
+
+  <p>In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is
+  in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers,
+  rosettes, or palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of
+  geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in
+  conventionalised form. In a few of the more sumptuous carpets,
+  where the drawing is elaborate, delicate tendrils bearing flowers
+  or the more formal designs of the Herati border take the place of
+  the vine, from which they were evolved. In such borders the
+  designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the simpler
+  vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+  symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most interesting designs (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known as the Cone, Palm, Mango,
+  Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is believed to represent
+  no more than the closed palm of the hand, since there is an old
+  tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little son to
+  devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+  into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white
+  linen, on which became impressed the &ldquo;palm&rdquo; design
+  formed by the hand and incurving small finger. By some it is
+  regarded as a cluster of old Iranian crown jewels. To others, who
+  point to the well-known pattern of the Kashmir weaving, it
+  denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above Srinagar in the valley
+  of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it symbolises the flame
+  sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it will be
+  called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+  course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin,
+  and in its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia,
+  and Asia Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other
+  device. In the rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its
+  best-known form of simple curving lines, in the Bakus its
+  identity is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance,
+  and in the fabrics of India it is often very <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>ornate.
+  Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+  antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races
+  to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not
+  surprising that it has been regarded as a relic of the
+  Zoroastrian faith of old Iran, symbolising the eternal flames
+  before which the Parsees worshipped.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p13" id="p13"></a><img src="images/plate13.jpg"
+    width="550" height="786" alt="Plate 13. Compartment Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 13. Compartment
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more
+  truly symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns
+  they are more interesting. Of these the creeping things are
+  represented by the serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and
+  tarantula. Among a few races of Asia the serpent, which is found
+  in a few old Persian carpets, has been regarded as emblematic of
+  immortality, but has been more frequently considered as the
+  symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed to
+  represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in
+  woven design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in
+  Caucasian fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy.
+  What is called the &ldquo;turtle border&rdquo; (Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably derived
+  from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+  and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends,
+  Serapis, and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are
+  found exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their
+  resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is
+  remote, it is most probable that they are simply the
+  conventionalised forms of the star and palmette.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found
+  in any others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a
+  symbol of the infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long
+  life; the duck, conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the
+  butterfly, a spirit. These designs will be noticed in the chapter
+  on Chinese rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are
+  represented are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from
+  natural; but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as
+  to show unmistakably the order to which they belong. Several of
+  them were used symbolically, as the bird of paradise, suggestive
+  of felicity; the peacock, symbol of fire; the eagle, emblem of
+  power. The attitude, to be sure, in which they appear, affects in
+  a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in flight denotes
+  good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes ill
+  luck.</p>
+
+  <p>As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and
+  beasts as well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id=
+  "Page_72">72</a></span> Western Asia Minor, which is inhabited by
+  the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the law of the Koran; but
+  in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east, where the
+  Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very common.
+  In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+  are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so
+  poor that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the
+  other hand, animals and human beings were most realistically
+  drawn, and were intended to represent symbolically the
+  weaver&rsquo;s thought. In fact, those masterpieces of Persian
+  art known as the &ldquo;Hunting Carpets&rdquo; would lose much of
+  their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+  symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power,
+  the sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of
+  restfulness and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would
+  mean, then, the victory of day over night, or of a powerful over
+  a weak foe. Leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and
+  fame. There are also mythological creatures, as the ph&oelig;nix,
+  emblematic of life and resurrection, and the winged <i>djinni</i>
+  or Persian spirits, that often adorn the fields and borders of
+  some of the elaborate antique carpets of Iran.</p>
+
+  <p>Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their
+  relative attitudes to one another were intended to convey a
+  symbolic meaning, but among almost all ancient races colours had
+  a special significance. To the Moslems no colour was more sacred
+  than the green, which, though difficult to produce in beautiful
+  tones, they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer
+  rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of eternity, and in the
+  spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky. Though
+  to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour of
+  the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the
+  Chinese. Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of
+  China, and red are suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours,
+  when used in conjunction with other emblems, expressed not only
+  beauty, but also different shades of thought.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;">
+    <a name="p14" id="p14"></a><img src="images/plate14.jpg"
+    width="450" height="820" alt="Plate 14. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 14. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by
+  the weaver. Some of them represent objects intimately associated
+  with his daily life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and
+  emotions. Others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his
+  craft. When, then, we examine some old worn rug, we may see only
+  an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an
+  art <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id=
+  "Page_73">73</a></span>now lost; but if to an &aelig;sthetic
+  taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses
+  something of the thought and life of the weaver, we may find in
+  the study of the various designs another charm that increases
+  with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id=
+  "Page_74">74</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+  <h4>RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HERE are no records to definitely indicate in
+  what land the art of rug weaving originated, or to disprove that
+  it developed independently in different lands. It would be
+  unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs were not woven in
+  northern regions as early as in southern. In fact, during the
+  Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+  flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is
+  probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave
+  garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the
+  similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts
+  would naturally follow. Nevertheless, such evidence as now
+  remains points to the civilisations of the Euphrates or the Nile,
+  as the birthplace of this art.</p>
+
+  <p>Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a
+  doubt they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of
+  Babylon had risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of
+  Beni-Hassan in Egypt, that date from about 2500 B. C. are
+  pictures of men with spindles, of looms and weavers. There is
+  also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of
+  the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the Tigris and
+  the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh, where
+  dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+  elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable
+  workmanship were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes
+  worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and
+  on one is depicted the tree of life, similar to what may be seen
+  in modern rugs. Nor are ancient writers silent. In the Old
+  Testament are frequent references to woven fabrics. Homer, also,
+  speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus, Diodorus, Pliny,
+  Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have mentioned them.
+  Moreover, designs on pot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75"
+  id="Page_75">75</a></span>tery, bowls, tiles, and walls, similar
+  in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+  carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.</p>
+
+  <p>This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and
+  luxury matured, has been a process of slow development. To the
+  mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the
+  rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor
+  of her master&rsquo;s hut several thousand years ago, may have
+  been suggested the first idea of a mat. Indeed, from earliest
+  times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other pliable material
+  have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless without
+  ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+  and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs
+  symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As
+  wealth and luxury increased the ornamentation became more
+  elaborate, until during the rule of the Caliphs the mats rivalled
+  in beauty the carpets for which, during the summer months, they
+  were substituted. &ldquo;On these mats,&rdquo; wrote the eminent
+  authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, &ldquo;the artist found free scope
+  for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and
+  gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the
+  most expensive silk and gold carpets.&rdquo; Long, however,
+  before they had reached such a high state of perfection, they
+  would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable
+  floor coverings. The first of these was a simple web of warp and
+  woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims
+  now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance, more
+  elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+  the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that
+  there appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that
+  were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era,
+  the work of the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be
+  classed as a fine art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom
+  (extending from about 226 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> to 632
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>) carpets of elaborate design and
+  finish were produced in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were
+  of the wool of sheep or goats; and in them were represented
+  designs of trees, birds, animals, and other figures. Other pieces
+  were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold.
+  Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> not only gives us positive knowledge of the
+  marvellous workmanship of that time,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span> but
+  enables us to conjecture through what a long period of
+  progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+  results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of
+  Vienna, in his monograph &ldquo;Die Persische Nadelmalerei
+  Susandschird,&rdquo; gave the following description of the
+  &ldquo;Spring of Chosroes&rdquo; carpet:</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell
+  into the hands of the Arabs in the year 637 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>, they found in the royal palace, the ruins
+  of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+  metres,<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> which was originally made
+  for Chosroes I. His successor, Anoschar (531-579 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>), used it also, but only during the stormy
+  weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+  festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden
+  with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of
+  the carpet. This was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia
+  the Spring of Chosroes. Its material, which was marvellous and
+  costly, consisted of silk, gold, silver, and precious stones. On
+  it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and
+  interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of springtime. On the
+  wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which
+  precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white, and green
+  denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+  yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where
+  the water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were
+  indicated by stones of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees
+  were of gold and silver, the leaves and flowers of silk, the
+  fruits of many-coloured stones.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three
+  quarters of a million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to
+  fall to the lot of a single captor, and was accordingly divided
+  into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even
+  if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and
+  elaborate, it represented the importance of the textile art
+  during the dynasty of the Sassanides.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p15" id="p15"></a><img src="images/plate15.jpg"
+    width="550" height="738" alt="Plate 15. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 15. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>) the Moslem rulers, devoted to luxury, preserved the
+  art treasures of their conquered subjects and encouraged them to
+  renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the Caliphs and
+  sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the banquet
+  hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+  silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three
+  hundred feet and a breadth of one hundred and <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>fifty feet.
+  All of the rooms of the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the
+  sultans, contained carpets of silk and satin; and the mosques of
+  Syria were similarly furnished. In the year 1067 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his
+  accumulated treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works
+  of art, of about four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin
+  states that a single one of these bales contained several hundred
+  perfect carpets, which were woven in silk and gold, and that some
+  of them contained portraits of entire royal families. One of
+  them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the Caliph el Mirz
+  li alla in the year 964 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> It was
+  of blue silk, on which were represented the heavens and the
+  earth, seas and rivers, as well as the holy cities Mecca and
+  Medina. Such was the character of some of the carpets woven
+  during the days of the Caliphs.</p>
+
+  <p>As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that
+  the finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques
+  and palaces of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they
+  were woven by the native artisans. To some extent this is
+  doubtless true, as rug weaving was one of the oldest industries
+  of these countries. But it is more probable that most of them
+  were made elsewhere and were acquired as presents or by purchase.
+  Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and Turkestan; but the
+  largest number, as well as the most costly and elaborate,
+  doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where many
+  of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns
+  as many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work;
+  and since the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is
+  probable that they were produced far more rapidly than modern
+  rugs in which knots are tied to the warp. But if they lacked the
+  richness of deep, heavy pile, they were elaborately woven with
+  threads of gold and silver, and were often embellished with
+  precious stones.</p>
+
+  <h4>ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS</h4>
+
+  <p>To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to
+  which antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of
+  Oriental rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few
+  pieces still exist that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII
+  or XIV Century. Indeed, we cannot positively affirm that there
+  may not be religiously preserved some relic of the Seljukian
+  dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about 1150 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span>, for we have little knowledge <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> of what
+  some of the old mosques which no Christian has ever entered may
+  contain; but it is more probable that the oldest remaining pieces
+  belong to the Mongolian period, which began with the invasion of
+  the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half of the XIII Century.
+  This conclusion is based partly on the facts that their archaic
+  patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they suggest
+  early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+  somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of
+  similarity of their designs with those of early tiles, metal
+  work, pottery, and miniatures, of established age, it is possible
+  to infer the relative age of these older pieces by comparison of
+  patterns showing a progressive development.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of
+  C. F. Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan
+  Museum of Art of New York (Plate <a href="#p11">11</a>, opp. Page
+  64). It is also one of the most interesting. In it are found
+  Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian characteristics,
+  which serve to determine the district where it was woven and to
+  suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as well as
+  much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+  and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and
+  in parts of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The
+  reciprocal sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric
+  inner stripe are Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the
+  octagonal discs at each end of the large central palmettes, and
+  more particularly the tendrils or scrolls of the main stripe of
+  the border which resemble the foliate forms as they appear in
+  Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and Kang-hi periods,
+  are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics indicates
+  that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia where
+  in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+  ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+  flourished for a long period, and exercised an important
+  influence on the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours;
+  the formal character of the border; the rigid lines of the large
+  palmette motives of the field, which are not seen in carpets of a
+  much later period; and the stiff, archaic character of the bushes
+  with foliage and blossoms arranged mechanically on the thick
+  trunks, it is not unreasonable to place this piece as early as
+  the middle of the XIV Century, during the interval between the
+  overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers of Genghis
+  Khan and the later invasion of the <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>Timurids. In fact, it may be
+  even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+  art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the
+  drawing is strength, and in the colours, a few of which have
+  faded, are beauty and harmony.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p16" id="p16"></a><img src="images/plate16.jpg"
+    width="550" height="797" alt="Plate 16. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 16. Persian Animal
+    Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to
+  Prof. W. Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+  drawing is more regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader.
+  These two carpets represent the art of weaving at a very early
+  period.</p>
+
+  <p>Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet
+  (Plate <a href="#p12">12</a>, opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F.
+  Williams, Esq., and at present in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+  but formerly in the possession of J. B&ouml;hler of Munich. It
+  has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of nearly
+  twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+  Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier
+  pieces remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting
+  of the flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not
+  improbable that it was woven about the first of the XV Century.
+  Dr. Martin regards this piece as one of the oldest of the Timurid
+  period if not from the Mongolian, and says that the trees
+  resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the Mus&eacute;e des
+  Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year 1396.
+  At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+  more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring
+  suggest that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of
+  flowers, from which slender trees rise and partly screen from
+  view more stately cypresses. The subdivisions are further
+  indicated by pairs of palmettes, of which the upper pair mark a
+  transition between the lower pair and those more elegant forms
+  commonly seen two centuries later. There are likewise palmettes
+  of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the principal
+  ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques of
+  three different colours, which are decorated with a slender
+  wreath of leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular
+  interest in the grouping of the arabesques since they form a
+  design which may be the prototype of the so-called turtle borders
+  so frequently seen in Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself
+  derived, according to Dr. Martin, from a still older form in
+  which branching arabesques extend across the whole field. It may
+  not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> been
+  handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence
+  was felt in all the weavings.</p>
+
+  <p>If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern,
+  its greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of
+  which are exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate
+  shades of orange, ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and
+  dark blue on a background of pinkish red. This pattern and
+  colouring suggest an Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn
+  has left its touch on the leaves. The border contains the same
+  colours as the field but is strong and effective, since the soft
+  tones are in the narrow guard stripes and the deeper colours
+  appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses and in
+  immediate contact.</p>
+
+  <p>If this carpet was woven about 1400 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>, as seems not improbable, the drawing of the trees,
+  palmettes, and border designs becomes by comparison an important
+  guide for determining the age of other antique Persian
+  carpets.</p>
+
+  <p>Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece
+  (Plate <a href="#p13">13</a>, opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four
+  inches long by eleven feet two inches wide, that was formerly in
+  the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of London, but is now in
+  the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which bought it at the
+  Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six hundred knots
+  to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and silk,
+  and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+  drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic
+  craftsmanship. Another of similar character is represented in the
+  Vienna Publication of Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it
+  belonged to the Countess Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a
+  third belongs to the Palais de Commerce at Lyons.</p>
+
+  <p>In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian
+  tradition on design more noticeable; but that this was due to the
+  Timurid invasion at the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and
+  it is not improbable that more immediate intervention with China
+  determined the motives. Nor is the Saracenic influence obscured,
+  since in every part of the field and border is seen the perfect
+  rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets represent, in fact,
+  the transition from those earlier pieces to the higher products
+  of Persian looms.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p17" id="p17"></a><img src="images/plate17.jpg"
+    width="500" height="833" alt="Plate 17. So-called Polish Or Polonaise Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 17. So-called
+    Polish Or Polonaise Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
+    New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard
+  it as consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded
+  octagon encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id=
+  "Page_81">81</a></span>smaller rounded octagon at the centre of
+  the diagonal lines connecting them. On the large octagons, which
+  are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of sable brown, is
+  represented the fight of dragon and ph&oelig;nix so common in the
+  ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+  which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and
+  green. The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and
+  have arabesques and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped
+  areas of the ivory field are covered with a most symmetrically
+  drawn tracery of tendrils and flowers in red, yellow, and blue;
+  and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped areas are cloud bands of
+  similar colours.</p>
+
+  <p>The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding
+  piece. The main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight
+  modification is adopted in many of the carpets of this and a
+  later period, consists of a chain-like series of octagons similar
+  to those of the field, separating elongated panels with crenated
+  edges. The latter are adorned with cloud bands in yellow
+  interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in red,
+  yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+  them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and
+  flowers. The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils
+  bearing flowers in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden
+  yellow. All the colours of both field and border have mellowed
+  into rich, beautiful hues in which is the most perfect
+  harmony.</p>
+
+  <p>The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of
+  drawing, and the tones of colour indicate that this piece was
+  woven near the beginning of the Safavid dynasty, in the early
+  part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson ascribes its origin to
+  Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it came from the
+  northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre of
+  textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+  described on the pages just preceding are among the most
+  interesting carpets now existing; for they represent not only a
+  very high standard of the textile craft, but also most important
+  steps in its development.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were
+  woven in Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing,
+  that from its resemblance to an old tile of established age, he
+  placed at about the year 1300 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>;
+  but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that were woven
+  the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+  surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span> leopards,
+  boars, deer, and hounds were the principal motives. To each of
+  these was ascribed some principle or quality, so that it has been
+  assumed that the aim of the weaver was to give expression to some
+  theme of interest.</p>
+
+  <p>A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called
+  &ldquo;Hunting Carpets.&rdquo; The best of them are regarded by
+  Dr. Martin as belonging to the latter half of the XVI Century for
+  reasons indicated in the following extract from his work:
+  &ldquo;The manuscript of Nizami, one of the pearls of the British
+  Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for the Shah
+  Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+  the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia&rsquo;s
+  most renowned masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who
+  has drawn these magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at
+  the time it was written, was considered one of the most
+  remarkable &lsquo;the like of which the eye of time never
+  beheld,&rsquo; plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+  scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570.
+  Both animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier
+  character in the manuscript.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate <a href=
+  "#p14">14</a>, opp. Page 72) is in the Metropolitan Museum of
+  Art, in New York, by which it was purchased at the Yerkes sale in
+  1910, for $15,200. It has a length of ten feet eleven inches with
+  a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an average of four hundred
+  and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp and weft are of
+  silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently believed by
+  Mr. Edward Stebbing<a name="FNanchor_12" id=
+  "FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
+  that this piece belonged for a long time to the Mosque of
+  Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital, and from which
+  Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it belongs
+  to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael&rsquo;s
+  reign and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class=
+  "fnanchor">13</a> Nor is there anything in the technique of
+  colour or design to convey a different impression, as the general
+  colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border a
+  dark blue characteristic of this period.</p>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of
+  animal life amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral
+  figures. Four-fifths of the field can be divided into two perfect
+  squares with sides equal to the breadth of the field; and the
+  remainder will be equiva<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83"
+  id="Page_83">83</a></span>lent to one-half of one of these
+  squares. Each quarter of a square contains animals, probably
+  intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that are
+  perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+  quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the
+  smaller animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each
+  square forms a perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable
+  relation between all parts. Such mathematical exactness indicates
+  the highest artistic skill. The repetition of pattern also
+  accentuates the predominant idea of animal life, which is
+  rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow of some
+  of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+  remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been
+  copied during subsequent generations; so that it is not
+  surprising that Mr. Stebbing should call attention to the
+  resemblance of some of the animals in this carpet to those of the
+  rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan near Kermanshah.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no
+  correspondence between the size of the animals and the flowers.
+  Nevertheless the lack of harmony is not felt, as the animal and
+  the floral life are intended to be regarded separately. The
+  principal flowers of the field are peonies, some of which are
+  woven with silver threads. They also appear in the border
+  arranged with perfect precision within the folds of symmetrical
+  cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+  well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+  reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called,
+  which received its highest development in the silk rugs of a
+  later century.</p>
+
+  <p>On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest
+  sumptuary standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent
+  example of the artistic development of the earliest part of the
+  Safavid dynasty. In few other carpets is combined such intricacy
+  of design with richness and simplicity of colour.</p>
+
+  <p>Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet,
+  now in the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of
+  thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a
+  half; the texture shows about three hundred and twenty-five knots
+  to the square inch; and the pile is of wool tied to warp and weft
+  of silk. It has been very carefully studied by Mr. Edward
+  Stebbing, from whose description the following extracts are
+  taken:</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id=
+  "Page_84">84</a></span> exquisite delicacy and freedom of
+  treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow terminates on its
+  outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which spring
+  sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+  and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in
+  the direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the
+  sacred lamps of the mosque.</p>
+
+  <p>&ldquo;Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a
+  pale yellow ground, relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a
+  broader border completes the glorious design, a border of the
+  alternate elongated and rounded cartouches filled with floral and
+  other tracery, the former on a base of red, the latter on a rich
+  brown ground flanked on the inner side by a broad band of cream
+  seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a so-called cloud
+  pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of the
+  carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+  inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and
+  relieved by a bold design in blue.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the
+  colouring, the greatest interest centres in the fact that in a
+  panel adjoining the border of the upper end is the following
+  inscription:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem2">
+    <div class="stanza2">
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;I have no refuge in the world other
+      than thy threshold;</span> <span class="i02">&ldquo;My head
+      has no protection other than thy porchway;</span>
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;The work of the slave of the holy
+      place, Maksoud of Kashan, in the year 946.&rdquo;</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only
+  determines the character of workmanship of a particular period,
+  but affords a standard for determining by comparison the relative
+  age of other pieces. The year 946 corresponds with our year 1540
+  A. D., and the position of the date indicates that it was
+  inscribed a little before the completion of the fabric.
+  Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+  carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael,
+  who died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the
+  reign of Tamasp I.</p>
+
+  <p>To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a
+  mistake; since this was doubtless woven by the order of the
+  court, and by one of the most skilled artisans, who may have made
+  it the crowning labour of his life. It indicates the highest
+  technique acquired in the early part of the Safavid dynasty.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p18" id="p18"></a><img src="images/plate18.jpg"
+    width="550" height="768" alt="Plate 18. So-called Ispahan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 18. So-called
+    Ispahan in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer
+  rugs were used for devotional purposes. When the first of them
+  were made is unknown, though they existed in the days of the
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id=
+  "Page_85">85</a></span>Caliphs, when the words of the Prophet
+  were still fresh in the memories of his followers; and they were
+  also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest that
+  remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+  formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is
+  now owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a
+  length of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and
+  a quarter. In the central field is a prayer arch resembling some
+  of a later period, with outlines gracefully recurving near the
+  base and broken on each side by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All
+  parts of each of the two trees that rise from the bottom of the
+  field are reversely duplicated in the other. Some of the
+  stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+  blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is
+  more skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of
+  the spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of
+  red, yellow, and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is
+  most pleasing; but the chief interest centres in the outer border
+  stripe, where appear features that are more interesting than
+  harmonious, features derived from Persia, Assyria, Mongolia, and
+  Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering that recalls
+  early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the bottom
+  with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+  cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:</p>
+
+  <div class="poem2">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <span class="i02">&ldquo;Iman the victorious and expected
+      Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.</span> <span class="i02">Zalsi
+      and Hason; and bless the standing proof.</span> <span class=
+      "i02">Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect,
+      Fatimeh the Immaculate.</span> <span class="i02">Jofer Sadik,
+      Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee,
+      Ali.</span> <span class="i02">The two branches Harson and
+      Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+      Bak&rsquo;r.&rdquo;</span>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a
+  colour sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of
+  the carpet. Similar features also appear in another antique piece
+  of about the same age, but the Cufic characters of the border are
+  within squares surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals
+  as they appear in early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were
+  probably woven in Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI
+  Century. Few such prayer carpets remain, though without doubt
+  they were used<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id=
+  "Page_86">86</a></span> by devotees during succeeding periods,
+  and it is not unusual to see, even in modern Kermanshahs, prayer
+  arches of the same pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>Of totally different character but of about the same age is an
+  animal rug (Plate <a href="#p15">15</a>, opp. Page 76) that
+  belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It was bought at the
+  Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had previously belonged to
+  the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It has a length of
+  about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five and a
+  half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+  woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+  Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled
+  under the other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft,
+  which crosses twice, is partly exposed at the back.</p>
+
+  <p>Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of
+  red appears in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with
+  the dark blue of the medallion and dark green of the corners. Red
+  and green also appear in the border contrasted with yellow. This
+  association of colour is not usual, nor is the repetitive pattern
+  of the border with its sharp cusps at many of the angles, nor the
+  trapeziform corners, and the nearly rectangular medallion.
+  Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with their quince-like
+  fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size, show a
+  departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+  Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it
+  was probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia
+  where the influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless
+  the accurate balance of the different halves, and the drawing of
+  the palmettes show that it is distinctly Iranian.</p>
+
+  <p>If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate
+  <a href="#p16">16</a>, opp. Page 78) that was presented to the
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran, the wide contrast will
+  at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length of about eight
+  and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the difference
+  in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any particular
+  difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced relation
+  of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red ground
+  of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+  former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the
+  latter they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and
+  palmette forms, that occupy not only the field but also the
+  border. It is, indeed, a piece that marks <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span>a
+  transition from the animal rugs, so prominent in the early part
+  of the XVI Century but rarely woven later than its end, to the
+  more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court of Ispahan,
+  which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+  accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the
+  year 1600.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p19" id="p19"></a><img src="images/plate19.jpg"
+    width="400" height="788" alt="Plate 19. Armenian Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 19. Armenian Carpet
+    in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Not only do these different elements that denote a transition
+  add interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main
+  border stripe of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes
+  surrounded by vines and foliated stalks, on which rest naturally
+  drawn birds of handsome plumage, and the chaste floral designs of
+  the narrow guards, serve as a tasteful frame to the central
+  picture. Here again the outer field, with artistic effect, brings
+  into greater relief the central medallion, where on a ground of
+  greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming shrubs in
+  red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+  forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to
+  reflect the tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic
+  of matrimonial happiness. Whatever may have been the original
+  shade of the central medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony
+  with the surrounding colours, and is perhaps the only jarring
+  note in this exquisite piece of workmanship. Not improbably the
+  present shade is due to the unfriendly hand of time, since the
+  artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed in the masterly
+  arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and precision of
+  the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+  forms.</p>
+
+  <p>The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique
+  carpets were woven is often greater than in the case of modern
+  rugs, but this piece was probably one of the last of those fine
+  old animal carpets that were woven in the northwestern part of
+  Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen
+  pieces, the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the
+  choicest products of weaving. As a rule, they were the work of
+  the most skilled artists employed in the imperial factory under
+  the direction and patronage of the court. It was during the reign
+  of Shah Tamasp that they received special attention. Following a
+  custom that had been in vogue of sending carpets as presents to
+  foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of Constantinople a
+  number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals were woven
+  with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+  successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at
+  Ispahan, that were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id=
+  "Page_88">88</a></span> made the famous &ldquo;Polish&rdquo; silk
+  or &ldquo;Polonaise&rdquo; carpets about which there has been so
+  much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson in his
+  &ldquo;Eastern Carpets&rdquo; claims that they were woven in
+  Poland by Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it
+  seems far more probable that they were woven under the
+  supervision of the Persian court and were either sent as presents
+  to European sovereigns or purchased by wealthy connoisseurs of
+  art.</p>
+
+  <p>How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and
+  mosques of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two
+  hundred would be a very conservative estimate of the number owned
+  by the different courts of Europe and by private collectors of
+  that country and America. One of them was presented to the Danish
+  court as late as 1639; and it is believed that all that reached
+  Europe arrived there between the years 1604 and 1650.</p>
+
+  <p>Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver
+  and gold is tied silken nap that often displays a striking
+  brilliancy. Unlike the earlier Persian carpets which had more
+  subdued hues, these pieces have light tones such as salmon, rose,
+  and green, which are arranged with perfect harmony. Moreover,
+  there is an elegance of design representing the highest types of
+  Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences combined. Here in
+  perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic tracery of
+  arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art of
+  the East reached a perfection that probably has never been
+  surpassed.</p>
+
+  <p>One of these (Plate <a href="#p17">17</a>, opp. Page 80), that
+  has a length of about nine feet and a breadth of five and a half,
+  belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of Art. In many respects it is
+  typical of its class, though threads of yellow and grey are
+  substituted for the usual gold and silver of the foundation. On a
+  field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves, and scrolls in
+  green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the light
+  blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+  effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore
+  with all its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is
+  arranged with mathematical precision. That a carpet with such
+  perfect balance of every part, such intricacy of elaborate
+  detail, such graceful curves of the heavy foliate leaves should
+  be woven without copying some older pattern or a carefully
+  executed drawing, seems improbable.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p20" id="p20"></a><img src="images/plate20.jpg"
+    width="500" height="836" alt="Plate 20. Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum, Berlin"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 20. Asia Minor
+    Dragon and Phoenix Carpet in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum,
+    Berlin</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In this piece and in others of the same class can be
+  recognised what is probably the prototype of more
+  conventionalised and less <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89"
+  id="Page_89">89</a></span>elegant designs so often seen in modern
+  Persian pieces, since the palmette with encircling lancet leaves
+  in its borders is most suggestive of the borders of modern
+  Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting four
+  palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or
+  fish pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.</p>
+
+  <p>It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas<a name=
+  "FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class=
+  "fnanchor">14</a> and his immediate successors that most of the
+  so-called Ispahans were woven, though some of them appeared as
+  early as the XV and some as late as the close of the XVII
+  Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within
+  recent years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the
+  place of their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin
+  believes that they came from Herat and with this idea some other
+  authorities concur. It is true that Herat belonged to the Persian
+  Empire during the reign of the Safavid dynasty, and that even in
+  the days of Shah Ismael magnificent carpets were woven there. It
+  is also true that during the time of Tamasp and Abbas it was as
+  important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the weaving of
+  carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has not
+  been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this
+  period an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand,
+  it is well known that the splendid industrial and art products of
+  this period were largely due to the direct encouragement and
+  favour of the court, and that the court was for most of the time
+  at Ispahan. It is also known that skilled artisans were
+  repeatedly removed from one district to another at the command of
+  a sovereign, so that carpets of similar character might be woven
+  contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It accordingly seems
+  not improbable that the original type of these carpets was
+  evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at
+  Herat, but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate
+  they were made to a great extent under the influence that
+  emanated from Ispahan.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and
+  oblong shape. The ground colour of the field is usually red, the
+  border blue; but blue is occasionally used in the field and green
+  in the border. Their distinguishing feature is the use of the
+  palmette, that was probably derived from the lotus, so frequently
+  associated with the Buddhist cult of India and China. In the
+  field it generally <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id=
+  "Page_90">90</a></span> occurs in pairs that slightly vary in
+  size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese cloud-bands and
+  the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were constant
+  motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+  modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological
+  order furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven.
+  For instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed
+  plentifully over the field; later they became larger, until in a
+  few instances they were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that
+  in the first part of the XVII Century the palmettes began to be
+  very large and the richness of the interior design to disappear;
+  until at the end of the XVII Century only a few were sufficient
+  to cover the ground that one hundred years before was almost
+  hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes, cloud-bands,
+  and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of the
+  XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that
+  the palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.</p>
+
+  <p>Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were
+  woven in the Northern provinces, it is well known that even from
+  earliest times carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique
+  were also woven in Southern Persia. In fact, many of the
+  wonderful pieces that adorned the palaces and mosques of the
+  Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the districts of Fars and
+  Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of Seljukian Turks,
+  Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost uninterruptedly as
+  a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively few pieces
+  exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago. Their
+  colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+  Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets
+  and Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish.
+  Their patterns also show a distinction from those of northern
+  textile fabrics. The fields are often artificially divided, by
+  foliate stalks or lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into
+  rhomboidal figures that contain mechanically drawn shrubs,
+  palmettes, or flowers. In the main stripe of the border are
+  generally represented interlacing arabesques adorned with
+  flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+  Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which
+  probably represent more closely than any other Persian carpets
+  native art unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them
+  are now owned in Europe.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id=
+  "Page_91">91</a></span>Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia
+  are far less known than those from Persia. Nevertheless, it may
+  reasonably be assumed that the high culture that was manifested
+  in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of the Caliphs was felt
+  among the mountainous districts to the north; and that the
+  Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+  Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of
+  fine woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through
+  that region during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred
+  to them as being remarkably handsome.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon
+  carpets, which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the
+  XVII Century and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the
+  length is at least twice the breadth; the very narrow border
+  occasionally consists of only a single stripe; and the field is
+  occupied by a trellis-like pattern of narrow, conventionalised
+  leaves, within which are designs containing archaic flowers and
+  dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally some shade
+  of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+  blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive
+  from which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen
+  in panels of more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century
+  carpet (Plate <a href="#p19">19</a>, opp. Page 86), which, though
+  widely differing from these pieces in general pattern, so closely
+  resembles them in the essential characteristics of weave and
+  colour that it is unquestionably of the same class. The field is
+  occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped sides. The
+  encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet, and
+  the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+  including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also
+  numerous small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the
+  Circassian and Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central
+  lozenge, as well as the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest
+  the origin of the effulgent stars of old Daghestans and
+  Kabistans. An effort has been made to balance similar designs in
+  corresponding parts of the field, though its centre is at one
+  side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The palmettes show
+  distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal forms
+  likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+  Western Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p>Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate <a href="#p20">20</a>,
+  opp. Page 88), from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id=
+  "Page_92">92</a></span> district in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the
+  Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its principal interest lies in
+  the fact that it is very old and that its approximate age has
+  been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a similar rug
+  is represented in a fresco called the &ldquo;Wedding of the
+  Foundling,&rdquo; painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year
+  1440, so that it is reasonable to conclude that this particular
+  piece was woven not much later. In fact, its character would
+  indicate that it or some other from which it has been copied was
+  much older. Each of the nearly square compartments contain
+  octagons, within which on a yellow field are represented the
+  mythical fight of the dragon and ph&oelig;nix that was adopted as
+  the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the chain
+  pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+  what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+  corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This
+  disposition to formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts
+  of the rug, shows an archaic style noticeable only in the very
+  earliest carpets.</p>
+
+  <p>In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate <a href=
+  "#p21">21</a>, opp. Page 92) which hangs in the Berlin Gallery,
+  is represented a rug of a class so frequently seen in the
+  paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as &ldquo;Holbein
+  rugs.&rdquo; Their marked dissimilarity to those previously
+  described indicates that they were woven under different
+  circumstances if not in different regions. Neither in the fields
+  nor borders is any trace of Mongolian or Persian influences; and
+  the absence of all floral, leaf, and animal forms so usual in
+  most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed, the fact that animal
+  forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni Mohammedans aids in
+  determining the place of their origin. They came from Asia Minor
+  or Western Armenia.</p>
+
+  <p>It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western
+  Asia Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries
+  and taken thence to Europe; but they possess many features that
+  indicate they may have been woven farther to the east, whence
+  many could easily have been transported westward in caravans.
+  Their borders contain the well-known pattern derived from Cufic
+  letters which, more conventionalised, appears in later years only
+  in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of Eastern Caucasia.
+  Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs and larger
+  octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that suggest
+  forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow stripes
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id=
+  "Page_93">93</a></span>of ribbon and chain pattern found in many
+  of them also are very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems
+  not improbable that these Holbein rugs were made within the
+  boundaries of that greater Armenia which, embracing the upper
+  Mesopotamian valley, extended over the eastern part of Asia Minor
+  and the southern part of modern Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p21" id="p21"></a><img src="images/plate21.jpg"
+    width="500" height="577" alt="Plate 21. Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein, Showing a Holbein Rug With Cufic Border"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 21. Portrait of
+    Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein, Showing a Holbein Rug With Cufic
+    Border</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These rugs claim the attention not only because they have
+  borders of such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age
+  when they were woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between
+  the years 1497 and 1543, and some other rugs of this type appear
+  in the works of early Flemish and Italian painters, it may
+  reasonably be assumed that some of them were made before the end
+  of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p>A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F.
+  Williams, is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a
+  length of about five feet with a breadth of three and a half. The
+  ground colour of the field is an olive green and that of the main
+  stripe of the border is red. The prevailing colours of the
+  designs, which are entirely geometric, are blue, green, and
+  ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size, and are
+  slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+  yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather
+  loose; and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to
+  the square inch.</p>
+
+  <p>Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F.
+  Williams appears in Plate <a href="#p22">22</a>, opp. Page 94. It
+  is the only entire rug with this pattern that is known, though a
+  piece of a similar rug is in the Victoria and Albert Museum at
+  London. On fields of blue and red are outlined three large
+  four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds. Within these
+  figures and in the surrounding field is a network of tracery
+  supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+  field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close
+  co-ordination of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner
+  guard seems alien. It appears without modification in many later
+  Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>An important feature are the double knots at the corners of
+  the stars, since they are identical with designs found in a
+  manuscript made for one of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to
+  determine the age of the rug. For this reason and on account of
+  its general character, it seems not unreasonable to place it as
+  early as the middle of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id=
+  "Page_94">94</a></span>Similar carpets were woven during a long
+  period, and it is probable that in the latter half of the
+  following century they were largely influenced by the weavers
+  that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in 1534,
+  transported to his own country. The same general features still
+  remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate.
+  Arabesques, palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and
+  border, resembled more nearly the Iranian character. But at a
+  later period, after the beginning of the general decadence to
+  which every industry and art were subject, the patterns became
+  much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost exclusively to
+  red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern and
+  colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow
+  process of devolution originated from these antique pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed
+  before the Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which
+  remain, though affected by more eastern influences, are largely
+  the product of an indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise.
+  It is true that Sir George Birdwood is authority for the
+  statement that the Saracens introduced carpet-weaving there; but
+  it is most probable that at the time of the invasion of the
+  armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of many of his
+  successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude. Even
+  when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they
+  obtained their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar
+  established manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and
+  invited Persian weavers to settle there. From them the native
+  workmen acquired much of their knowledge of patterns and
+  technique.</p>
+
+  <p>It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of
+  the famous peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the
+  choicest pieces that now remain were woven. In delicacy of
+  texture they rival those of any other country, and it is not
+  unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred knots to the
+  square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+  remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of
+  these carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two
+  and a half wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and
+  presented to the Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling
+  of leaf and floral forms, as well as the Herati designs of
+  rosette and crumpled leaf, on a field of red, shows unmistakably
+  its relation to Persian carpets. At the same period were woven
+  large numbers of others with fields covered <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>with an
+  imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every part
+  from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+  Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which
+  unlike their Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to
+  portray symbolically some historic event or abstract idea, as to
+  convey a correct impression of an actual event.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+    <a name="p22" id="p22"></a><img src="images/plate22.jpg"
+    width="350" height="789" alt="Plate 22. Oushak Carpet" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 22. Oushak
+    Carpet</span></p>
+
+    <p class="center2">Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the
+    Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a
+  quarter feet and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the
+  Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The inspiration was from some old
+  Persian piece, but the rendering is peculiarly Indian. In this
+  representation of an Oriental jungle is a strange mingling of the
+  real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird with a winged
+  beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of the
+  border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+  movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping
+  tiger, the attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant,
+  are most natural. The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate.
+  The ground colour of the field is the red of most Ispahans and
+  Herats of this period, but the border is a cream colour, a
+  combination not in accord with Persian tradition. The other
+  colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is probably the
+  only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.</p>
+
+  <p>Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the
+  Orient are known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely
+  woven in Caucasia and Western Turkestan before the end of the
+  XVII Century, scarcely a vestige can be found. Nor are there many
+  from the looms of Syria, though in the days of the Caliphs every
+  mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets. It is true a few
+  sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been ascribed
+  to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+  rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in
+  China.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> But of the countless
+  thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once covered
+  floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+  refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction
+  remains.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id=
+  "Page_96">96</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE</h4>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="c1" id="c1"></a><img src="images/chart1.jpg"
+    width="550" height="859" alt="CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE"
+    title="" />
+  </div>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id=
+  "Page_97">97</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+  <h4>CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/r.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="R"
+  title="R" /></span>UGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad
+  more than any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to
+  his tent or covers the floor and couches on which he sits and
+  sleeps. Thrown over other objects they form the table, made into
+  saddle bags they take the place of trunks. The followers of Islam
+  when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in token of affection spread
+  one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in cities, also, rugs
+  contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the home. Indeed,
+  without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+  incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every
+  house, where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as
+  floor coverings, and lighter ones are hung as porti&egrave;res
+  and tapestries. Yet it is in the assembly or dining hall that the
+  finest rugs are used, though here the most valued are exposed
+  only on great occasions.</p>
+
+  <p>In the East a rug receives a particular name according to
+  which of these special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost
+  square piece that is used to cover the centre of the assembly
+  hall is known as the &ldquo;Khali;&rdquo; and the narrow strips
+  or &ldquo;runners&rdquo; that are placed at its sides and ends
+  are known as the &ldquo;Kenares.&rdquo; It is on the Kenares that
+  the servants are required to walk and the less honoured guests to
+  stand, for they are rarely of such fine quality as the former.
+  Before the divan, that generally surrounds three walls and is
+  covered with fine cloth and velvet, are seats on which are placed
+  carpets called &ldquo;Sedjadeh.&rdquo; They are nearly twice as
+  long as broad, and since they are of moderate size and excellent
+  quality they are frequently used for many other purposes. The
+  hearth rug, termed &ldquo;Odjalik,&rdquo; can generally be
+  distinguished from others, as each end of the field is of
+  triangular shape with the apex at the extremity. However much any
+  of these may be valued, the one that to every<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> worshipper
+  of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+  &ldquo;Namazlik,&rdquo; or prayer rug, at one end of which is an
+  arch in token of the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful
+  Moslem spreads his rug with arch directed towards Mecca, and
+  kneeling with the palms of his hands at each side of the centre
+  he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the Mohammedans of
+  Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the foot of
+  an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+  other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer
+  rugs sold in America have been made solely for trade and have
+  never been used in worship. They may be beautiful, but special
+  interest attaches to old pieces of which the well-worn nap shows
+  where the knees of both father and son for over half a century
+  have often pressed. In addition to these are other rugs with
+  technical names, but a classification of much greater importance
+  is that which depends on the country or district where they are
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the
+  United States, they were spoken of as &ldquo;Turkish,&rdquo; for
+  the reason that importers purchased them from Turkish merchants
+  of Constantinople. But when it became known that they had been
+  taken there by caravans from countries farther to the east, and
+  that large numbers of them came from Persia, the name
+  &ldquo;Persian,&rdquo; that to the mind of many conveys ideas of
+  splendour, was at once applied; even to-day all classes of
+  Oriental rugs are often spoken of as Persian. As objects of
+  ornament or utility, their value is independent of their place of
+  origin; yet it is known that the wool of the nap and the dyes
+  used in some districts are superior to those in others, and that
+  in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve with age far
+  more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+  certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+  workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will
+  wear better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is
+  made is important in determining the quality and value, which
+  otherwise only a critical examination, that few people are able
+  to make, would show.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p23" id="p23"></a><img src="images/plate23.jpg"
+    width="550" height="778" alt="Plate 23. Sehna Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 23. Sehna
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting
+  the class of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our
+  interest. When, for instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish
+  weave with its nomadic designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem
+  savage as an Apache often rested fully half a century ago, there
+  is called up a picture of the dark-visaged tribesman, fearless
+  and untamed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id=
+  "Page_99">99</a></span>as were his ancestors who contested the
+  march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see him
+  wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+  chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to
+  ourselves the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender
+  barbaric girl bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots
+  one by one. So if we would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should
+  know what people made them, and whence and how they journeyed,
+  before they reached our fireside.</p>
+
+  <p>At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to
+  classify a rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This
+  is partly due to the fact that even the great importing houses
+  are often deceived. Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan,
+  even farther east, great fairs are regularly held. Here gather
+  the representatives of tribes from far distant quarters to enjoy
+  for a few days or weeks the gay life and abandon of the East
+  while bartering the products of their different crafts. Here come
+  the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces that may
+  be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail to
+  such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+  bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and
+  labelled, before they are resold to the importing houses of
+  Europe and America. Thus both in the buying from the itinerant
+  agent of rugs assembled from different quarters and in the
+  reassortment at the exporting cities there is frequent
+  opportunity for errors of classification.</p>
+
+  <p>The characteristics of the different groups and classes of
+  rugs are given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed
+  that these are infallible guides to the locality where they were
+  made. Often a ruler, by fostering art, has drawn to his capital
+  artists and artisans from other districts. Thus designs and
+  quality of workmanship characteristic of one district would be
+  adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans that pass along
+  regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual pilgrimages
+  to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for the
+  dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the
+  general pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft,
+  and pile; the knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and
+  the peculiarities of the weave, it is possible with a reasonable
+  amount of certainty to determine in what districts almost all
+  Oriental rugs are woven.</p>
+
+  <p>It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which
+  some of the rugs are known in America are not the same as
+  those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id=
+  "Page_100">100</a></span> by which they are known in Asia. For
+  instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the Tekke
+  Khanate are known in the Orient as &ldquo;Tekkes;&rdquo; but as
+  the great depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of
+  Bokhara, they are generally known in this country as
+  &ldquo;Bokharas.&rdquo; On the other hand, there are local
+  distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the western.
+  The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+  arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the
+  classes represent the cities or districts where are woven the
+  several different kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided
+  chronologically. The names of the groups are not in each instance
+  entirely satisfactory, but are probably the best that can be
+  chosen. The fourth group, for example, has frequently been called
+  the &ldquo;Turkoman;&rdquo; but as it includes some of the rugs
+  of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+  from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+  district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the
+  western and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here
+  employed has the authority of some German writers of note. So,
+  too, the rugs of Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan,
+  are included with the Persian group; but it should be remembered
+  that Herat, as well as the districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was
+  once part of the old Persian Empire.</p>
+
+  <h4>GROUP I. PERSIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) Khorassan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Shiraz district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz,
+        Niris.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Feraghan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad,
+        Iran, Sarouk, Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad,
+        Muskabad, Mahal, Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>d</i>) Sehna district, or Adelan
+        province:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian
+        Kurdistan, Karaje.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>e</i>) Tabriz district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez,
+        Suj-Bulak, Karadagh, Afshar.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>f</i>) Kurdistan district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id=
+  "Page_101">101</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) West Asia Minor district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak,
+        Ak-Hissar, Demirdji, Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta,
+        Rhodian, Broussa, Hereke.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Central Asia Minor
+        district:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian,
+        Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar, Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile,
+        Yuruk.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP I. PERSIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) North Caucasian:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend,
+        Lesghian, Chichi, Tcherkess.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Trans Caucasian:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis,
+        Kutais, Kazak, Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC." border=
+  "0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) West Turkoman sub-group,
+        Western influence:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke,
+        Yomud, Khiva, Afghan, Beshir.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) East Turkoman sub-group,
+        Eastern influence:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Beluchistan.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP V. INDIAN.</h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP V. INDIAN." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) Northern India:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan,
+        Agra, Allahabad, Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) Southern India:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal,
+        Malabar, Hyderabad, Marsulipatam.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <h4>GROUP VI. CHINESE.<a name="FNanchor_16" id=
+  "FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class=
+  "fnanchor">16</a></h4>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="GROUP VI. CHINESE." border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>a</i>) XVII Century:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi
+        (1662-1700).</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>b</i>) XVIII Century:</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left15c">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left85c">
+        <p class="indent2">1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2.
+        Yung-ching (1722-1736). 3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>c</i>) Early and Middle XIX
+        Century.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left85c" colspan="2">
+        <p class="indent2">(<i>d</i>) Late XIX Century or
+        Modern.</p>
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id=
+  "Page_102">102</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+  <h4>PERSIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/i.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="I"
+  title="I" /></span>N the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not
+  always desirable to follow the present political divisions of
+  territory, since great and frequent changes in national
+  boundaries have occurred without corresponding changes in the
+  traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with the rugs
+  made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants, it
+  is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+  included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of
+  Afghanistan on the east. The woven products of all this territory
+  have characteristics that are similar to one another and that
+  differentiate them from those of other countries. Their patterns
+  are distinctly floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and
+  show a tendency to naturalistic drawing with graceful and often
+  intricate lines. Moreover, their colour schemes of delicate tones
+  are not only beautiful but in perfect harmony. In marked contrast
+  with them are the rugs of Caucasia, Asia Minor, and Central Asia,
+  which have patterns of geometric shape or highly conventionalised
+  flower forms, and colours that often appear in bold contrast. In
+  the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of colour, as
+  well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian. The
+  scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated
+  figures, or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper
+  pattern of some Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is
+  there a similarity to the patterns and colour tones of those of
+  Persia; but the designs are more realistically drawn, less
+  artistically arranged, and less profuse.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE IV&mdash;BERGAMO RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early
+  Asia Minor traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of
+  field and border, yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom
+  from conventionality by departing from types peculiar to his
+  district and adopting many nomadic designs prevalent throughout
+  Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the background of the
+  central field, on which are three upright panels containing
+  octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and forming
+  what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+  life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also
+  combs, knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at
+  the upper and lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes
+  are most suggestive of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates
+  at the ends of the upright stalks are small checquered squares.
+  Bergamos with such patterns are now rarely seen.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="piv" id="piv"></a><img src="images/plate_iv.jpg"
+    width="550" height="698" alt="COLOUR PLATE IV--BERGAMO RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past
+  political influences as well as to common ties of race and
+  religion. From the time when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the
+  cities of Persia in the splendour of their capitals, all of this
+  territory was repeatedly under one and the same dominant power,
+  which at different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id=
+  "Page_103">103</a></span> times was held by Saracens, Seljukian
+  Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the end of the
+  Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+  Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger
+  influence is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and
+  Turks have blended with the early people of the whole territory,
+  until not only do all resemble one another, but their
+  craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore, with the exception of a
+  few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still cling to the early
+  Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their frequent
+  pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+  ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+  and India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to
+  a much less degree.</p>
+
+  <p>A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical
+  features of the entire country that affect the habits and
+  industries of the people. To be sure the Euphrates and Tigris,
+  that wind sluggishly through the great Mesopotamian valley, and
+  the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that extend from Mt.
+  Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have no
+  counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+  Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where
+  there is little vegetation, high table-lands where during
+  rainless summer months the earth is parched, and little valleys
+  of fertile soil that are watered by streams from the encircling
+  mountain ridges. Throughout this territory, wherever physical
+  conditions are similar, the people follow similar pursuits. In
+  the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the higher lands
+  some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+  pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys
+  are several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment
+  of the East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple
+  articles of metal, and weave artistic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life
+  pervades the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of
+  a past associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana,
+  Babylon and Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more
+  immediate influence of the textile masterpieces of three
+  centuries ago, rugs are still produced that in delicacy of weave,
+  beauty of design, and harmony of colours surpass those of any
+  other part of the world. In the weave of the best examples is
+  displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the Royal
+  Bokharas. In the fine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id=
+  "Page_104">104</a></span> rhythm of lines and in the colour
+  scheme of harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the
+  best products of India alone compare, is united the touch of both
+  artist and artisan. The fields of the old pieces are lavishly
+  covered with intricate designs of buds and blossoms supported by
+  vines or tendrils, and frequently encircled by arabesques that
+  interlace so as to form an harmonious whole. The fields of the
+  modern pieces are frequently of solid colour, with central
+  medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful lines.
+  Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+  slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+  realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are
+  arranged with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by
+  some nomadic design. Surrounding the fields are borders of
+  several stripes, some of which contain an undulating vine with
+  pendent flowers or palmettes co-ordinate in drawing and colouring
+  with the main pattern. It is, however, principally in the
+  colours, which are delicate yet rich, subdued yet lustrous, that
+  these rugs surpass all others. Their most distinctive tones are
+  blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that the ground
+  colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+  perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and
+  wine colour in field, each being subordinated to other
+  superimposed colours representing floral detail.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m1" id="m1"></a><a href="images/map1z.jpg">
+    <img src="images/map1.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="MAP OF PERSIA"
+    title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF PERSIA</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal
+  precision throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is
+  of uncertain antiquity and origin. It consists of a central
+  figure that generally represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or
+  rosette, about which are grouped other figures like crumpled or
+  lance-shaped leaves. Probably both the central and encircling
+  figures are of Persian origin, though the latter have been
+  regarded by some authorities as representing fish and attributed
+  to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally drawn so as
+  distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of these
+  figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+  and a central rosette, as in Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 4
+  (Page 291). This Herati or Fish Pattern, as it is frequently
+  called, appears in many of the old Persian rugs and in most of
+  the modern pieces, particularly the Feraghans and Herats. A less
+  frequently seen floral pattern, which has been used from a very
+  remote time and is still represented in modern rugs, is the Guli
+  Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 3).
+  Of this plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the
+  &ldquo;chief of this world and the next.&rdquo; <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> It
+  occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in
+  several other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are
+  scattered informally over the field. Another floral pattern
+  frequently seen is the Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina Khan, a former
+  Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of Persian
+  Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a network
+  of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+  placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according
+  to their different designs and colours; and between them often
+  appear other flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured
+  Hinnai, so as to destroy too great stiffness of design. As the
+  flowers are relatively large and sufficiently separate to show
+  the intervening blue field, this is one of the most effective of
+  the formal repetitive floral patterns. A still more formal
+  pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of the Persian
+  rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah Abbas.
+  It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+  design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal
+  motive is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral
+  character. Between the large and formal palmettes, that are
+  arranged with mathematical precision, are grouped with similar
+  regularity smaller palmettes, connected by angular vines and
+  leafy branches.</p>
+
+  <p>Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns,
+  such as the Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas.
+  Others have the repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the
+  pear, on a field of rich colour. The remainder have patterns
+  consisting largely of scrolls, vines, or tendrils, drawn with
+  exquisite art and decorated with leaves, flowers, and buds in
+  beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human beings, demons,
+  and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with the foliage
+  but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+  special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in
+  the remote past, have been transplanted from one country to
+  another, and conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is
+  interesting to observe the designs in the different classes of
+  rugs and trace as far as possible the influences to which they
+  are due.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Herats.</span>&mdash;On great
+  lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia, the city of
+  Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+  commercially a most important position, so<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span> that
+  its people long since became familiar with the best fabrics of
+  the surrounding countries. During the XV Century it reached its
+  greatest prosperity, and exerted an important influence on the
+  art and culture of Western Asia. Before the art decadence that
+  followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in 1731, and the
+  removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+  producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+  delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+  contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing
+  arabesques, scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among
+  this tracery were palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and
+  peony, which were often most realistically drawn.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class=
+  "fnanchor">17</a> These rugs are of further interest, as they
+  contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed,
+  appears in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati
+  pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the
+  antique pieces and show a close relationship to those of Persia.
+  Nor is this surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short
+  of the high standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia,
+  are still mindful of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the
+  rugs are made across the border in Khorassan, and have the silky
+  pile peculiar to the rugs of that province; but their tones of
+  colour, consisting principally of red or blue in the field, and
+  light green, yellow, and ivory in the border, as well as most of
+  the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields are covered
+  with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in the
+  same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+  directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the
+  Feraghans, because their fields are covered with the Herati or
+  Fish pattern; but the borders of the Feraghans usually have the
+  well-known turtle pattern, while the borders of these adhere to
+  the traditional Herati design. It is also not unusual to see a
+  large central medallion, in which blue or red predominates,
+  separated by a field of lighter colour from the triangular
+  patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+  seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p24" id="p24"></a><img src="images/plate24.jpg"
+    width="400" height="808" alt="Plate 24. Bijar Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 24. Bijar
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most characteristic features of this class are the
+  borders, that generally have three stripes, of which the central
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id=
+  "Page_107">107</a></span>consists of a continuous vine of
+  crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely bent, thorny
+  stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes are
+  narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical
+  border, the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their
+  large, almost square shapes and rather coarse weave, are
+  important aids in distinguishing this class from all others. Some
+  of the rugs recently made are coarse; but the older rugs have
+  excellent dyes, lustrous nap, and matured tones of well-blended
+  colours.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i><a name="FNanchor_18" id=
+  "FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally red and blue with minor quantities of
+  green, yellow, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes, rarely Sehna.
+  Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+  nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as
+  long, measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class=
+  "fnanchor">19</a> The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+  that the warp is concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, of cotton,
+  rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only
+  depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse
+  diameter. For a short space a thread of weft crosses twice, that
+  is across and back once, between every two rows of knots, then
+  three times, and so alternates every several rows. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool of medium length, soft, and silky. <i>Border</i>, three to
+  five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web
+  and loose warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout and firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  eight to twenty feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Khorassans.</span>&mdash;Among
+  Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of the Sun. In
+  its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds and
+  flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+  soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+  exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+  located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times
+  the Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome,
+  then retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes
+  and inhospitable wastes.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id=
+  "Page_108">108</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary
+  wilderness have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more
+  favoured spots where prevailed cultured influences that could
+  develop an Omar Khayyam and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed.
+  Even before the Mongolian invasion several hundred looms, each
+  employing four or five women, were busy in the town of Toon in
+  Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east is the district of
+  Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs of Herati
+  pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+  inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand,
+  in the southeastern part of the province, where formerly were
+  woven pieces of superior workmanship that contained from two
+  hundred to three hundred knots to the square inch. Their colours
+  were of delicate shades; and it was not unusual to employ ivory
+  or other light tones for the ground, with which was contrasted
+  the darker tones of the Herati or pear patterns. Over a century
+  ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving rugs of artistic
+  design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present products
+  fall far below the early standards.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years
+  or more ago and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule,
+  they are of large size and have closely woven texture. They can
+  be distinguished from most others by the silkiness of their
+  moderately long nap, which is often due to the fact that it is
+  from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as because it is cut
+  long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use of some
+  shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently it
+  is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other
+  Persian rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their
+  colours are generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times
+  brilliant, as when a large field of bright rose red or blue
+  surrounds a central medallion.</p>
+
+  <p>The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to
+  copying designs of rugs brought from other provinces by the
+  pilgrims who yearly visit Meshed, and to the remoteness from one
+  another of different centres of weaving in a province occupying
+  one fourth of all Persia. One pattern, however, based upon the
+  treatment of the pear design, which is employed in many of these
+  pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other districts.
+  It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a field
+  of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+  the same direction, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109"
+  id="Page_109">109</a></span> of two or three much smaller pears
+  partly resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges.
+  Unlike the pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval,
+  these are elongated like those of Indian rugs; and within them,
+  as well as in the field, are often small floral figures. This
+  distinctive pattern is rendered more effective by the colour
+  scheme; since frequently pears of red or magenta, defined by
+  lines of yellow and containing white petalled flowers, rest upon
+  a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also frequently
+  employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+  birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to
+  see a central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a
+  field of bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two
+  medallions. When the centre contains a medallion, the
+  triangular-shaped corners are set off by lines that are much
+  simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.</p>
+
+  <p>Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are
+  they very wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as
+  several guard stripes, is some characteristic pattern.
+  Occasionally it contains the Herati design, but more frequently
+  it consists of a heavy undulating vine with incipient flower
+  forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+  bird&rsquo;s head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine.
+  This stripe, illustrated in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2,
+  (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met with in Khorassans as to be
+  characteristic of them. The narrow guard stripes usually contain
+  some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally rose,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of yellow and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Many are &ldquo;left-hand.&rdquo; Knots to
+  inch horizontally, eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the
+  warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+  is doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of
+  warp hang loose at the back of some pieces. <i>Weft</i>, almost
+  always cotton, occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually
+  dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of
+  knots, excepting at intervals of every six or eight rows of
+  knots, where it crosses three or more times. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. <i>Border</i>, three
+  to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting of same colour as edging.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span> length</i>, five to
+  twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mesheds.</span>&mdash;In few
+  parts of the East have the weavers received greater inspiration
+  from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed. To
+  Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+  within a mosque resplendent with fa&ccedil;ade of blue and white
+  tiles, and with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the
+  remains of Ali Riza, the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb
+  that is viewed yearly by nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It
+  was for a short time the capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified
+  its mosques; and here Nadir Shah, whose remains lie in the
+  mausoleum, held his court after the capture of Delhi. Within its
+  walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not far away,
+  among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+  astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+  merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva,
+  Bokhara, Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of
+  commercial importance.</p>
+
+  <p>It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+  attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were
+  made in the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian
+  traveller<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> who visited it during the
+  XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the floor of its
+  mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which has
+  never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the
+  most magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a
+  century the textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now
+  seen are generally of recent manufacture.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the
+  same silky appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more
+  evenly clipped. The pattern, however, is generally different, as
+  seldom is the field completely covered with the pear design, but
+  whenever used, it is of elaborate drawing and frequently very
+  large. Nor is the characteristic Khorassan border stripe,
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+  employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+  medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on
+  fields of blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral
+  vines, in which appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the
+  rugs that now exist were made within the last fifty years, and
+  are of large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id=
+  "Page_111">111</a></span>size and almost square shape. The colour
+  scheme inclines to light and often brilliant tones, which at
+  times are strongly contrasted with small masses of much darker
+  shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and weft are rarely
+  coarse.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p25" id="p25"></a><img src="images/plate25.jpg"
+    width="550" height="701" alt="Plate 25. Kermanshah Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 25. Kermanshah
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally rose
+  or pink, blue and white, with minor quantities of yellow and
+  green. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally, eight to fifteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp
+  is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool
+  or cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+  weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool of fine quality and medium length. <i>Border</i>, usually
+  from three to six stripes, occasionally as many as eight, and
+  generally an outer edging of uniform colour. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double overcasting of same colour as edging. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  narrow web and warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to fourteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ispahans.</span>&mdash;Still
+  imposing in the ruins of its former splendour, surrounded by
+  orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a broad,
+  well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+  Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by
+  Tamerlane, who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose
+  to such importance that in the XVII Century it contained within
+  its walls several palaces, one hundred and sixty mosques, over
+  two score of colleges, nearly two thousand caravansaries, and
+  about three quarters of a million people. Now the population has
+  dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few stately mosques and
+  colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets, abandoned
+  bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence of
+  the former capital.</p>
+
+  <p>Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for
+  the purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most
+  experienced artisans, to whom are accredited some of the
+  gracefully drawn designs of many of the early carpets. Here, in
+  the days of its greatest prosperity, were founded many
+  industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven some of the
+  best of old Persian carpets.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> Though Herat is now
+  regarded by some authorities as the centre where the so-called
+  Ispahan rugs were made, it is improbable, as previously pointed
+  out, that all of them came from there. But after the death of
+  Shah Abbas the rug industry began to decline; and with the
+  removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan ceased to be a
+  rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt whether
+  such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+  breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on
+  Oriental Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon
+  at Ispahan, were made there or were imported from other cities;
+  but the weaving of rugs has never entirely ceased; and so great
+  is the fame of the former glory of the city that even now
+  Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the term
+  &ldquo;Ispahan&rdquo; as an epithet of superiority.</p>
+
+  <p>The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear
+  little resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves
+  show little similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati
+  designs are not uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is
+  almost covered with what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and
+  in others the field contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged
+  in regular order with small foliate and floral forms placed
+  between them. Small figures of animals are also occasionally
+  represented. The border is generally narrow and lacking in
+  impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+  depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+  colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red
+  or blue is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are
+  green, yellow, and white. The weave has variations rarely found
+  in other rugs; for the warp, which is usually cotton, may also be
+  wool, or wool and cotton twisted together; and the weft may
+  likewise be wool or cotton, and may cross between the rows of
+  knots either once or twice in different rugs, or even once or
+  twice in the same rug.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i><a name="FNanchor_21" id=
+  "FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally red and blue, with minor quantities
+  of green and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, usually
+  cotton, occasionally wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are
+  twisted together. Each thread of warp is equally prominent at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses once
+  or twice between two rows of <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>knots. If it is wool, it
+  generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+  placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double selvage of two or three chords. <i>Lower end</i>, a web.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, a web and fringe. Occasionally the web is
+  turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, six to fourteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kirmans.</span>&mdash;On
+  account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+  Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by
+  which it is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain
+  ridges that separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the
+  west, in a measure protected it from the repeated invasions that
+  disturbed the political and industrial conditions of Northern
+  Persia, it has continuously for over a thousand years been an
+  important centre for the manufacture of rugs. Moreover, during
+  all this period it has been noted for the excellence of their
+  quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its fabrics were
+  taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs&rsquo; palaces.
+  When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful
+  shawls and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted
+  French traveller Chardin, who lived in that country during part
+  of the XVII Century, also spoke most favourably of them. Even
+  after Nadir Shah removed many of the most skilled weavers to the
+  northern part of Persia subsequent to ascending the throne in
+  1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city and massacred many
+  of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry continued to
+  prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of modern
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the
+  weave and dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the
+  pernicious influences of market demands and aniline colours. And
+  to it must be attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile
+  art appears nowhere else in greater purity; for of all the rugs
+  on the market to-day these conform more nearly in texture,
+  colour, and design to the masterpieces of earlier times, and show
+  none of the foreign influences appearing in pieces woven in the
+  north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as well as
+  religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+  mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in
+  secret their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id=
+  "Page_114">114</a></span>For long ages silkworms have been
+  cultivated in the district about Kirman and fed on the mulberry
+  trees that grow wild among its hills, so that it is not
+  surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes used in
+  the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of such
+  fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+  lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+  unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep
+  and partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the
+  ridges and yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.</p>
+
+  <p>It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman
+  for roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict
+  them so profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as
+  filling vases set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged
+  in regular order upon the field. They also weave them in the
+  borders among green leaves, as placed there tenderly and not
+  hanging from such stiffly formed vines as are seen in other
+  Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the flowers of
+  most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+  precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they
+  are red contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in
+  the field, and of golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border.
+  Sometimes, instead of a profusion of roses, there are other
+  flowers, such as the sunflower, suggesting the old Zoroastrian
+  faith, the cypress, or the sacred &ldquo;cocos.&rdquo; Again, the
+  general design may be modified from one strictly floral, and amid
+  the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human beings;
+  but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+  pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+  resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has
+  five stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any
+  other, and surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is
+  usually pinkish red; though now and then, according to the
+  general colour scheme, a very pleasing effect is obtained by
+  substituting an edging of moss green.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p26" id="p26"></a><img src="images/plate26.jpg"
+    width="500" height="797" alt="Plate 26. Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 26. Kurdistan Rug
+    with Mina Khani Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally grey
+  or ivory, with minor quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+  perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden
+  at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+  knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, generally wool of
+  fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, short, soft, and silky.
+  <i>Border</i>, usually of five stripes and an outer edging of
+  uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to seven feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yezd.</span>&mdash;In the
+  centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan, is the
+  city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+  fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still
+  follow the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great
+  desert of Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an
+  oasis, where the drifting sands that buried the old city ever
+  suggest to the inhabitants the dread spirit of desolation which
+  finds an echo in ruined walls within. At the present time very
+  few piled rugs are woven there and they are rarely seen in
+  Western markets; yet on account of the historic interest in its
+  people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products made in
+  other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+  also for its felt &ldquo;namads,&rdquo; which are generally too
+  heavy to be transported, since some of them have a thickness of
+  two inches and a superficial area of ten thousand square
+  feet.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shiraz.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by mountains
+  is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim Khan,
+  from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then
+  it has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of
+  its former glory has departed. And yet there still remain
+  associations to kindle the imagination, for without the gates are
+  the gardens that Persian poets have extolled in verse; the tombs
+  of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far away are the spots where Cyrus,
+  Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined palaces that Alexander
+  destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.</p>
+
+  <p>As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced
+  large numbers of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were
+  woven before the XV Century. As is the case with modern pieces,
+  all of them were distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool,
+  which is to be attributed to the climate and pasture of the
+  surrounding mountains and valleys. One of the oldest
+  existing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id=
+  "Page_116">116</a></span> rugs of this district which displays
+  the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in the
+  following words:<a name="FNanchor_22" id=
+  "FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a>
+  &ldquo;As soon as I had touched it, I was certain that we had to
+  deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at Shiraz,
+  or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+  made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft
+  one that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are
+  older than the eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes
+  such rich and deep colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and
+  the dark ruby red are equally extraordinary, and that is due to
+  the brilliancy of the wool, which is firmer and, so to say, more
+  transparent than silk, and makes one think of translucent enamel.
+  As a piece of colour this carpet is certainly one of the finest,
+  and there are very few carpets that have greater charm, which
+  even the best reproduction could not give. In its colours there
+  is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window, where the
+  dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+  obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+  Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit
+  and dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as
+  the wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable
+  piece it is referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the
+  two following centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high
+  standard of excellence prevalent in the principal cities of
+  Persia; but most of those pieces are now extremely rare, as they
+  were woven chiefly for imperial use or for exchange with foreign
+  rulers. This city experienced the art decadence that began with
+  the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of Kerim Khan imperial
+  factories for weaving were again established there.</p>
+
+  <p>Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago
+  are certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the
+  excellent qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven
+  are still poorer. On a few of them are depicted designs that are
+  strictly Persian; but they generally depart widely from the early
+  traditions, and floral forms are very much conventionalised. In a
+  large number of this class the field is covered with pear designs
+  which are described by straight lines and angles. Sometimes they
+  are as small as in the Sarabends, <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> occupying the whole field
+  as the principal motive; or they may be placed less prominently
+  within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be as
+  large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another
+  very common pattern, known as the &ldquo;pole-medallion,&rdquo;
+  consists of a narrow perpendicular bar connecting two or more
+  large diamond-shaped figures on which are grouped
+  conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs. In other
+  pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian rug,
+  and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+  adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding
+  geometric figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men
+  and animals scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no
+  other Persian rug in which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The
+  borders usually consist of a number of narrow stripes, or a wide
+  one with narrow guard stripes. One of them, at least, almost
+  invariably contains some form of vine and leaves, and not
+  infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear in
+  Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans
+  on account of the resemblance in geometric designs.</p>
+
+  <p>Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are
+  not difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about
+  the dark blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory
+  and yellow. They are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them
+  have a trait of lying unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an
+  extra band of pile is woven between the border and the broad
+  embroidered webs of the ends, from which hang a loose fringe. The
+  sides are overcast with heavy strands of wool varied like a
+  barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the case with
+  any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+  coloured tassels.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are
+  superior to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the
+  patterns are geometric; but they may be distinguished from them
+  by the finer wool and a slightly different colour scheme.</p>
+
+  <p>Not infrequently the term &ldquo;Mecca&rdquo; is applied to
+  Shiraz rugs, and the impression is conveyed that they were made
+  there. Nor is the statement always entirely devoid of truth; for
+  each year caravans aggregating some two hundred thousand souls
+  enter that city to make their devotions to Allah, to walk around
+  the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving behind their
+  forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred earth or a
+  strip of the temple&rsquo;s covering. Each of these pilgrims
+  bears offerings for propi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118"
+  id="Page_118">118</a></span>tiation, of which a large proportion
+  are rugs; and whatever their size, they are invariably the
+  choicest the devotee can offer. Since the Mohammedan priests
+  regard the best interests of their religion and themselves as
+  conserved by a disposition of all articles not directly available
+  for their use, they sell large quantities of such rugs, that find
+  their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople. Furthermore,
+  the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged along
+  the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+  same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago
+  came from these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz
+  rugs that they and similar pieces which had never left Persia
+  were called Mecca rugs. This deception is still encouraged by
+  some dealers, because for many buyers a special interest is
+  attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been carried on
+  this pilgrimage as an offering.</p>
+
+  <p><span class="smcap">Type Characteristics.</span>
+  <i>Colours</i>, principally blue, red, and ivory, with minor
+  quantities of yellow and green. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna,
+  frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots
+  is generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The
+  other half knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not
+  drawn tight against the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+  so that their alignment is slightly irregular, and the warp is
+  concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, almost always wool; in a few
+  modern rugs goats&rsquo; hair is used. Each of the threads
+  encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+  occasionally one to each knot is depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool of
+  medium diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  short to medium, and silky. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes.
+  Beyond the borders, at each end, is frequently a narrow band of
+  pile. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole
+  stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which generally
+  consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green, and
+  blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides
+  at regular intervals of one or more feet. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  broad web of coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed
+  coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a broad web of
+  coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured
+  cord, and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to
+  nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p27" id="p27"></a><img src="images/plate27.jpg"
+    width="550" height="750" alt="Plate 27. Gorevan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 27. Gorevan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id=
+  "Page_119">119</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Niris.</span>&mdash;A
+  resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+  Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles
+  to the westward; for many of each class are woven with the same
+  silky wool, obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening
+  mountain ranges, and the shepherd weavers about the lake have
+  acquired ideas from the old capital. This resemblance exists
+  mostly in the soft, floccy appearance of the nap, and in the
+  barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the sides. The webs
+  of each end are broad and have long fringes; but generally those
+  of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or more
+  parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a
+  rule, flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also
+  an occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern
+  of the Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand,
+  they are more firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in
+  the character of their weave, since one of the two threads of
+  warp encircled by a knot is depressed below the other, and the
+  weft is of wool coloured red, whereas in the Shiraz it is
+  frequently of cotton.</p>
+
+  <p>The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in
+  Sarabends, extend over the field in orderly array; but they are
+  much larger and consist of an assemblage of bright colours
+  isolated from one another, yet grouped gracefully in a way that
+  might readily suggest the origin of crown jewels sometimes
+  ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue, and the
+  pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+  also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is
+  covered with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The
+  typical border has a broad central stripe of vine and flower,
+  with narrow guards of simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil.
+  Barber-pole stripes are also characteristic of the borders.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, yellow, green, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to
+  fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, so that
+  at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft conspicuous.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed
+  red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes, sometimes as many as seven.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe
+  or in short lengths of different<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> colours, such as red,
+  blue, green, yellow, and black. <i>Both</i> ends, a broad web of
+  coloured stripes, one row of knots, and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of slightly coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to seven feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three quarters to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Feraghans.</span>&mdash;Stretching eastward from the base
+  of Mt. Elwund is the plain of Feraghan. Its length does not
+  exceed forty-five miles, nor its breadth ten or fifteen, yet here
+  are clustered several hundred villages. On account of its
+  altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered with snow
+  in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+  houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village
+  walls. But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and
+  the sheep are grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a
+  plain of fertility and industry. For generations it has been
+  productive of large numbers of fine rugs, and it is still
+  possible among its villages to find some of those old pieces that
+  have been regarded by the Persians themselves as the best
+  examples of the textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been
+  carefully observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is
+  surprising to note the many distinctions observable in a large
+  collection. These patterns may conveniently be divided into two
+  groups, namely: one in which the field is entirely covered with
+  diaper designs, and the other in which the field contains a
+  central medallion surrounded by uniform colour. Probably nine
+  tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+  divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is
+  covered with the Herati design; those in which the field is
+  covered with the Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field
+  is covered with some other small diaper design.</p>
+
+  <p>The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is
+  found in the very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the
+  crumpled leaf does not exceed a length of four or five inches,
+  and the rosettes are proportionally small, so that the ground
+  colour is almost entirely concealed, and at a short distance is
+  not distinguishable; but there are other pieces in which the leaf
+  is over a foot in length, and the figures less closely clustered,
+  so that the ground enters prominently into the colour scheme. The
+  prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is generally rose red,
+  which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug; though the
+  small designs have shades of green, yellow,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span> white,
+  and light blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but
+  occasionally red or even ivory is used. In very few other rugs
+  are the corners separated from the field, unless there is a
+  central medallion; but in almost all Feraghans small
+  triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with those of
+  the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+  serrated edges.</p>
+
+  <p>Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven
+  stripes. The main stripe is about three times as wide as any
+  other, and may have a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white;
+  but in many of the best pieces it is moss green, with blue,
+  yellow, or red appearing in the overlying pattern. Of different
+  but corresponding shades is the colour of the ground and designs
+  of other stripes. Probably three fourths of the Feraghans now
+  seen have the well-known turtle design in the main stripe; but it
+  is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine
+  with rosette or palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very
+  narrow, is invariably represented some reciprocal figure, as the
+  trefoil or sawtooth; and on the other stripes are undulating
+  vines, with floral or quasi-floral figures.</p>
+
+  <p>The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs
+  instead of the Herati show a difference in both drawing and
+  colouring, though the general effect is much the same. In place
+  of crumpled leaves and rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like
+  flowers of the Hinnai plants that brighten the mountains
+  surrounding the Feraghan plain with their large yellow or ivory
+  coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is slightly more
+  prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich, is less
+  red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+  difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though
+  specimens are not frequently seen. In these the small figures of
+  conventionalised flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are
+  arranged in diagonal or perpendicular rows. Moreover, they
+  generally lack the rich colouring of the preceding
+  sub-groups.</p>
+
+  <p>The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in
+  old Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape,
+  with serrated edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati
+  figures cover its surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work
+  design with small conventionalised leaves or flowers appear
+  faintly on the field of uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule,
+  pieces of this group are of a more striking and handsome
+  appearance than those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id=
+  "Page_122">122</a></span> in which the entire field is covered
+  with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that blend and
+  produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+  border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of
+  the old pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short,
+  many of those that remain are still serviceable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and dark blue, with minor quantities of yellow, light blue,
+  green, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  usually concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of
+  weft of fine or medium diameter crosses twice between every two
+  rows of knots, or occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with
+  much slack crosses only once, so that the transverse warp
+  produces a quincunx effect. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting
+  in dark colour. <i>Lower end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web
+  and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to twelve feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Hamadans.</span>&mdash;A little
+  to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that overlooks a
+  small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain is
+  the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of
+  Ecbatana, capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb,
+  which tradition declares is the burial place of Esther and
+  Mordecai. Within the encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and
+  mosques; yet the present city of forty thousand inhabitants with
+  its general misery and squalor has little to remind one of the
+  magnificence of that former capital which for a short period was
+  mistress of the world.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p28" id="p28"></a><img src="images/plate28.jpg"
+    width="550" height="668" alt="Plate 28. Bergamo Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 28. Bergamo Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it
+  once produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk
+  carpets, though no longer are any woven there. But its looms have
+  been busy for the last few generations weaving rugs of wool and
+  camels&rsquo; hair, which have such marked individuality that
+  they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp of identification.
+  The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces, which are
+  stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+  some are simply mats, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123"
+  id="Page_123">123</a></span>others sedjadehs, and an unusually
+  large number are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and
+  smaller sedjadehs consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion,
+  surrounded by a field of contrasting colour, from which are set
+  off the triangular-shaped corners. In the large sedjadehs and in
+  the runners, which are sometimes twenty feet or more in length,
+  are often three or more pole medallions, though the pole device
+  may be omitted. These medallions and corners are covered with
+  small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more frequently with
+  floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a rule are
+  defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or comb-like
+  teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+  some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is
+  broken only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently
+  it is marked with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint,
+  like a delicate tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a
+  broad edging, which is at least one half and sometimes two thirds
+  as wide as all the coloured stripes combined, surrounds them. As
+  it is usually of camels&rsquo; hair and without pattern, it is a
+  very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe has an undulating
+  vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard stripes
+  have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+  trefoils.</p>
+
+  <p>To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes
+  the figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric;
+  sometimes the corners are omitted; the outside edging may be
+  decorated with large conventionalised floral or geometric
+  figures; and occasionally a camel or some other animal is
+  represented in the field or border. A few of the old rugs were
+  strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+  Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these
+  words:<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> &ldquo;An irregular
+  lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+  which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre;
+  while the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades,
+  surrounds it with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces
+  in the corners, within the broad blue border worked in
+  arabesques. It is a carpet not to be laid on a floor, but to be
+  hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a golden sunset. It was a
+  sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it evidently was
+  once spread under the great dome. <i>Beati
+  possidentes.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places
+  are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id=
+  "Page_124">124</a></span>modern products with pile of wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair often dyed in garish colours. There are also
+  many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering tribes
+  or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+  time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When
+  exported from there they were often classed as products of that
+  city.</p>
+
+  <p>Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel&rsquo;s hair than
+  any other class of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the
+  pile of both field and outer edging, where its soft tones of pale
+  chestnut colour contrast with the bright shades of blue, red, and
+  yellow yarn used in other parts of the field and border. This
+  lavish use of camel&rsquo;s hair, the broad encircling edging,
+  the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft passing once
+  between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally the
+  chestnut of camel&rsquo;s hair with red and blue. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  generally cotton, frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread
+  of weft crosses only once without slack between every two rows of
+  knots, so that the white spots of transverse cotton warp exposed
+  at back have a quincunx appearance. <i>Pile</i>, in old rugs,
+  mostly camel&rsquo;s hair and some wool; in recent rugs, mostly
+  wool clipped short. <i>Border</i>, wide, generally of three or
+  four stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel&rsquo;s hair.
+  <i>Sides</i>, overcast, generally in brown or red. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow
+  web turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, very firm.
+  <i>Weave</i>, at back is of moderately coarse grain.
+  <i>Length</i>, three to twenty-four feet. <i>Width</i>, two
+  fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Irans.</span>&mdash;Although
+  neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+  well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name.
+  They are woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling
+  principally in the province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no
+  particular pattern or colour scheme of their own, but to a large
+  extent copy those of a few well-known Persian classes; yet in
+  other respects their rugs have a noticeable individuality. They
+  are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so loosely that if the rug be
+  observed from the front, as it is bent backward in a plane
+  parallel to the direction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125"
+  id="Page_125">125</a></span> of the weft, the foundation threads
+  of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show distinctly
+  between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+  single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+  threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but
+  occasionally they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the
+  fabrics regarded as Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are
+  in reality Irans, which on account of their inferior workmanship
+  are much less valuable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue
+  and red, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, six to
+  eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A half knot as it
+  appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the direction
+  of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+  pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+  is equally prominent at back; they are not closely strung, so
+  that each half knot stands out distinctly. <i>Weft</i>, cotton; a
+  thread of weft of coarse diameter as a rule crosses twice between
+  each two rows of knots, and only rarely crosses but once. The
+  weft is conspicuous between the knots at front when the rug is
+  bent backwards. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, generally four to six stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  heavy double overcasting that is generally brown or black, but
+  sometimes red. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a narrow web and loose warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  five to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sarouks.</span>&mdash;Towards
+  the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an altitude of
+  seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of Sarouk.
+  Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+  houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and
+  cracked until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through
+  the open doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys,
+  but simply openings between the rafters to permit the escape of
+  smoke from the open fireplace in the floor below and the entrance
+  of more wind. At times the atmosphere is not only oppressive with
+  smoke, but is laden with odours that arise from the pens beneath
+  and beside the houses, where fowls, sheep, and goats are huddled.
+  During the winter and early spring snow lies on the ground; a
+  little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these de<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span>pressing
+  surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived weavers who
+  gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+  beautiful rugs made in all the East.</p>
+
+  <p>Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and
+  with mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these
+  huts or surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score,
+  perhaps not one in a hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale
+  in this country was woven there, as most of them are made in the
+  workhouses of larger cities, though they follow essentially the
+  general appearance and technique of old and genuine pieces, even
+  if lacking some of their best qualities. Nevertheless, the modern
+  pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful pattern, and are well
+  woven. Some of them, which were made two or three decades ago,
+  had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of life, as
+  well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+  but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a
+  pattern consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two
+  or more concentric medallions resting on the field, from which
+  are set off the four corners. Defining the edges of both
+  medallions and corners are lines that are most artistically
+  irregular, yet correspond with one another.</p>
+
+  <p>Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the
+  designs of field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar.
+  On long delicate stems that bend and interlock like carved
+  tracery are leaves, buds, and flowers, suggesting the
+  craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The borders generally
+  have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which appears an
+  elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+  narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are
+  ornamented with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a
+  reciprocal pattern, which, however, is so well drawn as to
+  conflict in no wise with the harmony of the floral forms. In the
+  drawing of the borders the weavers exercise greater latitude than
+  in any other part of the rug; for occasionally they add a narrow
+  outer edging of dark colour, place the reciprocal figure next to
+  the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field, or increase the
+  number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion wanting in
+  modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+  bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along
+  the sides in undulating lines until they meet near the
+  centre.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p29" id="p29"></a><img src="images/plate29.jpg"
+    width="550" height="701" alt="Plate 29. Ghiordes Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 29. Ghiordes Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish
+  weft is hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id=
+  "Page_127">127</a></span>such short-cut wool, which has a velvety
+  appearance, rendered more effective by the soft, rich colours
+  that are always in perfect harmony and excellent taste. As a rule
+  they are dark. Ever present in the ground colours are deep blues
+  and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+  &ldquo;Ispahans;&rdquo; while olives, delicate greens, and ivory
+  represent with consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish
+  tracery of leaves and foliage motives.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue and red, with minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to
+  eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots
+  are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is
+  partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton, rarely linen; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always doubled
+  under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of
+  weft of fine diameter crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, short and velvety. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as seven.
+  Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or
+  black wool. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web, or web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  fine grain. <i>Length</i>, four to twelve feet. <i>Width</i>, two
+  thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kashans.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient and
+  well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city
+  of Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three
+  Wise Men of the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of
+  the cities of Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are
+  infested with scorpions; for many months of the year the heat,
+  which in a measure is due to the proximity of the great salt
+  desert that extends far into Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in
+  spite of these inconveniences, for which perhaps familiarity has
+  in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand people live there. In
+  the past it has produced some of the greatest artists and
+  artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom Shah
+  Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+  Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that
+  still exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful
+  technique and artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a
+  doubt other textile<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id=
+  "Page_128">128</a></span> masterpieces of the XVI and XVII
+  Centuries were woven there, for it would be unreasonable to
+  believe that the city where Maksoud had learned his art was not
+  at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.</p>
+
+  <p>According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk
+  carpets came from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long
+  time customary to take the raw silk from other places to be spun
+  and dyed there. Some of it is woven into rugs, which are
+  considered among the best of modern pieces, though the demand for
+  them is small.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every
+  market, though it is only within recent years that they have been
+  generally known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade
+  of Sarouks, on account of the striking resemblance in texture,
+  colours, and designs; yet there are certain distinctions: the
+  warp is often linen, the nap is a little shorter, the texture
+  slightly firmer, and there are a great number of border stripes.
+  A feature that is more frequently found in these two classes than
+  in any other is the fringe of hooks or short comb-like teeth that
+  border the innermost stripe and extend into the field. Without
+  doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the most
+  expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+  velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that
+  to those unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces.
+  The fine wool is dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red,
+  and brown; the perfectly balanced pattern is artistic as well as
+  ornate; and on account of the very short nap the drawing of each
+  minute detail is clear. In place of bold designs accentuated by
+  masses of colour are delicate tracings of floral and foliage
+  motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks, so expressed
+  in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense of the
+  greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+  chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and
+  exquisite colour make them exceedingly handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light
+  blue and green. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+  sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down so that the warp is
+  concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled
+  by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, generally
+  cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> thread
+  of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, very short and velvety. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of seven stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double
+  overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  narrow web. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very fine
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Sababends.</span>&mdash;Standing on the top of lofty
+  Elwund, that rises on the boundary between the provinces of
+  Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in Northwestern Persia, one would see
+  within a radius of ninety miles as prolific a centre of rug
+  weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this distance to the
+  northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is Sultanabad, to
+  the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on the
+  eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of
+  Hamadan, Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk
+  and less important centres of weaving.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the
+  northern flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan,
+  are made the rugs which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are
+  known as the Sarabends. No other rugs of Persia have a pattern
+  that is so simple, and that for generations has been followed
+  with so little variation. Nor are there any other modern rugs
+  that have changed less from the old styles in respect to colour
+  and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists of rows of
+  pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller ends
+  pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+  the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders
+  are long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the
+  rectilinear figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there
+  any departure from this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an
+  adaptation of the Herati design, and now and then is seen a
+  geometric figure, or human form, or the date when the piece was
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If
+  blue, it is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured
+  pears that the prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a
+  distance, is light red. If, on the other hand, the field is red,
+  the pears are mostly blue; and if the field is ivory white, the
+  pears are red and blue. In all old pieces the blue has rich, deep
+  tones, the red has mellowed into soft rose or delicate pink, and
+  the white has turned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id=
+  "Page_130">130</a></span> to ivory. This pleasing effect is
+  increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to the
+  other colours of the pears.</p>
+
+  <p>With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow
+  stripes, of which the central is about one third the aggregate
+  width. Its ground colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and
+  pendent, narrow pears have the same colours as those of the
+  field. On each side of it is usually a stripe with ground colour
+  corresponding to that of the field and with an undulating vine
+  and rosette. Almost invariably there is an outer stripe of
+  reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be balanced by a
+  reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual to see
+  large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+  with three.</p>
+
+  <p>The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad,
+  which signifies the &ldquo;city of Mir,&rdquo; and are
+  accordingly called Mir-Sarabends. They can be distinguished from
+  others, known to the trade as Royal Sarabends, by the fact that
+  in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted that one thread of warp
+  is doubled under the other; and in the latter each of the two
+  threads appear with equal prominence at the back. Neither of them
+  should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which the pile is
+  of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot. For
+  durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+  satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and
+  closely woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those
+  coloured with vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with
+  age.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  or blue, with minor quantities of ivory, yellow, and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+  perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal
+  Sarabends each is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of fine
+  diameter, and dyed red or blue. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, five to seven stripes, and
+  occasionally even more. <i>Sides</i>, a red double overcasting.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web, or web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper
+  end</i>, a web and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain. <i>Length</i>,
+  five to eighteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two
+  thirds length.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE V&mdash;GHIORDES PRAYER RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents
+  such a high type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more
+  closely the fine technique of the Persian than that of the Asia
+  Minor weaver. Yet it is the drawing and colouring that claim
+  attention. The delicate tracery of the spandrel, the minute
+  delineation of tendril and leaf in the border, and the perfect
+  balance of every part of one side with a corresponding part in
+  the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+  so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+  suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not
+  improbable that here is shown the influence of those Persian
+  weavers that Solyman the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor
+  after his capture of Tabriz. The colour also displays dainty
+  tones and careful shading found in no other class of Asia Minor
+  rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as products of the XVI
+  Century.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Property of the Author</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pv" id="pv"></a><img src="images/plate_v.jpg" width="550" height="698" alt="COLOUR PLATE V--GHIORDES PRAYER RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id=
+  "Page_131">131</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Burujirds</span>.&mdash;About
+  sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the south of
+  the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+  well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most
+  of the population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small
+  part, who are stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by
+  the rug industry of Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces
+  that resemble closely the Sarabend rugs, as the field is
+  generally occupied with pear designs; but on account of the
+  Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be mistaken
+  for Iran rugs.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Sultanabads</span>.&mdash;Southeastward from the plain of
+  Feraghan is the city of Sultanabad, which in recent years has
+  become important as the centre of a great rug industry controlled
+  by Europeans and Americans. Higher prices, resulting from the
+  constantly increasing Western demand for Persian rugs, have
+  stimulated the native weavers to more persistent efforts. Those
+  who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes<a name="FNanchor_24"
+  id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class=
+  "fnanchor">24</a> are supplied by the companies. Others, who are
+  more dependent, are paid regular wages. Thus it happens that not
+  only large numbers of looms are constantly at work in the city,
+  but a hundred hamlets and villages that lie within a day&rsquo;s
+  journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But while the
+  output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+  suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign
+  purchasers only are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven,
+  though there is a difference in grades. Some take the name of the
+  city, others are called Savalans, from a range of mountains that
+  lie to the north, and others are known as Mahals. Most of them
+  are large pieces, rather coarsely woven.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Muskabads</span>.&mdash;In the
+  district of Muskabad, a short distance to the northwest of
+  Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals. They
+  come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes;
+  they have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive
+  red, yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton
+  warp and weft, the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule
+  they are less closely woven. The patterns are varied.
+  Occasionally they have large figures such as are seen in
+  Gorevans, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id=
+  "Page_132">132</a></span> though these are more usual in Mahals.
+  In some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf
+  and floral form. But the usual type has two or more concentric
+  medallions of different colours covered with the small Herati
+  designs so distinctive of the Feraghans. When such is the case,
+  the border has usually the turtle pattern in the main stripe and
+  some stiffly drawn vine and floral pattern in the smaller
+  stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant finish of old
+  Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of medium
+  length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+  These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs;
+  but on account of their excellent quality of material and
+  stoutness of weave they are very serviceable.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven
+  to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots
+  are not firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at back, and
+  frequently nearly doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, cotton,
+  of medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes, with a narrow outer
+  edging. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting. <i>Lower end</i>, a
+  very narrow web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, short
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of very coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, ten to eighteen
+  feet. <i>Width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Joshaghans</span>.&mdash;Lying
+  to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of Ispahan is a
+  district where a century ago were woven some of the best carpets
+  of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+  then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign
+  of Nadir Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the
+  central to the northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving
+  received a new impulse, and continued to flourish there until
+  nearly the middle of the last century. Since that time it has
+  almost ceased, so that the genuine Joshaghans of rich, deep
+  colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all sixty or more years of
+  age. They may still be found scattered throughout the country,
+  and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high esteem
+  accorded to them by the Persians themselves.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p30" id="p30"></a><img src="images/plate30.jpg"
+    width="500" height="789" alt="Plate 30. Ghiordes Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 30. Ghiordes
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In
+  other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id=
+  "Page_133">133</a></span>pieces the field is covered with
+  scrolls, or with a lattice-work pattern in which small floral
+  forms are the motives. Again it is occupied by pear designs
+  encircled by small rounded figures, which combined form the
+  outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening spaces are
+  small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+  consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form
+  of the Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral
+  vines.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always
+  striking and beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the
+  colours are rich. The ground is very frequently a rose tint, but
+  is sometimes dark blue; and the overlying designs are rose,
+  yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of the border are generally
+  the same as those of the smaller designs, so that the effect is
+  always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven; and the soft
+  lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than that of
+  Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with lesser quantities of yellow, green, brown, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  eleven; perpendicularly, eight to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+  not always firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at
+  back. <i>Warp</i>, usually cotton, occasionally wool; one of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below the
+  other at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown,
+  or reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of
+  weft generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, usually three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  double overcasting that is generally brown or black. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, eight to sixteen
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sehnas.</span>&mdash;Seldom has
+  prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one made a decade
+  ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from the
+  market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those
+  woven before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of
+  Ardelan, for to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of
+  them. Nevertheless, there are still many looms among the four or
+  five thousand families of the city, where true to early
+  traditions are woven modern fabrics that maintain the
+  same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id=
+  "Page_134">134</a></span> floral Persian patterns, the same
+  colour, the same general character of weave; but they lack the
+  fine technique of the older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising
+  that these modern pieces so closely resemble the old in all save
+  quality, when it is considered that Sehna is distant only fifty
+  miles from the western border of Persia; that it is surrounded by
+  Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven rugs with nomadic
+  features; and that it is not far distant from other important rug
+  centres.</p>
+
+  <p>To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is
+  possible at once to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is
+  exceedingly short, and the weave is so distinctive that with eyes
+  closed an expert will generally recognise them after rubbing the
+  hand across the front and back. Their patterns, also, conform to
+  well-established types, yet have sufficient variety to be always
+  interesting. They may be conveniently divided into two groups:
+  one represents the entire field covered with floral designs, and
+  the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion
+  at the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The
+  former, which is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a
+  small diaper pattern of the Herati design or floral figures
+  daintily drawn. To obviate too great monotony, a number of the
+  old pieces have the leaves and flowers so adjusted that the
+  ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less often have
+  small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+  designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs
+  placed in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a
+  rule, consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or
+  red, containing at its centre a single medallion of contrasting
+  ground colour, which is generally dark blue or even black. The
+  four corners of the field have serrated edges and are covered
+  with floral designs similar to those of the medallion. The
+  borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist of three
+  stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions they
+  are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of
+  yellow or red, are represented designs which are also similar to
+  those of the medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that
+  were less floral than more modern pieces, and the turtle design
+  so common to Feraghans was often used. Isolated and adventitious
+  designs, such as are seen in all nomadic rugs, are never found in
+  these pieces, nor are the floriated scrolls that are peculiar to
+  Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.</p>
+
+  <p>As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both
+  linen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id=
+  "Page_135">135</a></span> and silk are used for the warp, and
+  silk for overcasting, but generally the warp is cotton and the
+  overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has given its name to
+  the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of China and
+  Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+  tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been
+  inconsistent in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the
+  Sehna knot, but a surprisingly large proportion of both recent
+  and comparatively old pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few
+  other rugs ever adopt the same style of weaving; for a thread of
+  weft passes between two rows of knots but once, so that at the
+  back only alternate threads of white cotton warp appear between
+  these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered appearance or
+  quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not drawn
+  tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+  is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are
+  so closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are
+  not uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number
+  are now and then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine
+  threads and the nap is very short, these rugs are exceedingly
+  thin and, accordingly, are not well adapted for floor use.</p>
+
+  <p>Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their
+  fields of deep blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but
+  unfortunately they are somewhat marred by the long slit in the
+  centre made to fit the saddle.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light
+  blue, and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, twelve to
+  twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely pressed down, but the
+  yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely
+  silk. A single thread of small diameter crosses only once between
+  every two rows of knots, so that the white spots of transverse
+  warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool clipped very short. <i>Border</i>, three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a tightly wound double overcasting. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short
+  warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, short web and fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain
+  but very rough. <i>Length</i>, three to seven feet. <i>Width</i>,
+  two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id=
+  "Page_136">136</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Bijars.</span>&mdash;One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on
+  the road to Tabriz, is the city of Bijar, capital of the district
+  of Gehrous. It is surrounded by barren mountains that rise out of
+  high table-lands, where for miles scarcely a habitation or bush
+  breaks the monotony, and where not even a blade of grass or
+  flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth, except for a
+  short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly all
+  Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+  grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and
+  willows falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet
+  there still remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well
+  as a population of five thousand people. Without doubt the
+  importance of the city is partly due to the regiment of soldiers
+  that the governor maintains to keep in subjection the bands of
+  robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers, live throughout
+  the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of fierce
+  foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+  during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from
+  the fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and
+  Afghanistan meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and
+  settled here. After them is named a small river that flows a
+  short distance to the north and finally empties into Lake
+  Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the name Saraks to the
+  rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the Turkoman
+  characteristics.</p>
+
+  <p>By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and
+  Kurdish rugs, the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual
+  merit. The foundation is generally of wool; but unlike almost all
+  other rugs with nomadic features one thread of warp to each knot
+  is doubled beneath the other in the process of weaving, so that
+  it is almost or entirely concealed. Bijars are accordingly pieces
+  of great firmness and durability. Moreover, their threads of warp
+  and weft are of coarse diameter, so that they are invariably
+  thick even when the nap is not long. They are also distinctive in
+  the effective massing of bright and strong colours. Perhaps the
+  association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes, with
+  vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+  flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the
+  brilliant, joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of
+  Asia; but by the weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard
+  many of the Persian colours, which, however rich, are subdued and
+  sombre, and adopt the brighter hues <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>seen in
+  some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not always the case
+  with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste; and though
+  crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel&rsquo;s hair be brought
+  in relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the
+  effect, except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never
+  displeasing.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p31" id="p31"></a><img src="images/plate31.jpg"
+    width="550" height="788" alt="Plate 31. Kulah Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 31. Kulah Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the
+  oldest pieces are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive
+  of the highest Persian art. In many pieces a central medallion
+  and triangular-shaped corners, separated by a field of plain or
+  slightly shaded colour, is a favourite pattern. But the defining
+  lines are severe, and lack the delicate drawing characteristic of
+  Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be covered with a
+  lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive forms,
+  consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+  Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+  conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+  animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an
+  outer edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are
+  often represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the
+  undulating vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most
+  Persian rugs. Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that
+  have none of the earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful
+  with their soft wool and lustrous colours, as well as interesting
+  with their blending of Persian and Kurdish features.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  also blue, ivory, green, yellow, and chocolate. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly,
+  eight to twelve. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the
+  warp is concealed at back and the weft partly hidden.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse
+  diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, of medium length,
+  usually wool, but frequently partly of camel&rsquo;s hair.
+  <i>Border</i>, of three stripes, often with an outer edging.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting in red or purple. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+  selvage. <i>Upper end</i>, a web with loose warp fringe and
+  sometimes a braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned
+  back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back
+  is of coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, six to sixteen feet.
+  <i>Width</i>, one quarter to three fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id=
+  "Page_138">138</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Kermanshahs.</span>&mdash;On an ancient highway between
+  Bagdad and Teheran is the city of Kermanshah. As it is situated
+  near the frontiers of northwestern Persia, facing the Turkish
+  provinces, and is surrounded by mountains where once wandered
+  bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no government,
+  it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A century
+  ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+  luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the
+  villages of the vicinity in which were made &ldquo;carpets of
+  most beautiful colour and fabric.&rdquo; Within later years the
+  moat has filled with rubbish, the encircling walls have crumbled,
+  and the deserted bazaars and caravansaries show that its present
+  population of about twelve thousand is but a small part of what
+  it has been. With its decline in political importance followed a
+  decline in industrial activities; yet for a long time it remained
+  a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir George Birdwood
+  wrote that &ldquo;the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which at
+  the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in
+  the palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are
+  only disposed of as presents.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_25" id=
+  "FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a>
+  And in 1890 a traveller<a name="FNanchor_26" id=
+  "FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a>
+  spoke of the weaving as follows: &ldquo;It is a process carried
+  on in homes, hovels, and tents by women and children.... The
+  vegetable dyes used are soft and artistic, especially a wonderful
+  red and the various shades of indigo. The dull, rich tints, even
+  when new, are quite beautiful. The women pursue their work
+  chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases make it much
+  of a pastime.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained
+  large quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for
+  years have been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the
+  modern Kermanshahs are made elsewhere in the workhouses of
+  exporting companies. So noticeable is the resemblance in drawing
+  and colouring of some of them to the Kirmans of Southeastern
+  Persia, that they are offered now and then by dealers as real
+  Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and artistic merit
+  of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of floral
+  expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+  on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+  contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may
+  have serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and
+  with or without pendants. The corners are</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id=
+  "Page_139">139</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>defined by lines that do not always conform to those of the
+  medallion; and the borders have always several stripes, of which
+  the main one is usually but little wider than the others. In all
+  these different parts are floral and foliage motives that find
+  expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many
+  simpler forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and
+  vines.</p>
+
+  <p>There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with,
+  as it is not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes
+  the cypress or the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the
+  field of a rare old Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large
+  panels, which like so many small rugs contained central fields
+  that were alternately coloured blue and ivory. Surrounding each
+  of these little fields, on which were represented the arch of a
+  temple and the tree of life, were borders wherein were woven
+  verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of the borders
+  were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels was a
+  wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+  verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In
+  fact, a larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other
+  Persian rugs have prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran
+  inscribed in some part of them, but with very few exceptions they
+  are recently woven and bear no evidence of devotional usage.</p>
+
+  <p>The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are
+  much lighter than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a
+  field of ivory surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes
+  a light rose red is used. Other colours are light blue, green,
+  and buff, which are softened by the floccy quality of the
+  excellent and moderately short-clipped wool. One feature common
+  to almost all of them is the narrow edging of pinkish red that
+  surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls, the soft
+  light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the white
+  or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are
+  characteristics by which these rugs may readily be distinguished.
+  As they come in all sizes from small mats to large carpets, and
+  have tones that harmonise with almost any surroundings, they are
+  a most popular class with those who care little for association
+  and ignore the fact that they are chemically washed.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally light
+  rose and ivory, also blue, green, and buff. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna.
+  Knots to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly
+  eleven to eighteen. The rows<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the weft is
+  conspicuous. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>,
+  cotton, of medium diameter, sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  soft and of medium length. <i>Border</i>, frequently of three
+  stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many stripes; also
+  an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally blue.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting in same colour as edging.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp
+  fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and short warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to fourteen feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Western
+  Kurdistans.</span>&mdash;Within the land lying between the
+  Anti-Taurus and Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris
+  rivers have their sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as
+  when in the dawn of history they were designated the
+  &ldquo;Warriors;&rdquo; or centuries later, under the name
+  &ldquo;Carduchis,&rdquo; opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his
+  ten thousand Greeks. Now they are known as &ldquo;Kurds,&rdquo;
+  of whom large numbers, wild, brave, and hospitable, live a
+  nomadic life among table-lands partly covered with sycamores and
+  oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty pine-crowned mountains,
+  that for long months are enveloped in snow. Doubtless the
+  cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich vegetation of
+  innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in a
+  measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when
+  contrasted with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but
+  the will of their chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty.
+  &ldquo;There was up to a recent period no more picturesque or
+  interesting scene to be witnessed in the East than the court of
+  one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like another Saladin,
+  the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his clansmen
+  with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+  young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting
+  silken scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the
+  time of the Crusades.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_27" id=
+  "FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class=
+  "fnanchor">27</a></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p32" id="p32"></a><img src="images/plate32.jpg"
+    width="550" height="880" alt="Plate 32. Melez Prayer Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 32. Melez Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they
+  cultivate the soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages
+  of stone houses. Many of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah.
+  Others have made their homes in the district of Kermanshah, and
+  not a few have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id=
+  "Page_141">141</a></span>wandered as far as Khorassan. But
+  wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their appearance;
+  for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+  custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as
+  well as graceful.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the
+  pastoral life and those who dwell in villages, or between the
+  Kurds of Asiatic Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has
+  produced a marked difference in their textile fabrics. Those
+  woven by the tribes that live among the mountains that encircle
+  Lake Van and extend to the north of Diarbekr embody the wild
+  characteristics of the weavers. They are strong and coarse, with
+  close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest Caucasian
+  influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a large
+  central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+  floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now
+  and then Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field.
+  Moreover, the colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs,
+  but possess rich, strong hues obtained from native dyes that
+  applied to the excellent wool give it a warm, lustrous
+  appearance. Brown is very largely used. There are also dark reds
+  and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow. Only the
+  Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+  with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and
+  long shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance
+  possessed by no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the
+  Mosuls; but as a rule the pile is longer, and they are more
+  coarsely woven. In fact, the yarn is so coarse that it is not
+  unusual to see pieces with only thirty or forty knots to the
+  square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they rarely come in
+  large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly oblong.
+  They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+  cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact
+  that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at the back.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, red, and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and
+  white, and the natural colour of the undyed wool. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to seven;
+  perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back,
+  is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+  closely pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id=
+  "Page_142">142</a></span> wool, of coarse diameter, and often
+  dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, occasionally
+  camel&rsquo;s or goat&rsquo;s hair clipped long. <i>Border</i>,
+  generally of three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy double
+  overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in several
+  different colours. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web, through which
+  runs a coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow
+  web, one or more rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very
+  coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, five to sixteen feet. <i>Width</i>,
+  two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Persian
+  Kurdistans.</span>&mdash;Nowhere is the influence of association
+  among weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the
+  tribes settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is
+  apparent in weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from
+  those seen in the Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is
+  only rarely of coarse goats&rsquo; hair, and is generally soft,
+  brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so that the drawing is
+  clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more varied and of
+  more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of green,
+  rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+  chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The
+  medallion in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which
+  appear some form of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of
+  large figures are often the more dainty Herati designs borrowed
+  from the Feraghans and the Sehnas, or the pear design from the
+  Sarabends. Now and then is seen a rare old piece with field
+  completely covered with drawings of the tree of life and strange
+  floral conceits; but the pattern that is pre-eminently typical of
+  this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani, though it is
+  occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+  flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or
+  olive, rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a
+  feature peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of
+  the field to the other, so as to suggest that their wandering
+  life often made it difficult to obtain the roots and herbs
+  necessary to produce similar shades. As is rarely the case with
+  other patterns, the naturalistic flowers that are pendent from
+  the undulating vine of the main stripe and the flowers of the
+  field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining stripes of
+  the narrow border have most simple vines.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly
+  woven.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id=
+  "Page_143">143</a></span> To assure firmness, one thread of warp
+  is depressed below the other in tying the knots; and the weft
+  that is thrown across for filling is of fair quality. On account
+  of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good colours it is still
+  possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as objects of
+  utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+  qualities.</p>
+
+  <p>A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and
+  Bijar rugs; but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference
+  in the weave serves to distinguish one from the other. As may be
+  seen by examining the backs of typical specimens, in Mosuls every
+  thread of warp lies in the same plane parallel with the surface
+  of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans one of the two threads of
+  warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an acute angle to that
+  plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp encircled by
+  a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right angles to
+  that plane.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, also yellow, green, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes.
+  Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight
+  to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is no longer than
+  wide and is frequently not so long. The yarn is loosely woven, so
+  that each separate ply is distinct. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is largely concealed and the weft partly
+  hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other
+  at back; but sometimes each is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots, only rarely once. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool, and occasionally some camel&rsquo;s hair of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to four stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy
+  double overcasting in dark colour. <i>Lower end</i>, web crossed
+  by a parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, web
+  crossed by a parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, five eighths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karajes.</span>&mdash;Dwelling
+  near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are tribes who
+  weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+  colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of
+  the Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a
+  marked difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses
+  only once between two rows of knots, or in a few pieces
+  two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id=
+  "Page_144">144</a></span> threads of weft pass side by side as
+  though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+  alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft
+  is inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their
+  weft is almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with
+  long nap of soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with
+  border of three stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often
+  consists of a small bush or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in
+  formal array throughout the field. Sometimes the floral forms are
+  placed within the diamonds formed by a trellis pattern, but more
+  frequently they are arranged in rows like the pear designs of
+  Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much conventionalised and
+  suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern Caucasia; and in
+  others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic. Another pattern
+  frequently followed consists of three or four large
+  diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to
+  the other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating
+  vine of well-known Persian character generally appears in one or
+  more of the stripes. As these pieces are almost always
+  comparatively old, the vegetable dyes that were used for
+  colouring have mellowed, and have a richness of tone that is
+  accentuated by the depth of pile and softness of wool. The
+  prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue or plum and red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide, and occasionally is longer.
+  The rows of knots, which have even alignment at back, are not
+  firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool, rarely cotton; each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium
+  diameter crosses once between every two rows of knots; but in
+  parts of the same rug two, three, or even four threads of small
+  diameter will cross side by side as a single coarse thread.
+  Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or four times. The
+  filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the back,
+  giving an even surface. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length or
+  moderately long. <i>Border</i>, of three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  heavy double overcasting. <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, web and short fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, eight to fourteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three eighths to one half length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p33" id="p33"></a><img src="images/plate33.jpg"
+    width="550" height="868" alt="Plate 33. Melez Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 33. Melez
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id=
+  "Page_145">145</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tabriz.</span>&mdash;Although
+  Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is situated in a
+  remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has been one
+  of the most important centres in the Orient for the production of
+  carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and
+  some of the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven
+  there during the reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this
+  industry his royal patronage. This city has been for a long
+  period on the great routes of caravans passing to Trebizond and
+  Tiflis from the country to the south and east, so that it has
+  become the principal mart of Persia for the export of rugs
+  gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still
+  continues to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the
+  employ of foreign companies who prescribe the character of
+  workmanship. As a consequence, the rugs are of good material,
+  excellently woven; and though many of the old dyes are no longer
+  used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on account of the
+  mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+  Oriental spirit is largely lacking.</p>
+
+  <p>Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of
+  Western buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of
+  a large central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory,
+  blue, or red that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a
+  small diamond occupies the centre and is surrounded by a series
+  of concentric medallions. Although in these respects they
+  correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks, and Kashans, the patterns
+  of their fields lack the long scrolls and interlacing branches,
+  and consist frequently of short, slender stems supporting fronds,
+  leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as to present
+  almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is a
+  delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+  completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+  containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and
+  yet it is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers
+  were Kurds. Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of
+  Kirmans, or are realistically drawn composit&aelig; surrounded by
+  delicate leaves on graceful stems; some times the small designs
+  are as formal as the palmettes of old Ispahans, from which they
+  were doubtless copied; again, the naturalistic and conventional
+  may be blended together in an harmonious whole. But whatever the
+  pattern, the different parts show the perfect balance so
+  frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four centuries
+  ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many excep<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>tions,
+  since the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy
+  any coloured drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these
+  rugs are frequently compared, in the fact that in their central
+  stripe the continuous vine of leaf and flower is less
+  conspicuous; and in its place are often palmettes, pears, shrubs,
+  or formal trees separated by foliated scrolls. Not infrequently
+  the smaller stripes, also, have a repetitive pattern of leaf and
+  flower, though in some of the many stripes is usually a
+  well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a series of
+  cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and contain
+  verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years this
+  tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+  only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is
+  increasing.</p>
+
+  <p>A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the
+  adoption of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton,
+  which is used for the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots
+  are carefully tied, and the closely woven texture presents an
+  appearance at the back similar to that of Sarouks; but the almost
+  concealed weft is generally either white or pink. The weave
+  compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the wool of the
+  closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so silky,
+  the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+  are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost
+  square.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally twelve to twenty; perpendicularly, ten to
+  twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp
+  is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, as a
+  rule, is cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine
+  diameter, and frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped
+  short and harsh to the touch. <i>Border</i>, from five to eight
+  stripes and an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord selvage.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine texture.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, nine to eighteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Gorevans.</span>&mdash;Of the
+  many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for use, few
+  are of such moderate price as the Gorevans,<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> which,
+  during recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the
+  province of Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance
+  suggests Occidental craftsmanship, but in every essential they
+  are distinctly Oriental. Their stout weave, large size, and
+  nearly square shape place them in the class of Persian pieces
+  often called carpets, to which belong the Kermanshahs, Muskabads,
+  Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are frequently larger than
+  any of these, and are readily distinguished from them by their
+  colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same light
+  shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+  consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta,
+  buff, dark blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once
+  recognised, are rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor
+  are the colours distributed in patches so small as to blend when
+  viewed at a short distance, but are of sufficient masses to be
+  separately observed and analysed.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally
+  covered with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions,
+  of which the longer sides of the largest are often marked with
+  conspicuous indentations such as are not seen in classes made in
+  other districts. All of the medallions are covered with large
+  designs, in which the artist has departed from the usual forms of
+  vine, leaf, and flower, that poorly imitate the splendid examples
+  of so-called &ldquo;Ispahans,&rdquo; and in many instances has
+  represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest remaining
+  Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+  graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves,
+  and flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a
+  European influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has
+  disappeared in the extremely conventionalised forms that are
+  placed with set regularity in the field. A very noticeable
+  feature of these rugs is the manner in which the designs are
+  coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a large figure in two
+  strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink separated by a
+  stiffly drawn line.</p>
+
+  <p>The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+  medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The
+  small stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral
+  and leaf forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of
+  the field. The main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star
+  medallions, but in most instances has the turtle pattern, though
+  its treatment differs from the usual form seen in Feraghans.
+  A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id=
+  "Page_148">148</a></span> co-ordination in colour exists between
+  field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of
+  the medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of
+  the other stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.</p>
+
+  <p>All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the
+  interest of those that follow traditional patterns; but their
+  stout weave, warm colours, and archaic designs make them both
+  serviceable and pleasing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dull
+  red, dark blue, and buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow,
+  and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six
+  to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The most conspicuous half
+  of a knot, as it appears at the back, is, as a rule, longer than
+  wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed down, but the warp
+  is rarely entirely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+  the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent.
+  <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A
+  thread of weft crosses only once between every two rows of knots,
+  or frequently twice. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, generally of three stripes, occasionally four or
+  five. <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Both ends</i>,
+  a short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, rather loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of very coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, ten to
+  sixteen feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bakshis.</span>&mdash;A close
+  relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+  comparatively modern product, and several other less known
+  sub-classes of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in
+  the east central part of the province of Azerbijan. One of these
+  towns, located fifty miles to the southeast of Tabriz, is
+  Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that were highly esteemed
+  by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted by a spirit of
+  commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of little
+  artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+  patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p34" id="p34"></a><img src="images/plate34.jpg"
+    width="550" height="696" alt="Plate 34. Rhodian Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 34. Rhodian
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Serapis.</span>&mdash;The rugs
+  known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab in the
+  mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+  made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east.
+  The large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id=
+  "Page_149">149</a></span>they are of similar shape and have
+  similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule they are better
+  woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of concentric
+  medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically drawn.
+  Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+  Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality
+  and is in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are
+  cheerful. A field of ivory or some light shade of buff usually
+  surrounds the central medallions, on which appear soft and
+  pleasing tones of smaller designs. Yet on the whole there is a
+  tendency to employ richer and deeper tones than those of
+  Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+  patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive
+  shades of colour.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not
+  show at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other
+  at back, and frequently doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>,
+  cotton, of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached figure-eight
+  fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually in
+  red or buff. <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops or
+  short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, ten to eighteen feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Herez.</span>&mdash;The city of
+  Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province of
+  Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to
+  the sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that
+  were followed with slight modification in many of the former
+  Gorevans. In a measure the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in
+  the medallion pattern of some of these pieces, but for their
+  gracefully flowing lines are substituted more rectangular ones;
+  and in place of many colours are few, of which blue and a reddish
+  copper are particularly noticeable. Another well-known and
+  interesting type consists of a field of white, on which, with
+  formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red,
+  blue, yellow, and green,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150"
+  id="Page_150">150</a></span> archaic leaves and flowers supported
+  by stems and tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form
+  geometric lines and angles. At regular intervals the branching
+  tendrils assume the shape of arches, of which in larger pieces
+  there are frequently one or two dozen; and so closely do they
+  resemble prayer arches that these rugs are sometimes mistaken for
+  namazliks. The borders usually consist of three stripes. The
+  outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple floral
+  figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+  with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+  cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are
+  large and almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally
+  excellent.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  ivory, light blue, and reddish brown, also some yellow and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to ten;
+  perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most conspicuous half of a
+  knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than wide. The rows of
+  knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft is
+  noticeable at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton; one of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each
+  thread is equally prominent. <i>Weft</i>, of cotton, seldom of
+  wool, of moderately coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, generally of three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Lower end</i>, a very
+  narrow web and short warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of very
+  coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, nine to fifteen feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to seven eighths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Suj-Bulaks.</span>&mdash;About
+  fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same distance
+  from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital of
+  Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+  comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of
+  the much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large
+  garrison was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in
+  this vicinity are strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in
+  the strong texture, the excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark
+  colours, the finish of sides and ends. The patterns also are
+  largely Kurdish, but frequently show the influence of Persian
+  association.</p>
+
+  <p>In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used.
+  One<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id=
+  "Page_151">151</a></span> of them is generally the ground colour
+  of the central field, and shows the Kurdish influence by a
+  gradual shading from end to end; the other appears in the
+  overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character. The
+  drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+  bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of
+  white, green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line
+  the edges of the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have
+  vines and floral forms.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and blue, with minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are, as
+  a rule, pressed down, so that the alignment of each half knot is
+  very uneven; but frequently this feature is not regularly
+  maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here and there
+  the warp is noticeable at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at
+  back, but occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, of three to four stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue,
+  red, or brown. <i>Lower end</i>, a web through which runs a
+  parti-coloured cord, and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a
+  braided selvage in addition to the web. <i>Upper end</i>, the
+  same as lower, excepting that the web is occasionally turned back
+  and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to
+  seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karadaghs.</span>&mdash;In the
+  extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city of Tabriz
+  and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh, which
+  signifies the &ldquo;Black Mountain,&rdquo; On its slopes and in
+  the adjoining valleys rugs have been woven for at least several
+  hundred years, and at one time were well known in Europe, but few
+  have reached this country. Most of them are produced for home
+  use, so that they are, as a rule, well woven, of good material,
+  and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in colour scheme, weave, and
+  finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh, which immediately
+  adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no other rugs of
+  Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much disregarded
+  and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id=
+  "Page_152">152</a></span>The field of many of these rugs is
+  completely covered with conventionalised flowers of several
+  different colours, so arranged that diagonal lines are of similar
+  colours. Sometimes it is covered with a pattern of
+  hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+  conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+  pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some
+  repetitive pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and
+  then some form of pole medallion, which the weavers have learned
+  from their more southern neighbours, is substituted. The patterns
+  of the borders are either mechanically drawn vines or contain
+  geometric figures characteristic of Caucasian pieces. For guard
+  stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly used.</p>
+
+  <p>The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A
+  favourite colour for the field is blue or a camel&rsquo;s hair
+  yellow; sometimes rose is seen. The nap of modern pieces is
+  medium long and of old pieces is short. The weave of the latter
+  is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and stout threads
+  of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+  appearance of many rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, yellow, green, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. <i>Knots</i> to
+  inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that
+  the warp appears at back, and the weft is prominent. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is equally distinct
+  at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+  dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+  knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of moderate length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three to six stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or
+  three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of rather coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to nine feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mosuls.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is the city
+  of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+  carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east
+  and west, but it became noted for its textiles from which was
+  derived the name &ldquo;muslin.&rdquo; At length on account of
+  pestilence, misrule, and the sack of armies its population and
+  industries have dwindled; though it is still the capital and
+  commercial centre of a district that lies between the high
+  table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad,
+  and that extends across the Mesopotamian<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> valley
+  to the mountain ridges bordering Western Persia. Within this
+  extensive area are large stretches of rich pasture, where Abraham
+  once fed his flocks, and where each year Kurdish nomads from the
+  north drive their sheep when the winter snows cover their own
+  hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians likewise
+  mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+  can be found anywhere in the Orient.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p35" id="p35"></a><img src="images/plate35.jpg"
+    width="550" height="879" alt="Plate 35. Konieh Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 35. Konieh Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul
+  are made by different races and show great diversity of
+  character. It would, indeed, be often difficult to distinguish
+  them if the weave were disregarded; for though they are prone to
+  yellow and russet hues, and the long wool is floccy as well as
+  lustrous, there is no pattern that can be considered truly
+  typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as stars,
+  latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+  patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however
+  much the nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always
+  shown by the way in which the severer features are softened. In
+  fact, a very large percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are
+  made by the tribes that wander as far east as the great mountain
+  divides along the borders of Western Persia, and adopt patterns
+  and colour schemes current in Azerbijan and Ardelan. It
+  accordingly happens that medallion patterns resembling those of
+  Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines, are seen.
+  More frequently the field is covered with small figures common to
+  Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+  former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully
+  rounded lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as
+  those of the Baku rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces
+  appears evidence of some conventionalised floral form; but now
+  and then a rare old piece is found which was woven in the plains
+  of Mesopotamia, with field completely covered with a
+  naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of the
+  Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by
+  a delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs
+  seen in any rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three
+  stripes, one of which usually has some simple vine, and the
+  others some well-known geometric pattern. It is, also, not
+  unusual to find an outer edging surrounding the border. In a few
+  of these pieces camel&rsquo;s hair is used even to the extent of
+  occupying the whole field; and goat&rsquo;s<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> hair or
+  sheep&rsquo;s wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly
+  employed. One of the most usual colours is some shade of yellow.
+  Reddish hues also prevail. These rugs frequently have the same
+  pleasing effect of slightly graduated changes so common in the
+  ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a whole the colour scheme is
+  lighter. On the other hand, they follow the shading adopted in
+  Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the sudden transition
+  between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour so
+  noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present
+  remoteness of the Mosul district from important highways of
+  travel, many excellent pieces, which with careful use should
+  acquire the rich tones of those now old, are still woven
+  there.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  yellow and brownish red, with minor quantities of blue, green,
+  and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+  to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently longer. The
+  yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally of wool, of coarse diameter and frequently
+  dyed red or orange, but occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a
+  thread of weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, but
+  sometimes crosses only once; or two or three threads cross side
+  by side, as in Karajes. <i>Pile</i>, wool and occasionally
+  camel&rsquo;s hair, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, of three
+  stripes with frequently an outer edging of solid colour.
+  <i>Sides</i> are generally a heavy double overcasting, but in a
+  few pieces there is a two-cord weft selvage or double selvage.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web. <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe;
+  occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web is
+  turned back and hemmed. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six
+  to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs,
+  such as the Teheran, Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and
+  Gozene, that were woven within the Iranian boundaries. Some of
+  them are no longer produced, and others are woven in such small
+  numbers that but few are exported.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p36" id="p36"></a><img src="images/plate36.jpg"
+    width="550" height="844" alt="Plate 36. Kir-shehr Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 36. Kir-shehr
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of
+  Persia. The typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some
+  floral <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id=
+  "Page_155">155</a></span>form occupying the central field, which
+  is two or three times as long as wide. The weave resembles that
+  of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes, each of the two threads of
+  warp that it encircles is equally prominent at the back, and both
+  warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide, and the sides are
+  finished with a two-cord selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs
+  known by that name were once made in a district not far from
+  Kashan, where rose bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be
+  covered with conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again
+  they may contain roses naturalistically drawn with extended
+  petals, as if viewed from above. The most striking characteristic
+  is the opulence of colour, such as red, blue, and yellow softened
+  by shades of brown and green. Even the weft and the webs of the
+  ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a two-cord selvage,
+  warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of warp to
+  each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+  came in large sizes, are no longer made.</p>
+
+  <p>Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the
+  district of Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in
+  the past have furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The
+  people are industrious, and not only cultivate the land but
+  engage in weaving. Some of their rugs closely resemble the
+  Kurdish pieces, and others correspond with the Irans. In the
+  technique of weave they often follow the Hamadans. On the
+  outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad, where, also,
+  rugs are woven for market.</p>
+
+  <p>For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah
+  on the west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been
+  partly occupied by a powerful race of brave and active people who
+  are known as Afshars. They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks
+  of Asia Minor, and the rugs of both tribes have many points of
+  similarity. The wool of the nap is generally the coarse product
+  of the mountain sheep. The patterns incorporate some of the
+  floral features of Persian rugs, though they display many
+  Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close resemblance
+  to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by observing
+  a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres of
+  the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in
+  Kazaks they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back,
+  each half of a knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn
+  closely against the warp, while in Kazaks each half of a knot is
+  often double its width and is drawn closer.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id=
+  "Page_156">156</a></span>In the country about Gozene, in the
+  watershed of the Euphrates river, are made a few rugs for local
+  use, though they occasionally reach Western markets. The pattern,
+  which is very simple, usually consists of some small diaper
+  figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of maroon. Many
+  of this class have a double foundation of warp; and frequently,
+  at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel with
+  the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the
+  fact that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left
+  half of some knots and the right half of others. Occasionally,
+  also, a knot is tied about four threads of warp. In other rugs of
+  this class which have a single foundation of warp the weave
+  resembles that of Mosuls.</p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their
+  floral character, which is very frequently represented by a vine
+  winding from side to side with pendent flowers marking each
+  flexure. Some of these vines have been evolved from arabesques,
+  and others from naturalistic tendrils, but all are graceful. In a
+  few pieces the stripes contain rows of detached flowers,
+  rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet unobtrusive colours,
+  that are always in perfect harmony with those of the field.
+  Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the exception
+  of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most elegant,
+  pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+  them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries
+  ago.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><i>Primary Stripes.</i>&mdash;In Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a typical
+  Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century carpets.
+  It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+  rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the
+  fields of such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe
+  the angular and serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 2, bears a resemblance to the Herat
+  stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had a common origin,
+  since they were designed in adjoining and freely communicating
+  districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of each
+  flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+  heads of birds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"> <a name="pe" id="pe"></a>
+  <img src="images/platee.jpg" width="550" height="786" alt= "Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs" title="" />
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate E. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id=
+  "Page_157">157</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The so-called turtle pattern, Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  3, has probably been derived from the interlacing arabesques that
+  appeared in rugs at least as early as the beginning of the XV
+  Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The rosette and attendant
+  leaves between adjacent &ldquo;turtles&rdquo; suggest the Herati
+  pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+  Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically
+  drawn and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and
+  Serapis.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral
+  bushes, is shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 4. It is also
+  seen in some of the old rugs of Northwestern Persia. Another
+  Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the Herati pattern, is
+  represented in Fig. 5.</p>
+
+  <p>A single row of pears (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 6) is a
+  characteristic Luristan stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The dainty pattern of Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 7, in
+  which the vine has been abandoned and serrated leaves nearly
+  surround a floral device, shows a not unusual Herez stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never
+  crowded, and represents a simple vine with bright pendent
+  flowers. A stripe commonly seen in this class is represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 8. It is also seen in the
+  Bijars.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh
+  district, which is separated only by the Aras river from
+  Caucasia, its stripes show a combination of floral and geometric
+  design not usual in other Persian pieces. Plate <a href=
+  "#pe">E</a>, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a
+  rosette, and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans.
+  Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 10, represents another stripe of
+  the same class with eight-petalled star-shaped flowers pendent
+  from an angular vine.</p>
+
+  <p>A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower,
+  which is frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 11.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very
+  dainty pattern of vine and roses that now and then is seen in old
+  Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are also represented vine and roses as
+  they occasionally appear in old rugs of Northwestern Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 14, is sometimes seen in stripes of
+  Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is a characteristic of
+  this class.</p>
+
+  <p>Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former
+  are often more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate
+  <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 15,<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> is a stripe from an old
+  and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and King
+  Solomon&rsquo;s eight-pointed star.</p>
+
+  <p>Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes
+  is the well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent
+  pear on white ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class
+  is without this stripe (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 16). Its
+  presence at once indicates that the piece is either a Sarabend or
+  an Iran copy.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear
+  pattern of a Meshed stripe. The graceful form, resembling in a
+  measure the Indian drawing, is peculiar to these stripes.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kirman stripe (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 18)
+  invariably contains red roses naturalistically drawn, surrounded
+  by a profusion of leaves and stems. This is one of the most
+  beautiful of Persian border patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah
+  stripe, one of which appears in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  19, with mechanically drawn flowers, leaves, and vines.</p>
+
+  <p>The formal pattern (Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 20) of
+  octagons surrounded by latch-hooks is now and then found in
+  borders of Shiraz rugs, and indicates how great a concession
+  their weavers at times make to nomadic influences.</p>
+
+  <p>The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some
+  floral form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of
+  these stripes is shown in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig. 21.</p>
+
+  <p>Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation
+  in the borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of
+  the former is represented in Plate <a href="#pe">E</a>, Fig.
+  22.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><i>Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.</i>&mdash;The
+  ornamentation of a large proportion of secondary stripes of
+  Persian rugs consists of running vines, which fall within two
+  divisions, according to the absence or presence of pendants.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from
+  an inner stripe of a Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines
+  with budding tendrils at each flexure.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen
+  in such rugs as Gorevans. Similar stripes are very common. As
+  there is no pendant, the character of the vine depends upon the
+  form it assumes in alternating flexures, one of which in this
+  instance is an eight-petalled star.</p>
+
+  <p>In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 3) consisting of an angular vine, from
+  each flexure of which spring small designs like three-leaf
+  clover.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate F. Secondary
+  Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pf" id="pf"></a><img src="images/platef.jpg" width="550" height="714" alt="" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate F. Secondary
+  Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id=
+  "Page_159">159</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as
+  the Bijars and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a serrated leaf, and the
+  other is a small rosette with short curving tendrils.</p>
+
+  <p>A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 5. At each flexure is a flower of four
+  petals, and from alternating flexures spring tendrils of colour
+  different from that of the vine. Stripes of similar drawing
+  appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span> A further stage in the development of the
+  same pattern is illustrated in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig.
+  6.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in
+  <a href="#pf">Plate F</a>, Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor
+  carpets woven during the XIII Century, and also in some of the
+  earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is seen in modern
+  Persian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in <a href=
+  "#pf">Plate F</a>, Fig. 8. This pattern is seen in a large number
+  of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls, Bijars, Kurdistans, and
+  Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged to almost the form
+  of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.</p>
+
+  <p>In another stripe (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 9), taken
+  from a Feraghan, there is no particular enlargement to the vine,
+  and the alternating pendants are buds and flowers of four
+  petals.</p>
+
+  <p>A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 10. In this the vine
+  represents serrated leaves, and suggests one of the Shirvan
+  patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>A very similar stripe (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 11),
+  taken from a Sehna, should be compared with those of Figs. 8 and
+  10, as it serves to illustrate the evolution of vine patterns. In
+  fact, if a very large number of stripes were arranged in proper
+  order, they would show almost imperceptible gradations from one
+  type to another.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish
+  tribes, is shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 12; and in
+  Fig. 13 is another vine with pendent pear alternating with a
+  rosette.</p>
+
+  <p>Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Figs. 14 and 15, for instance, is represented the
+  same secondary stripe as it appears at the sides and the ends of
+  some moderately old Persian rugs. The former pattern bears a
+  resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a series
+  of connecting links.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id=
+  "Page_160">160</a></span>A graceful pattern that is seen in
+  Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of Northwestern Persia is
+  represented in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 16. It was
+  probably derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal trefoil (Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17)
+  which is constantly used in a tertiary stripe, is probably a
+  degenerate form of an ornate floral design. It is more widely
+  used for a border stripe than any other pattern, as it is found
+  not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends, Bijars, Sarouks, and
+  Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan rugs, and in
+  almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+  Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.</p>
+
+  <p>In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a
+  tertiary stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost in the dim past, and it
+  is not improbable that once it had a symbolic meaning.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its
+  well-authenticated age, contains the &ldquo;Y&rdquo; pattern
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 19. It is found in some
+  Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pf">F</a>, Fig. 20, is frequently found in modern Persian rugs,
+  as well as in Iranian carpets woven six centuries ago.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pvi" id="pvi"></a><img src="images/plate_vi.jpg"
+    width="550" height="1322" alt="Colour Plate VI. Persian Garden Carpet" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Colour Plate VI. Persian
+    Garden Carpet</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="center">This carpet and the one at the Naesby House,
+  Sweden, which it resembles in pattern but not in colouring, are,
+  so far as known, the only complete carpets of this type. The
+  Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle of the XVIII.
+  Century; this is undoubtedly much older.</p>
+
+  <p class="center">A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL
+  &ldquo;GARDEN&rdquo; CARPET</p>
+
+  <p class="center2">(Reputed to have been made for Shah
+  &rsquo;Abb&#257;s for Sefavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.</p>
+
+  <p class="center">31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><i>Statement of the owner</i></p>
+
+  <p class="center">ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON &amp;
+  CO., LTD., LONDON.</p>
+
+  <p class="center3">The pattern represents a Persian garden
+  divided into four sections by two intersecting streams, which are
+  bordered by rows of cypress trees, alternating with bushes on
+  which are birds. These sections are similarly divided by smaller
+  streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each side, into plots
+  containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks rest above
+  the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+  mellowing influence of time.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id=
+  "Page_161">161</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">l = linen</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">l = linen</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcast</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-10<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      16-20<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      12-18<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      11-20</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">8-12<br />
+      7-18<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      16-24<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      11-18<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      11-20</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [1]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d&nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      h<br />
+      h</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [1]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1-2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2/[3-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      1-2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[6-8]<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O<br />
+      O&nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      ;&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      [L]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Bijar<br />
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Hamadan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Mod.&nbsp;Ispahan<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Kashan<br />
+      Karadagh<br />
+      Karaje<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      W&nbsp;<br />
+      K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      l<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id=
+  "Page_162">162</a></span></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      [G]<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-9<br />
+      4-17<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-15<br />
+      5-7<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      12-24<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      10-22</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-13<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      12-17<br />
+      7-9<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-15<br />
+      9-13<br />
+      12-20<br />
+      12-24<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      10-22</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [l]<br />
+      [l]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [l]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      h<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;[1]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      1<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L<br />
+      [L]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      [F]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">PERSIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Persian&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Western&nbsp;Kurdistan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mosul<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Niris<br />
+      Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Shiraz<br />
+      Suj-Bulak<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      s<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id=
+  "Page_163">163</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+  <h4>ASIA MINOR RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>LL rugs that are woven in the Turkish
+  provinces of Asia are frequently grouped together and called
+  &ldquo;Turkish&rdquo; rugs; but a more natural classification is
+  to distinguish between those made to the east and those made to
+  the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+  Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the
+  ridges that divide the watershed of the western forks of the
+  Euphrates river from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception
+  of the very few pieces that come from Syria or other southerly
+  districts, those woven in the Turkish provinces east of this line
+  show such a relationship to those of Persia that they are more
+  properly classed with them; while on the other hand, with the
+  exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those woven to the
+  west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+  Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+  naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to
+  treat them separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from
+  Persia, the Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are
+  rugs woven on more classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces.
+  They are still made in the shadow of the walls where Cro[es]us
+  lived and among villages where Homer trod. Their yarn is spun
+  with crude distaff by the shepherd who still drives his flock
+  along the same road where Artaxerxes marched, across the bridges
+  that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes of Mt. Ida.
+  In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of the
+  Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander&rsquo;s
+  conquering army, and of cities founded before the beginning of
+  history.</p>
+
+  <p>When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make
+  a distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of
+  Persian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id=
+  "Page_164">164</a></span> rugs, though with them it is less
+  important. From the time when there arose a large demand in the
+  markets of Europe and America for the rugs of the East the
+  natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the price of
+  those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+  because of the higher prices, there was established a system by
+  which large numbers of women and children were constantly
+  employed; although many worked in their own homes, using such
+  material as was furnished by their employers and receiving fixed
+  daily wages. In the western and southern parts of Asia Minor,
+  which are connected by railroads with seaports, are a number of
+  communities where this system is in vogue. One of these is at
+  Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a small
+  number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+  Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak,
+  the principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many
+  more.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Almost all rugs produced
+  at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself has but
+  very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+  to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime
+  artistic spirit and individuality of character, on account of the
+  dependence of the weavers on their employers, who demand the
+  largest output consistent with fair quality. Furthermore, the
+  weavers are frequently required to reproduce Western patterns.
+  The result is that most of these rugs possess little of the
+  firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of designs, and the
+  excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they represent in a
+  measure European influences, and are subject to further changes
+  to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+  of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+  characteristics exist in the old pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty
+  years ago are the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate
+  designs, which may be either independent of the pattern or
+  constitute part of it. The colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as
+  a rule brighter than that of the Central Asian, Indian, or
+  Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and yellows are less
+  subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese rugs, and on
+  the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+  pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve,
+  lavender, and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these.
+  Moreover, in a few of them masses of strongly
+  contrasting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id=
+  "Page_165">165</a></span> colours are placed beside one another
+  without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the artificial
+  device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+  combinations.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m2" id="m2"></a><a href="images/map2z.jpg"><img src="images/map2.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="MAP OF ASIA MINOR" title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF ASIA MINOR</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and
+  those of other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than
+  in the main patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of
+  an independent inspiration and development. There are lacking the
+  rigid octagonal figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets
+  and floral sprays distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral
+  treatment of the Indian; the delicate tracings, rhythm of
+  movement, and wealth of foliage motives that characterise the
+  Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms and
+  conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+  flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+  realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are
+  arranged separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack
+  the fertility of invention or the refinement of Persian and
+  Indian pieces, they excel them in the strength of their clear
+  definition, accentuated by massing of colour. It is, however, in
+  the prayer patterns, which appear in the majority of Asia Minor
+  rugs, that the weavers attain their best results; for in such
+  work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well as
+  artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of
+  any other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and
+  grace, as well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in
+  Moslem chapels; for in many is represented the burning lamp that,
+  projected against a background of sacred green, hangs from the
+  column-supported arch, above which is spread a spandrel of blue
+  typifying the vaulted heavens.</p>
+
+  <p>Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other
+  groups of rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for
+  instance, animals, birds, fishes, and human beings are never
+  employed, on account of the religious prejudice of the Sunnite
+  Mohammedans, who prevail in the country. Nor, with very few
+  exceptions, is the Herati design, so characteristic of Persian
+  rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic of both Persian and
+  Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal trefoil, that
+  is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all Caucasian
+  and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor pieces
+  woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+  an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon,
+  which are less frequently employed by the weavers of
+  any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id=
+  "Page_166">166</a></span> other country. There are also many
+  small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs, and
+  that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.</p>
+
+  <p>These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not
+  the result of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign
+  influences; for a natural art never existed in Asia Minor, which
+  has never enjoyed a national existence; but they are the results
+  of artistic movements that at different times have swept over
+  that country. Thus, as an heirloom of dynasties that once
+  flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters that appear in
+  some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the Mongol
+  and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+  the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the
+  evidences of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour
+  schemes of the prayer rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian,
+  and Christian ideas. In fact, the rugs of Asia Minor, while
+  possessing co-ordination of colour and design, are in a measure
+  composite. They never reach the high artistic development of
+  Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+  fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could
+  secure from years of patient labour suitable furnishings for
+  palaces and mosques; yet they are none the less interesting
+  subjects for speculation and study.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bergamos</span>.&mdash;In the
+  valley of the Ca&iuml;cus and twenty miles from the &AElig;gean
+  Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo
+  rugs. It is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when
+  Agamemnon was warring with the house of Priam before the walls of
+  that other city of the same name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians,
+  Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had taken possession of it before
+  the Apostle Paul founded there one of the seven churches of Asia.
+  Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments, philosophers taught
+  beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars gathered there the
+  library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly encircled by
+  mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that was
+  wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+  some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the
+  flourishing cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding
+  ruins is there any reminder of its former greatness and
+  splendour. But in these crumbling relics of the past and in the
+  excellence of its woven fabrics of more recent times are traces
+  of the artistic spirit that once prevailed there.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p37" id="p37"></a><img src="images/plate37.jpg"
+    width="550" height="739" alt="Plate 37. Anatolian Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 37. Anatolian
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id=
+  "Page_167">167</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+  representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when
+  aniline dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the
+  Hellespont. Almost without exception they are sterling fabrics
+  that glory in a wealth of colour accentuated by depth of pile and
+  sheen of soft lustrous wool. An observer is at once impressed by
+  the tones of deep blue and madder red that a few lines or patches
+  of ivory white bring out more clearly, and forms a favourable
+  estimate of the value of these pieces independently of the
+  drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+  quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the
+  dyer who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully
+  selected wool, and to the pains of the weaver in constructing the
+  foundation of warp and weft rather than to his skill in arranging
+  artistic designs, that these pieces command as high a price as
+  old Kirmans of similar age.</p>
+
+  <p>In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs:
+  in shape they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the
+  exception rather than the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow
+  the same general pattern, as is usually the case with other
+  classes. They may have low tent-shaped arches like those of
+  Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped sides and a panel
+  above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may have shapes
+  unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not used as
+  prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+  some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the
+  field. Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides
+  at upper and lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with
+  latch-hooks. As is not the case with many of the Persian rugs,
+  the field surrounding the medallion is almost always covered with
+  small designs, arranged with careful precision so as to show a
+  perfect balance with reference to the centre. Eight-pointed stars
+  and other geometric figures are frequently used, but there is a
+  leaning to floral designs, which, however, are often so
+  conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most prominent
+  of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+  never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in
+  the Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a
+  floral form. The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more
+  frequently seen in the main border stripe. Undulating vines do
+  not find favour among the Bergamo weavers, and small isolated
+  geometric designs are largely employed in the narrow border
+  stripes, while<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id=
+  "Page_168">168</a></span> larger, more complex figures often
+  replace the floral in the main stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking
+  devices to avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected
+  visitor surprise the weaver while at work, he may be required to
+  part with a bit of his frock, which is then attached to the wide
+  web of the end; should a similar occurrence of ill omen follow,
+  another bit of different material and colour may be sewn upon
+  this; and as a crowning talisman, a button may be affixed to
+  both. Small cowrie shells from the &AElig;gean shores are often
+  used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+  tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the
+  rug.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, white, and green.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five and one
+  half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots
+  are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of fine diameter,
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool; generally of medium
+  length but frequently long. <i>Border</i>, from one to four
+  stripes; most frequently of three. <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage
+  of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or blue, with
+  occasionally some green or yellow. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, that
+  is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed
+  by broad longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may
+  be black, white, brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil
+  eye is frequently attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a
+  tasselled warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, three
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three quarters to nine tenths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ghiordes</span>.&mdash;Whether,
+  as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that lies a
+  day&rsquo;s journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of
+  the ancient Gordium where tradition says the father of Midas
+  dedicated his chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark
+  which bound the pole to the yoke, it claims attention from the
+  fact that the rugs woven there one and two centuries ago not only
+  excelled similar products in all other parts of Asia Minor, but
+  equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia during the same period.
+  Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still higher; yet with
+  reference <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id=
+  "Page_169">169</a></span>to technique of weave and delicacy of
+  colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven
+  in the previous century by the prot&eacute;g&eacute;s of Tamasp
+  and Shah Abbas.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p38" id="p38"></a><img src="images/plate38.jpg"
+    width="550" height="706" alt="Plate 38. Mudjar Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 38. Mudjar Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district
+  differ from the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so
+  great is their inferiority, that they have little interest; but
+  fortunately it is still possible to purchase pieces from
+  seventy-five to one hundred and fifty years of age, and others
+  still older are in the hands of collectors or in museums. In
+  determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as weave
+  and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+  tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a
+  pinkish or even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of
+  rich, deep colour. Similarly, in the case of blues, greens,
+  yellows, and even the ivories that rarely occupy the field, a
+  riper and richer colour marks the greater age. Likewise with the
+  drawing, greater painstaking and higher artistic skill are
+  apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the oldest the
+  designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+  This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best
+  types are found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and
+  fifty to two hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the
+  extremely old pieces there is an approach to archaic forms.</p>
+
+  <p>The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are
+  the kinds most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours,
+  to be sure, are much the same, though as a rule lighter and
+  duller tones predominate in the odjaliks. Their borders show a
+  greater tendency to use geometric figures, some of which are
+  profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive of Caucasian
+  influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to be
+  associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common
+  to the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the
+  distinction is most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform
+  colour that make the namazliks so effective are wanting, and
+  instead are frequently seen hexagonal-shaped medallions that are
+  fringed with large rounded latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or
+  other geometric design in the centre. At both ends of the fields
+  are sometimes narrow panels containing quasi-floral forms, and
+  stiff conventions occupy the intervening corner spaces.</p>
+
+  <p>In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes
+  prayer rugs, with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields
+  and the delicate drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made
+  with unusual care, since they were intended for religious
+  purposes. The pattern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id=
+  "Page_170">170</a></span> represents an entrance into a mosque;
+  and it is not improbable that some of the earliest rugs were
+  copied directly from archways, many of which still exist in
+  Mohammedan countries.<a name="FNanchor_29" id=
+  "FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a>
+  Near the base of all Ghiordes arches, at each side, is a
+  shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a single pilaster
+  or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll work or
+  floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+  devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other
+  rugs they have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the
+  shoulders and the mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the
+  shoulders are flattened at a very obtuse angle; and the mihrab is
+  either plain or has stepped sides that culminate in a blunted
+  apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of the rug a lamp is
+  often suspended from the niche, though floral forms may take its
+  place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost without
+  exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+  floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner
+  side of the arch and from all sides of the border against the
+  field. In the spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or
+  leaf form; though these may be very much conventionalised or even
+  supplanted by geometric figures. Above the spandrel is a panel,
+  which may contain some floral form, scroll device, or verse from
+  the Koran; and another panel, though generally with different
+  design, is almost invariably placed beneath the field. A scroll
+  resembling a large S (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 9, Page
+  291) frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms
+  found in Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very
+  noticeable.</p>
+
+  <p>The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this
+  class as is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of
+  stripes, which generally consist of a wide central one, two
+  secondary, and two or more small guard stripes. The drawing is
+  distinctly floral, yet is widely different from the Persian. A
+  design (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+  frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette
+  or rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id=
+  "Page_171">171</a></span> design, and connected by tendrils with
+  more delicate flowers or leaves. But the more usual design (Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and fruits that
+  are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate units
+  face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+  Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like
+  drawing with clear definition and its tones in harmony with the
+  central field, contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The
+  secondary stripes have generally repetitive leaf forms; and
+  running through the guard stripes is a simple vine, ribbon, or
+  wave design. Occasionally, however, the typical Ghiordes border
+  is replaced by one borrowed from the near district of Kulah, and
+  instead of the broad central stripe are several narrow parallel
+  stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral figures
+  (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these
+  rugs is the linen nap which is sometimes used in the field
+  instead of wool, for the reason that it retains its colour while
+  wool darkens with age; and another is the silken fringe which is
+  often seen at the corners of fine specimens. The nap is always
+  short, and the rugs are closely woven.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen.
+  The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+  and the weft is partly hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool or
+  cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the other
+  at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  and occasionally some cotton, clipped very short so as to be
+  harsh to the touch. <i>Border</i>, six to nine stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two or three cords, or only
+  infrequently an added selvage of silk. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow
+  web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+  the corners. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  very fine grain, but slightly rough. <i>Usual length</i>, five to
+  seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kulahs</span>.&mdash;About
+  fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction, is the
+  Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+  general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+  centuries the people of each have been subject to the same
+  influences of race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited,
+  intermarried, and become familiar with the arts and crafts of
+  one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id=
+  "Page_172">172</a></span> another. It is not, therefore,
+  surprising that some of their rugs should have similar technique
+  of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general pattern
+  and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+  between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the
+  most experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between
+  them. In fact it is surprising that there is so marked a
+  distinction between most of them. In the Kulahs the border
+  designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor are the prayer arches
+  so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns the corners of
+  some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field usually
+  contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+  is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side
+  of the field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+  characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish
+  between most of them.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost
+  unknown; but it is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble
+  prayer rugs in the following respects: the borders are almost
+  identical; the central fields contain the same floral figures
+  resting on a similarly coloured ground; both ends of the
+  hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space between
+  the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+  spandrels of the prayer rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the
+  prayer rugs are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true
+  that the arch is flatter than that of any other rug of this
+  group, and is defined either by plain sloping lines, or more
+  frequently by stepped edges, so that it lacks the classic beauty
+  of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the Rhodian lily and
+  other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are delineated
+  with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in any
+  other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side
+  of the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of
+  a lamp, or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate
+  with their bright tones the subdued richness of the ground
+  colours. Sometimes, however, these simple field designs are
+  replaced by more formal drawings that represent a plat of land
+  with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other trees with many
+  leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon in
+  Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+  shipped many years ago, and where they are known as
+  &ldquo;Friedhofteppiche,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Grave Rugs,&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p39" id="p39"></a><img src="images/plate39.jpg"
+    width="550" height="557" alt="Plate 39. Daghestan Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 39. Daghestan
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+  distinguishing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id=
+  "Page_173">173</a></span> features are in the borders,
+  which are invariably of several stripes. Instead of the large
+  central stripe with floral and repetitive designs common to most
+  rugs is a series of parallel bands, from five to ten in number
+  and about an inch in width, that contain rows of minute floral
+  forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature of the
+  Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+  weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad
+  stripe containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13 (opp. Page 192), which also are
+  peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it may seem, these designs
+  have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by successive
+  degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13a, 13b, 13c,
+  and 13d of Plate <a href="#po">O</a> (Page 291). There is still
+  another border design that is so constantly found in the
+  secondary stripe of these pieces and so rarely in any others that
+  it might well be designated the &ldquo;Kulah stripe&rdquo; (Plate
+  <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists
+  of a repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is
+  in reality a degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by
+  observing some of the very old border stripes. Between the inner
+  secondary stripe and the field is usually a narrow stripe
+  containing a continuous ribbon design, or a simple vine-like
+  form, as in Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158).
+  Often a part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been
+  omitted and the remaining parts have been compressed, so as to
+  leave small detached figures like a row of
+  &ldquo;f&rsquo;s,&rdquo; as in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 2.
+  It is not unusual to see both vine and detached figures in the
+  same rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel,
+  and borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a
+  yellow tint that is described both as golden brown and apricot;
+  blue also is occasionally seen, and white is very rare. But
+  whatever the colour of the field, that of the spandrel is
+  generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and the overlying
+  panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often appear in
+  the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+  rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of
+  red or blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye,
+  since it shows no more relation to the surrounding colours than
+  spilt ink might have; yet in spite of these contrasts and the
+  fact that the nap lacks the lustre peculiar to many other
+  classes, some of them are as beautiful as Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <p>Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like
+  are produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a
+  Western<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id=
+  "Page_174">174</a></span> market and taste, is the most
+  noticeable difference, for the latter are inferior to the former
+  in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with the wool of many
+  is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows slight
+  usage.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  brownish yellow, and blue, with minor quantities of green, dark
+  brown, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes, Knots to inch
+  horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The
+  rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one
+  of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+  the back. <i>Weft</i>, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter,
+  sometimes dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft
+  consists of a coarse thread of jute crossing once between two
+  rows of knots and alternating with a small thread of jute and
+  another of wool crossing side by side once between the next two
+  rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, six to nine stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a coloured
+  mixed selvage of two, three, or four cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a
+  coloured web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of moderately coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Oushaks</span>.&mdash;Fifty
+  miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous during
+  the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+  Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs.
+  But with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed,
+  so that half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city
+  known for the excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken
+  there from the interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the
+  weavers of the surrounding country. Since then, however, its
+  population has steadily grown, and the weaving industry has
+  thrived, until now it is one of the most populous cities of Asia
+  Minor, with looms more numerous than those of any other city. The
+  weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most of whom are
+  Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses, they
+  are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+  well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and
+  American demands.</p>
+
+  <p>Important distinctions exist between the different grades of
+  these rugs. Some are known as &ldquo;Turkish Kirmans,&rdquo; in
+  which Persian designs are frequently introduced, others are of
+  still finer workman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id=
+  "Page_175">175</a></span>ship, but the oldest and coarsest pieces
+  were formerly known as &ldquo;Yapraks.&rdquo; These are
+  distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue,
+  of which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are
+  massed to produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and
+  weft, which are dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and
+  often of an inferior grade of wool. Many of them are too large
+  and heavy for domestic use, but are well adapted for salons and
+  public halls.</p>
+
+  <p>With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour,
+  Oushaks would be of little interest were it not that their
+  prototypes were striking pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan
+  Solyman the Magnificent brought from the northwestern part of
+  Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI Century. Some of them
+  appear in the paintings of old masters, and when contrasted with
+  the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in the
+  craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced
+  designs once represented in the fields, only large stars and
+  diamonds, defined by less pleasing lines and placed with less
+  regularity, remain. All of the graceful arabesques and dainty
+  floral motives that appeared as sub-patterns are omitted. As
+  works of art, the modern products are little esteemed; but their
+  durability, depth of pile, and wealth of colour make them
+  excellent objects of utility.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and green. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally four to eight; perpendicularly, four to nine. A half
+  knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of
+  knots are not closely pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool. Each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back,
+  or one is slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool
+  of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool,
+  clipped long. <i>Border</i>, usually of three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, generally a double overcasting, occasionally a
+  selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, generally a web coloured red and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of moderately coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, carpet sizes. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ak-hissar</span>.&mdash;Almost
+  seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short distance to
+  the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the White
+  Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+  in this district; and in recent years the<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>
+  work-house system has been established, and large quantities,
+  that bear some resemblance to the modern products of Kulah and
+  Oushak, have been exported.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Demirdji</span>.&mdash;Half a
+  century ago the town of Demirdji was almost uninhabited; but as a
+  result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs and the
+  disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+  manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at
+  the historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant;
+  but the fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more
+  carefully selected than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kutayah</span>.&mdash;On the
+  main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus with the
+  Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+  Anatolian plateau, wool and goat&rsquo;s hair have been for a
+  long period important articles in its trade. Both of them are now
+  used in the local manufacture of rugs, which in a measure
+  resemble the products of Oushak.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Smyrna</span>.&mdash;The
+  location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its connection by
+  rail with all the important rug districts of the interior, have
+  made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+  rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry
+  of weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large
+  companies who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result,
+  the Smyrna rugs are mere copies of well-known types of other
+  Turkish pieces, or, as is generally the case, of stereotyped
+  patterns that have been evolved to meet the requirements of
+  European and American tastes. Many of the rugs, to be sure, are
+  well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality of
+  character.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Melez</span>.&mdash;About
+  seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from the
+  Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now
+  little known, but was once the market place of an important
+  rug-producing district, which included a large part of the
+  classic province of Caria. Accordingly, the pieces that came from
+  there were sometimes called Carian, but are more generally known
+  as Melez.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p40" id="p40"></a><img src="images/plate40.jpg"
+    width="400" height="823" alt="Plate 40. Kabistan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 40. Kabistan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>On their face they show a close relationship to the
+  Anatolians, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id=
+  "Page_177">177</a></span>and also, though in a less degree, to
+  many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is to be expected of the
+  products from one corner of the country, they have a distinct
+  individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+  piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole
+  field is covered with parallel stripes on which are
+  systematically arranged geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a
+  rule the fields are not much wider, and often less wide, than
+  each of the adjacent borders. Within this central space are
+  frequently arranged prominent designs, which are widely different
+  from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive of Chinese
+  ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree forms
+  (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover,
+  projecting in regular order from the alternate sides of the
+  narrow border stripe, next to the field, are sometimes seen
+  thumb-like figures, that fit against one another like the cogs of
+  a wheel (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+  of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this
+  class.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as
+  wide as the remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of
+  the Ladiks. Very frequently it consists of a row of palmettes
+  between which are conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender
+  stems; but now and then the palmettes are replaced by
+  eight-pointed stars or other geometric figures, and the
+  intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs. The
+  secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+  invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving
+  line or the reciprocal sawtooth.</p>
+
+  <p>The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical
+  examples the lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to
+  meet the sides of the narrow field at an angle of forty-five
+  degrees, and are then deflected towards its centre, to return
+  again to its sides. The resulting drawing shows two equilateral
+  triangles on each side of the field at the base of the mihrab,
+  which in conjunction with the upper sides of the triangles has
+  the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This effect, moreover,
+  is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of diamonds
+  extending from just below the niche to the base of the field. The
+  sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule,
+  fringed with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms;
+  and in the spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs
+  arranged on a trellis-like sub-pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked
+  yet noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case
+  with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id=
+  "Page_178">178</a></span> many Bergamos, the principal tone is a
+  dark red, which generally appears in the central field, and is
+  also used almost without exception in the broad end webs, the
+  side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white for the
+  spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+  colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable
+  quantity in other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or
+  mauve, which is present in almost every old Melez. Not always are
+  these tones pleasing, as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed;
+  but there are other pieces, now rapidly growing scarce, of which
+  the colours are exceedingly rich and harmonious.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  with minor quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, six to eleven. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide or slightly longer. The rows of knots
+  are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of small diameter,
+  dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four times
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length and sometimes short. <i>Border</i>, wide, from three to
+  seven stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a selvage of two to four cords,
+  usually coloured red. <i>Lower end</i>, a red web and loose warp
+  fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a red web, a braided selvage, and loose
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and
+  one half to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three
+  quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Isbarta.</span>&mdash;In the
+  town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of Konieh
+  are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+  &ldquo;Spartas.&rdquo; Like many other pieces made to meet the
+  Western demand, they lack spontaneous individuality, but are
+  often of excellent quality and coloured in delicate tones,
+  arranged harmoniously.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Rhodian.</span>&mdash;Even at a
+  very early period the people of the islands bordering the
+  southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+  rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them
+  were more beautiful or more interesting than those which came
+  from the Island of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous
+  Grecian and the more subtle Oriental arts. Here was the
+  inspi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id=
+  "Page_179">179</a></span>ration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+  luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the
+  Mohammedan and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan
+  mythology; and there is little doubt that the cathedral walls and
+  picturesque church of the valiant knights of St. John made an
+  impression on the weavers. It is not surprising, therefore, that
+  the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour full of suggestion,
+  and that the drawing of the long central panels should remind one
+  of cathedral windows.</p>
+
+  <p>Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few
+  now remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors.
+  Some are odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with
+  the exception of a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have
+  colours and weave that bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many
+  instances to one hundred years or more. On the field of odjaliks
+  are represented as a rule the usual hexagonal figure with two
+  sides at each end forming a triangle; and on the fields of the
+  namazliks are prayer arches which, though characteristic, never
+  equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs. It is the
+  sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+  striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.</p>
+
+  <p>Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend
+  almost the full length of the field, and terminate at one end in
+  flat and often serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and
+  placed transversely above them is a low panel, that contains
+  designs of mechanically drawn leaves, vandykes resembling those
+  of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia Minor rugs. In fact,
+  these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing two or more
+  prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+  representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs
+  give force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a
+  different ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never
+  gaudy, yet exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and
+  in the overlying figures there is often a strangely contrasting
+  splendour of brighter colouring. Furthermore, one of the most
+  usual of these designs, arranged like pole medallions, consists
+  of large eight-pointed stars with effulgent rays of brilliant
+  hues. As we look at some of the rare old pieces with this
+  pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with bright
+  sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+  brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of &ldquo;dim
+  religious light.&rdquo; Sometimes the pole design is modified so
+  as to suggest a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id=
+  "Page_180">180</a></span> tree of life extending from one end of
+  the panel to the other. An equally common design represents six
+  very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in the form of a
+  medallion (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of
+  these leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and
+  containing at the corner a small rectangular spot; but the
+  remaining sides that form the circumference of the medallion are
+  deeply serrated, so as to produce much the same effect as the
+  rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are also frequently seen
+  latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with different
+  colours for separate squares.</p>
+
+  <p>Between field and border is a close correspondence in both
+  colours and small designs. The latter consist principally of
+  geometric and semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the
+  octagonal disc, and the geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah
+  rugs. No other design is more prevalent than the last, which may
+  be found in all parts of these rugs. Sometimes it is drawn most
+  realistically so as to resemble the flower forms so common in
+  spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most conventional
+  with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of underlying
+  field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as in
+  the border stripe of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13, (opp.
+  Page 192), which shows the foliate origin of the latter.</p>
+
+  <p>The name &ldquo;Makri&rdquo; is frequently applied to these
+  rugs, since they were often bought in the city of that name,
+  which is one of the harbours of Southwestern Asia Minor nearest
+  to Rhodes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, also considerable yellow, green, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of knots are not firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is
+  slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium
+  diameter, coloured red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots, rarely only once, and sometimes
+  as many as four times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped long.
+  <i>Border</i>, two to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or
+  blue. <i>Lower end</i>, a web, either red or of several colours,
+  and long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a web, either red or of several colours, beyond which is often a
+  heavy braided selvage; also a long warp fringe hanging loose or
+  braided. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back
+  is of slightly <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id=
+  "Page_181">181</a></span>coarse grain. <i>Length</i>, four to
+  seven feet. <i>Width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+    <a name="p41" id="p41"></a><img src="images/plate41.jpg"
+    width="350" height="786" alt="Plate 41. Kuba Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 41. Kuba
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Broussa.</span>&mdash;At the
+  base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles from the
+  Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+  of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+  Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on
+  account of the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the
+  surrounding country, rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The
+  fabrics are stoutly made and compare favourably with those of
+  Smyrna.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Hereke.</span>&mdash;In the
+  town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish factory,
+  where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+  silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the
+  country about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from
+  Kirman to instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns
+  have been largely copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces,
+  it is not surprising that many of the fabrics compare favourably
+  with the silk rugs of Persia.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Koniehs.</span>&mdash;At the
+  base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of Central
+  Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is all
+  that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+  Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+  Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising
+  the importance of its situation on one of the great highways
+  between east and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields,
+  orchards, and gardens which face a great barren plain,
+  established there a Mussulman capital, that became noted for its
+  opulence and culture. In later years it successfully resisted the
+  assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but subsequently it declined,
+  until now the only remaining vestiges of its former importance
+  are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the famous green
+  tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.</p>
+
+  <p>In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements
+  offered to the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains
+  that produced sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that
+  grew not far to the north lived the kermes, from which were
+  obtained the vermilion dyes famous even through Persia. The
+  political and com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id=
+  "Page_182">182</a></span>mercial importance of the city, as well
+  as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+  Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there,
+  but on account of the remoteness of the city from the markets
+  that supplied Europe, few found their way into channels of
+  trade.</p>
+
+  <p>Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but
+  other kinds are as frequently seen. All of them contain both
+  geometric and floral forms. The geometric forms resemble designs
+  prevalent in Eastern Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as
+  latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and barber-pole stripes; and
+  the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn palm leaves and
+  the tree-of-life design.</p>
+
+  <p>Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the
+  drawing of the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle
+  of the field and rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper
+  end; again it may be exceedingly flat; but generally it has the
+  same pitch as the arches of Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as
+  a rule, are stepped or serrated. Furthermore, it is not unusual
+  to see latch-hooks projecting from each step or serration into
+  the spandrel, which is filled with small floral and geometric
+  forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp; and
+  arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row
+  of conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+  triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These
+  floral or foliate designs are one of the most constant features
+  of this class. The borders are more geometric than those of
+  almost any other Asia Minor rugs, and even when vines are
+  represented they are drawn with stiff formality.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently
+  atoned for by the excellence of the colour scheme, which
+  occasionally rivals that of the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or
+  blues are almost invariably found in the fields, where there is
+  sufficient depth of nap to enhance their richness; and the
+  borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow, green, and
+  white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+  Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable
+  solely for their durability.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of knots are not very
+  firmly pressed down. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool, of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft
+  crosses<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id=
+  "Page_183">183</a></span> twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, from two to
+  five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>,
+  generally a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp fringe.
+  <i>Texture</i>, only moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to
+  six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ladiks.</span>&mdash;On the
+  ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the village
+  of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among the
+  surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in
+  pattern, though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the
+  early prototypes that have been classed among the masterpieces of
+  Asia Minor. Few of these old rugs remain, and they are often
+  badly worn in spots; yet they display tones mellowed by the touch
+  of more than a century, and rival the Ghiordes in beauty of
+  design.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish
+  countries, the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting
+  details of the namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the
+  central fields of many of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped
+  medallions, often three in number, that contain designs of stars
+  or other geometric figures. Between the fields and the borders of
+  the ends are generally spacious panels, on which are represented
+  rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the most permanent
+  characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their origin is
+  uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+  arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity
+  Hoa, the reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also
+  geometric, consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the
+  central contains an angular vine that in different pieces may be
+  very simple or very ornate. One of the central stripes often
+  adopted is represented in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 10
+  (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+  Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms
+  are present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh,
+  mechanical drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their
+  interesting arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a
+  large number of them the central fields occupy about one half the
+  space within the border, the spandrels extend for a considerable
+  distance above the arch, and the panels are larger than in any
+  other prayer rug. Occasionally arches resembling those of the
+  Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184"
+  id="Page_184">184</a></span> are seen; but they are to be
+  regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+  from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest
+  charms. Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many
+  serrations, each side of the arch rises from the border and falls
+  in one large serration, then rises again to form the niche. The
+  arch is often fringed with latch-hooks, and extending above the
+  apex of each serration and the niche are perpendicular devices
+  that may, also, be a development of the latch-hook, since they
+  have not been traced to any other satisfactory origin. But
+  whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of the
+  arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+  constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar
+  to the Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of
+  reciprocally drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems
+  supporting leaves and pomegranates. These are generally five in
+  number, and are so gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it
+  seems surprising that the vandykes, from which they spring, are
+  ornamented with a profusion of latch-hooks. The central fields
+  are sometimes without ornament, but as a rule they contain some
+  suggestions of the tree of life either in the central design or
+  in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders. The latter
+  are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and consist
+  of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+  frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating
+  with rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with
+  conventionalised leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at
+  each side are very angular vines with three-cleft leaves, and in
+  the narrow innermost stripe is generally a ribbon pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich
+  and strongly contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks,
+  like those of the Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of
+  unshaded blue, red, or brown, that are relieved only by the
+  colours of superimposed designs. But as is not the case with
+  Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast between the colours of
+  centre and ends; yet the tones are always in perfect harmony.
+  Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more exquisite
+  finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and in
+  the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+  Ladiks.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p42" id="p42"></a><img src="images/plate42.jpg"
+    width="500" height="787" alt="Plate 42. Chichi Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 42. Chichi
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and blue, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally nine to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, ten to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185"
+  id="Page_185">185</a></span>thirteen. A half knot as it appears
+  at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are pressed down
+  so that the warp is concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool. One of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below
+  the other at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of fine diameter,
+  generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+  two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a red added
+  selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to seven feet. <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kir-Shehrs.</span>&mdash;To the
+  north of the great salt desert and in the southern part of the
+  province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands between
+  two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine fleeces,
+  and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+  suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the
+  surrounding country. On account of the excellence of wool, water,
+  and natural dyes, as well as the remoteness of the town from main
+  highways of travel, many of the old rugs were excellent pieces,
+  free from the taint of Western influences, and possessing the
+  charm of individuality. It was due, moreover, to the fact that
+  its three or four thousand inhabitants, and the Turkomans who
+  roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the influence of
+  larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+  conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large
+  spaces of red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green,
+  for which they had a particular fondness and employed to a
+  greater extent than almost any other weavers; yet in the case of
+  these old pieces the artistic sense is rarely shocked, since the
+  individual colours are good and the tones are harmonious.
+  Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending of floral and
+  geometric forms.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats,
+  others small sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The
+  serrated sides of the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the
+  centres of each side of the rather narrow fields, are formed of
+  several parallel lines of different colour. In a not unusual rug,
+  for instance, eight narrow lines separating the spandrel of
+  grass-green from the inner field of brick-red appeared in the
+  following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender, yellow,
+  red, and blue. The inmost line is fre<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>quently
+  fringed with tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend
+  in a row along the sides of the field. From the niche is usually
+  suspended the design of an inverted tree of life, and above it
+  are projected latch-hooks or similar devices. It is not unusual
+  to see two arches, and there are sometimes as many as four,
+  placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+  continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of
+  the field is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral
+  forms; and the horizontal panel, which may be placed at either
+  end of the field, contains designs in harmony with the remaining
+  parts.</p>
+
+  <p>On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most
+  characteristic features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two
+  of the stripes of a peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow,
+  but three or four of the narrow stripes next to the field are
+  similar in width and ornamentation to those of the Kulah. When
+  contrasted with them the broad central stripe and the outer one
+  seem lacking in harmony, for they are distinctly floral and
+  suggestive of Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs
+  are soft and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others
+  of the Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the
+  presence of grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch.
+  The nap of these old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is
+  of medium length; though in modern pieces it is often longer, and
+  the weft and webs are coloured as are those of Bergamos.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and green, also some blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes.
+  <i>Knots</i> to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly,
+  five to ten. A half knot as it appears at back is as long as, or
+  longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down,
+  so that in places the warp shows. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or
+  occasionally one is slightly depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of
+  medium or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in
+  the same rug. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times
+  between two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. <i>Pile</i>,
+  wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, from five to eight
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+  cords of different colours. <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops.
+  <i>Upper end</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id=
+  "Page_187">187</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Anatolians.</span>&mdash;To all of Asia Minor was once
+  applied the term &ldquo;Anatolia,&rdquo; which signifies the Land
+  of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this country might well
+  be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia might be
+  called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+  Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh,
+  are often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of
+  rugs known as Iranians, so is there a special type known as
+  Anatolians. They are, however, a mixed lot, that come from parts
+  of a wide stretch of territory, extending over the interior
+  table-land to the home of the Kurds, and incorporating ideas
+  received from many districts. It is, accordingly, difficult to
+  define them as a type; but, as a rule, they are small pieces that
+  are often used for mats and pillows, with moderately long nap of
+  soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a colour scheme that
+  inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.</p>
+
+  <p>Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora
+  and Konieh, lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake
+  Tuz Gul. Here can be obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in
+  some of the old pieces appears the artistic drawing of the more
+  important rug centres farther to the west, but with a strange
+  blending of geometric and floral forms. Eight-pointed stars as
+  well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a very old design
+  with the shape of ram&rsquo;s horns is frequently used. In many
+  of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+  the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is
+  the greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which
+  occasionally are their most noticeable feature and again are most
+  insignificant; but in either case they rarely contain more than
+  three stripes, and not infrequently only one. Red, blue, green,
+  and brown are the usual colours, but pink and canary yellow are
+  sometimes used.</p>
+
+  <p>Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus
+  mountains, is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With
+  the exception of wool and dyes they have little to their credit;
+  for their usual unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long
+  uneven nap, and braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in
+  all elegance.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, green, brown, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to
+  inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. A
+  half knot, as it appears at back, is generally as long as wide,
+  or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, yet the
+  warp is frequently concealed<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+  prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse
+  diameter and usually dyed, A thread of weft crosses two, three,
+  and four times between two rows of knots frequently varying in
+  the same piece. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a weft selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, two
+  and one half to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two
+  thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karamans.</span>&mdash;At the
+  foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that stretches
+  northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+  Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the
+  removal of the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the
+  northwest, it was the seat of a Turkish government extending to
+  the Mediterranean Sea; but to-day the only reminder of its early
+  importance are several Saracenic mosques covered with rich
+  arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the early period
+  almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former importance
+  of the city, it is not improbable that they compared favourably
+  with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the other
+  hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+  the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar
+  to many of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown
+  colour, obtained from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to
+  the south of Karaman. The pile is long, the weave is never very
+  firm, and at each end is a coloured web.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sivas.</span>&mdash;In the city
+  of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the villages of
+  the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from time
+  immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+  few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and
+  ends, the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh
+  effect of the strongly contrasting colours of many of them are
+  unlike what are found in the nomadic rugs made farther to the
+  east and west. In the weave is a hint of Persian influence; for
+  not only are both warp and weft of cotton, but the warp is of
+  small diameter and well spun, and one of the two threads to which
+  a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The pattern, on the
+  other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known types
+  consists <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id=
+  "Page_189">189</a></span>of a large hexagon that reaches to the
+  sides and ends, and contains within it a medallion on which are
+  designs similar to those seen in Bergamos. On the white field
+  surrounding the medallion are often small rosettes and floral
+  figures. The corners of the field may be fringed with running
+  latch-hooks or a row of formal T&rsquo;s, and contain a rosette
+  at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+  of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral
+  form. Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of
+  floral and geometric figures, as well as their formality of
+  drawing, which is accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are
+  most suggestive of Occidental conventions.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p43" id="p43"></a><img src="images/plate43.jpg"
+    width="550" height="759" alt="Plate 43. Tcherkess Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 43. Tcherkess
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and white; also dull blue, green, and light yellow. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+  perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+  so that the warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, cotton, well
+  spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads encircled by a
+  knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes doubled
+  under the other. <i>Weft</i>, cotton, of medium diameter. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of short to medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  narrow, one to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, an added selvage of
+  four or five cords attached in places, and with weft encircling
+  inner cord of selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web and loose
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is only
+  slightly coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, three and one half to six
+  and one half feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mudjars.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of Mudjar,
+  which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+  are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a
+  wider range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink,
+  all of which may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug
+  of Asia Minor contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in
+  the broad borders of old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool
+  almost like mosaic work. Many of this class are namazliks with
+  arches very similar to the arches in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which
+  is distant only twenty-five miles to the north; and in the panels
+  above the spandrel are not infrequently designs of vandykes
+  borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of life
+  often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers
+  may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id=
+  "Page_190">190</a></span> extend into it from the sides. Some of
+  the best examples are very handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  yellow, blue, green, and ivory, also mauve and pink. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to twelve. <i>Warp</i>, wool. Each of the
+  two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently equally
+  prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+  other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red
+  or brown. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  broad, of three to four stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a three-cord
+  selvage, frequently red. <i>Both ends</i>, coloured webs and
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>, moderately coarse.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two
+  thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Nigdes.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part of the
+  province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+  this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach
+  Europe. Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by
+  their high geometric arches. The borders often show the influence
+  of the Kurdish tribes, and contain patterns common in the
+  Mesopotamian valley; but their colour scheme of red, blue, and
+  yellow more closely resembles the Anatolian. Most of them are of
+  small size and are poorly woven.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tuzlas.</span>&mdash;Another
+  class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas. They are
+  generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who live
+  about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are
+  well woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns.
+  The prayer arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the
+  arch of the Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not
+  infrequently the borders have rosettes similar to those of
+  Bergamos. The principal colours are red, blue, green, and
+  ivory.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kaisariyeh.</span>&mdash;One of
+  the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of silk textiles
+  is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient C&aelig;sarea, near the
+  eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were
+  made there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both
+  in workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their
+  dyes are aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id=
+  "Page_191">191</a></span> prayer rugs with arches resembling the
+  Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more conventional.
+  Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia Minor
+  pieces are also woven there.</p>
+
+  <p class="center"><i>COLOUR PLATE VII&mdash;LADIK PRAYER
+  RUG</i></p>
+
+  <p><i>The rug here represented conforms in every particular to
+  one of the best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the
+  beautiful border stripe of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and
+  vandykes in the panel below the central field, and the queer
+  designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so peculiar to these rugs.
+  It is interesting to see how the pattern of the innermost stripe,
+  which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and sides, is
+  changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+  eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+  suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed
+  near the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and
+  Rhodian lilies of the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of
+  the &ldquo;evil-eye.&rdquo; Such irregularities, denoting the
+  idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the charm of Oriental
+  rugs.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 556px;">
+    <a name="pvii" id="pvii"></a><img src="images/plate_vii.jpg"
+    width="556" height="819" alt="COLOUR PLATE VII--LADIK PRAYER RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yuruks.</span>&mdash;Suggestive
+  of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of Turkoman
+  descent known as Yuruks. This term means &ldquo;Wanderers;&rdquo;
+  and they are well named, since throughout the western part of
+  Asia Minor they follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the
+  rich pastures among the mountain tops of the interior, where they
+  live in summer, to the fertile, sunny plains bordering the
+  seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna and the slopes of Mt.
+  Olympus may be seen their black goat&rsquo;s-hair tents, where
+  the unexpected guest is always welcome.</p>
+
+  <p>In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives,
+  unaffected by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are
+  different from those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so
+  are these rugs entirely distinct, resembling more than anything
+  else the work of the wild Kazaks of the Caucasus. In them will be
+  recognised the same long nap, the same massing of colour, the
+  same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple designs. The
+  colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and yellows
+  being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+  floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder,
+  blue, green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The
+  patterns show the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may
+  contain crude, unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which
+  are small geometric designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the
+  east may be adopted the pear designs as well as floral forms, but
+  the drawing is always far from realistic.</p>
+
+  <p>Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable
+  dyes, and stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but
+  their patterns show a want of all artistic feeling. Now and then,
+  however, comes to light a piece that has stood the wear of more
+  than a century, showing the touch of a higher craftsmanship, and
+  with colours softened by each succeeding year.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, red, and blue, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. The rows of knots are not
+  closely pressed down, yet the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two
+  threads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id=
+  "Page_192">192</a></span> encircled by a half knot is equally
+  prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter. A thread
+  of weft crosses two, three, or four times between every two rows
+  of knots, varying in the same rug. <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped
+  long. <i>Border</i>, from four to six stripes, occasionally with
+  an outer edging. <i>Sides</i>, generally a heavy double
+  overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three
+  cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a coloured web through which generally
+  runs a parti-coloured cord, and warp loops; or the warp threads
+  may be knotted and hang loose. <i>Upper end</i>, a coloured web
+  through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, a braided
+  selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+  together at short intervals. <i>Texture</i>, loose. <i>Weave</i>
+  at back is of moderately coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four
+  to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <h4>ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but
+  slight relationship to either the geometric patterns of the
+  Caucasian, or the floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule
+  the geometric features either are subordinate or suggest an
+  origin by degradation from floral designs, and the floral
+  features generally are represented by an orderly arrangement of
+  disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with pendent
+  flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by Caucasian
+  weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns. They
+  are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+  interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful
+  colouring and delicate drawing.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Primary Stripes.</i>&mdash;Several different stripes
+  peculiar to Ghiordes prayer rugs are illustrated in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page 192). The
+  first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+  suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves
+  that there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The
+  seed-like processes of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The
+  second, which is found in many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the
+  same pattern more conventionalised, with the rosette resembling
+  an open pod and with the leaves almost octagonal-shaped. The
+  third is a still greater evolution of the same pattern in which
+  leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are placed at
+  three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a very
+  elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a
+  few old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar
+  to those of Kulah rugs (Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12) are
+  sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pg" id="pg"></a><img src="images/plateg.jpg" width="550" height="795" alt="Plate G. Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate G. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id=
+  "Page_193">193</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and
+  sedjadehs is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 6. It is a
+  broad stripe with wide, vine-like bands covered with rows of
+  small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure of the band are
+  designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 7, is represented the most
+  usual and beautiful stripe of the Ladik prayer rugs. The
+  principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and rosettes identical with
+  Persian forms, that are probably conventionalised roses. Another
+  stripe, in which the lily is replaced by a conventionalised vine,
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+  are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in
+  Ladik and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#pg">G</a>, Figs. 9, 10, and 11, each of which shows a
+  conventionalised leaf.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate
+  <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 12. It might in fact be regarded as a
+  number of parallel stripes, but as will be evident by observing a
+  large series of Kulahs it serves the function of a single broad
+  stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a ground of
+  uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+  regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by
+  Ghiordes weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe
+  that appears both in Kulah and Rhodian rugs. As previously
+  explained, its origin is probably floral, though the drawing is
+  geometric. A formal stripe found in Bergamos, and consisting
+  largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 14.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a> illustrate the
+  border stripes of Melez rugs. Each contains regularly spaced
+  rosettes, separated by conventionalised leaf forms. A much more
+  geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes are replaced by
+  eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 17.</p>
+
+  <p>A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some
+  Koniehs is shown in Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 18.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented
+  two stripes characteristic of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty
+  pattern consisting of a row of bushes separated by the lily
+  design. It is occasionally found in the Melez also.</p>
+
+  <p>A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are
+  sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id=
+  "Page_194">194</a></span>divided into small and richly coloured
+  mosaic work is seen in <a href="#pg">Plate G</a>, Fig. 21.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk
+  border stripe such as is frequently seen in modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Secondary and Tertiary Stripes.</i>&mdash;In Plate <a href=
+  "#ph">H</a>, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page 194), are illustrated two
+  secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes and Kulah rugs. The
+  first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the second has
+  doubtless been derived from it.</p>
+
+  <p>A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad
+  band of perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs,
+  is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 3. The arrangement of
+  three leaves in angles of quadrangular spaces suggests
+  relationship to the primary stripe of Plate <a href="#pg">G</a>,
+  Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).</p>
+
+  <p>Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in
+  Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is
+  also found in Kulahs is a vine and flower subject to many
+  modifications.</p>
+
+  <p>A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual
+  in Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very
+  graceful, is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 6.</p>
+
+  <p>Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a
+  secondary stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 7. This resembles
+  a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the pendent leaf is
+  characteristic of Asia Minor.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate <a href="#ph">H</a> represent two
+  tertiary stripes often seen in Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate
+  the evolution of patterns; for in the same stripe of a rug will
+  sometimes be seen the first of these and the simple ribbon
+  pattern of Plate <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158),
+  and also in the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen
+  the second of these and a continuous row of
+  &ldquo;<i>ff</i>&rdquo; designs, as in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>,
+  Fig. 2.</p>
+
+  <p>The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is
+  also seen in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is
+  illustrated in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 10. A somewhat
+  similar stripe is shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 11.
+  The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved
+  from a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in
+  Figs. 4 and 12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="ph" id="ph"></a><img src="images/plateh.jpg" width="550" height="717" alt="Plate H. Secondary and Tertiary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate H. Secondary and
+    Tertiary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate <a href="#ph">H</a> are
+  illustrated the swastika and <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>S stripe, which are seen
+  now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs, and also in
+  Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes,
+  representing processes like cogs projecting in a row from
+  alternating sides of the stripe, is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#ph">H</a>, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and 17 of
+  Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, representing a row of small rosettes
+  and a row of octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The very angular vine shown in Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig.
+  18, is sometimes seen in Koniehs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>,
+  Fig 19), found in a few Anatolians, represents a fret pattern,
+  which was probably copied from some monument.</p>
+
+  <p>The chain pattern (Plate <a href="#ph">H</a>, Fig. 20) is
+  occasionally seen as a tertiary stripe in the Ghiordes. It
+  appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several centuries ago, and has
+  been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes the lines are
+  angular, and again the S&rsquo;s are separated by small round or
+  square dots.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id=
+  "Page_196">196</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">s = silk</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">j = jute</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcasting</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      9-12<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      5-7</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-12<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      8-16<br />
+      8-13<br />
+      5-10<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      10-13<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-9<br />
+      9-15<br />
+      6-9</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [s]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/j</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [s]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [j]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2-4<br />
+      2-6<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2-6<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      4<br />
+      2/[1-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2-4</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      [S]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">ASIA MINOR</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Anatolian<br />
+      Bergamo<br />
+      Ghiordes<br />
+      Karaman<br />
+      Kir-Shehr<br />
+      Konieh<br />
+      Kulah<br />
+      Ladik<br />
+      Meles<br />
+      Rhodian<br />
+      Sivas<br />
+      Youruk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      s<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/[s]<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      l</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">c<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f<br />
+      l</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id=
+  "Page_197">197</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+  <h4>CAUCASIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="A" /></span>SIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is
+  rugged, that during the Middle Ages it was ruled by the
+  illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the physical charms of
+  its women made them favourites in the slave markets of
+  Constantinople, the character and history of that country are
+  to-day almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when
+  the bards of ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and
+  hung the Golden Fleece from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country
+  of wonderful interest. Above its gorges, rivalling those of the
+  Himalayas, rise mountains higher than the Alps. On the
+  southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant vegetation of
+  tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and in
+  meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+  Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil.
+  The river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags
+  are the resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude
+  with bear, wolf, and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here
+  follow his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine
+  climber, botanist, mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the
+  confines of this region are spoken some seventy languages by as
+  many distinct clans, each of remote origin. Some are the
+  descendants of the early dwellers; some are the Aryan stock that
+  found its way to Europe before the beginning of history; still
+  others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam which
+  recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in
+  ancient times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many
+  generations have the present inhabitants remained among their
+  mountain strongholds, unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they
+  have been regarded as a type sufficiently pure and characteristic
+  to give its name to the great Caucasian race.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id=
+  "Page_198">198</a></span>Though enjoying greater isolation than
+  surrounding countries, the Caucasus at different times and in
+  different ways has felt their influences. During the Augustan age
+  of Tamara&rsquo;s rule she attracted by her brilliancy, taste,
+  and industry foreign courtiers and artisans. Hardly was she dead
+  before Genghis Khan&rsquo;s horde of conquering Mongols poured
+  over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her
+  daughter&rsquo;s beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with
+  their Mohammedan armies. For long succeeding years Persia
+  struggled with Turkey for the mastery of the country, and was
+  about to take it when Russia grasped the prize, but only after
+  Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated vast armies.</p>
+
+  <p>Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on
+  the native art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman,
+  Turkish, and Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few
+  small geometric figures, that there is any evidence of the
+  Turkoman influence; but it is not unusual to see border stripes
+  and field designs adopted from the Turkish rugs. Some of these
+  stripes represent both geometric and floral patterns, either
+  copied directly or derived with slight modifications from rugs
+  woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia. The
+  Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It
+  doubtless inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a
+  large number of Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable
+  from Baku rugs, as well as many other figures that first appeared
+  in the rugs of Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct
+  characteristics, which have a boldness and virility that are to
+  be attributed in a measure to grand and rugged scenery as well as
+  to centuries of struggle for independence, since in art the
+  influence of environment is most apparent. They lack something of
+  the sobriety, artistic drawing, and delicate colouring of those
+  woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of fallen empires, and
+  in the gardens of the East; they contain on the other hand, both
+  in line and colour, the forceful expression of untrammelled
+  thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of colour,
+  in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+  strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character
+  that is not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m3" id="m3"></a><a href="images/map3z.jpg">
+    <img src="images/map3.jpg" width="550" height="353" alt="MAP OF CAUCASIA"
+    title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF CAUCASIA</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Daghestans.</span>&mdash;In no
+  part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in Daghestan,
+  &ldquo;the mountain country.&rdquo; Nor is it sur<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>prising
+  that this province should produce distinctive types, when it is
+  considered that it has a length of over two hundred miles; that
+  its topography is diversified by glaciated mountains, barren
+  steppes, and fertile valleys; and that it is occupied by numerous
+  clans, many of whom differ in origin as well as religion. Some of
+  the rugs come from the city of Derbend on the Caspian Sea; some
+  come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others, called
+  Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+  by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other
+  parts of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent
+  in large numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became
+  known as Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it
+  is often difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which
+  acquired the trade name of Daghestans are different from almost
+  all other Caucasian pieces. This is largely because the province
+  is bounded on three sides by a sea and a nearly impassable
+  mountain range, which render communication with surrounding
+  territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where in the
+  course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+  Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+  introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces
+  spurious colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption
+  of new designs, so that the patterns of two or three centuries
+  ago are still largely used.</p>
+
+  <p>It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are
+  found many of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The
+  dark, rich reds and blues of the fields, which are brightened by
+  the ivory, light blue, green, and yellow of the small designs,
+  resemble the fine colouring of choice Persian carpets. But the
+  patterns are totally dissimilar; for it is only in a few rare old
+  pieces, in which are copied some designs such as the lotus, or
+  the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any likeness to
+  the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.</p>
+
+  <p>The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the
+  short nap and strongly contrasting colours always appears with
+  clear definition. With the exception of conventionalised pears,
+  the three-leaf sprig, which is commonly seen in the field, and
+  the narrow border stripes of carnations, almost all of the
+  figures are geometric; and are so carefully drawn, so closely
+  clustered, that they represent an appearance frequently compared
+  to mosaic work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id=
+  "Page_200">200</a></span> Even when the patterns represent large
+  medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or
+  are divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or
+  tessellated figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form
+  or other the latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of
+  small designs, the octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and
+  animals, human beings, and the pear are not infrequently
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan,
+  namazliks as well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception
+  of the unobtrusive arch of the namazlik, which is represented in
+  Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61), there is little difference between
+  them. There is never any panel as in Asia Minor rugs; nor is
+  there a noticeable spandrel, since the space above the arch
+  contains designs similar to those on the rest of the field.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes
+  separated by coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are
+  any floral forms employed; and these, with the exception of the
+  carnation design, are rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most
+  characteristic as an outer stripe; the serrated line is also
+  employed; and it is not unusual to find next to the field a broad
+  stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are small dotted
+  lines.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A half knot, as it
+  appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The
+  rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+  alignment is even and the warp shows at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool;
+  each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+  at the back; occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly
+  depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a selvage of two, three, or four cords, or
+  occasionally a weft-overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row
+  of knots or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is
+  also a narrow braided selvage. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five
+  to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p44" id="p44"></a><img src="images/plate44.jpg"
+    width="550" height="803" alt="Plate 44. Baku Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 44. Baku
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kabistans.</span>&mdash;Within
+  recent years most of the rugs shipped from the southern part of
+  Daghestan have become known in Western <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>markets
+  as Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type
+  that takes the name of the province is so slight that it is
+  determinable only by the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans
+  are merely a variety of Daghestans. Both have short nap and
+  occasionally adopt the same colour scheme and patterns, so that
+  many of each class are indistinguishable from one another.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of
+  difference between the best types, which are largely attributable
+  to geographic environment. As the only easy access to this
+  province from the south is by the shore of the Caspian, where the
+  great mountain wall that forms an almost impassable barrier
+  between Northern and Southern Caucasia descends to the plain, the
+  district adjacent to this entrance on the line of travel would
+  naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while the remote and
+  more inaccessible parts of the province would be unaffected.
+  Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and it is
+  not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+  so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear
+  designs, like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the
+  rich tones, that are usually more subdued than those of the
+  Daghestans, suggest the finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is
+  also a slight difference in weave. Both display the two threads
+  of warp encircled by each knot with equal prominence at the back;
+  but in the Daghestans the alignment of the two halves of the
+  knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular; while in the
+  Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of the
+  length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+  adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans
+  is of cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of
+  Daghestans, which is of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be
+  either overcast or have a selvage at the sides, but the
+  Daghestans have almost always a narrow selvage. Among the modern
+  pieces there is a tendency for both classes to follow the side
+  finish of the Shirvans.</p>
+
+  <p>A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes
+  repeated in Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced
+  in regular order white bracket-like designs, in which the
+  perpendicular arms are usually connected (Plate <a href=
+  "#po">O</a>, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+  unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to
+  the rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are
+  considered, the thought is at once suggested that in them is
+  reproduced after a long process of slow change a
+  conven<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id=
+  "Page_202">202</a></span>tionalised form of the Herati design.
+  Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+  fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+  ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+  represented in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 19 (opp. Page
+  228). Old pieces of this pattern, which are now growing rare,
+  represent in weave, colour, and design the masterpieces of
+  Caucasian textile art.</p>
+
+  <p>Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small
+  geometric figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so
+  that those of similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the
+  entire field may be covered with rectangular pears like those of
+  Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks are often seen with fields of dark
+  colour, at each end of which are large geometric figures
+  symmetrically balanced with reference to the centre. But they are
+  so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into smaller
+  devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+  they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  also some red, ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes.
+  <i>Knots</i> to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+  knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even
+  than in Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool or cotton, of medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots and occasionally three times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of
+  medium length. <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft
+  selvage; occasionally a double overcasting or selvage. <i>Lower
+  end</i>, a narrow web, not infrequently a fine braided selvage
+  and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a narrow web, occasionally a
+  fine braided selvage and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately
+  firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of medium grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p45" id="p45"></a><img src="images/plate45.jpg"
+    width="550" height="793" alt="Plate 45. Shirvan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 45. Shirvan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kubas.</span>&mdash;Not far
+  from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan, in a
+  plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+  small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort,
+  about which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently
+  important to be the residence of a Khan. For a long <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>period
+  previous to the treaty of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the
+  Persians had been predominant in this part of the country; and it
+  is not improbable that some of the oldest Kuba rugs now existing
+  are the work of their weavers. Many, on the other hand, have few
+  foreign characteristics either of weave or design, and show a
+  relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who inhabit an
+  adjoining district in Shirvan.</p>
+
+  <p>In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate
+  treatment than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of
+  undoubted Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or
+  medallion, with graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue
+  and sable brown, streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the
+  medallion is a lavish display of large flowers <i>en masse</i>,
+  and not detached from one another or arranged in set form, as is
+  the case with most floral patterns. In each corner is a rose with
+  spreading petals that equals the largest seen in nature, and with
+  colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or Marechal Niel.
+  Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some well-known
+  Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that has
+  been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as
+  to resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of
+  some early Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and
+  artistic elegance by any other Caucasian rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the
+  native art. The field of some is occupied by large, irregular,
+  octagonal-shaped figures defined by serrated edges and subdivided
+  by mosaic work, at the centre of which is some well-known design.
+  One of the most pleasing patterns consists of a field on which
+  with mathematical precision are placed large effulgent stars. At
+  their centre is often a much smaller star enclosed by a diamond
+  from which extend broad rays directed towards the eight principal
+  points of the compass. When softened by time the different
+  shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the enveloping
+  rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a dark
+  blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour,
+  consisting principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow,
+  to which the soft, velvety character of the wool of the best
+  examples gives a quality of richness that is distinctive. The
+  finish of their sides and ends, which is usually similar to that
+  of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that they are frequently
+  mistaken for one another, and can<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> only be distinguished by
+  a difference of pattern and a slight difference of weave.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and brown, occasionally some green. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes.
+  Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+  thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  almost hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, fine wool; the two threads
+  encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, one to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a blue
+  double selvage of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow
+  blue web of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, a knotted selvage
+  or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  slightly loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one
+  half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Derbends.</span>&mdash;Near the
+  great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea, where
+  mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+  of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as
+  Albana, and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century
+  &ldquo;Derbend,&rdquo; which in their language signifies a
+  gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been visited by more
+  foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when entering Europe;
+  Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century; Russians and
+  Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an easy
+  approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+  therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+  artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due,
+  perhaps, to the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over
+  two centuries no longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are
+  very scarce; whilst the modern pieces are derived largely from
+  the mountainous districts that find a market in the city.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece
+  that reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of
+  such a one may be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those
+  seen in many of the Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a
+  checkered or lattice-work pattern that contains within the
+  diamonds geometric or semi-floral mosaic designs. Surrounding
+  this field are three or four stripes, of which the outer has a
+  reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of moderate length.
+  At the back of these older rugs <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>is sometimes displayed
+  finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed closely
+  together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+  threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for
+  both warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs
+  woven much farther to the south.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p46" id="p46"></a><img src="images/plate46.jpg"
+    width="550" height="633" alt="Plate 46. Soumak Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 46. Soumak
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern
+  products are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving;
+  for those that are ordinarily found in the market are like poor
+  imitations of inferior Daghestans. They are of slightly larger
+  size, and have longer nap, looser weave, and cruder colours.
+  Moreover, they show evidences of Turkoman influences; for not
+  infrequently the warp is of brown goat&rsquo;s hair, and at each
+  end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in the rugs of
+  Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian. Still
+  other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+  tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures
+  which, fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of
+  red, blue, or green, are often placed in simple array on a field
+  of strongly contrasting colour. There is nothing, however,
+  offensive in the colour scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are
+  used. With wear the nap of many of them acquires the soft and
+  pleasing effect of Beluchistans. Furthermore, they are both
+  flexible and durable, though entirely lacking in artistic
+  qualities.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve. Each half knot is about as
+  long as wide, and occasionally longer. The rows of knots are
+  generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+  threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a
+  thread of weft of medium diameter crosses twice between every two
+  rows of knots; not infrequently it crosses both twice and three
+  times in the same piece; rarely a thread of coarse diameter
+  crosses only once. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of
+  two or three cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. <i>Both
+  ends</i> have a web, frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to seven feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id=
+  "Page_206">206</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Lesghians.</span>&mdash;On the northern flank of the high
+  mountain ranges that extend eastward from Kazbek into the
+  province of Daghestan, live the numerous tribes classed as
+  Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages would indicate
+  unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of life, and
+  struggle for liberty have established between all of them strong
+  bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+  Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots,
+  beneath the snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce
+  flowing torrents, where on occasions they have converted their
+  homes into almost impregnable fortresses. These are the people
+  who united with the Circassians in the long-continued struggle
+  against the Russian Empire, and followed Shamyl to repeated
+  victory among the mountain defiles.</p>
+
+  <p>It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people
+  would partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in
+  the sunny atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of
+  Meshed, or among the peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact,
+  is the case, since both patterns and colouring display extreme
+  simplicity, as well as strength and beauty. Large numbers of
+  these rugs are of moderate size and slightly oblong; and are
+  flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of fine brown wool;
+  and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs excepting
+  the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot
+  is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+  the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but
+  the selvage of the sides shows relationship to the
+  Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of
+  rugs woven south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields
+  contain unrelated designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks,
+  the octagonal disc, eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders
+  usually consist of two or three stripes, on which is some
+  geometric pattern. The colours are few and characteristic. Blue
+  and yellow are generally present, and frequently red and brown.
+  On the whole, these pieces have an interesting individuality
+  unlike that of any other rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, blue, yellow,
+  red, brown, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The
+  rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is almost
+  hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, brown wool;<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span> one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+  at back, or doubled under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  usually three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, an added selvage, which is
+  generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two, three, or four
+  cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and a warp
+  fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+  <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of slightly coarse
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, five to eight feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Chichis.</span>&mdash;On the
+  lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the valley of
+  the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of pieces
+  so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+  stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the
+  hardy Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little
+  relationship to the work of the latter or of any other tribes to
+  the north of the mountain chain; but resemble more closely the
+  work of the Shirvans in the valley of the Kur, so that not
+  infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their general
+  character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+  keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony.
+  All floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs
+  have a delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which
+  every jarring note is eliminated.</p>
+
+  <p>Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different
+  patterns. On the field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array
+  of small devices surrounding two or three large geometric
+  figures; or again the field may be covered with pear designs
+  arranged in regular order; but most of the rugs now seen follow a
+  common type. In this the field resembles a floor inlaid with
+  beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of various
+  hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+  eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes
+  are outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They
+  are invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the
+  rugs, and this horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by
+  inserting between each row narrow bands composed of
+  conventionalised leaves. The colours of these small designs are
+  generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and appear more
+  pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light blue.
+  Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who
+  lead their flocks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id=
+  "Page_208">208</a></span> regularly from the green pastures of
+  the ridges to the valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated
+  devices such as combs and S forms, which they weave in the field.
+  But they usually arrange them so as to harmonise with the main
+  pattern, or else place them near the sides and ends, which are
+  almost invariably fringed with either a serrated line or a row of
+  reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the field.
+  This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+  edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen
+  in very few other classes.</p>
+
+  <p>Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes,
+  are as wide as the central field, with which they harmonise both
+  in colour and design. There is something chaste in the simplicity
+  of the geometric figures of the secondary stripes and of the
+  conventionalised floral drawing of the main stripe. The latter,
+  as represented in the type generally seen (Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of about
+  eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+  breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars
+  diagonal to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely
+  geometric were it not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring
+  from opposite sides of the rosettes. Of the secondary stripes,
+  the outer almost invariably has the reciprocal trefoil, and one
+  has frequently a continuous line of eight-pointed stars. The arch
+  of the prayer rugs is similar to that of Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  ivory, blue, and red, with minor quantities of green and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten;
+  perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are not
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a double
+  overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two or three
+  cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row of knots or more, and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of medium grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to six and one half feet. <i>Usual width</i>, five eighths to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p47" id="p47"></a><img src="images/plate47.jpg"
+    width="550" height="724" alt="Plate 47. Kazak Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 47. Kazak Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tcherkess.</span>&mdash;The
+  narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that reaches from
+  the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea for a
+  distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span>people
+  known to the western world as Circassians. In their own land they
+  are called &ldquo;Tcherkesses,&rdquo; a Tartar term for
+  &ldquo;cutter of roads&rdquo; or highwaymen; and they have been
+  in the habit of speaking of themselves as &ldquo;Adighies&rdquo;
+  or Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race,
+  even though their homes were often log huts and their daughters
+  were sold in the markets of Constantinople. These are the people,
+  who half a century ago finally yielded after a long, fierce
+  struggle for independence; but a hundred thousand families,
+  preferring exile to submission to the Czar, migrated to Armenia
+  and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other races, and are
+  rapidly losing their identity.</p>
+
+  <p>Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven
+  by those who left their country. The best were made before the
+  exodus; and on account of the hardships and poverty of the
+  people, many that have come to the market within recent years are
+  greatly inferior to the excellent pieces of former times and are
+  often mistaken for the work of nomadic tribes. Not only so, but
+  crude and foreign devices have crept into some of them. It is,
+  therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a better
+  understanding of this class.</p>
+
+  <p>Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with
+  men and nature found expression in the fabrics, which show
+  firmness of texture, boldness of design, richness of colour. In
+  fact they resemble the Kazaks so closely in their long nap, and
+  finish of sides and ends that they are constantly mistaken for
+  them; yet they may be distinguished from all classes by the large
+  amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field and their
+  stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+  figures sometimes called &ldquo;sun-bursts,&rdquo; that are often
+  regarded as crude copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there
+  is little doubt that they have been derived from the medallions
+  of some old Armenian rugs of the XIV and XV Centuries, in which
+  also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so common in both this
+  class and the Soumaks. These patterns are sufficiently large to
+  occupy the full breadth of the field; and there are seldom less
+  than two and occasionally as many as four or five extending from
+  one end to the other. The strong contrast between the blue and
+  ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground is
+  softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+  richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one
+  almost invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by
+  guards with the serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old
+  pieces are ex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id=
+  "Page_210">210</a></span>cellently woven and have a dignity of
+  pattern and wealth of harmonious colour rarely seen in nomadic
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red
+  and tawny yellow, with minor quantities of blue and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by
+  a knot is equally prominent at back, occasionally one is
+  depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft usually crosses only twice between every two
+  rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as four or six times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a two-cord double selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, as a
+  rule have a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp
+  fringe; occasionally either web or selvage may be omitted.
+  <i>Texture</i>, very firm. Weave at back of medium grain.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, five to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one
+  half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bakus.</span>&mdash;No other
+  rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour and design
+  than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that the
+  district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+  consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the
+  great mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at
+  its base the narrow strip of land now famous for its immense
+  accumulations of mineral oil. Hither, during the past, the
+  followers of Zoroaster have come from all directions to worship
+  in the temple of the Guebres, where day and night the priests
+  watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the ground, and
+  once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of fire.
+  This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+  Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the
+  influences of different religions and different races have been
+  felt here.</p>
+
+  <p>The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their
+  dull colours, that give the impression of being partly bleached
+  or having faded. There are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale
+  ocherous yellow, and black, as well as light, medium, and dark
+  brown colours of natural wool; but in the rugs woven a century
+  ago the colours were much richer. None of them are used in large
+  masses excepting for the underground; nor are there striking
+  contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE VIII&mdash;SOUMAK RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this
+  interesting Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more
+  years ago, not only are unusual but belong to a higher type than
+  is often seen. Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are
+  flowering bushes, that for the most part are blue and pink, but
+  at one end are green, yellow, and brown. The accurate drawing of
+  these bushes and of the reciprocal trefoils of the guard stripes,
+  the care with which the stitches have been inserted, and the fine
+  texture of the wool, as is shown even in the cream-white warp at
+  the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent quality of this
+  rare piece.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="pviii" id="pviii"></a>
+    <img src="images/plate_viii.jpg" width="500" height="873" alt="COLOUR PLATE VIII--SOUMAK RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id=
+  "Page_211">211</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>An equally important characteristic is the large number of
+  pear designs, which are unlike those of any other rug. These
+  designs (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 6b, Page 291) are so
+  rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to floral
+  drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+  field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+  hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes,
+  also, they appear in the border between an array of other
+  designs, to which they show no relation; but they never
+  constitute the sole feature of the rug as they do in
+  Sarabends.</p>
+
+  <p>At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design
+  surrounded by a large diamond or other figure fringed with
+  radiating lines. These lines suggest the effulgence of light; and
+  it is not improbable that their origin lay in the mysticism of
+  fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners are set off by quadrants
+  of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are serrated and
+  frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+  medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+  eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S
+  designs, crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric
+  devices like those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more
+  noticeable than any of these are the realistic but mechanically
+  drawn birds, which are represented in larger numbers and more
+  frequently than in any other rugs woven within the last
+  century.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one
+  at least is always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some
+  suggestion of floral form. Often it is only the carnation in
+  profile; but now and then it is a running vine with leaf or
+  flower, adopted without modification from Persian rugs. This is
+  not, however, surprising, when it is remembered that during the
+  reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for centuries
+  had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+  made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and
+  their characteristic colours and designs. They are always
+  interesting on account of their marked individuality and the
+  still unsolved symbols of Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain;
+  but in spite of the careful delineation of the design and the
+  delicate mosaic effect of the central medallions, very few,
+  excepting the old pieces, are handsome.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally
+  brown, tan, blue, yellow, and black. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots
+  to inch horizontally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id=
+  "Page_212">212</a></span> six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+  eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the
+  warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at
+  back, occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, usually cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter.
+  A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a weft overcasting or a narrow weft
+  selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one row of knots or more, and a
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to
+  nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shirvans.</span>&mdash;Between
+  the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship easily
+  accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+  that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races
+  among whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was
+  through Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from
+  the same sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more
+  completely under the sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily
+  to the influence of the Persian weavers, as is observable in the
+  flower and foliate forms which are used more frequently and are
+  drawn more realistically in its rugs than in those of Daghestan.
+  On the other hand, the technique of weave as well as finish of
+  sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the refinement
+  observable in the Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In
+  them the foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any
+  other Caucasian rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised
+  by formal treatment. Sometimes they appear as large figures
+  covering a great part of the field and acting as sub-patterns for
+  superimposed smaller devices; but they are most frequently found
+  in the borders. Other old pieces contain lattice-work of
+  hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be designs
+  abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+  Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the
+  fields of most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions,
+  stars, and diamonds similar to those of Daghestans, although the
+  drawing inclines to greater simplicity of outline and detail; and
+  they have greater diversity of colour, as tones of blue, red,
+  green, and brown in a field of ivory are not unusual.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="p48" id="p48"></a><img src="images/plate48.jpg"
+    width="400" height="827" alt="Plate 48. Kazak Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 48. Kazak
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id=
+  "Page_213">213</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted
+  into a mere mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all
+  artistic spirit. Some of them resemble those found in both
+  Daghestans and Kabistans, but generally the designs are drawn
+  less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly because, as a rule, they
+  are not so closely woven and the nap is not quite so short. Now
+  and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks are seen; and
+  not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal parallel
+  stripes on which are small geometric devices.</p>
+
+  <p>There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that
+  rarely, if ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat
+  the appearance of pole medallions and consists of a panel that
+  occupies nearly the whole field and contains broad incisions at
+  each side, which nearly divide it into three or four rectangular
+  sections. Within each of them are octagonal figures, and an
+  octagonal shape is given to both ends of the panel so as to leave
+  small corners to the field. Each part often contains small
+  designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+  eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and
+  other animal or human forms. With slight modifications this
+  pattern is sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate <a href=
+  "#pc">C</a>, Fig. 11, Page 61), but the section at one end is
+  more completely an octagon, and the remainder is an oblong
+  rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the same form
+  of arch that is common in Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of
+  drawing is amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of
+  some of their borders, which have a well balanced harmony of
+  colours. They have seldom less than three, nor more than five
+  stripes, of which the secondary are often as interesting as the
+  primary. The best known is the one with serrated leaf and wine
+  glass, represented in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp.
+  Page 226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans
+  that it is almost typical of them. If the figures of the field
+  contain latch-hooks, they are very apt to be expressed in some
+  form in the primary stripe. Such a one appears in Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian pattern (Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally
+  seen. A very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 8, is only used when the field has a large
+  central panel with a corresponding pattern. Now and then appears
+  a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal row of pear
+  designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs of
+  carna<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id=
+  "Page_214">214</a></span>tions (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig.
+  1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen, but its beauty depends
+  largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and colour scheme. On
+  the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in the
+  selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones
+  are not always so rich or harmonious.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+  seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+  knots are firmly pressed down, so that the transverse warp does
+  not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>,
+  generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a
+  weft selvage of two or three cords or a double selvage,
+  occasionally a double overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one
+  row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly
+  loose. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, four to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to
+  four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Soumaks.</span>&mdash;Seventy
+  miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same distance to
+  the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus begin to
+  descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+  destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the
+  last century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing
+  centre of silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the
+  mountains of Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take
+  thither their rugs, from which its own weavers often borrow
+  patterns. By a corruption of the name of the city, their fabrics
+  are called Soumaks, though they are more popularly known as
+  Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the back, as is
+  the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+  India.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p49" id="p49"></a><img src="images/plate49.jpg"
+    width="550" height="731" alt="Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 49. Karabagh Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of
+  pile that make them so different from all other rugs and place
+  them in a class by themselves; but even apart from these
+  characteristics, they are as distinct a type as any in Caucasia.
+  On the fields of most of them are three or four diamond-shaped
+  medallions, that occupy nearly the full width of the field and
+  extend from one end to the other. Almost without exception they
+  are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal sides to
+  represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from very
+  old Armenian rugs; and it is possible <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>that
+  once the crosses had a religious significance, as it is claimed
+  that the earlier weavers of this type were a Christian sect; but
+  the present weavers are mostly Mohammedans. At the centre of the
+  medallions and in the triangular spaces at the sides are
+  flattened octagons, which are generally ornamented with some
+  star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger patterns and
+  surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs, which
+  as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+  Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more
+  frequently seen in this class than in any other, as for instance,
+  the knot of destiny (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig. 17, Page
+  291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like a bird&rsquo;s claw,
+  which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries ago.
+  Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+  more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom
+  entirely lost.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also some old pieces with a totally different
+  pattern, and with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich
+  harmony of tones. They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral
+  designs. One recently examined had a field of rose red completely
+  covered with diagonal rows of innumerable dainty figures, which
+  were evidently the conventionalised forms of small flower bushes.
+  Not a single other design appeared in the field, yet the richness
+  of colour and chasteness of pattern made it exceedingly
+  beautiful.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to
+  five, are generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow
+  well known Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the
+  running latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has
+  the simple form shown in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 20 (opp.
+  Page 230); but now and then the more elaborate drawing of the
+  Georgian stripe (Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+  228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal
+  trefoil, which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running
+  vine and rosette, such as the one in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a secondary stripe. The
+  primary stripes, on the other hand, although most dissimilar to
+  those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves, that no
+  one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+  the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole
+  device.</p>
+
+  <p>The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which
+  even in the warp displays a silky character. The dyes are
+  faultless, though the colours never acquire a lustre. Red and
+  blue are largely em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id=
+  "Page_216">216</a></span>ployed, but they are partly replaced by
+  brown in the more modern pieces; and in both old and modern is
+  usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other Caucasian
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, brown, some yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, flat stitch.
+  Knots to inch horizontally eight to fourteen; perpendicularly,
+  six to sixteen. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each thread is equally
+  prominent at the back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine or medium
+  diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots in old rugs, and between every second and third row in
+  modern rugs. <i>Border</i>, two to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>,
+  generally a double selvage of several cords, occasionally an
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, narrow web, one or more rows of
+  knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. <i>No nap.</i>
+  <i>Usual length</i>, five and one half to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, one half to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Shemakhas.</span>&mdash;Flatly
+  woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha tribes. Some
+  of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the Caucasus a
+  short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that occasionally
+  surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme the
+  best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as
+  &ldquo;Royal Daghestans;&rdquo; yet they are seldom seen and
+  little known. In fact, they are frequently mistaken for Persian
+  fabrics on account of the subdued richness of their deep reds,
+  blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the patterns which are
+  largely floral.</p>
+
+  <p>Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known
+  Georgian pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the
+  secondary stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also
+  resemble the Soumaks in the coloured woollen selvage of the
+  sides, and in the narrow coloured web of
+  &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave and knotted fringe of the ends.
+  In some, the field is divided by diagonal bars into large
+  diamond-shaped figures containing conventionalised flowers; in
+  others, it is merely a background over which are strewn more
+  realistically drawn floral forms; and in all is expressed an
+  artistic perception of design and colour not frequently found in
+  Caucasian pieces.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+  seven to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of
+  knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  depressed below the other at back.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> <i>Weft</i>, wool, of
+  fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, two to three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a blue selvage
+  of two or three cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow blue web of
+  &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, a knotted selvage or several
+  rows of knots, and short warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly
+  firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately fine grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, four to eight feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to
+  two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tiflis.</span>&mdash;When it is
+  considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the Georgian
+  capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+  in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+  rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+  highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what
+  has been written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained
+  almost no reference to a type peculiar to this city and district.
+  This is undoubtedly due to the fact that within recent years
+  hardly any rugs have been produced there, and that the old pieces
+  are few and but little known.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs
+  which are dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of
+  their moderately long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz
+  or a Meshed; the colour scheme includes a very wide range of
+  bright and positive tones, such as blue, green, rose, and ivory;
+  the weave of delicate and fine threads is as close as that of old
+  Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to determine the
+  type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+  peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft
+  which crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun
+  wool mostly dyed a brown or dull red, and strung with great
+  exactness; and the knots are tied with care. There is also
+  something distinctive in many of the patterns; for however
+  interesting they may be, precision of drawing is often combined
+  with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for instance,
+  may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part may
+  represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars,
+  occupying the full width of the field; and still another part may
+  be entirely occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining
+  these may be other pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as
+  well as mystic symbols and other strange devices. Likewise, many
+  different colours may be placed in close relation, yet the wool
+  is so soft and the tones so delicate that the effect is not
+  harsh. Some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id=
+  "Page_218">218</a></span> sort of tree-form is not unusual; but
+  on the whole, the designs of both field and border are
+  geometric.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue
+  and red, with minor quantities of yellow, green, and brown.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+  perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it appears at back,
+  is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+  thread of weft crosses from three to five times between every two
+  rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, soft wool of medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double
+  overcasting or narrow selvage. <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of
+  moderately fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, six to eleven feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three eighths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kutais.</span>&mdash;Among a
+  large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen a few
+  pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+  capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line
+  both banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses;
+  in the valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow
+  azaleas blossom beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not
+  found in other parts of Caucasia, and it might be expected that
+  the weavings of the people would have a striking individuality of
+  their own; but they are little known as a distinct class. In
+  fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks that they are
+  constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a more
+  oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly
+  woven, less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices.
+  Moreover, as this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks
+  had settled permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not
+  improbable that some of its patterns were copied by them.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p50" id="p50"></a><img src="images/plate50.jpg"
+    width="500" height="846" alt="Plate 50. Gengha Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 50. Gengha
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear
+  designs, which are found in a very large number of the rugs. The
+  extension of the narrower end, instead of being a short, curved
+  hook, is generally more developed, so that it may be as long as
+  the major axis of the pear and frequently stands almost at right
+  angles to it. Also attached to the sides of the pear are
+  rectangular bead-like processes (Plate <a href="#po">O</a>, Fig.
+  6c, Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is di<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>vided
+  into a number of bands parallel with the sides; and through them
+  run vines, from which the pears are suspended. Or the pears may
+  be arranged in regular order on the field without the bands and
+  vines. Sometimes the field is reduced to a very small space by a
+  broad border consisting of a number of stripes, some of which are
+  often of striking patterns. One of them is represented in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+  grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree
+  of life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis
+  rugs, as in each the weft usually crosses several times; it is
+  generally coloured blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of
+  yarn. The wool of the nap is of the same fine quality; but the
+  warp of the Kutais rugs, which is almost invariably of wool,
+  frequently consists of a brown and white thread twisted together;
+  and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the alignment at the
+  back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in Kazaks.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and white, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and
+  black. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to
+  nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven. A half knot, as it appears
+  at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+  slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than in Kazaks.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft
+  usually crosses three times, occasionally only once, and again
+  four or five times. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length or long.
+  <i>Border</i>, three to five stripes. <i>Sides</i>, either a
+  double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or three cords.
+  <i>Both ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back, generally of medium fine
+  grain but occasionally coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, six to twelve
+  feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one third to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kazaks.</span>&mdash;Of the
+  warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along the
+  southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations
+  of Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a
+  few crossed the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake
+  Gotcha and Mt. Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives;
+  but there still lingers the inherited spirit that generations ago
+  won for them the name Kazaks, which denotes<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> to the
+  Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a Marauder. All of
+  these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country come
+  principally from the southern district, where may also be found
+  the fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the
+  native people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most
+  distinct type, to which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They
+  have bright, rich colours, of which a liberal amount of green is
+  almost invariably present, though sparingly used in other
+  Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them in the length of
+  the nap; and no other class has such noticeable patterns of
+  incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+  nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and
+  in their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same
+  relation to other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and
+  Yuruk tribes bear to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and
+  many Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large
+  patterns. Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal
+  panels, which may be entirely plain except for a simple design
+  fringing the edges; or as is more frequently the case, it may be
+  occupied by large, slightly elongated octagons, within which are
+  represented smaller figures. Occupying almost the entire field of
+  other pieces are large patterns like medallions, perfectly
+  balanced with reference to the centre and subdivided into small
+  sections, each of which contains individual motives. A few of
+  this class, also, have the &ldquo;sunburst&rdquo; pattern, so
+  characteristic of the Tcherkess.</p>
+
+  <p>At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal
+  pattern, but contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs
+  characteristic of nomadic weavings; but even these are generally
+  arranged with the idea of symmetrical balance. For instance, at
+  the centre may be a large geometric figure surrounded at equal
+  distances by pairs of smaller and similar figures. Not
+  infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower half, or of the
+  right and left side, shows an almost perfect correspondence,
+  notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most common of
+  these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with latch-hooks,
+  and what are known as the &ldquo;tarantula&rdquo; device. Of the
+  innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are
+  the most common; crude animal and human figures are also
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little
+  distinction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id=
+  "Page_221">221</a></span> between namazliks and sedjadehs. It is
+  small and less graceful than that of Asia Minor pieces, and
+  follows stiff lines in harmony with the general pattern. It is,
+  however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has the shape
+  of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened; but
+  not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow
+  bands that form the arch are extended transversely from each side
+  of the base to the borders; and occasionally they are continued
+  down the sides of the field to form at the bottom a figure
+  similar to the square-shaped arch. Now and then a comb, or small
+  figure of diamond shape, on which to place the bit of sacred
+  earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab; and now and then
+  crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are to be
+  rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.</p>
+
+  <p>However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there
+  more than one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have
+  generally only the reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the
+  barber-pole or dotted lines. The absence of important secondary
+  stripes, however, brings out more prominently the drawing and
+  colouring of the main one. The most common pattern is what is
+  known as the &ldquo;tarantula&rdquo; represented in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the
+  crab pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 7), which was
+  undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug, as
+  the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+  attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is
+  also seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15, which, when represented in
+  bold, rich colours on an ivory field, makes a most effective and
+  beautiful border stripe. Other border stripes frequently employed
+  in these rugs appear in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of
+  other tribes have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they
+  often resemble though they lack their spirit and character. The
+  very modern Kazaks, also, are often of poor quality, but those
+  made two generations or more ago were carefully and stoutly
+  woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of vegetable colours.
+  There is always something interestingly barbaric in their long,
+  almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their bold
+  designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+  collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  green, and yellow, also some blue, white, and brown. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222"
+  id="Page_222">222</a></span> horizontally six to nine;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is hidden at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each
+  of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or
+  brown. A thread of weft generally crosses only twice between
+  every two rows of knots, but occasionally three or four times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, clipped long. <i>Border</i>, three to five
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting attached in
+  figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having
+  from three to five cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a red or brown web
+  and warp loops, or a braided selvage and fringe. <i>Upper
+  end</i>, a red or brown web, occasionally a braided selvage or
+  several rows of knots, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of very coarse grain. <i>Usual
+  length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one third to
+  three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Karabaghs.</span>&mdash;To the
+  southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras, that
+  divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+  signifying &ldquo;Black Vineyard.&rdquo; On account of its
+  geographic position, it has been subject to the Shahs for long
+  periods, during the many struggles between the two countries. It
+  is, moreover, separated from the rug-producing district of
+  Karadagh by the river only; and its southern border is less than
+  eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to which many of
+  its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only natural to
+  expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+  Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+  indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not
+  at all true in the case of a large percentage of the modern
+  products.</p>
+
+  <p>Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and
+  wretchedly dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of
+  them resemble Kazaks in their geometric figures; but differ from
+  them in their workmanship, since one of the two threads encircled
+  by a knot is depressed; they are much more loosely woven; they
+  are not so large; nor for the most part are they so heavy. Other
+  pieces often lack the symbolic and other small designs that
+  render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the central
+  field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+  white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue,
+  on which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript
+  devices.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p51" id="p51"></a><img src="images/plate51.jpg"
+    width="550" height="738" alt="Plate 51. Royal Bokhara Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 51. Royal Bokhara
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven
+  half <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id=
+  "Page_223">223</a></span>a century ago, with less obtrusive
+  colouring and more chaste patterns. Many of the old pieces are
+  oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length almost twice the
+  breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to smaller and
+  nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not always
+  religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+  seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle
+  of the sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble
+  from Mecca, as is shown in Plate <a href="#pc">C</a>, Fig. 12
+  (Page 61). The particular piece from which this was drawn was
+  over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as long.
+  Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+  spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers
+  with long angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish
+  red.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one
+  stripe usually contains a concession to the Persian and another
+  to the Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may
+  be of Iranian character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it
+  may be the well-known crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may
+  be a running vine of simple form.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in
+  artistic finish the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is
+  carefully executed; the colours are rich; the weave is fair; but
+  like the rare old rugs of Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+  horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows
+  of knots are only slightly pressed down, yet the warp is
+  generally concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two
+  threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the other at
+  back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of short or medium length.
+  <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, generally a double
+  selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of different colours;
+  occasionally a double overcasting attached figure-eight fashion.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a web and warp loops, or a braided selvage, one
+  row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a web,
+  a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+  knots or more, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  four to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id=
+  "Page_224">224</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Shushas.</span>&mdash;About seventy miles to the
+  southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha, capital of Karabagh. Nearly
+  two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir Shah on an almost
+  inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern boundary of
+  Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now about
+  twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+  tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras
+  river. In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are
+  frequently imported to this country and sold under several names,
+  yet are of a distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the
+  surrounding country but differ from them in their richer and more
+  subdued colours as well as in the stoutness of weave. One thread
+  of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other, whereas in the
+  rugs of the desert tribes it is only depressed.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  blue, red, and brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are
+  only slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+  under the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, generally
+  dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+  of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three
+  cords, often attached to the sides in figure-eight fashion.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, a narrow web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>,
+  a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is
+  of slightly coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to nine feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Genghas.</span>&mdash;Over the
+  land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in Caucasia,
+  Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+  forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol.
+  During the period when the Persian rule extended over the
+  country, it was the residence of a Khan and an important centre
+  of trade. As it was then known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings
+  of these nomads, which were marketed there, acquired that
+  name.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p52" id="p52"></a><img src="images/plate52.jpg"
+    width="500" height="680" alt="Plate 52. Princess Bokhara Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 52. Princess
+    Bokhara Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas
+  incorporated from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id=
+  "Page_225">225</a></span>than anything else, and are frequently
+  mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions are very marked:
+  they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and they are
+  less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+  crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly
+  pressed down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from
+  four to eight times between two rows of knots, which are not
+  firmly pressed down, so that the narrow filling of weft is
+  sometimes even four times as wide as a row of knots and presents
+  a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme of numerous pieces,
+  which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs, is often a
+  preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic pattern.
+  The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+  Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with
+  latch-hooks and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large
+  central figure surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well
+  as apparently meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human,
+  animal, or floral forms. The borders, likewise, include a wide
+  scope of patterns. It is, therefore, largely by the character of
+  the weave, quality of material, and finish of sides and ends,
+  that these pieces can be distinguished from other nomadic
+  products.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally blue,
+  red, and white, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and
+  brown. <i>Knot</i>, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to
+  eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+  at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots are not firmly
+  pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  generally wool, occasionally goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two
+  threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter and usually dyed red. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots, but
+  generally three and frequently as many as six or eight times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three or four
+  stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+  cords. <i>Lower end</i>, a web, usually coloured red, and warp
+  loops. <i>Upper end</i>, a web to which a braided selvage is
+  often added, and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, very loose.
+  <i>Weave</i> at back is of coarse grain. <i>Usual length</i>,
+  five to nine feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two fifths to two thirds
+  length.</p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have
+  been derived from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are
+  characterised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id=
+  "Page_226">226</a></span> by geometric patterns, which
+  distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible to trace
+  them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+  large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated
+  from leaf and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are
+  symbolic and others are crude copies of familiar objects. The
+  more artistic and realistically drawn floral patterns appear in
+  the less conspicuous secondary stripes; but on the other hand the
+  primary stripes contain a number of unusually interesting
+  patterns, which have been copied for centuries.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Primary
+  Stripes.</span>&mdash;The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) appears so frequently
+  in Shirvans as to be almost typical. It is also occasionally seen
+  in Daghestans and Kabistans; but probably originated in Southern
+  Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found similarly drawn in rugs
+  woven in that district about 1500 <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span> It is a pattern that scarcely varies with time or
+  locality except in the number of serrations to the leaf and in
+  the shape of the cup.</p>
+
+  <p>Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, are sometimes seen in Kazak and other
+  nomadic rugs. It is not improbable that they have a common origin
+  with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>In the stripe represented in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig.
+  4, is a series of wine cup rosettes that are occasionally seen in
+  the old rugs from the Shirvan district. In fact, the wine cup
+  design is a favourite there.</p>
+
+  <p>Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is
+  shown in Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 5. This is an old
+  nomadic pattern not frequently seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Fig. 6 of Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, represents the well-known
+  Chichi border stripe, composed of rosettes separated by
+  diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To the rosettes are attached
+  tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once some Persian vine
+  and flower.</p>
+
+  <p>What is known as the crab pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>,
+  Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as
+  well as in a few very modern Asia Minor pieces. Though its
+  resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is really a rosette to
+  which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that frequently
+  contain smaller designs at their centres.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pi" id="pi"></a><img src="images/platei.jpg" width="550" height="793" alt=
+    "Plate I. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate I. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula
+  pattern (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 8), that was possibly
+  derived from the stripe with an eight-pointed star (Plate
+  <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id=
+  "Page_227">227</a></span>probable that the inspiration is Iranian
+  and that it is intended for rosette and double vine. This stripe
+  is found in Kazaks, Genghas, Tcherkess, and other nomadic
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 9, that is now and then seen in old Tiflis and
+  other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests a geometric rosette
+  and double vine.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 10, is used by the nomadic
+  weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal pattern found in a
+  Caucasian primary stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 11 is once in a while seen in old rugs of the
+  Daghestan country.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a
+  common origin. Both are found in rugs of the Daghestan and
+  Shirvan districts, and the former is occasionally seen in rugs of
+  Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious devices are placed at
+  the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.</p>
+
+  <p>Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pi">I</a>, Fig. 14, which is commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and
+  kilims. It is purely geometric and resembles one used in Western
+  Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from which it may have been
+  derived.</p>
+
+  <p>Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived
+  from much more ornate forms, which may be seen in a XVI Century
+  Asia Minor piece that is in the British Museum. It is now seldom
+  copied, but was once a popular pattern for the Kazak and Kutais
+  weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of
+  Caucasian stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17,
+  18, 19, and 20 of Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, represent patterns
+  found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs. The last one is also
+  occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The patterns shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes
+  sometimes seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.</p>
+
+  <p>A much more interesting stripe because of its well
+  authenticated antiquity, is the one shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is found in rugs made in
+  Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according to Dr. Martin
+  has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the result of
+  copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.<a name=
+  "FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class=
+  "fnanchor">30</a> These stripes are seen in comparatively recent
+  pieces, but principally</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id=
+  "Page_228">228</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the
+  latch-hook is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more
+  probable that originally they were intended for leaves. In a few
+  stripes the design is elongated, and in place of a single
+  crossbar there are several, forming a figure that slightly
+  resembles a poinsetta, which is the term occasionally applied to
+  it by weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 2, which
+  is found in Kazak and other nomadic rugs, is interesting as
+  representing a vine of which the pendant flower is replaced by a
+  T formed by latch-hooks.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, are patterns of
+  stripes found in rugs of the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As
+  they are several centuries old, they may be derived from Armenian
+  patterns, to which they show kinship. Both patterns are at times
+  reversed as the result of copying.<a name="FNanchor_31" id=
+  "FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a>
+  A stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar
+  origin is seen in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 5.</p>
+
+  <p>Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian
+  origin, are the separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular
+  rows, form the &ldquo;churn&rdquo; stripe of Plate <a href=
+  "#pj">J</a>, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+  churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+  Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs
+  with a length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base
+  in the ground. Then hanging a goat&rsquo;s skin filled with milk
+  over each of the sides, and seating themselves in the middle,
+  they turned first one then the other. As might be expected, these
+  stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, represent stripes
+  sometimes seen in Shirvans. The latter is undoubtedly derived
+  from the prayer patterns that are often used in these rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9. It is found in Daghestans,
+  Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas. Though a
+  primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the border,
+  but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+  ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more
+  artistic rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from
+  those of other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate
+  <a href="#pj">J</a>. The last is interesting on account of the
+  leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pj" id="pj"></a><img src="images/platej.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="794" alt=
+    "Plate J. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" title=
+    "Plate J. Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate J. Primary
+    Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id=
+  "Page_229">229</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The stripes seen in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Figs. 13, 14
+  and 15 are found only in nomadic rugs. The last is interesting
+  principally on account of the swastikas.</p>
+
+  <p>And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan
+  classes appear in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 16. It is an
+  archaic pattern copied from a most interesting Daghestan prayer
+  rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 17 is
+  sometimes adopted in rugs of Southern Caucasia, such as the
+  Kutais and Kazak.</p>
+
+  <p>Another very old pattern found in the borders of the
+  Daghestan-Shirvan classes is shown in Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>,
+  Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow tertiary stripes known as
+  &ldquo;barber-poles,&rdquo; it differs from them by being very
+  much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+  red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally
+  contain short, oblong dashes.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs
+  from the districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern
+  of Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 19. It is particularly
+  characteristic of old Daghestans and Kabistans, but must have
+  been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia, as it can be traced
+  through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic characters
+  used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 20 represents a
+  &ldquo;bracket-chain&rdquo; pattern that probably originated in
+  Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+  Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing
+  scorpions, that is very rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22
+  is a stripe representing birds, sometimes seen in Bakus.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Secondary and Tertiary
+  Stripes.</span>&mdash;As the pattern shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers
+  representing carnations, it has been called the &ldquo;carnation
+  pattern.&rdquo; It is very common in Shirvans, Kabistans, and
+  Daghestans.</p>
+
+  <p>Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design
+  like a three-leaf clover, shown in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine with leaf and flower shown in
+  Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately used in place of the
+  carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary stripe. The
+  latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral stripe.
+  It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+  over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian
+  extraction.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id=
+  "Page_230">230</a></span>Another floral pattern from the same
+  district is seen in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 4. It often
+  accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks, with
+  which its stiff drawing harmonises.</p>
+
+  <p>Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in
+  the same classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes
+  represented in Persian stripes that show the influence of nomadic
+  weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the
+  rugs of Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate <a href=
+  "#pk">K</a>, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. All are old patterns. The
+  third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven about 1250
+  <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> The fourth is found in some of
+  the oldest remaining rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back
+  two and a half centuries; and a pattern similar to the last is
+  seen in some Persian carpets made about 1650 <span class=
+  "smcap">a. d.</span></p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes
+  sometimes seen in Chichis and a few other Caucasian rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very
+  attractive on account of its delicate colouring, is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 13, and another is shown in Fig.
+  14. Both are used principally in rugs of Southern Caucasia.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe represented in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig, 15,
+  is found in very old rugs of the Daghestan and Derbend types; and
+  there is a tradition among some of the native weavers that the
+  designs originally represented boat hooks used by the sailors of
+  the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to suppose that the early
+  weavers imitated objects of utility before those of mere
+  ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it is
+  equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+  other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.</p>
+
+  <p>Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which
+  generally appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pf">F</a>, Fig. 17 (opp. Page 158). It is more widely
+  used for a border stripe than any other pattern, as it is found
+  in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of Persian, in Indian,
+  and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in Persian rugs as
+  early as the year 1500.</p>
+
+  <p>The dainty Chain pattern of Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 16
+  has a well authenticated antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor
+  carpets of the XV Century, from which it was probably derived.
+  Without doubt it was a favourite pattern three centuries ago, as
+  it appears in some of the early paintings in which Oriental
+  carpets are represented.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pk" id="pk"></a><img src="images/platek.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="725" alt=
+    "Plate K. Secondary and Tertiary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate K. Secondary and
+    Tertiary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id=
+  "Page_231">231</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to
+  give it a more graceful form.</p>
+
+  <p>As the purely geometric pattern of Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 17 is entirely lacking in ornamental features, it is used
+  principally to separate more important stripes. Occasionally it
+  is found in such rugs as the Chichis and Shirvans.</p>
+
+  <p>Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an
+  inside stripe is seen in Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Fig. 18. This
+  is evidently an archaic form and is found principally in pieces
+  of the Shirvan district.</p>
+
+  <p>The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns
+  (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>, Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less
+  important stripes of not only Caucasian but a number of Persian
+  rugs. The former pattern appears constantly on the monuments of
+  ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some symbolic meaning. The
+  latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and Ph&oelig;nix
+  carpet (Plate <a href="#p20">20</a>, opp. Page 88) which was
+  woven about 1350 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span></p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id=
+  "Page_232">232</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcast</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">s/l</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutais<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      G</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">6-9<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      5-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      7-11<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      8-14<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-10</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">7-11<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      8-15<br />
+      6-12<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-16<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      7-13<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      7-13<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      6-11<br />
+      6-16<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      6-10</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      [e]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [h]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="3">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutals<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2-4/[6-8]<br />
+      [2]/[3]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[3-4]<br />
+      2<br />
+      3/[1-5]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[4-6]<br />
+      3-5</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">O<br />
+      O<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [O]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">K<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CAUCASIAN</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Baku<br />
+      Chichi<br />
+      Daghestan<br />
+      Derbend<br />
+      Gengha<br />
+      Kabistan<br />
+      Karabagh<br />
+      Kasak<br />
+      Kuba<br />
+      Kutals<br />
+      Lesghian<br />
+      Shemakha<br />
+      Shirvan<br />
+      Shousha<br />
+      Soumak<br />
+      Tcherkess<br />
+      Tiflis</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W/[S]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W/S<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      [K]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      T<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br /></td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      l<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      m<br />
+      m</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m/c<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      l<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id=
+  "Page_233">233</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XII</h3>
+
+  <h4>CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE land that extends eastward about fourteen
+  hundred miles from the Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the
+  Chinese Empire, and northward for a similar distance from the
+  Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and Afghanistan to the steppes of
+  Western Siberia, is one of the least civilised parts of the
+  eastern continent. Here until within a few recent years, the
+  people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+  pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian
+  Empire on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet
+  made little impression on their uncultured natures. To these
+  circumstances it is largely due that the rugs termed Central
+  Asiatic, which come from this district, still possess to a large
+  degree the originality of design, virility of character, and
+  beauty of colour that are so rapidly disappearing from the woven
+  products of countries more subject to the influence of Western
+  civilisation.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural
+  sub-groups, which include:</p>
+
+  <p>1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country
+  as Royal and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and
+  Beshires, all of which are made in Turkestan;<a name=
+  "FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class=
+  "fnanchor">32</a> and the Afghan, of which part are made in
+  Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.</p>
+
+  <p>2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id=
+  "Page_234">234</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>are made in Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands
+  made in Eastern Turkestan.</p>
+
+  <p>3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in
+  Beluchistan.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of
+  colour and design than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered
+  that their prevailing tones and their simple, geometric designs
+  are such as would readily be adopted by people with primitive
+  ideas of ornamentation, it seems probable that they have been
+  copied with only slight modification for a great many centuries,
+  even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets were woven during
+  the short period when Samarkand was capital of the East. This is
+  probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the world has
+  been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+  many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of
+  philology, dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had
+  come to dispel the mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand
+  years later it was overrun by Cyrus and added to the dominion of
+  the Medes and Persians. In the V Century <span class="smcap">a.
+  d.</span>, Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following
+  century Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later
+  it was again overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted
+  the vanquished to the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries
+  had rolled away the Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it;
+  and once again it suffered desolation under the iron hand of
+  Tamerlane, &ldquo;Scourge of Asia.&rdquo; But in spite of these
+  waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians, Greeks,
+  and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+  several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+  centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types,
+  however much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap
+  is invariably short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the
+  predominating colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon
+  appears. They are, moreover, the best woven and the most
+  beautiful of the Central Asiatic rugs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="m4" id="m4"></a><a href="images/map4z.jpg"><img src=
+    "images/map4.jpg" width="550" height="351" alt="MAP OF TURKESTAN" title="" /></a>
+
+    <p class="center">MAP OF TURKESTAN</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to
+  the influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of
+  Chinese, they are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble
+  those of the latter. Not improbably this is because Tamerlane had
+  gathered at Samarkand noted artists and artisans from China,
+  whose influence continued long after his death. And as
+  traditional patterns have been transmitted for centuries, there
+  is little doubt that some of the <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>modern rugs, even though
+  falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+  closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In
+  these pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced
+  by an elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs
+  associated with early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to
+  the bright and even gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile
+  fabrics.</p>
+
+  <p>The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the
+  Central Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman
+  rugs than to any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns
+  suggestive of Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends
+  and the heavy goat&rsquo;s hair selvage at the sides peculiar to
+  Afghans and Tekkes. On the other hand, many of the patterns both
+  of field and border resemble Persian workmanship; so that placing
+  these rugs in the same group with the Turkoman and Turko-Chinese
+  rugs, which are not made in an adjoining territory, is slightly
+  arbitrary.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Royal
+  Bokharas.</span>&mdash;The best known district in Turkestan is
+  the Khanate of Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the
+  lofty Pamir mountains in the east to the desolate sandy plains
+  beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus river, on the west. Situated in its
+  northern half and near the centre of a fertile valley is its
+  capital, Bokhara, &ldquo;The Noble.&rdquo; Though noted for its
+  cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+  possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These
+  and its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of
+  those days when the great caravans that came from China, India,
+  Persia, and Russia made it one of the great marts of the
+  East.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of
+  the Kirghiz steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,<a name=
+  "FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class=
+  "fnanchor">33</a> the Afghans who dwell north of the Paropamisus
+  range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the west, came and
+  bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these rugs
+  were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+  camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan,
+  Orenburg, or Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place,
+  the term Bokhara was often applied to each of the different
+  classes. Thus we hear of Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke
+  Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and Khiva Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only
+  are <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id=
+  "Page_236">236</a></span>the best woven, but are made of the
+  finest material; even the warp of many of them is of soft, silky
+  white wool. The old rugs were made in the city and suburbs of
+  Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old and new
+  are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+  one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered
+  hexagon. Of these quarters, which are either plain or contain a
+  small triangle of contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite
+  are always white or cream coloured, and the other pair are of
+  some shade of red. Small triangular figures are invariably seen
+  above and below the hexagons, as well as small diamond, oval, or
+  spear-shaped figures at each end of the major axis. In the other
+  pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and the hexagon is
+  replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which is a
+  diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+  Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs,
+  that careful observation of a large number in many different
+  kinds of rugs shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally
+  placed octagons of both these types are stars or diamond-shaped
+  figures, that are usually of the same design regardless of the
+  shape of the octagon. In large rugs the centres of the octagons
+  are generally joined by straight lines of dark blue colour.</p>
+
+  <p>It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this
+  class of Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old
+  well-woven, velvet-like pieces. A few have small patches of pink
+  or ruby coloured silk; and all have a prevailing tone of red
+  diversified by deep blues and touches of lighter red and ivory,
+  that convey an idea of opulence and dignity worthy of a king.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, with minor quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and
+  the weft is almost hidden. <i>Warp</i>, fine white wool; each of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, fine wool, or
+  occasionally silk, clipped short. <i>Border</i>, three stripes
+  divided by smaller coloured lines. <i>Sides</i>, a blue double
+  overcasting. <i>Both ends</i>, a narrow web and short warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at back is of fine
+  grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four to ten feet. <i>Usual width</i>,
+  three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p53" id="p53"></a><img src="images/plate53.jpg"
+    width="550" height="652" alt=
+    "Plate 53. Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 53. Turkoman Rug
+    with Katchli Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id=
+  "Page_237">237</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Princess
+  Bokharas.</span>&mdash;The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are
+  woven by the Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate
+  of Bokhara. They are nearly square and the field is divided into
+  four equal sections by perpendicular and horizontal bands.
+  Because of this pattern they are called &ldquo;Katchlis,&rdquo; a
+  word derived from the Armenian language signifying &ldquo;like a
+  cross.&rdquo; The bands generally have designs that are
+  co-ordinate with those in part of the border; but not
+  infrequently the designs of the horizontal band differ from those
+  of the perpendicular one, and in a few rare instances consist of
+  an octagonal figure. It is generally believed that the well-known
+  Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field and the border is
+  intended to represent the tree of life, but some native weavers
+  suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+  symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the
+  entrance; the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad
+  diagonal lines with serrated edges in the borders are groves of
+  trees surrounding the mosque. A very large percentage of these
+  pieces are namazliks. One of their peculiarities is the position
+  of their unobtrusive tent-shaped prayer arch, which is in a panel
+  entirely within their upper border.</p>
+
+  <p>Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine
+  quality, the warp is usually of brown instead of cream white
+  wool, and the weave is coarser. Also, the tones of colour are
+  more sombre, and of browner shades; but in rare old pieces the
+  rich mahogany and bronze hues of the ground, on which are
+  represented small designs in shades of cream and dark blue, are
+  exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within recent years
+  large numbers of this class have been made solely for commercial
+  purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red or brown, with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally eight to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The rows of knots are
+  firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and
+  the weft partly hidden. <i>Warp</i>, brown wool or goat&rsquo;s
+  hair; each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of fine diameter. A
+  thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool of short or medium length; occasionally some
+  goat&rsquo;s hair is used. <i>Border</i>, three stripes,
+  separated by narrow lines. <i>Sides</i>, a double overcasting or
+  a double goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of three cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a web and warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>,
+  stout.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id=
+  "Page_238">238</a></span> <i>Weave</i> at back is of moderately
+  fine grain. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to six feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Tekkes.</span>&mdash;A little
+  over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+  Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost
+  unknown tribe called the &ldquo;Tekke,&rdquo; a term which is
+  said to denote a mountain goat, and was applied on account of the
+  headlong pace at which the men rode over rough mountain sides.
+  About the beginning of the XVIII Century they packed their
+  <i>khibitkas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_34" id=
+  "FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a>
+  and after moving southward to escape from the attacks of a more
+  powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the southwestern corner of
+  Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further eastward they
+  snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds, whose
+  ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+  protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating
+  and cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+  population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred
+  thousand. One fourth of them then moved eastward; and after
+  settling on the banks of the Tajand, not far from the Persian
+  town of Saraks, they attacked the inhabitants of Merv and
+  captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful people, they
+  occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+  Daria.</p>
+
+  <p>Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on
+  whom to fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid,
+  hundreds or even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous
+  prepared to blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the
+  passes that looked down into the fertile valleys of Northern
+  Persia. Stealthily creeping through them they would fall
+  unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash away with young
+  women and children. If pursued, they would stab their captives,
+  and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+  flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the
+  deserts and carry away both camels and wares.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p54" id="p54"></a><img src="images/plate54.jpg"
+    width="550" height="685" alt=
+    "Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical Pinde Pattern"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 54. Turkoman Prayer
+    Rug, which according to A. Bogolubow has the Typical
+    Pind&eacute; Pattern</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the
+  Russians, who had been steadily advancing on the land lying
+  between the Caspian and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the
+  Tekkes harassed. At length in January, 1881, came the final death
+  struggle in the memorable attack on the fortress of Geok Teppe,
+  where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and seven thousand women
+  and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id=
+  "Page_239">239</a></span>children had taken refuge. With the fall
+  of that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the
+  power of the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose
+  ancestors for countless centuries had roamed the desert,
+  recognising no master, yielded finally to the advance of
+  civilisation.</p>
+
+  <p>These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs
+  generally known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with
+  excellent weave and sterling dyes can still be found. As few of
+  them were designed for mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to
+  find pieces over one hundred years old, and even these are rare.
+  Indeed, any that are now forty years old should possess great
+  interest, as they were woven at a time when the Tekkes were still
+  a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The prayer
+  arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+  panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not
+  infrequently there are three arches in the same horizontal panel,
+  which, as a rule, is above the field, but occasionally below it.
+  In a great many of these rugs the three-leaf clover is found in
+  some part of the field; and in the band of pile that extends
+  beyond the border at one end are usually small conventionalised
+  bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost
+  invariably in the outer stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if
+  the very spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground
+  colours are brightened by lighter tones that give an effect of
+  strange yet not inharmonious beauty. A few would seem to speak of
+  the early Zoroastrian faith, for in their fields are designs like
+  stars with effulgent rays that suggest the burning altars of fire
+  worshippers.</p>
+
+  <p>The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose
+  for which it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made
+  for doors of the khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with
+  the web turned back and hemmed, and at each corner a heavy
+  braided cord of about two feet in length, by which they were
+  suspended. Other pieces have webs at both ends. Many beautiful
+  pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those intended for
+  camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing large
+  octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+  Royal Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which
+  they resemble, by their goat&rsquo;s hair selvage at the sides,
+  by one thread of warp to each knot being slightly depressed at
+  the back, and by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id=
+  "Page_240">240</a></span> their coarser character. There is,
+  however, a great similarity in the colours, though in the Tekkes
+  tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, brown, or plum, with minor quantities of dark blue and
+  ivory. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to
+  twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen. The rows of knots are
+  slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; one of the two threads encircled by a
+  knot is depressed below the other at back. <i>Weft</i>, wool of
+  fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+  every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, or occasionally
+  goat&rsquo;s hair of short or medium length. <i>Border</i>, three
+  stripes, separated by coloured lines. <i>Sides</i>, a three-cord
+  double goat&rsquo;s hair selvage. <i>Lower end</i>, a wide
+  coloured web and long warp fringe. <i>Upper end</i>, a braided
+  selvage turned back and hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured
+  web and long warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back of moderately fine grain. <i>Length</i>, five to eight feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, three fifths to four fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Khivas.</span>&mdash;On the
+  west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two hundred miles
+  above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva. Most of
+  the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad&rsquo;s
+  life or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by
+  innumerable canals, crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as
+  melons, peaches, and pomegranates. A large population, also,
+  inhabits the city of Khiva, which before the building of the
+  Siberian railway, was on one of the direct highways between east
+  and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand camels regularly passed
+  through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to Astrakan in
+  fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as well
+  as its own rugs and manufactured articles.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE IX&mdash;SAMARKAND RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Although this rug is an excellent example of that class
+  generally known as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand.
+  Undoubtedly it was woven in some part of Turkestan that lies
+  between these two cities; yet with the exception of the
+  eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and lower
+  medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese
+  ornamentation. Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of
+  rich deep blue, are six conventionalised butterflies, and near
+  them are four clusters of pomegranates. At each end of the field
+  are designs that suggest the tree of life, which under different
+  forms appears so persistently in the woven fabrics of the East.
+  The delicate drawing of these motives is accentuated by the
+  formal character of the four corners and by the broad border of
+  well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+  colour is combined with unsolved symbolism.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pix" id="pix"></a><img src="images/plate_ix.jpg"
+    width="550" height="881" alt=
+    "COLOUR PLATE IX--SAMARKAND RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and
+  Bokhara tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in
+  patterns and colours; yet they contain important differences.
+  Those made by the Khiva tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect
+  of constant struggles against the rigours of the desert and the
+  fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the north. The wool is also
+  coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer to the inch.
+  Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive of
+  Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+  that separate each row of <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>knots, are noticeable at
+  the back, whereas in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly
+  perceptible.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the
+  following description of an antique goat&rsquo;s hair carpet from
+  Khiva by Dr. Birdwood.<a name="FNanchor_35" id=
+  "FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>
+  &ldquo;The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+  scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each
+  lozenge being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends
+  terminate in a fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich
+  lustrous carpets are made entirely by the nomad women about
+  Khiva, the head worker tracing out the design in the desert sand
+  and handing out to her companions the dyed materials of different
+  colours as required in the progress of weaving.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red, with minor quantities of blue and ivory. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+  perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of knots are but
+  slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back.
+  <i>Weft</i>, wool of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft
+  crosses twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool
+  of medium length. <i>Border</i>, generally three stripes.
+  <i>Sides</i>, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is
+  generally of goat&rsquo;s hair. <i>Both ends</i>, a web, one or
+  more rows of knots and a warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout.
+  <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half to six feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, three fifths to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yomuds.</span>&mdash;When, in
+  1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their homes in
+  the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+  fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about
+  one hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of
+  the dreary sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the
+  terrible heat of summer, they wander with their sheep and goats
+  from place to place in search of more favoured spots. Sometimes
+  their khibitkas are seen along the border of the Caspian Sea as
+  far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the sandy trackless
+  wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of
+  colour. The prevailing tone of the field is usually red or
+  maroon, but is sometimes rose, plum, or dark brown; and the
+  remaining shades <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id=
+  "Page_242">242</a></span>correspond with the blue, green, brown,
+  and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the ivory ground of
+  the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour than the
+  field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre that
+  is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.</p>
+
+  <p>There are several distinct types, of which only one is
+  well-known. Its pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser
+  designs show that there has been frequent intercourse with the
+  weavers of Caucasia. Covering the field of these pieces are
+  regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that suggest those of the
+  Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been developed to the
+  almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the latter appears
+  much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In the
+  border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and
+  a geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are
+  usually red and striped, are broad and have a fringe of
+  goat&rsquo;s hair, sometimes braided into ropelike tassels, but
+  more often hanging loose.</p>
+
+  <p>The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat
+  walled tent, and contain in both field and border much brighter
+  colour than the rugs. Their field is checkered with
+  diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory colour and separated from
+  each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes; their border contains
+  the running latch-hook.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and
+  white. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots
+  to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to
+  ten. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+  largely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>, coarse wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+  equally prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally
+  wool mixed with goat&rsquo;s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, either a
+  two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a
+  goat&rsquo;s hair double selvage of three or four cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a broad, reddish brown web through which, as a rule,
+  run coloured lines or several narrow stripes, and a long warp
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately
+  coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id=
+  "Page_243">243</a></span><span class=
+  "smcap">Beshires.</span>&mdash;On the Amu Daria and not far from
+  Afghanistan is a small district from which the rugs known as
+  Beshires now and then find their way to this country. As it is
+  not far from several routes of caravans, these rugs show a
+  relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes. Their
+  colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones
+  found in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the
+  web crossed by several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish
+  brown, that are usual in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain
+  a suggestion of the geometric figures of the Yomuds and some
+  Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a striking character of their
+  own. Not infrequently the field is covered with broad, irregular
+  scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in any other class
+  of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis pattern,
+  which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+  smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and
+  quasi-floral forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have
+  simple designs that incline to the geometric; but a few are of
+  fair width and are ornamented with rosettes and conventionalised
+  leaves. In namazliks, which are rarely seen, the prayer arch lies
+  within the field. Almost all of this class found in this country
+  are old rugs; and on account of their rich, harmonious colours
+  and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always pleasing and
+  interesting.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and brown, with minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white.
+  <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+  perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at
+  back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+  pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back.
+  <i>Warp</i>, generally goat&rsquo;s hair. Each of the two threads
+  encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally
+  one is slightly depressed. <i>Weft</i>, wool or goat&rsquo;s hair
+  of medium or coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, generally three stripes, occasionally only
+  one. <i>Sides</i>, a goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of two to four
+  cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a wide web, crossed with several
+  coloured stripes. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i>, coarse.
+  <i>Length</i>, four to twelve feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two
+  fifths to two thirds length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Afghans.</span>&mdash;One of
+  the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known in this
+  country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> names
+  are unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the
+  latter is that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of
+  Khiva, and that they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor
+  are they strictly Afghans, since they come from the territory of
+  mountain ridges and fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu
+  Koosh Mountains northward across the eastern part of the Khanate
+  Bokhara, and are made by the tribesmen of both countries. In
+  fact, they differ considerably from the rugs of Central and
+  Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to those of floral
+  pattern woven about Herat.</p>
+
+  <p>Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and
+  Teutonic races have met and blended; and across it have passed
+  the armies of the greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist
+  some of the most untamed races of the East, feeding their flocks
+  on lofty table-lands, or cultivating patches of valleys, through
+  which flow icy streams to form the Amu Daria. Here the rights of
+  hospitality are held sacred, but wrongs are revenged without
+  recourse to any tribunal.</p>
+
+  <p>When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people
+  are taken into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs
+  should be strong and firm in texture, bold in design, positive
+  and striking in colour. Most of them are large and almost square
+  in shape, though mats are not uncommon. The traditional pattern
+  consists of perpendicular rows, usually three in number, of large
+  octagons, that are almost in contact. Between these rows are much
+  smaller diamond-shaped designs, which consist in some pieces of a
+  cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in others of a geometric
+  figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and contains
+  within its centre an eight-pointed star.</p>
+
+  <p>With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble
+  those of Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details
+  are drawn as regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They
+  are invariably divided into quarters which usually are marked
+  with a small figure like a three-leaf clover. The field contains
+  but few adventitious designs and they are rarely animal, as the
+  Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the most common of these
+  designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and Yomuds, is probably
+  intended to represent part of the headstall of camel trappings.
+  The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+  frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised
+  vine. The sides have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id=
+  "Page_245">245</a></span>an added selvage of brown goat&rsquo;s
+  hair; and the ends are finished with reddish brown webs, from
+  which hang loose fringes of dark wool or goat&rsquo;s hair.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p55" id="p55"></a><img src="images/plate55.jpg"
+    width="550" height="744" alt=
+    "Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 55. Turkoman Rug of
+    the Salor Tribes</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours,
+  which however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the
+  field consist of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters
+  of the octagon are of a deep blue alternating with a red that is
+  lighter than the field. In some pieces this red is blood colour,
+  or nearly crimson, standing out in bold relief against the
+  adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of green, orange,
+  yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug; lines of
+  dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent in
+  the red webs of the ends.</p>
+
+  <p>Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in
+  texture than most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft
+  plushy nap of fine wool and goat&rsquo;s fleece, as well as
+  richness of tone, that is very attractive. They are exceedingly
+  durable and moderate in price.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally dark
+  red and mahogany brown, with minor quantities of blue, green,
+  yellow, and white. <i>Knot</i>, generally Sehna, occasionally
+  Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to eight;
+  perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+  down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. <i>Warp</i>,
+  coarse wool or goat&rsquo;s hair; each thread encircled by a knot
+  is equally prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below
+  the other. <i>Weft</i>, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally
+  wool mixed with goat&rsquo;s hair. A thread of weft crosses twice
+  between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium
+  length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a
+  goat&rsquo;s hair double selvage of three or four cords. <i>Both
+  ends</i>, a broad web of reddish brown colour through which run
+  several narrow lines or several narrow stripes, and a long
+  fringe. <i>Texture</i>, stout. <i>Weave</i> at back is moderately
+  coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, five to twelve feet. <i>Usual
+  width</i>, two thirds to three quarters length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Samarkands.</span>&mdash;A
+  little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+  southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+  &ldquo;Strewer of Gold,&rdquo; has turned a plain of yellow loam
+  into an oasis. Forty-three large canals bring its waters to
+  fields of cotton; to vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear,
+  peach, and pomegranate; and to gardens of fragrant flowers. Here
+  is Samarkand, &ldquo;The Mirror of the World.&rdquo; Few cities
+  as old remain after passing<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> through so many
+  vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its
+  gates, the Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane
+  seized and made it the magnificent capital of one third of the
+  known world. His tomb and other remaining monuments attest the
+  grandeur of that time when there was fostered here the art, the
+  luxury, and the splendour of the East.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat
+  eastward from the city and are often called
+  &ldquo;Malgarans.&rdquo; They are not to be compared with the
+  magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and mosques of the
+  capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special interest, as in
+  them are combined features derived from both Eastern and Western
+  Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once part
+  of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on
+  one of the great highways of caravan travel between China and
+  Western Asia, the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It
+  appears in the colours that are in strong contrast; in the
+  general pattern that shows little affinity for those of Persian
+  or West Asian rugs; and even in the weave, in which silk is
+  occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp and pile.</p>
+
+  <p>The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or
+  madder, with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the
+  principal designs and border stripes. Or again, the field may be
+  blue, soft brown, gray, or tan, with which the colours of the
+  designs and borders, that may contain red, yellow, and blue,
+  invariably appear in strong contrast.</p>
+
+  <p>Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists
+  principally of rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in
+  the centre; and if there be many, one is at each corner. They are
+  usually ornamented with Chinese scrolls or some geometric design,
+  as an eight-pointed star; but dragons, birds, or fishes are not
+  uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers of Persian design, with
+  eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion, and others of
+  larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+  medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design
+  in fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is
+  further covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic
+  flower forms. The borders are equally distinctive, and unlike
+  those of Chinese rugs are relatively wide and consist of several
+  stripes surrounded by an edging of uniform colour. One of the
+  stripes has generally a stiffly undulating vine; another a
+  continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with frets, the
+  bar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id=
+  "Page_247">247</a></span>ber-pole design, or a design which by
+  some is regarded as the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the
+  waves. In most pieces warp and weft are loosely woven, and the
+  pile is of a medium grade of wool; but in very old pieces the
+  wool is fine and lustrous.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and yellow. <i>Knot</i>, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+  six to eight; perpendicularly, five to eight. Each half knot, as
+  it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows
+  of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at
+  back. <i>Warp</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of
+  the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other.
+  <i>Weft</i>, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse
+  diameter and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice,
+  between every two rows of knots, and occasionally three times.
+  <i>Pile</i>, wool, of medium length. <i>Border</i>, three stripes
+  with a pink edging. <i>Sides</i>, a red or pink overcasting.
+  <i>Lower end</i>, web and warp loops. <i>Upper end</i>, web and
+  warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, moderately firm. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back, rather coarse. <i>Length</i>, six to fourteen feet.
+  <i>Usual width</i>, one half to three fifths length.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kashgars and
+  Yarkands.</span>&mdash;Among the foothill plains at the western
+  end of the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar
+  and Yarkand, that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo
+  visited there. Situated in populous and fertile districts, each
+  has been a city of political and industrial importance; but on
+  account of the great divides that separate them from Western
+  Turkestan, Persia, and India, their commerce has been principally
+  with Thibet and China. Thus it has happened that only within
+  recent years have any of their textile fabrics reached Europe and
+  America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet even in the
+  remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the culture of
+  silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different periods
+  they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+  that many of their woven products were of a high order of
+  excellence.</p>
+
+  <p>These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the
+  Chinese Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the
+  well-known Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much
+  nearer to West Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to
+  place them in the Central Asiatic group.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude
+  workmanship entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or
+  artistic draw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id=
+  "Page_248">248</a></span>ing. Octagonal forms, animals, and even
+  mythical creatures are often distributed over the fields so as to
+  give them a decidedly Chinese character. The narrow border
+  stripes ornamented with the swastika and fret forms are often
+  similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The colours, which lack
+  the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often light; but they
+  occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and red which
+  show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting on
+  account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+  quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes
+  of this group.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Beluches or
+  Beluchistans.</span>&mdash;&ldquo;When creating the world, the
+  Almighty made Beluchistan out of the refuse&rdquo; are the words
+  of an old proverb, that refers to a land which formerly produced
+  some of the most interesting rugs of the East. In fact, the
+  thought is not surprising when the desolate character of the
+  country is considered; for a sandy, waterless waste stretches
+  over the greater part, and only in a corner to the northeast and
+  in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water small
+  valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land
+  and farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia,
+  untamed tribes of Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep,
+  goats, and large numbers of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely
+  made looms, bear little resemblance to the more artistic floral
+  pieces of the Indian weavers to the east or to those of Kirman to
+  the west. Nor are they closely related to the Turkoman rugs with
+  which they are usually grouped. In fact, they possess an
+  individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+  individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+  protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+  mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people.
+  To these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely
+  coloured with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been
+  chemically washed by dealers.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p56" id="p56"></a><img src="images/plate56.jpg"
+    width="500" height="862" alt="Plate 56. Yomud Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 56. Yomud
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are
+  their tones of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage.
+  They are principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with
+  purple cast, and a dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive
+  tinge, particularly when appearing in the webs. Frequently, too,
+  dull tones of green are seen. Contrasting with these more subdued
+  ground colours is almost invariably some ivory which appears as
+  small detached <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id=
+  "Page_249">249</a></span>figures in part of the border, or as
+  outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+  individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric
+  and represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs.
+  Or they may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with
+  large lozenges, or medallions, all of which are decorated
+  profusely with latch-hooks. Still others have some crudely drawn
+  flower design, as the Mina Khani, that tells of Persian
+  influences.</p>
+
+  <p>A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a
+  large rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and
+  frequently higher than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of
+  three or four stripes. The main stripe is geometric and in the
+  guard stripes are running latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil,
+  though occasionally they are replaced by some conventionalised
+  vine or ribbon pattern.</p>
+
+  <p>Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long
+  webs at the end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away
+  while the body of the rug is still serviceable. They are usually
+  coloured in harmony with the colours of the field, and are marked
+  with embroidered lines or simple designs. No other rugs have a
+  surface with more lustrous sheen, due to the soft, fine wool of
+  the pile, which in old pieces is short and closely woven, giving
+  a play of colours, and velvety appearance unsurpassed by any
+  other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of Beluchistan
+  weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are of
+  rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of
+  very old rugs.</p>
+
+  <p><i>Type Characteristics.</i> <i>Colours</i>, principally red,
+  blue, and brown, with minor quantities of white. <i>Knot</i>,
+  Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly,
+  seven to ten. The rows of knots are usually pressed down, so that
+  the warp does not show at back. <i>Warp</i>, wool; each of the
+  two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back, or
+  one is slightly depressed below the other. <i>Weft</i>, of
+  coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+  twice between every two rows of knots. <i>Pile</i>, wool, and
+  occasionally camel&rsquo;s hair, of medium length. <i>Border</i>,
+  three stripes. <i>Sides</i>, a heavy goat&rsquo;s hair selvage of
+  three or four cords. <i>Both ends</i>, a broad embroidered web
+  with warp fringe. <i>Texture</i>, slightly loose. <i>Weave</i> at
+  back is moderately coarse. <i>Usual length</i>, four and one half
+  to six feet. <i>Usual width</i>, two thirds to three quarters
+  length.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id=
+  "Page_250">250</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more
+  geometric than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral
+  forms are seen in them, though they may appear in the pile that
+  extends beyond the borders of the ends. Even the vines are so
+  angular as almost to lose their identity. Octagonal figures,
+  stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common. In fact, the group as a
+  whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and Chinese groups
+  more than the Persian.</p>
+
+  <h4>PRIMARY STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The stripe shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 1 (opp.
+  Page 250) is one of many found in the rugs known as Royal
+  Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as the small tent-like
+  designs, which may have been derived from the headstalls of
+  horses, are almost always found in it.</p>
+
+  <p>A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with
+  the pattern of the field, appears in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>,
+  Fig. 2. It represents a continuous series of designs shaped like
+  a Y, that were doubtless derived from forms of trees. More
+  frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated diagonal lines,
+  that originally may have been intended to represent foliage, is
+  seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes
+  and Khivas is shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 4. It
+  forcibly suggests the Chinese fret. Sometimes it is used as a
+  primary but more frequently as a secondary stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently
+  seen in Tekkes, which is interesting on account of the
+  eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks similar to those of Caucasian
+  rugs. Without doubt this is only one of the many instances
+  illustrating the migration of designs.</p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar
+  to Yomuds. The running vine is most mechanically drawn and
+  fringed with latch-hooks, which are a constant feature of this
+  class.</p>
+
+  <p>Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the
+  place of latch-hooks is shown in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig.
+  7. Pendent from the vine are other hooks shaped like frets.</p>
+
+  <p>Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented
+  in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the
+  small designs are drawn so that the proportion of length to width
+  is greater; and it is probable that they were copied from a
+  wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen in
+  Beluchistans.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pl" id="pl"></a><img src="images/platel.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="726" alt=
+    "Plate L. Primary and Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate L. Primary and
+    Secondary Border-stripes of Central Asiatic Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id=
+  "Page_251">251</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically
+  drawn vine found in Beshires.</p>
+
+  <p>Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate <a href=
+  "#pl">L</a>, Figs. 10 and 11.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the
+  most typical and interesting stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands.
+  The first is supposed to represent the sacred mountain of Chinese
+  lore rising out of the waves. The second is a vine with leaves
+  and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is
+  seen in Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 14.</p>
+
+  <h4>SECONDARY STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a
+  well-known form of a secondary stripe found in Royal
+  Bokharas.</p>
+
+  <p>A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance
+  to some conventionalised vines found in other groups.</p>
+
+  <p>Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate <a href="#pk">K</a>,
+  Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are frequently found in Yomuds, and
+  occasionally in Beluchistans.</p>
+
+  <p>In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in
+  Caucasian and Persian rugs, are very frequently used.</p>
+
+  <p>The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate <a href=
+  "#pl">L</a>, Fig. 17, is a Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian
+  influence.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear
+  stripe that appears in a very large number of Afghans and in some
+  Khivas.</p>
+
+  <p>Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pl">L</a>, Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the
+  conventionalised vine speaks of Persian origin, and the swastikas
+  suggest Chinese origin.</p>
+
+  <p>In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small
+  barber-pole stripes are constantly employed.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id=
+  "Page_252">252</a></span></p>
+
+  <h4>TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p>Legend:<br />
+  <br />
+  KNOT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">H = Horizontally</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">P = Perpendicularly</span><br />
+  WARP&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">e = each equally
+  prominent</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">d = 1 to the knot
+  depressed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">h = 1 to the knot doubled
+  under</span><br />
+  WEFT&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">g = goat&rsquo;s
+  hair</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">No. = No. times crossing bet. two
+  round knots</span><br />
+  SIDES&mdash;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">O = overcasting</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  LOWER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = Selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">L = warp loops</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br />
+  UPPER END<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">W = web</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">S = selvage</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">K = Rows knots</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">T = turned back and
+  hemmed</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 1em;">F = fringe</span><br /></p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="3">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" colspan="4">KNOT</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="6">WARP</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">G =<br />
+      Ghiordes</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">S =<br />
+      Sehna</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="2">Number to<br />
+      Inches</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" rowspan="2">w=<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12" rowspan="2">c=<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" rowspan="2">g</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="3">At back</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">H</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">P</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">h</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      G<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [G]</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">5-8<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      6-9<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      8-12<br />
+      7-12<br />
+      6-10<br />
+      6-8<br />
+      7-12</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">7-10<br />
+      7-10<br />
+      8-11<br />
+      16-24<br />
+      14-18<br />
+      9-14<br />
+      8-14<br />
+      5-8<br />
+      9-17</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">[g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      g<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      [g]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      g</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      e</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">d<br />
+      d<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      [d]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      d<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [d]</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      h<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">WEFT</td>
+
+      <td class="center6" colspan="2">SIDES</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">LOWER END</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">w =<br />
+      wool</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">c =<br />
+      cotton</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">s/j</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">No.</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">O</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">L</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      w<br />
+      [w]<br />
+      w</td>
+
+      <td class="center12">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [c]<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      c<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      g&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2/[1]<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2<br />
+      2</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      O<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">S<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [S]<br />
+      S<br />
+      S<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      S</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      [W]<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      K<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      L<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      F</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="1">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center20" rowspan="2">CENTRAL<br />
+      ASIATIC</td>
+
+      <td class="center8" colspan="4">UPPER END</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">NAP</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">WEAVE</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">TEXTURE</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="center8">W/S</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">K</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">T</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = long<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      s = short</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">f = fine<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      c = coarse</td>
+
+      <td class="left18">l = loose<br />
+      m = medium<br />
+      f = firm</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left20">Afghan<br />
+      Beluchistan<br />
+      Beshire<br />
+      Princess&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Royal&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Tekke&nbsp;Bokhara<br />
+      Khivah<br />
+      Samarkand<br />
+      Yomuk</td>
+
+      <td class="center8">W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W<br />
+      W</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      [T]&nbsp;<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="center6">F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F<br />
+      F</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m<br />
+      m<br />
+      m</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">m/c<br />
+      c<br />
+      c<br />
+      f<br />
+      m/s<br />
+      m/f<br />
+      m<br />
+      c<br />
+      m/c</td>
+
+      <td class="center18">f<br />
+      m/l<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      f<br />
+      m<br />
+      f</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>[] indicates the less frequent condition.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id=
+  "Page_253">253</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XIII</h3>
+
+  <h4>INDIAN RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known
+  as <i>Dari</i>, which are unlike the rugs of any other country.
+  They are pileless cotton fabrics, that may represent an
+  indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations. Their designs are
+  of the simplest order; usually no more than plain stripes of
+  blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+  occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their
+  workmanship is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit.
+  Some pieces of large size are exported, but they awaken but
+  little interest compared with other kinds of rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does
+  not appear to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to
+  have flourished without artificial encouragement. It was probably
+  introduced by the Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and
+  workmanship were not made till the reign of Shah Akbar, who
+  imported Persian weavers. Under his patronage and the
+  encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture of pieces
+  that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years, but
+  after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+  decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer
+  excellent fabrics were produced as the result of the system that
+  was maintained in all the provinces by lesser potentates. This
+  system, which was also in vogue in parts of Persia, is described
+  by Dr. George Birdwood as follows: &ldquo;The princes and great
+  nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the chief patrons of these
+  grand fabrics, collect together in their own houses and palaces
+  all who gain a reputation for special skill in their manufacture.
+  These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are so
+  little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to
+  execute private orders also. Their salaries are continued even
+  when through age or accident they are past work; and on their
+  death they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id=
+  "Page_254">254</a></span> pass to their sons, should they have
+  become skilled in their father&rsquo;s art. Upon the completion
+  of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+  some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary
+  increased. It is under such conditions that the best art work of
+  the East has always been produced.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in
+  1731, the production of carpets rapidly diminished and the
+  quality deteriorated. This was due to several causes. With the
+  conquests of the East Indian Company, that began in the middle of
+  the XVIII Century, and the extension of trade into every
+  district, large quantities of antique carpets became the property
+  of the Company or of those in its employ. Many of them, including
+  sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of the descendants
+  of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were removed many
+  of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the weavers.
+  Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+  ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+  employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages
+  of free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of
+  aniline dyes, and the elimination of individual taste by
+  supplying patterns, that were often of European origin, to be
+  mechanically copied. Thus it followed that, in spite of the
+  efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly half a century,
+  to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former condition,
+  weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis; and
+  the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+  machine-made carpets in Europe or America.</p>
+
+  <p>Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a
+  brighter lining. European companies have established factories
+  where natives are employed making rugs that in quality equal the
+  products of Smyrna and Sultanabad. Some of them, indeed, are even
+  more firmly woven than the Persian products from which they are
+  copied. In many of the towns, also, are looms where the weavers,
+  who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence. Moreover, the
+  companies, realising that the future of their business depends on
+  the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline dyes.
+  It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+  workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but
+  individuality, representative of native character and
+  temperament, is entirely lacking; and in its place is simply a
+  reproduction of Persian or European patterns.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p57" id="p57"></a><img src="images/plate57.jpg"
+    width="550" height="786" alt="Plate 57. Beshire Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 57. Beshire Prayer
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary,
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id=
+  "Page_255">255</a></span>as similar conditions of early foreign
+  influence, royal patronage, and the jail and factory systems,
+  have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the northern part has
+  been more directly under the influence of the courts and more
+  intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+  strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it
+  is convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern
+  and Southern India.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at
+  present are Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra,
+  Mirzapur, Sindh, Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Srinagar</span>.&mdash;From the
+  extreme northern part of India come the rugs of Kashmir, which
+  are often named after the capital of the province, Srinagar, the
+  &ldquo;City of the Sun.&rdquo; To a large extent, they resemble
+  the far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley,
+  where winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the
+  pear design. The pieces woven before the British occupation of
+  India were of excellent quality and contained delicate colour
+  schemes, that were exceedingly pleasing; but the products of the
+  last half century show deterioration. The colours are harsher,
+  the mechanical drawing of the patterns show European influence,
+  and the borders resemble too closely the central field to have
+  distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with vegetable
+  colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool for
+  which this district is renowned.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Amritsar</span>.&mdash;On
+  account of famine and several other causes, a large number of the
+  people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+  settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of
+  making shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the
+  year 1870, deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug
+  weaving and thus gave an impetus to that industry.</p>
+
+  <p>Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the
+  Punjab; and as some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at
+  the looms, it is one of the leading rug-producing centres of
+  India. Yet before the exhibition of Indian rugs at the
+  World&rsquo;s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not been any
+  demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+  been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains
+  and valleys the best of wool, but<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> before the revival of the
+  industry their patterns and workmanship were of an inferior
+  character. Under the factory system, conducted by American and
+  English firms, has been a marked improvement. Both dyes and wool
+  are excellent, and the technique of weave equals what is found in
+  the best of Persian products, to the square inch are frequently
+  two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying a knot one thread
+  of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and the threads
+  of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is unusually
+  close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a rule,
+  the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and
+  fringe. The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and
+  workmanship are possible only on account of the wage of the
+  weaver, which does not exceed one eighth what he would receive in
+  this country.</p>
+
+  <p>There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these
+  rugs from others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is
+  exercised. It may be a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian
+  or Iranian antique. Of recent years, many well-known modern
+  Persian patterns have been followed, so that not infrequently
+  these pieces are mistaken for the products of Kermanshah or
+  Sultanabad.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Lahore</span>.&mdash;About the
+  year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar was
+  established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during
+  the reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best
+  examples of Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven
+  the well-known carpet now in the possession of the
+  Girdler&rsquo;s Company of London. Some of the pieces that still
+  remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and brilliancy of
+  colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule, the
+  jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with
+  both woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the
+  factory system followed; and on account of the nearness of
+  Amritsar to the capital, some foreign firms have weaving
+  establishments in both cities. It is not surprising, then, that
+  there should be a resemblance in their products, which is seen in
+  the finish of sides and ends and in the character of weaving,
+  which usually shows one thread of warp to each knot doubled under
+  the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in lighter
+  shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+  guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the
+  patterns in other respects largely follow well-known<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> Persian
+  drawing, though leaf and flower are more artistically portrayed
+  and the designs are less crowded.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Multans</span>.&mdash;One of
+  the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which during the
+  vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by early
+  Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics
+  are of three types: the <i>Dari</i>, which are made almost
+  exclusively in the jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been
+  made only within the last sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile,
+  that have been produced for an unknown period. As the looms on
+  which they are made are unlike those of other districts, and the
+  weavers are but little affected by external influences, it is not
+  surprising that the pile carpets not only display uniqueness of
+  pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also possess
+  peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they are
+  of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There
+  are seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and
+  occasionally only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not
+  infrequently a single knot encircles four threads of warp, and
+  between two rows of knots is a single thread of weft. Almost all
+  of the weavers are Mohammedans, who have a tradition that they
+  originally came from Persia; yet their products contain few of
+  the Iranian characteristics, since the field is usually occupied
+  by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns. As is
+  seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+  own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal
+  colours are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow,
+  and blue. Some of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour
+  of bluish shade. On the whole, the Multan rugs possess great
+  individuality but little artistic merit.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Agra</span>.&mdash;Almost
+  within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison walls
+  where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+  &ldquo;saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to
+  each other by the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen
+  Victoria, and another for the ex-Empress Eugenie.&rdquo; Most of
+  these pieces are of cotton foundation. Each thread of warp is
+  equally prominent at the back, and the texture is looser than in
+  Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots blend
+  well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+  delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the
+  rugs are very large and heavy; and<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> it would seem that this
+  has always been the case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the
+  reason for establishing looms at this place was the early demand
+  for carpets too large to be imported on elephants.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Allahabad</span>.&mdash;Situated like Benares on the
+  banks of the Ganges, and next to it the most sacred city of India
+  to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad, capital of the
+  northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political importance,
+  as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+  devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of
+  its industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the
+  numbers produced have never been great. As a rule they are of
+  large size, and are loosely woven with each thread of warp
+  equally distinct at the back. Few of them equal the best examples
+  of the Amritsar looms.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Mirzapur</span>.&mdash;When it
+  is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very populous
+  cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+  west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is
+  not surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half
+  a century ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but
+  largely on account of the employment of convicts, the texture of
+  those made since then is coarse and loose, the patterns are poor,
+  the colours crude. To a limited extent a higher grade of wool has
+  been imported as a substitute for the harsh local product, but
+  the result has not been satisfactory. These rugs accordingly find
+  small favour among those who appreciate artistic qualities, and
+  give little satisfaction where durability is the chief requisite.
+  It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+  have been made to raise their standard.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Jubbulpur</span>.&mdash;Two
+  hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur, capital
+  of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+  beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a
+  School of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has
+  retrograded rather than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of
+  its rugs as follows: &ldquo;The foundation, as now scamped is
+  quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile which is a feature of
+  this work; and is moreover so short in the staple as to be
+  incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+  manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England)
+  which will not bear <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id=
+  "Page_259">259</a></span>sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of
+  two which were shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust
+  out of them when first unpacked. The designs once had some local
+  character, but have lost it during the last four or five
+  years.&rdquo; Within recent years few have been exported.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p58" id="p58"></a><img src="images/plate58.jpg"
+    width="550" height="787" alt="Plate 58. Beshire Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 58. Beshire
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Sindh</span>.&mdash;Formerly
+  good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above the mouth
+  of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+  colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces
+  the foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was
+  frequently used for pile. Very few of them have been imported
+  into this country.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Jaipur</span>.&mdash;In the
+  palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial centre of
+  Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain in
+  India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+  workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or
+  inelegant in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of
+  Persian rugs. The vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are
+  faithfully portrayed. The texture of weave is excellent.</p>
+
+  <p>The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are
+  Madras, Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are
+  also woven in Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore
+  district.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Madras</span>.&mdash;Only
+  within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+  Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over
+  half a century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns
+  of the Dekkan, were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and
+  were sometimes known as Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which
+  were sent by Mr. Vincent Robinson to the South Kensington Museum,
+  differ widely in harmony of colours, beauty of design, and
+  delicacy of workmanship from the present products of Madras. Yet
+  the latter have much to commend them. Some are made in the jail,
+  others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the Anjuman
+  Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+  vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some
+  are copied from antique carpets represented in the &ldquo;Vienna
+  Carpet Book,&rdquo; others are copied from rugs of Northern
+  India, Persia,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id=
+  "Page_260">260</a></span> and Asia Minor. As a rule, the fields
+  are well covered with repetitive designs, that give them the
+  appearance of factory-made carpets.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Marsulipatam</span>.&mdash;Two
+  hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the Coromandel coast
+  is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the British
+  settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+  rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the
+  finest produced in that country, but the demands of agents for
+  articles that could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted
+  in the use of inferior materials and in poorer workmanship. Most
+  of the dyes are aniline. The patterns, that once were executed
+  with marvelous beauty of detail, gave way to crude drawing until
+  &ldquo;these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have sunk to a
+  mockery and travesty of their former selves.&rdquo;<a name=
+  "FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class=
+  "fnanchor">36</a> Few of them are any longer imported into this
+  country.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ellore</span>.&mdash;Not far
+  from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of Ellore, where
+  a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+  descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft
+  of weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best
+  rugs in Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B.
+  Havell wrote that he had seen pieces woven to meet special orders
+  which were equal in point of interest and material to the old
+  specimens in the hands of connoisseurs of London or in native
+  palaces. This is one of the few districts in Southern India where
+  the industry exists outside of jails. In the town and surrounding
+  country are about four hundred looms operated by some three
+  thousand people, who are Mohammedans.</p>
+
+  <p>In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still
+  used, and the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained
+  from sheep of the uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the
+  old style of craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very
+  large percentage of the rugs which are intended solely for export
+  trade are of an inferior order, since many of their colours are
+  obtained from aniline, their weaving is inferior, and their
+  patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T. Harris, in his report on the
+  Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903, said: &ldquo;The
+  exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+  weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+  modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span>and
+  German power loom designs. Some of the old patterns are still
+  with the weavers, but unfortunately there is no trade demand for
+  this fine class of goods, the old dyes are being forgotten and
+  have given place to cheap anilines unskilfully
+  applied.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p59" id="p59"></a><img src="images/plate59.jpg"
+    width="550" height="824" alt="Plate 59. Afghan Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 59. Afghan
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet.
+  The warp is of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp.
+  The pile is of an inferior quality, as it consists largely of the
+  wool taken from a sheep after death, known as &ldquo;dead&rdquo;
+  wool, or as &ldquo;Chunam&rdquo; or &ldquo;limed&rdquo; wool,
+  since it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately
+  vegetable dyes do not produce in it the same results as in
+  &ldquo;live&rdquo; wool; and since the scarcity of wool in
+  Southern India frequently necessitates its use, aniline dyes are
+  for this reason alone often employed. The number of knots to the
+  square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+  diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but
+  both geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Vellore</span>.&mdash;Almost a
+  hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of Vellore, where
+  native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on their own
+  looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in the
+  jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the
+  only rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the
+  largest is about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be
+  obtained. The product rests on a commercial basis and depends on
+  the market demands, restricted by the material available and the
+  limitations of the weavers. According to the order, the rugs may
+  be coloured with vegetable or aniline dyes; they may have warp
+  and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and they may have from six to
+  sixteen knots to the inch measured horizontally and
+  perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as promiscuous as
+  those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with a
+  corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort
+  has been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+  craftsmanship.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Bangalore</span>.&mdash;The
+  principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred about
+  Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+  founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+  imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of
+  which the largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were
+  constantly occupied in making rugs to order. The number
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id=
+  "Page_262">262</a></span> knots to the square inch varied greatly
+  according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+  entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number
+  of weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district,
+  as well as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most
+  carefully. The closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or
+  vegetable dyes; and the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp
+  and weft, are regulated by the requirements of the trade, which
+  is conducted largely by two or three English firms.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class=
+  "smcap">Hyderabad</span>.&mdash;Splendid craftsmanship was once
+  displayed in the rugs made in the cities of Hyderabad and
+  Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The weave was exceedingly
+  fine, and the colours were brilliant but harmonious. Now few rugs
+  are produced in these cities, and they have poor patterns and
+  wretched colours.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id=
+  "Page_263">263</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XIV</h3>
+
+  <h4>CHINESE RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit
+  was almost unknown to the Western world until the close of the
+  last century, when a few pieces reached Europe, where they
+  aroused the just admiration of art connoisseurs. About the
+  beginning of this century a larger number, which were obtained
+  during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of homes,
+  temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+  foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City,
+  between the years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public
+  auctions for prices that stimulated collectors in China to search
+  for more. But they have proved to be scarce when compared with
+  other Oriental rugs, so that, as yet, the general public are only
+  slightly familiar with them.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written
+  records are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many
+  were made in Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to
+  Persia and India. But it is more probable that they were woven in
+  Eastern China, where other branches of art reached a remarkable
+  development under the patronage of wealthy mandarins and the
+  imperial court. Even if they are not the product of an indigenous
+  growth, the knowledge of weaving may easily have been acquired
+  from Western Asia; since it was not unusual several centuries ago
+  to import weavers from one country to another to instruct native
+  craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+  differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+  character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of
+  them, and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of
+  them, not only are unlike those of any other groups, but have
+  well-known Chinese elements. A more distinctive feature are the
+  colours, which are relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow,
+  and blue, are of shades<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264"
+  id="Page_264">264</a></span> unlike what are seen in other rugs.
+  Even more distinctive than these are the reds, which never have
+  the primary colours found in other groups but resemble the tints
+  of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon. Similar tones
+  are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and floral
+  ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+  products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic
+  still are the small designs which are so related to the
+  philosophic and religious thought of the people and to the
+  industrial and social life that their Chinese origin is
+  unmistakable.</p>
+
+  <p>Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern
+  China, it is not possible satisfactorily to assign them to
+  different classes based on locality; yet without doubt important
+  distinctions, observable also in the early paintings and
+  porcelains and resulting largely from differences of race and
+  character of country, exist between those woven in Northern
+  China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and those
+  woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such
+  marked local distinctions as are found in other groups never
+  existed in Chinese rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate
+  more to stages in development of the textile art, so that the
+  natural classification is based on the successive periods when
+  they were woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The absence of written and traditional history regarding the
+  weaving of these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle
+  to such classification. By a careful examination of large numbers
+  of rugs, it is possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy
+  in series that represent progressive forms of ornamentation and
+  design from the archaic to the modern. A most important aid to
+  this arrangement is the interdependence so conspicuous in the
+  several arts of China; for designs of innumerable articles with
+  well-established ages, especially of the ceramic art, have been
+  copied by the weavers.</p>
+
+  <p>Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in
+  determining the period to which rugs belong. An important
+  distinction, for instance, often exists in the manner in which
+  the material is spun. If pieces of yarn be taken from old rugs
+  and carefully examined, as they are untwisted, the simpler,
+  cruder methods of spinning practised in former days are often
+  apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the wool was
+  very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+  more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p60" id="p60"></a><img src="images/plate60.jpg"
+    width="500" height="861" alt="Plate 60. Beluchistan Prayer Rug"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 60. Beluchistan
+    Prayer Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>More important often in determining the relative age of a rug
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id=
+  "Page_265">265</a></span>than either design or technical
+  peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of colour; for however
+  excellent were the original dyes and whatever care was exercised
+  in their application, they slowly changed under the mellowing
+  influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human process.
+  Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours were
+  peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+  mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century,
+  and azure blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow
+  with a lemon or citron cast is found principally in pieces woven
+  since the beginning of the XVIII Century; and green is rarely
+  found in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century.
+  Aniline dyes were not introduced into China much before the year
+  1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be regarded as not
+  more remote than the period when the ornamentation and designs it
+  contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more recent,
+  as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+  newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a
+  rug to consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the
+  weaving and designs, but also the evidence of colour.</p>
+
+  <p>Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from
+  other groups and divide them into separate classes; they also
+  have many features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot.
+  In all but the earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton;
+  each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back; and the
+  weft, which is coarser than the warp, crosses twice between two
+  rows of knots. The nap of both old and modern rugs is almost
+  always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or cotton. The
+  sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer threads
+  of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+  as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper
+  end has a narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they
+  are generally more loosely woven. These and other features of
+  resemblance and of distinction will be more fully noticed in
+  considering the rugs of different periods.</p>
+
+  <p>In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately
+  associated with the religious and philosophic thought of China.
+  One of them is the Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of
+  eternity, which is an old Chinese emblem, though more frequently
+  found in rugs of Samarkand and Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band
+  and the Joo-e. There are also mythical creatures, as the dragon,
+  emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin, partly deer, partly
+  unicorn;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id=
+  "Page_266">266</a></span> the Fung-Kwang or ph&oelig;nix; and the
+  lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the
+  figure Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and
+  butterfly, denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the
+  two fishes, which are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess
+  board, which are symbols of the literati.</p>
+
+  <p>It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung
+  dynasty (960-1280 <span class="smcap">a. d.</span>), when for
+  nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed, literature and art
+  flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained with
+  imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist.
+  Nor do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan
+  dynasty (1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious
+  Mongol prince, Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later
+  rugs were used in kindred arts of these and preceding
+  periods.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Ming Rugs.</span>&mdash;The
+  oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near the end
+  of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII Century.
+  It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+  to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and
+  India were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other
+  branches of Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work
+  that had preceded. Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in
+  the splendid accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort
+  that marked the Tang and Sung dynasties.</p>
+
+  <p>Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship,
+  archaic designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were
+  woven with warp and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally
+  for wealthy mandarins or the imperial court, had pile of silk
+  attached to warp and weft of cotton; and others were made
+  entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but constituting the most
+  sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers&rsquo; art, were the
+  rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.</p>
+
+  <p>The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over
+  patterns. Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and
+  are arranged in horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to
+  leave small diamond-shaped spaces between diagonally placed
+  octagons. Within these designs are often the emblems of happiness
+  or longevity, floral motives, and sometimes archaic dragons. In
+  another well-known pattern the field is completely covered with a
+  swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals with diagonal rows
+  of bats, emblematic of happiness.<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> Occasionally a field of
+  plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+  for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with
+  an all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling
+  some of the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of
+  most conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn
+  stems.</p>
+
+  <p>The essential feature, however, of a large number of these
+  rugs, and one that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a
+  central medallion surrounded by a field that is either plain,
+  that is marked with a subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is
+  known as the &ldquo;tiger skin&rdquo; pattern, consisting of
+  waving lines repeated throughout the field. The medallions may be
+  either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case, rounded; but
+  the defining lines are angular and generally represent frets.
+  Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+  conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from
+  them originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the
+  shape of the central medallions and the designs which cover them
+  suggest most forcibly that they were copied from old mirror
+  backs. The corners of the fields may contain simple scrolls, but
+  more frequently they correspond closely in drawing with the
+  central medallions.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow,
+  and generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and
+  surrounded with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters
+  of the rugs of this period have a stripe with a pattern of
+  swastika-frets. Two of these stripes, which are very old
+  patterns, are illustrated in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Figs. 1
+  and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+  appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that
+  have two border stripes with figures belong to a later period.
+  Many of the oldest borders are without figured stripes, and
+  consist merely of one or more stripes of plain colour.</p>
+
+  <p>The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep,
+  rich tones. Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally
+  used in the outer edging that surrounded the field or in the
+  narrow border stripes; but more frequently the same colour effect
+  was obtained by the use of corrosive dyes that in time have often
+  eaten the wool almost to the foundation of warp and weft. Wools
+  dyed with corrosive browns are also used in the fields and
+  enhance the effect of designs of contrasting colours, which stand
+  out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull yellow and shades
+  of blue, are also seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268"
+  id="Page_268">268</a></span> in the borders. The field is usually
+  richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+  yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of
+  time on what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and
+  light blues, sky blue, and robin&rsquo;s egg blue, as well as
+  jade green and bottle green, are also found in these old pieces.
+  In the metal and silk rugs the glint of silver even though
+  tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown deeper and
+  richer with age.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Kang-hi.</span>&mdash;During
+  the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued from 1644 to
+  its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars waged
+  between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+  of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But
+  during the reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art
+  revived and enjoyed one of the most splendid periods of its
+  history. There is, however, a noticeable difference between the
+  rugs that belong to the early and to the late part of this reign;
+  so that it is convenient to divide them into the early Kang-hi
+  pieces, that were woven during the last part of the XVII Century,
+  and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were woven at
+  the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+  convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the
+  reign of a particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader
+  distinction of assigning them to different centuries is
+  frequently adopted.</p>
+
+  <p>In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of
+  the late Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period,
+  but there was a freer use of colour and a more decorative
+  ornamentation. Many of the figures are still geometric. Frets are
+  conspicuous in the fields of large numbers of these pieces. The
+  dragon also is a favourite motive; but in the scrolls that
+  represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in the
+  conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+  almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a
+  medallion in the centre of the field, in which others are grouped
+  with regularity; while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of
+  the rugs in which the fields are covered with sundry objects, as
+  scrolls, vases, altar pieces, and sacred plants, also belong to
+  this period. The borders of these and late Kang-hi pieces have
+  frequently an outer edging of brown and a single border stripe
+  with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has a
+  well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+  conventionalised dragons and frets <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>that appear in the central
+  medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however,
+  there is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme
+  of the late Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is
+  largely employed in rugs of this period.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p61" id="p61"></a><img src="images/plate61.jpg"
+    width="550" height="744" alt="Plate 61. Turkoman Saddle-bags"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 61. Turkoman
+    Saddle-bags</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi
+  period in the remarkable development of decorative art as applied
+  to porcelains, produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven
+  at the same time. Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit
+  to earlier Chinese style. The fields were not infrequently
+  covered with sub-patterns of fret work, on which medallions
+  appeared more prominently. The geometric figures were largely
+  supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central medallions and
+  corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised dragons,
+  the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+  sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or
+  the peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character,
+  and there is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had
+  a strong influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of
+  this class, the foliate and floral forms no longer appear as
+  sub-patterns but become the prominent feature in the decoration
+  of the field; and the conventionalised flowers are arranged with
+  precision in diagonal or perpendicular lines. To this period also
+  belong rugs of a distinct type, in which the field represents a
+  blending of pictorial and symbolic ideas, as, for instance, a
+  homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where butterflies flit
+  among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus, emblematic of
+  longevity, wander.</p>
+
+  <p>The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still
+  continued, but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate
+  designs in many of the figured stripes. It is not unusual to see
+  single or double vines with conventionalised flowers; and though
+  the drawing is mechanical, the relationship to Persian art is
+  apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the swastika-fret is used.
+  A noticeable difference also exists in the colour scheme of many
+  of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display brighter
+  colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+  giving it a golden hue known as the &ldquo;imperial
+  yellow.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Yung-ching.</span>&mdash;During
+  the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though many of the old
+  patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more ornate forms
+  begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+  Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> in
+  Chinese art, so that the use of colours and ornamentation
+  followed broader lines. To this period are assigned most of those
+  rugs in which designs are defined by lines of contrasting colour
+  that has been so treated that the lines are depressed and throw
+  the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however, to
+  definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this
+  period; since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was
+  gradual; and the effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable
+  factors in determining age, depends somewhat on their exposure to
+  the elements and to use. But broadly speaking, figures of leaf
+  and flower were more frequently adopted than in preceding periods
+  and designs became less conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon
+  and citron shades of yellow, also, became more prominent during
+  this period.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb"><span class="smcap">Keen-lung.</span>&mdash;The
+  long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was one of
+  the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+  assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century,
+  as well as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a
+  more cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for
+  not only are many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese,
+  but others are of a Persian character, and others still suggest
+  Mohammedan influences observable in the products of Turkestan and
+  India. Moreover, many of the designs show a delicate shading that
+  is not observable in the rugs made during the early part of the
+  century. As a whole they are the most ornate of Chinese rugs.
+  Woven after the inspiration of Persian masterpieces had left its
+  strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and decoration in kindred
+  arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent in the drawing
+  of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of early
+  philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+  harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+  craftsmanship.</p>
+
+  <p>In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff
+  conventional forms which continued through the XVII and the early
+  part of the XVIII Century, disappeared. In their place was a
+  greater refinement of design, a greater accuracy of drawing,
+  which found expression in floral forms that reached their highest
+  development at this time and became characteristic of it.
+  Occasionally they are represented in profile as is usually the
+  practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+  viewed from above. Some of them, <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span>as chrysanthemums,
+  peonies, sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and
+  naturalistic. The fields of many of these pieces are covered with
+  such flowers carefully arranged in harmonious groupings of leaf,
+  bud and flower, but never with the formal and exact balance of
+  old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with them in the
+  same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+  earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion;
+  and occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule
+  these medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the
+  latter part of this period they display elaborate ornamentation
+  that distinguishes them from earlier ones; but now and then they
+  contain fabulous creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few
+  instances they are entirely replaced.</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE X&mdash;CHINESE RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and
+  subdued rich colouring are the characteristics of this unusual
+  piece. The knots of the fine woollen yarn are tied with a
+  precision not frequently seen in Chinese rugs, and the shortness
+  of nap discloses the faithfulness with which an artist of no
+  ordinary ability has represented plants and flowers. Their soft
+  tones stand out in relief against a background now darkened and
+  enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+  motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+  minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are
+  of uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without
+  reason, to the Kang-hi period.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;">
+    <a name="px" id="px"></a><img src="images/plate_x.jpg" width=
+    "250" height="844" alt="COLOUR PLATE X--CHINESE RUG"
+    title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+  Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the
+  Taoist symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards,
+  scrolls, and the lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of
+  state, fruits of abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of
+  longevity and happiness. To this class also belong many of the
+  pieces which have neither medallions nor corner pieces, but have
+  fields completely covered with a pattern of continuous foliate
+  stems and conventional flowers, repeated with exact precision of
+  drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is completely
+  covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+  geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+  suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the &ldquo;Grain of
+  Rice&rdquo; rugs, also, were woven during this period.</p>
+
+  <p>The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few
+  pieces is the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often
+  the T pattern. The key patterns represented in Plate <a href=
+  "#pn">N</a>, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as well as the dotted
+  line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all of these
+  rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+  which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces
+  both stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one
+  geometric, in which case the wider, that, with very few
+  exceptions, is the floral, is the inner one. Very rarely the
+  border contains two floral stripes; and now and then Buddhist
+  emblems and other devices are introduced.</p>
+
+  <p>The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is
+  accompanied by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these
+  rugs may conveniently be grouped in three subclasses. The first
+  is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id=
+  "Page_272">272</a></span> Blue and White, with ground of ivory or
+  ashy white and designs that have shades of light or dark blue.
+  The second comprises those in which the ground is some shade of
+  yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or apricot.
+  Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or imperial
+  yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+  yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red.
+  The third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is
+  some shade of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed
+  strawberry, apricot red, or a deep salmon pink, which is rare.
+  The overlying designs may be a shade of blue, ivory white,
+  yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of both field and border
+  are sometimes the same but are more frequently complementary. As
+  a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and rich
+  colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+  Chinese loom.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and
+  Tao-Kwang (1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century,
+  repeat with slight modification the patterns of the preceding
+  period, though there is a tendency to use larger and coarser
+  designs. The colours, too, are similar, yet they lack the deep
+  richness that is matured only with the lapse of great time. Many
+  of these rugs, as well as some woven still later, before the
+  introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes, are
+  beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+  technique observable only in those produced before the beginning
+  of the XIX Century.</p>
+
+  <h4>MEDALLIONS</h4>
+
+  <p>The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs
+  is not only interesting but is an important aid in determining
+  their age; yet it should be remembered that approved patterns
+  were often repeated even after the introduction of more elaborate
+  styles. Many of the oldest medallions were copied from bronzes or
+  mirror backs, and their drawing is geometric except as
+  embellished by some conventionalised figures of the dragon. By a
+  process of evolution these figures, in turn, were converted into
+  scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf and flower
+  patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a
+  &ldquo;Shou&rdquo; design of octagonal shape, copied from an old
+  rug which was probably woven during the early part of the XVII
+  Century.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pm" id="pm"></a><img src="images/platem.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="835" alt="Plate M. Medallions in Chinese Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate M. Medallions in
+    Chinese Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id=
+  "Page_273">273</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, represent
+  fret-covered medallions, which also are found in rugs of the same
+  period. The first is probably the oldest pattern; and the last,
+  to judge by the panel surrounding it, was apparently copied from
+  a bronze mirror back.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion
+  similar to the one shown in Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 2,
+  but with the dragons replaced by frets.</p>
+
+  <p>A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate
+  <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 6. It shows the evolution of scrolls
+  from dragons, of which the heads alone betray their origin. Such
+  medallions are found mostly in the earliest rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a> with the
+  preceding, it is apparent that its scrolls had a similar origin,
+  but in this one the dragon heads have entirely disappeared. The
+  design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 8, is represented a
+  medallion that closely resembles some of the earliest period; but
+  the more accurate drawing and clearer definition of lines shows
+  that it is a later copy. It is found in late Kang-hi pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with
+  swastikas represented in Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 9.</p>
+
+  <p>Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in
+  Plate M, Fig. 10. The particular rug from which it was copied was
+  probably woven about the Yung-ching period; but there is little
+  doubt that similar medallions appeared in older rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, are
+  represented two medallions with foliate designs that were largely
+  employed in the early Keen-lung period. A comparison of the first
+  with Fig. 13 of Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, shows an interesting
+  step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 14, in which an encircling border
+  consists of cloud-bands.</p>
+
+  <p>Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with
+  accurately drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in
+  Plate <a href="#pm">M</a>, Fig. 15. Wreath-like borders, such as
+  are seen in this and the preceding one, are found in XVIII and
+  XIX Century pieces.</p>
+
+  <h4>CHINESE BORDER STRIPES</h4>
+
+  <p>The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in
+  definite sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age
+  of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id=
+  "Page_274">274</a></span> Chinese rugs. As was seen to be the
+  case with medallions, the earliest stripes were purely geometric.
+  In others, still very old, appeared forms of conventionalised
+  dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls and these by
+  ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that earlier
+  designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+  age is merely contributory.</p>
+
+  <p>Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost
+  exclusively in the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate
+  <a href="#pn">N</a> (opp. Page 274), represent three old forms,
+  which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the Kang-hi time.
+  The pattern of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 4, in which
+  alternate swastikas are reversed, is also very old.</p>
+
+  <p>The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 5. It is found largely in Kang-hi rugs,
+  and if used in more recent fabrics, is often accompanied by a
+  stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated here, the facing
+  of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the stripe.</p>
+
+  <p>The shading of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 6, which is
+  somewhat similar to Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 4, is
+  characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, are
+  Key and T patterns, which are found in rugs of the Kang-hi and
+  subsequent periods, but rarely in earlier pieces. When employed
+  in rugs woven later than the middle of the XVIII Century they are
+  often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are of great
+  antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+  supposed that the figures from which they were derived once
+  symbolised clouds and thunder.</p>
+
+  <p>A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated
+  in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets
+  represent bodies of which conventionalised heads alone betray
+  their origin. The graceful scroll in the middle was also probably
+  derived from dragon forms. This stripe is seen in old Kang-hi
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an
+  unusual stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 12) that appeared
+  in rugs which were probably woven about the Yung-ching period. It
+  shows the influence of older traditions on which are ingrafted
+  the later inspiration.</p>
+
+  <p>Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>,
+  Fig. 13) seen in what are known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung
+  period. In different parts of the border appear the Buddhist
+  emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law, and knot of destiny,
+  separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral motives.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="pn" id="pn"></a><img src="images/platen.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="791" alt=
+    "Plate N. Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate N. Primary and
+    Secondary Border-Stripes of Chinese Rugs</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id=
+  "Page_275">275</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and
+  later rugs is shown in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Figs. 14, 15,
+  and 16, which illustrate three stripes that with slight
+  modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese rugs of the
+  last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.</p>
+
+  <p>The stripe illustrated in Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 17,
+  on which are represented halves of octagonal discs containing
+  conventional flower forms, is found in some rugs woven as early
+  as the first part of the XVIII Century, as well as in more
+  subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in which it is
+  found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+  conceits that suggest Persian influences.</p>
+
+  <p>In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, are
+  represented simple stripes found in XVIII Century rugs. The last
+  of these, which is found in Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked
+  resemblance to the reciprocal trefoil so common in Persian
+  pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The simple dotted stripe (Plate <a href="#pn">N</a>, Fig. 22)
+  was rarely employed before the middle of the XVIII Century, but
+  has been constantly used since then.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id=
+  "Page_276">276</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XV</h3>
+
+  <h4>KILIMS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/k.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="K"
+  title="K" /></span>ILIMS have a special interest apart from their
+  beauty and utility, as some of them undoubtedly resemble the
+  early fabrics of the Egyptians and Babylonians from which were
+  evolved the more durable pile carpets. The different links in
+  this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not unlikely
+  that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+  little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of
+  weft hanging from one side, first suggested the greater
+  durability and warmth that would be derived from a woven fabric
+  completely covered with tufts of yarn.</p>
+
+  <p>It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have
+  likewise been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different
+  steps in this evolution correspond to three separate styles of
+  weaving still in vogue. The earliest products which were made
+  subsequent to the primitive weaving of uncoloured warp and weft
+  were doubtless similar to the simple fabrics now used to line the
+  under side of saddle bags, and consisted of a warp and weft of
+  uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced style, induced
+  by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of patterns
+  which required the use of different coloured threads of weft. As
+  these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each
+  pattern, their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the
+  back, giving an appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in
+  Soumaks. The third and most finished style, representing much
+  higher workmanship, was produced by deftly disposing of the ends
+  of threads of weft so that they should be concealed and thus
+  permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the same.</p>
+
+  <p>Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East.
+  The first not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is
+  frequently substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the
+  only floor<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id=
+  "Page_277">277</a></span> covering, or again is laid as a
+  protection beneath valuable carpets. It often replaces the
+  heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for all purposes
+  requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is found
+  among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+  naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a
+  delicate finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage
+  that they receive. The third, which is the more elegant product,
+  is invariably not only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn
+  patterns. In this country, the last two are used principally for
+  portieres and couch coverings; but in the Orient they still
+  serve, as they have from the remotest times, for floor coverings;
+  and because of the custom of removing the shoes when entering a
+  house, last for a great many years.</p>
+
+  <p>Though these three styles represent the principal variations
+  in kilim weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered
+  pattern; and embroidered stitches are sometimes added to
+  represent some simple design, or as is frequently the case in
+  Shirvans, to make more prominent the separate horizontal
+  compartments.</p>
+
+  <p>When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in
+  piled rugs, and number from six to eighteen to the inch according
+  to the texture. There are generally about twenty threads of weft
+  to the inch, measured at the front or back; but in pieces of the
+  finest workmanship, there may be as many as fifty, and in the
+  crudest only eight or nine. At the sides of the kilim, the
+  threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at the sides
+  of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are braided
+  about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from which
+  their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.</p>
+
+  <p>The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt
+  is made to copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the
+  rectilinear. If a straight line representing the side of a figure
+  is horizontal, or in the direction of the weft, it will often be
+  several inches in length; but a straight perpendicular line never
+  exceeds an inch in length. This is because the threads of weft
+  are never carried from one pattern to another or to the adjoining
+  field, but are turned back at its defining edges, so that an
+  opening is left, which would impair the strength of the fabric if
+  it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+  represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary
+  that the edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned
+  to advantage, as this unevenness or fringing softens
+  lines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id=
+  "Page_278">278</a></span> that otherwise would be harsh. Defining
+  the outlines of many figures is yarn of different colours, which
+  either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when it serves
+  the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+  warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour
+  with kilim weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting
+  or only present at one end. Even when they completely surround
+  the field, there is generally some difference in design or colour
+  between the stripes of side and end. Prayer arches are found in
+  some of the kilims, but their outlines rarely correspond closely
+  with those of piled rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished,
+  are largely responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads
+  of weft of every hue that is seen in piled rugs are employed in
+  these pieces; yet the colouring never appears the same, since
+  there are lacking the lustre and deep wealth of tones due to the
+  length of pile, in which appears an almost imperceptible
+  gradation from the ends that are exposed to the light and have
+  incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the part
+  which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+  because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of
+  pile, the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for
+  the irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the
+  devices of latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to
+  the eye an impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are
+  large, the effect of the colour is always severe; but when the
+  field is covered with innumerable small figures, it is greatly
+  softened.</p>
+
+  <p>As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to
+  protect the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great
+  age remain. The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a
+  fragment obtained by Dr. M. A. Stein, the arch&aelig;ological
+  explorer, from the ruins near Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an
+  ancient settlement, which was buried by sand drifts about the
+  fourth or fifth century <i>anno domini</i>. The weave is almost
+  identical with that of modern kilims, and has about fourteen
+  threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+  pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish
+  yellow, and red, containing very small geometric designs. With
+  this one exception, so peculiarly preserved, there are probably
+  very few over a century old.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p62" id="p62"></a><img src="images/plate62.jpg"
+    width="500" height="853" alt="Plate 62. Srinagar Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 62. Srinagar
+    Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where
+  piled carpets are woven, very few classes are recognised. This
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id=
+  "Page_279">279</a></span>is because it is difficult to
+  distinguish between most of them, and such differences as exist
+  are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+  the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.</p>
+
+  <p>The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed
+  a breadth of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are
+  far superior to all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness
+  of design, quality of material, and character of workmanship.
+  Their patterns, including border, are identical with those of the
+  piled rugs; and the colours, to which at a short distance the
+  small figures of the Herati design give the effect of blending,
+  are the same. As is not the case with other kilims, the warp is
+  of cotton or linen and there are generally from fourteen to
+  sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an inch
+  there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp
+  as they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which
+  they are true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble
+  tapestries and are unfit for hard usage.</p>
+
+  <p>A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are
+  Shirvans. Their fields are divided into a number of parallel
+  horizontal compartments or bands a foot or more in width
+  separated by narrower bands. Not infrequently the principal
+  figures of the wide bands are hexagons surrounding smaller
+  geometric figures; and through the more narrow bands runs a
+  waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another peculiarity,
+  occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform colour
+  fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+  but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect
+  of a border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond
+  the bands; and the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp.
+  The colours are always pronounced, because of lack of shading,
+  and consist mostly of red, blue, and ivory. Yellow and green are
+  also used. These kilims are much heavier than the Sehnas, and
+  also larger, as the average size is about five by nine feet; and
+  some are even seven by twelve feet.</p>
+
+  <p>From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a
+  large number of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that
+  the general name of Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are
+  still made there by many of the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman
+  origin, who wander over the Taurus mountains, and like all their
+  fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average size is about four and a
+  half by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id=
+  "Page_280">280</a></span> eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+  they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts
+  farther to the east.</p>
+
+  <p>A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the
+  Kurds, and dependent on the district in which they are made, is
+  observable in their kilims, as those which come from the Persian
+  border have carefully drawn designs, that are generally lacking
+  in others woven in the mountainous watershed of the Tigris and
+  the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely woven, and from the
+  back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in more
+  artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+  colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have
+  large diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others
+  have horizontal bands in which are woven embroidered devices
+  suggestive of the so-called Bagdad portieres; in many are wide
+  spaces without designs; but whatever the pattern, there is
+  usually a parti-coloured cord running through the web at the
+  end.</p>
+
+  <p>In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually
+  classed as Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are
+  used mostly for portieres or curtains, are divided
+  perpendicularly into equal halves, that at times are united by
+  stitches. The tribes that make them also make large numbers of
+  smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches suggesting the Ghiordes
+  design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet the finest
+  workmanship is shown in pieces known as &ldquo;Kis-kilims&rdquo;
+  or girl&rsquo;s kilims. These are made with the utmost care,
+  since they are intended as a bride&rsquo;s gift to her husband;
+  and a sentiment of romance, and the hope that her skill may weigh
+  favourably in the estimation of her accomplishments, contribute
+  to influence the weaver. Sometimes even a lock of hair is added
+  as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.</p>
+
+  <p>The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are,
+  accordingly, not under the necessity of making such small pieces
+  as can conveniently be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of
+  the largest kilims. Most of them are at least six feet in width
+  and many are much wider.</p>
+
+  <p>The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known
+  as &ldquo;Merv Kilims,&rdquo; since they are woven by Turkoman
+  tribes who inhabit the desert near the old capital of Merv. The
+  brilliant colours found in the products of more Western tribes
+  are entirely wanting, and in their place are the few subdued,
+  rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman weavings. These
+  pieces are stoutly woven, and<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span> since the pattern is
+  represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs
+  are largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel
+  horizontal lines on a field that is usually surrounded by a
+  border profusely ornamented with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A
+  heavy embroidered selvage, from which hang loose threads of warp,
+  often occurs at the ends. These kilims are noted for their
+  durability, and are usually of large size.</p>
+
+  <p>In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus
+  river, are woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is
+  not the case with almost all the rugs of India. They are made by
+  the women in their own homes and display an individuality which
+  also is rare in Indian textile fabrics. In a monograph on
+  &ldquo;Carpet Weaving in the Punjab,&rdquo; Mr. C. Latimer says:
+  &ldquo;The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+  of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs
+  between them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns
+  employed were by local tradition originally copied from the robes
+  of the Pharaohs of Egypt.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <p>Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of
+  drawing and the delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently
+  found in piled rugs; though they never display high, artistic
+  perception or poetic instinct, nevertheless some of the oldest
+  pieces with designs suggestive of the workings of a primitive
+  imagination untrammelled by the conventions of art, and with a
+  chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of dignity,
+  possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id=
+  "Page_282">282</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XVI</h3>
+
+  <h4>HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/t.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="T"
+  title="T" /></span>HE owner of an Oriental rug will find the
+  pleasure to be derived from it will be greater if he knows where
+  and by whom it was made. This is particularly true if it is one
+  of those pieces of which the charm depends more on its
+  individuality than on the masterly handling of line and colour.
+  The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+  effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it
+  involves a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred
+  different classes, almost all of which are found to have
+  exceptions to the best known types. To add to the difficulty, the
+  opinions of dealers in regard to the less known classes are very
+  often erroneous; and detailed descriptions, even at the best, are
+  unsatisfactory. Without a long personal experience in handling
+  rugs, combined with careful study, it is impossible to become
+  expert; but familiarity with one class makes it easier by
+  comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish
+  others.</p>
+
+  <p>The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six
+  groups. Of these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by
+  their well-known patterns, which are found in no other part of
+  the Orient except in the rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and
+  Kashgars; and the Indian may generally be recognised by the
+  realism and formal arrangement of their floral patterns.
+  Relatively few of either group are found in the United States;
+  and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other four
+  groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+  consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+  remembered:</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>a</i>) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia
+  have floral patterns; and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+  Central Asia have geometric.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>b</i>) That figures with latch-hooks
+  belong principally to rugs of the Caucasian group and, to a
+  limited extent, to the rugs of the Asia Minor group.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p63" id="p63"></a><img src="images/plate63.jpg"
+    width="550" height="729" alt=
+    "Plate 63. XVIII Century Chinese Rug" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 63. XVIII Century
+    Chinese Rug</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id=
+  "Page_283">283</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>c</i>) That fields covered with designs of
+  octagonal or diamond shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian
+  group.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>d</i>) That about two thirds of the
+  Persian group have cotton warp; and the remaining third, as well
+  as the Asia Minor and almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian
+  group have woollen warp.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>e</i>) That about one third of the Persian
+  group have one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot
+  doubled under the other so as to be hidden at the back; and that
+  this is not the case with the remaining two thirds nor with
+  almost all classes of other groups.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>f</i>) That, with few exceptions, the
+  Persian rugs have a side finish of overcasting; and the other
+  groups have both overcasting and selvage.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>g</i>) That the rugs from Persia and
+  Central Asia have both light and dark colours which, though rich,
+  are subdued and harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and
+  Caucasia have colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and
+  that the rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red,
+  blue, and brown.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>h</i>) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor
+  and Caucasia have the Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central
+  Asia, with rare exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of
+  Persia with woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those
+  with cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>i</i>) That the few classes of rugs which
+  have very long end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the
+  classes with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the
+  Central Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+  Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.</p>
+
+  <p>Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the
+  above statements that:</p>
+
+<table summary="carpet groups">
+<tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(1) A rug is from Persia or Central
+Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If it has a Sehna knot.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(2) A rug is probably Persian,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the pattern is distincly floral</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the warp is cotton;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+under the other.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id=
+"Page_284">284</a></span><p class="indent4">(3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor,
+Caucasia, or Central Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the pattern is geometric;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the sides are selvaged.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or
+Caucasia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(5) A rug is probably from
+Caucasia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left"><p class="indent4">(6) A rug is probably from Central
+Asia,&mdash;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;</p></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="left padl3"><p class="indent4">If it has long webs at the ends.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+  <p>Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of
+  classes, some of which can only with difficulty be distinguished
+  from one another. They may, however, conveniently be divided into
+  the following sub-groups, depending on the technical
+  peculiarities of the weaving and the material of the warp, so
+  that the task of learning the class of a particular rug will be
+  greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+  sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+  consideration.</p>
+
+  <table class="a" width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23a padt3" rowspan="24">Cotton Warp</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt3" rowspan="24"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb500.png"
+    width="10" height="500" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">One thread of warp to each
+      knot doubled under and hidden at back.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb120.png"
+    width="10" height="120" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(A)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb120.png"
+    width="10" height="120" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Kashan<br />
+      Kermanshah<br />
+      Khorassan<br />
+      Kirman<br />
+      Meshed<br />
+      Mir Sarabend<br />
+      Sarouk.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(B)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Gorevan<br />
+      Herat<br />
+      Herez<br />
+      Serapi<br />
+      Tabriz</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">Each thread of warp equally
+      prominentat back or one slightly depressed.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padb05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(C)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Feraghan<br />
+      Mahal<br />
+      Muskabad<br />
+      Royal Sarabend</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(D)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb75.png"
+    width="10" height="75" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">
+      Gulistan<br />
+      Iran<br />
+      Joshaghan<br />
+      Luristan<br />
+      Sultanabad</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" rowspan="2">quincunx effect of weft at
+      back.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2 padt05" rowspan="2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb50.png"
+    width="10" height="50" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Sehna&nbsp;Knot&nbsp;(E)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left23">&nbsp;<br />
+      Sehna<br />
+      &nbsp;</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23">Ghiordes Knot (F)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb30.png"
+    width="10" height="30" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Hamadan<br />
+      Ispahan&nbsp;(modern)</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id=
+  "Page_285">285</a></span>It should be remembered, when studying
+  the foregoing table, that all classes of rugs are subject to
+  occasional variations in the technicalities of their weave, as
+  for instance, the Herats may have woollen warp and Sehna knots;
+  the Tabriz very often have linen warp; some of the Feraghans,
+  Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes knot and some of
+  the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may have
+  woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+  twice between two rows of knots.</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+ <tr>
+      <td class="left23a"></td>
+
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="right5"></td>
+
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23a" rowspan="3">Woolen&nbsp;Warp,<br />
+      Ghiordes&nbsp;Knot.</td>
+
+      <td class="left2" rowspan="3"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb200.png"
+    width="10" height="200" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">One thread of warp to each
+      knot doubled under at back</td>
+      <td class="right5">(G)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb30.png"
+    width="10" height="30" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Bijar.<br />
+      Niris<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href=
+      "#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">Each of the two threads of
+      warp to a knot equally prominent at back, or one slightly
+      depressed</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">(H)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Karadagh.<br />
+      Suj-Bulak.<br />
+      Kurdistan.<br />
+      Afshar.<br />
+      Mosul.<br />
+      Shiraz.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href=
+      "#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="2">Quincunx effect of weft at
+      back</td>
+
+      <td class="right5">(I)</td>
+
+      <td class="left2">&nbsp;</td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Karaje.<a name="FNanchor_39" id=
+      "FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class=
+      "fnanchor">39</a></td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided
+  as follows:</p>
+
+  <table class="a" width="100%" summary="TECHNICALITIES" border="0">
+      <tr>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+      <td class="left2"></td>
+      <td class="left23"></td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs invariably of carpet size</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Gorevan.<br />
+      Mahal.<br />
+      Muskabad.<br />
+      Serapi.<br />
+      Sultanabad</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs frequently, but not
+      always, of carpet size</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb100.png"
+    width="10" height="100" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Bijar.<br />
+      Herat.<br />
+      Kermanshah.<br />
+      Khorassan.<br />
+      Meshed.<br />
+      Sarabend.<br />
+      Tabriz.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left23" colspan="3">Rugs frequently seen as
+      runners</td>
+
+      <td class="left2"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 10px;">
+    <img src="images/cb50.png"
+    width="10" height="50" alt="bracket" title="" /></div></td>
+
+      <td class="left23">Hamadan.<br />
+      Karaje.<br />
+      Kurdistan.<br />
+      Mosul.</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, &ldquo;A&rdquo;
+  includes those that have the closest and finest woven texture. In
+  this respect the Kashans, Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order
+  named, superior to the others; and the Kermanshahs are the
+  coarsest and the least evenly woven. In sub-group &ldquo;B&rdquo;
+  the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap. The
+  Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+  are designs of archaically drawn <span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>leaves, and have generally
+  the so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati
+  border. Of the classes of sub-group &ldquo;C,&rdquo; the Royal
+  Sarabends are the closest woven. The Feraghans are slightly
+  coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much coarser and have
+  longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans are the best
+  woven of sub-group &ldquo;D.&rdquo; At the back of Luristans each
+  half knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in
+  a few Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans
+  and Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups
+  &ldquo;E&rdquo; and &ldquo;F,&rdquo; the weave of Sehnas presents
+  a file-like appearance at the back; and in Hamadans the weft is
+  of much coarser diameter than in the other two classes. The
+  Bijars of sub-group &ldquo;G&rdquo; are much stouter than the
+  Niris and have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more
+  completely doubled under the other. The webs at the ends of the
+  Niris are very much longer than those of Bijars. Sub-group
+  &ldquo;H&rdquo; contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks and Mosuls,
+  all of which are woven in territory where for generations the
+  Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The
+  Western Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown
+  colours, nomadic character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian
+  Kurdistans are very stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have
+  one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot depressed
+  below the other. The Mosuls have each of the two threads of warp
+  encircled by a knot equally prominent at the back; and a
+  characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+  weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as
+  high as the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak
+  the alignment of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated.
+  The Karadaghs have Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have
+  coarse, wiry wool for the weft, and threads of warp strung so
+  that each half knot is distinct.</p>
+
+  <p>Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable
+  evidence for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the
+  patterns are important guides. It will be well, therefore, to
+  remember that:</p>
+
+  <p>A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul,
+  Kurdistan, or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a
+  Kermanshah, Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal,
+  Muskabad, or Sultanabad.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a
+  Sarabend, Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or
+  Luristan.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p64" id="p64"></a><img src="images/plate64.jpg"
+    width="550" height="835" alt=
+    "Plate 64. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 64. Chinese Rug of
+    the Keen-Lung Period</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id=
+  "Page_287">287</a></span></p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may
+  be a Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai
+  plant, the rug may be a Feraghan.</p>
+
+  <p>If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug
+  may be a Persian Kurdistan.</p>
+
+  <p>A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan
+  if the nap is long.</p>
+
+  <p>It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs
+  of the ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a
+  barber-pole design or has short lengths of different colours. The
+  Niris resembles the Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot
+  is more depressed, the ends generally have longer webs, and the
+  field is more frequently covered with large pear designs. It is a
+  Shiraz if short tassels or tufts project at regular intervals
+  from the ends; and it is probably a Niris if it has a long
+  end-web of different coloured stripes.</p>
+
+  <p>It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz
+  if the sides are finished with a selvage.</p>
+
+  <p>Many of these classes have features by which they can be
+  distinguished at once from all others. For instance:</p>
+
+  <p>The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs
+  of moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate
+  lines; borders of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory
+  white with an angular vine from which are suspended mechanically
+  drawn pear designs, and one or two narrow stripes with reciprocal
+  trefoils. Only two other classes are similar: the Iran copies,
+  which are always woven more coarsely and have the Ghiordes knot,
+  and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.</p>
+
+  <p>Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with
+  small Herati or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern
+  in the border. The only other rugs that are similar are the Iran
+  copies, which have the Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely
+  woven.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad
+  band of camel&rsquo;s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse
+  weft crossing only once between two rows of knots so as to give a
+  quincunx effect at the back.</p>
+
+  <p>Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields
+  almost covered with central medallions on which are archaically
+  drawn leaves, and a broad central border stripe with a large
+  conventionalised turtle pattern. They have usually the same
+  colour tones,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id=
+  "Page_288">288</a></span> which once seen are not forgotten. The
+  Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older and of
+  better colours.</p>
+
+  <p>The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green,
+  that are softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug.
+  The fields have concentric medallions with dainty floral forms
+  that are rarely seen in other classes except the Sarouks and
+  Kashans; and the borders, that correspond in drawing and
+  colouring with the field, have an outer edging that is almost
+  invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing and
+  colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at
+  once distinguish these pieces from all others.</p>
+
+  <p>Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky,
+  uneven, and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes,
+  may be distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe
+  at the ends. They are not likely to be confused with any classes
+  but the Mesheds, Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is
+  shorter, and harsher to the touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the
+  drawing more formal.</p>
+
+  <p>Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric,
+  adventitious designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the
+  only one that has small tufts of wool projecting from the sides;
+  and with the exception of the Niris is the only one that, as a
+  rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and a long web at the ends.
+  It is also one of the most loosely woven.</p>
+
+  <p>The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by
+  their short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful
+  foliated stalks and floral forms resting on concentric
+  medallions; and the fine, firm, texture of the weave. A carefully
+  drawn design of the running latch-hook appears in the borders;
+  and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The Kashans are
+  almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+  texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.</p>
+
+  <p>Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet
+  sizes. Their texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and
+  there is great irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at
+  the back. Of the two, the Mahals are the better grade.</p>
+
+  <p>A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to
+  each knot doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.</p>
+
+  <p>Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate
+  size. With few exceptions the field is covered with Herati or
+  pear designs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id=
+  "Page_289">289</a></span> They can be identified by the quincunx
+  appearance of the fine cotton weft at the back and the file-like
+  feeling of the weave.</p>
+
+  <p>The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows
+  evidence of Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the
+  patterns is the Karadagh.</p>
+
+  <p>The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their
+  dull colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by
+  the right half of some knots and the left half of others.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common
+  that they cannot conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For
+  instance: almost all have a coloured weft, a coloured web with
+  fringe at the ends, and a selvage at the sides; all, excepting
+  the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have woollen warp and weft;
+  and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a distinction may be
+  made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the Bergamo,
+  Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+  nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+  weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik,
+  one thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in
+  the remaining classes all threads of warp are equally prominent;
+  furthermore, Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and
+  Koniehs, have rarely more than three stripes to the border; and
+  Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and Ghiordes have seldom less than
+  five; but these features are not always constant and pronounced.
+  The patterns, therefore, and those smaller designs which
+  frequently are peculiar to a single class are of considerable
+  assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch of the
+  namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+  its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference
+  to Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the
+  demands of exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have
+  certain points of resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square,
+  and have long nap, long webs with coloured bands at the ends, a
+  side selvage, and coloured weft. The Rhodian may generally be
+  distinguished by their brighter colours and their panels,
+  suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the rug. The
+  Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+  and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than
+  any other Oriental rug.</p>
+
+  <p>Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the
+  field,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id=
+  "Page_290">290</a></span> are almost invariably seen in the
+  Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in the Kulahs, but rarely
+  in any other classes. The typical pattern of the central border
+  stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+  conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs;
+  nor is the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and
+  sedjadehs, consisting of an undulating band covered with small
+  flecks and fringed with latch-hooks.</p>
+
+  <p>The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are
+  the numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of
+  the border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese
+  device represented in <a href="#ph">Plate H</a>, Fig. 10 (opp.
+  Page 194).</p>
+
+  <p>The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian
+  lilies in the main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer
+  rugs from all others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some
+  Anatolians and Mudjars, are also a constant feature of
+  Ladiks.</p>
+
+  <p>A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with
+  three triangular-shaped petals that project from the border
+  against the field.</p>
+
+  <p>As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount
+  of grass-green colour than any other rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one
+  another like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are
+  important aids in distinguishing Melez rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>On account of their long pile and their patterns of
+  latch-hooks and other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all
+  this group resemble the Caucasian rugs. They may also be
+  distinguished from other Asia Minor rugs by the facts that the
+  weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads of warp are not
+  strung closely together, so that at the back each half knot
+  appears very distinct from the other.</p>
+
+  <p class="tb">A similarity prevails in the technique of most
+  Caucasian rugs, as all have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all
+  have warp and weft of wool, sides that are selvaged, and ends
+  with a web and loose fringe. Moreover, classes that are in a
+  measure geographically related show resemblances, as for
+  instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+  have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have
+  medium to long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which
+  have a similar selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in
+  which one thread of warp to each knot is depressed or doubled
+  under the other are the Karabagh, Shemakha, and Shusha, from the
+  southeastern part of Caucasia, and the Lesghian from the northern
+  part.</p>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id=
+  "Page_291">291</a></span></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="po" id="po"></a><img src="images/plateo.jpg" width=
+    "550" height="808" alt="Plate O." title="" />
+
+    <p class="center3"><span class="smcap">Plate O.</span> No. 1,
+    Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai
+    design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c, d, e, f,
+    Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+    designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of
+    Asia Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11,
+    Combs. No. 12, Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14,
+    15, conventionalised leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a,
+    b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives
+    of Daghestans and Kabistans.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id=
+  "Page_292">292</a></span>The Soumak with its flat stitch and with
+  ends of yarn hanging loose at the back is unlike all other rugs.
+  At the sides is a carefully woven selvage, and next to the nap at
+  the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun threads. The rugs of
+  Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who dwell nearer the
+  mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue or bluish
+  green, similar ends of a narrow web of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo;
+  weave and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of
+  rich blues, reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are
+  almost identical with them, except that each thread of warp is
+  equally prominent at the back, whereas in the Shemakhas one
+  thread to each knot is depressed. When once these selvages, the
+  narrow end-webs of &ldquo;herring-bone&rdquo; weave, and the
+  particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+  carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known
+  Georgian stripe (Plate <a href="#pj">J</a>, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+  228) is rarely found in any but these three classes.</p>
+
+  <p>The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear
+  designs, and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are
+  dull.</p>
+
+  <p>Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are
+  almost invariably present, and large designs surrounded by
+  numerous small nomadic figures are the general features of a
+  Kazak. The Tcherkess has a striking resemblance to it, so that
+  they are constantly mistaken for one another; but the Tcherkess
+  is generally better woven and the pattern usually consists of
+  what is known as the &ldquo;Sunburst&rdquo; resting on a field of
+  dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of
+  three stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and
+  the two guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.</p>
+
+  <p>The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of
+  small geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes
+  separated by diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate
+  <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).</p>
+
+  <p>Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised
+  by the Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.</p>
+
+  <p>Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of
+  this group by the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and
+  frequently many times, between every two rows of knots, which are
+  not appressed, so that the weft, as it encircles the warp,
+  appears at the back like a narrow beaded surface.</p>
+
+  <p>Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different
+  patterns that it is not always easy to distinguish the classes;
+  but it will be some assistance to remember that the border design
+  of wine cup and serrated leaf (Plate <a href="#pi">I</a>, Fig. 1,
+  opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the Shirvans, and
+  that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228) is
+  peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+    <a name="p65" id="p65"></a><img src="images/plate65.jpg"
+    width="550" height="835" alt=
+    "Plate 65. Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung Period" title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> 65.
+    <span class="smcap">Chinese Rug of the Keen-Lung
+    Period</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id=
+  "Page_293">293</a></span></p>
+
+  <p class="tb">The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike
+  other groups, but may naturally be divided into three sub-groups,
+  which are also distinct from one another and contain well-defined
+  classes, viz.:</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>a</i>) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess
+  Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva, Yomud, and Beshire.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>b</i>) Samarkand, Kashgar, and
+  Yarkand.</p>
+
+  <p class="indent3">(<i>c</i>) Beluchistan.</p>
+
+  <p>In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds
+  and browns with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The
+  Afghans are almost always of large size, and may be recognised at
+  once by the broad web of the ends and the large octagonal shaped
+  figures placed in contact in perpendicular rows. The Royal
+  Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not so wide, the octagons
+  are never in contact and are separated diagonally by
+  diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes
+  have the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes
+  of this sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs
+  have entirely replaced the octagons.</p>
+
+  <p>The rugs of sub-group &ldquo;b&rdquo; almost always have
+  cotton warp; whereas the rugs of sub-groups &ldquo;a&rdquo; and
+  &ldquo;c&rdquo; invariably have woollen or goat&rsquo;s hair
+  warp.</p>
+
+  <p>The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to
+  Chinese rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they
+  almost invariably have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese
+  usually have only one or two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show
+  Chinese influence.</p>
+
+  <p>The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours
+  may be identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each
+  end.</p>
+
+  <p>In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the
+  pattern first of all attracts attention; and if it be one
+  peculiar to a single class, it is an important guide. But in the
+  great majority of cases, this will not be sufficient. It is,
+  therefore, desirable to observe if the designs be floral or
+  geometric, if the colours be subdued or obtrusive, if the knot be
+  Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> or
+  wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an
+  index of the class. The pattern and these few technical details
+  are the only characteristics by which most dealers attempt to
+  determine the different kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of
+  them, such evidence is far from conclusive. The back should be
+  even more carefully examined than the front; because here are
+  shown those subtle, but nevertheless positive distinctions,
+  relating to the manner of tying the knot and the treatment of
+  warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+  characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then,
+  if each thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot
+  lies in the same plane parallel with the surface and is equally
+  prominent; or if one to each knot be depressed below the other,
+  or if it be doubled under the other so as to be concealed. It
+  should also be noticed if the weft be coloured or uncoloured, of
+  fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread of weft crosses only
+  once or two or more times from side to side between every two
+  rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+  carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly
+  pressed down upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or
+  exceeding its width, if the yarn of which they are formed is
+  drawn tight against the warp, and if it is loosely or closely
+  spun. Only by consideration of all these different points, and
+  sometimes even more, such as the nature of the colours, the
+  character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is it
+  possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id=
+  "Page_295">295</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>CHAPTER XVII</h3>
+
+  <h4>PURCHASING RUGS</h4>
+
+  <p><span class="floatLeft"><img src="images/a.jpg" width="110" height="110" alt="A"
+  title="a" /></span>S those who have expert knowledge of the value
+  of Oriental rugs are exceedingly few, compared with those who
+  admire and wish to own them, the object of this chapter is to
+  make suggestions regarding a proper selection, when purchasing,
+  and to point out some of the pitfalls that beset the
+  inexperienced.</p>
+
+  <p>In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities
+  are to be considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.</p>
+
+  <p>Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it
+  was woven, or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule
+  is greatly exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered.
+  One is the condition resulting from wear; though at times this is
+  misleading, since of two pieces, one may have been handled with
+  almost religious solicitude and the other exposed to the elements
+  and to hard usage. Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural
+  wear is sometimes counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since,
+  as has been shown in the case of antique carpets, the character
+  of drawing changed with succeeding periods. Even when the
+  patterns of old carpets are copied in modern pieces, a
+  distinction is usually discernible to a careful observer. The
+  colours, too, play an important part in determining age; for not
+  only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+  shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of
+  Persian; but the mellowing influences of time, acting through the
+  agencies of exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be
+  produced by any artificial process.</p>
+
+  <p>Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic
+  numbers woven above a word denoting &ldquo;year.&rdquo; If they
+  are indistinct on account of the length of the nap, they may be
+  more clearly read in reverse order at the back. In the following
+  lines, each of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id=
+  "Page_296">296</a></span> them is represented below the one in
+  our own notation, to which it corresponds.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="symbols" id="symbols"></a><img src=
+    "images/symbols.png" width="400" height="93" alt=
+    "Arabic numerals" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan
+  year, which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the
+  middle of July 622, or a little before the actual flight from
+  Medina. It should also be remembered that the lunar and not the
+  solar year is considered in Moslem chronology; which, according
+  to our reckoning, gains about one year in every thirty-three and
+  seven tenths years. To calculate, then, the year of our time
+  corresponding with the year expressed in the rug, from the number
+  should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths part of
+  itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+  Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding
+  year would be <span class="smcap">a. d.</span> 1247 less 37 (or
+  1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates appear in old rugs, they
+  are generally to be depended on, but in modern ones they are more
+  likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater age.</p>
+
+  <p>With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently
+  be divided into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made
+  over two centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago;
+  and modern rugs made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or
+  within the last fifty years.</p>
+
+  <p>The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as
+  it is impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques
+  and palaces. Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those
+  that are owned in Europe and America. They consist principally of
+  the products of Persia, Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many
+  belong to the museums and the remainder to sovereigns and wealthy
+  collectors. Like rare porcelains and old paintings, their value
+  increases with each passing year; and the prices received for
+  them range according to the fancy and caprice of the purchaser.
+  They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+    <a name="p66" id="p66"></a><img src="images/plate66.jpg"
+    width="500" height="835" alt="Plate 66. Kurdish Prayer Kilim"
+    title="" />
+
+    <p class="center"><span class="smcap">Plate 66. Kurdish Prayer
+    Kilim</span></p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging
+  to the previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently
+  prized to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id=
+  "Page_297">297</a></span>be placed in art museums, some belong to
+  collectors, large numbers embellish the halls and drawing rooms
+  of people of refinement, and others are yearly brought from the
+  Orient; but dealers and the public already realise that their
+  numbers are limited. Even now they are searched for in the
+  remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and in a few
+  years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have been
+  exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though
+  some are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are
+  treated with aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are
+  exceptionally good and frequently contain rare tones
+  characteristic of the first class. Moreover, large numbers
+  contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in mysteries that
+  increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the choicest
+  stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+  homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are
+  beginning to disappear from the market, the prices at which they
+  may be purchased are moderate compared with the prices of more
+  modern pieces.</p>
+
+  <p>The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven
+  within the last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the
+  newest, have colours that compare favourably with those of older
+  pieces; but a large number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some
+  woven by nomads or dwellers in remote villages, without thought
+  of sale, have designs and workmanship such as have characterised
+  the fabrics of these people for past generations; but others,
+  which are the products of the work-house system, though well
+  woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous individuality. Age
+  alone has little influence in determining the value of these
+  modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+  them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things
+  being equal, they cost less than the old and the antique
+  rugs.</p>
+
+  <p>The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+  determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless
+  carpets that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of
+  Caucasia and Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to
+  be found it would be almost priceless. The antique carpets of
+  Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz, and Tabriz, woven over three
+  centuries ago, are more valuable than others of equally good
+  workmanship, of which relatively large numbers remain. So, too,
+  of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the venerable
+  age of the real antiques,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298"
+  id="Page_298">298</a></span> those which are now difficult to be
+  obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than
+  those which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as
+  the Joshaghan, Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of
+  age, are no longer woven. Modern products from the same districts
+  may adopt the old names, but they are not the same. Accordingly,
+  it will be only a short time when they too will disappear from
+  the market. Good examples of such pieces should therefore receive
+  more careful consideration on the part of purchasers and
+  collectors, as their value is increasing with each passing
+  year.</p>
+
+  <p>Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of
+  its age or the locality where it was made, and is due to its
+  peculiar type. For instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver
+  threads and the so-called Garden Carpets of Iran represent types
+  rather than localities. Likewise the Hunting Carpets of Persia,
+  the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and the Dragon Carpets of
+  Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile craft of no
+  well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of modern
+  rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+  on account of their age, but also because they represent these
+  rare types.</p>
+
+  <p>A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable
+  rugs which centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and
+  only those intended for palaces or temples have been preserved.
+  It is but natural, then, that the antique carpets representing
+  the highest art of their time should be not only rare but also
+  beautiful. Yet even in them is often a distinction that affects
+  their value. Fortunately, very many of the larger number of rugs
+  of less age, but classed as old, likewise possess artistic
+  beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+  colouring.</p>
+
+  <p>It will be noticed that almost without exception careful
+  drawing accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly
+  due to the facts that the more excellent the weave the easier it
+  is to clearly define patterns; and that on shortness of nap,
+  which as a rule is found in closely woven rugs, depends accuracy
+  of delineation. The charm of rugs often depends, also, on the
+  graceful flow of lines, the careful balance of different parts of
+  patterns, and the proper co-ordination between border and field.
+  Careful attention should accordingly be given to the drawing when
+  selecting a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on
+  the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id=
+  "Page_299">299</a></span> colouring, since, as has been elsewhere
+  expressed, drawing, which is intellectual, finds its highest
+  development in the Occident, and colouring, which is sensuous,
+  finds its highest development in the Orient. It at once suggests
+  sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique carpets that remain and
+  in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all the colours
+  employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony, and
+  are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is
+  most agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are
+  produced in parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which,
+  like discordant notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The
+  most pleasing effect is when colours of border and field are
+  complementary, yet so in harmony as to accentuate the qualities
+  of each.</p>
+
+  <p>There are also colours which, independent of their
+  association, are in themselves good or bad. The best are found in
+  the antique carpets woven when the art of the dyer was an
+  honourable profession. The colours are also very good in still
+  later pieces; but for a century now some of the finest have not
+  been used, and even the secret of producing them has been lost.
+  Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions, so
+  that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but
+  the most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial
+  processes, often display harsh and garish colours. This
+  distinction is in a measure due to the fact that old colours were
+  largely produced by vegetable dyes and the modern are too often
+  produced by aniline. Not infrequently both vegetable and aniline
+  colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes the quantity of
+  aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely objectionable; but
+  as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is so
+  tainted.</p>
+
+  <p>One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing
+  some of the natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it
+  brittle, so that it is less able to stand wear. Another is that
+  in time some of the dyes, which have been applied collectively to
+  produce a single colour, will fade or even disappear, so that the
+  final colour may be a most undesirable shade not in harmony with
+  those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle and become
+  harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+  that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application
+  of weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if
+  produced by aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if
+  produced by vegetable dyes. Many na<span class='pagenum'><a name=
+  "Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>tive weavers can
+  distinguish by placing the wool in their mouths, when they
+  experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as vegetable or
+  aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to assume
+  that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+  at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the
+  colour spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of
+  the vegetable colours will fade; and when fresh they will run
+  during the first washing in water, but afterwards they are little
+  affected either by water or weak acids.</p>
+
+  <p>Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were
+  used, there is a marked distinction in the appearance of old and
+  of recently woven rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure
+  to sun and weather. The effect of time, imperceptible at first,
+  is shown in rich tones of remarkable softness and beauty, that
+  add greatly to the value of a rug. It accordingly happens that
+  artificial processes are adopted to create as far as possible the
+  same results without the lapse of time. Some of these are as
+  novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of King-te
+  Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+  porcelains.<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Henry Savage Landor
+  says<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> that &ldquo;to manufacture
+  &lsquo;Antique Carpets&rsquo; is one of the most lucrative
+  branches of modern Persian carpet making. The new carpets are
+  spread in the bazar in the middle of the street, where it is most
+  crowded, and trampled upon for days or weeks, according to the
+  days required, foot passengers and their donkeys, mules and
+  camels making a point of treading on them in order to &lsquo;add
+  to age&rsquo; in the manufacturer&rsquo;s goods. When
+  sufficiently worn down the carpet is removed, brushed, and
+  ordinarily sold for double or treble the actual price, owing to
+  its antiquity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+  <h4><i>COLOUR PLATE XI&mdash;CHINESE RUG</i></h4>
+
+  <p><i>This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best
+  workmanship of the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful
+  drawing of leaf, fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty
+  colouring of blue, yellow, brown, and apricot on a field of ivory
+  that are so characteristic of this time. The usual balance of
+  designs throughout the field is maintained with precision; but,
+  as is not always the case, different motives occupy corresponding
+  positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and fruit may be balanced
+  with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The conventional drawing of
+  the corners and the somewhat formal panel that surrounds the
+  central medallion give to the pattern strength of character while
+  they detract nothing from its beauty.</i></p>
+
+  <p class="name"><i>Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz</i></p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+    <a name="pxi" id="pxi"></a><img src="images/plate_xi.jpg"
+    width="400" height="859" alt=
+    "COLOUR PLATE XI--CHINESE RUG" title="" />
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give
+  softened effects to the colours are known as
+  &ldquo;washing.&rdquo; Most of those in vogue in the Orient, such
+  as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In this
+  country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+  business of firms, who guard the secret of their different
+  methods. Some use ammonia, borax, and soap, <span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>which
+  also do very little injury to the rug. Others use chloride of
+  lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid, that remove some of
+  the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair its qualities
+  for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the extent
+  that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+  Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed
+  with an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the
+  colours never have the same richness as those which have been
+  softened by natural processes operating for a long period of
+  years. To be sure, rugs that have been washed are often more
+  attractive than they were in their raw colours; but the older,
+  more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time are
+  always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+  Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a
+  large percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country,
+  have been treated by some artificial process to soften their
+  colours or give them the appearance of age. It is generally
+  necessary, when selecting a large rug for a floor covering, to
+  accept a washed piece; but when a smaller rug or a runner will
+  meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose the older
+  unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs but
+  little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+  sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish
+  between those that are artificially aged and those that are not.
+  In the case of others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly
+  with a wet rag; when, if acid or chloride of lime has been used,
+  it can generally be detected by the odour.</p>
+
+  <p>The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the
+  fineness of the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools
+  acquire a velvety appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and
+  a lustre compared with which other rugs look harsh and coarse.
+  For instance, the rugs of Shiraz and Meshed, the Beluchistans,
+  and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre of their colours; but
+  on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia
+  have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India which
+  are made of dead or &ldquo;Chunam&rdquo; wool, seem lifeless.</p>
+
+  <p>When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully
+  observe if the patterns are well drawn and their different parts
+  show a proper balance. He should observe if the colour tones are
+  harmonious with one another, if each colour in itself is good,
+  and if they have been softened by natural processes acting for a
+  long time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id=
+  "Page_302">302</a></span> And he should notice if the wool is
+  coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen and glint in
+  the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up the
+  artistic beauty of a rug.</p>
+
+  <p>The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to
+  museums and collectors receives small consideration, though even
+  with them the more perfect their condition the more valuable they
+  are. But in case of the great majority of rugs, which are
+  intended for use as well as for ornament, their utility is an
+  important consideration to the purchaser. Rugs that have warp and
+  weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture, will wear better
+  than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one thread of
+  warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+  wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of
+  warp equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is
+  also to be preferred to short, since it protects the foundations
+  of the knots from wearing and becoming loose.</p>
+
+  <p>Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor
+  to see if it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be
+  examined by daylight and not by electric light, which gives a
+  false impression of colour and sheen. It should be held up with
+  the back turned to the purchaser, and carefully examined for weak
+  spots through which the light may pass; since, when so held, many
+  pieces which seem in good condition when lying on the floor,
+  resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should also be carefully
+  inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with slight
+  tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+  the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but
+  for protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition.
+  Sometimes the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that
+  continual fraying of the nap is prevented with difficulty.
+  Sometimes the selvage or overcasting of the sides is broken and
+  some of the threads of warp are injured. Or the sides may be well
+  protected by a stout overcasting; but on examination it will be
+  seen that it is not the original finishing, and that some of the
+  border has disappeared. Again, it may have been overcast too
+  tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus expose
+  the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+  often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of
+  rents, that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have
+  been removed, so that they are no longer of their original
+  length; or parts of the border are gone, or even the whole of it
+  has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id=
+  "Page_303">303</a></span> replaced by the border of another rug;
+  yet all so deftly done that the changes are scarcely
+  noticeable.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to
+  be discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+  accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable.
+  Broken threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can
+  be replaced with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be
+  straightened by loosening here and stretching there; borders that
+  curl can be flattened by removing the yarn and overcasting again
+  more carefully. In fact, if the nap be not so worn that the
+  foundation of warp and weft is exposed, it is far better to
+  choose an old rug with some rents than a new one with garish
+  aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+  brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low;
+  since often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface
+  of brighter colours standing out in relief, on account of the
+  worn blackish nap that surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can
+  be had by buying a rug which, because of some imperfection that
+  is not serious, has been passed by; and now and then a piece
+  reeking with dirt has proved, when properly cleansed, to be a
+  gem.</p>
+
+  <p>The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but
+  little consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most
+  important indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is
+  one of the most necessary conditions for utility. The warp is
+  best observed at the ends. In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in
+  some of the Persian, it is of cotton; in others it is of wool or
+  goat&rsquo;s hair. In the Chinese rugs the diameter of the
+  threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the threads
+  of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+  rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily
+  be observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it
+  consists of fine spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of
+  coarse wool or cotton. The number of knots to the square inch
+  does not of itself demonstrate the quality of texture, since a
+  rug may have only a few knots of coarse diameter and be firmly
+  woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter and be loosely
+  woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally more
+  knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+  should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the
+  yarn that forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves
+  are drawn tight and well pressed down, and if the
+  threads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id=
+  "Page_304">304</a></span> of weft are carefully inserted and have
+  a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost invariably it
+  will be found that if the back of a rug shows good material, and
+  has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking weaving,
+  the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+  drawing.</p>
+
+  <p>The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on
+  their size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and
+  character, is constantly increasing; for the reason that their
+  number is limited and each year they are more highly appreciated.
+  It is, therefore, impossible to affix even approximate prices;
+  but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale in 1910, when some thirty
+  pieces were sold at auction for an average of about $9,400, will
+  serve as a guide. The following are some of the pieces sold and
+  the prices realised:</p>
+
+  <table width="100%" summary="Carpet prices">
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4
+        inches, attributed to Western Persia, at end of XVI
+        Century, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
+        N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">$5,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on
+        page 86</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">5,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 6 inches by 4 feet 7 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">4,700</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 6 inches by 4 feet 7 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">3,500</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6
+        feet 11 inches by 4 feet 10 inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">12,300</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet
+        2&frac12; inches by 6 feet 5 inches, stated to have
+        belonged to the Ardebil Mosque</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">35,500</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet
+        11 inches by 5 feet 10 inches, stated to have belonged to
+        the Ardebil Mosque and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+        of Art, N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">15,200</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34
+        feet 5 inches by 16 feet 8 inches, flat stitch</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">8,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size
+        16 feet 4 inches by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the
+        Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">19,600</td>
+    </tr>
+
+    <tr>
+      <td class="left90">
+        <p class="indent">Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of
+        Ardebil, XVI Century, size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5
+        inches</p>
+      </td>
+
+      <td class="right10s">27,000</td>
+    </tr>
+  </table>
+
+  <p>The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently
+  old to belong to the antique class also depends as much on the
+  technique of weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the
+  size; yet even this must be taken into consideration. In
+  proportion to their size the most expensive of these rugs are the
+  Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia; the Ghiordes and Ladiks
+  from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans from Caucasia; and
+  the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia. Considering both
+  utility and attractiveness the least expensive are probably the
+  Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks from Asia
+  Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans
+  and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id=
+  "Page_305">305</a></span> Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is
+  the case with antique carpets, the prices of all old rugs in good
+  condition are steadily advancing.</p>
+
+  <p>There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to
+  increase with each year, since on account of the gradual opening
+  of Oriental countries to the markets of the world, and the
+  greater demand for rugs, the wages of weavers are increasing.
+  Some of them, as the Tabriz, Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads,
+  Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now made almost exclusively
+  under the direction of the work-house system, and are sold at
+  prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time the
+  prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.</p>
+
+  <p>When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are
+  generally preferred on account of their soft colouring and
+  refined patterns, that harmonise with the furnishings of most
+  reception rooms. Less expensive and more showy are the Gorevans,
+  which are suitable for halls or dining rooms. In the Afghans,
+  which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined durability with a
+  moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian rugs, as
+  the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+  not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly
+  good texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs
+  required both for ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul,
+  Bergamo, Tcherkess, Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.</p>
+
+  <p>As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can
+  be practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too
+  much circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with
+  intention, a dealer will declare that the wool of a rug which has
+  been coloured with aniline dyes has been coloured with vegetable
+  dyes only; that a rug washed with acid has matured naturally;
+  that a new rug which has been artificially worn almost to the
+  knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs to the class
+  desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a Bijar
+  for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+  accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a
+  reputation which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is
+  difficult to learn the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do
+  well to make an effort to test its reliability by inquiring about
+  the qualities of some class of rugs with which he is familiar
+  before purchasing others; and if there appears to be any
+  intention to deceive, he should at once look elsewhere. In any
+  event, he should take a guarantee that the<span class=
+  'pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span> rug
+  purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+  reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public,
+  and will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake
+  has been made.</p>
+
+  <p>At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the
+  fairest prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are
+  being closed or where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur,
+  when every opportunity is given the purchaser to thoroughly
+  examine in advance pieces which are sold without reservation to
+  the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare pieces are sometimes
+  bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule, unless the
+  purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully examined a
+  coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+  auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a
+  rug. The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too
+  favourable impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of
+  other real or fictitious purchasers and the words of the
+  auctioneer too often lead beyond the dictates of good judgment.
+  At such times one would do well to remember the old words
+  <i>caveat emptor</i>.</p>
+
+<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> The Yerkes
+    sale.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> Stewart Dix, in
+    &ldquo;Arts of Old Japan.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> The influence of
+    the physical aspects of a country on its art as expressed in
+    architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt, and
+    there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the
+    native rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile
+    and the boundless desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased
+    to be a rug-producing country, and none of its ancient rugs
+    remain, it will only be briefly referred to in this work,
+    though symbolic designs which had their origin there during the
+    Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign weavers and
+    occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> It is said that
+    he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor and
+    Constantinople.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> This is a
+    product of flowers of the genus <i>Delphinum</i> that grows in
+    the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from
+    Afghanistan.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> In a few rare
+    instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> Most Sehna knots
+    are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a large proportion
+    of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> As far as the
+    writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention to the
+    many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+    that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For
+    this reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully
+    than would otherwise be necessary.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> A few of the
+    weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a double
+    foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses
+    twice between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is
+    this method followed in other districts.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> Sir George
+    Birdwood has made the statement that &ldquo;A deep and
+    complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in
+    India, pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the
+    carpet itself prefigures space and eternity, and the general
+    pattern or filling, as it is technically termed, the fleeting,
+    finite universe of animated beauty. Every colour has its
+    significance; and the design, whether mythological or natural,
+    human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+    representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+    indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their
+    symbolism, wherever they are introduced, generally following
+    that of their colours. The very irregularities either in
+    drawing or colouring, to be observed in almost every Oriental
+    carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are seldom
+    accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+    evil eye and insure good luck.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> The equivalent
+    of 106 feet square.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> See his work,
+    &ldquo;The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> Ismael
+    reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> 1586-1628.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> These will be
+    considered in a later chapter.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> This group
+    includes both antique and modern rugs.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> Robert Kerr
+    Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor of the
+    audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in
+    1818, &ldquo;was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those
+    of that manufacture being the richest that can be
+    made.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> By &ldquo;Type
+    Characteristics&rdquo; is meant the characteristics of such
+    types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are
+    exceptions to these types.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> As this is the
+    case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this feature will
+    be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> Ibn
+    Batutah.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Of modern
+    Ispahans.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a>
+    &ldquo;Burlington Magazine,&rdquo; December, 1909.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Sidney
+    Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that &ldquo;the dyes
+    of Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in
+    Persia.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a>
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> Mrs. Elizabeth
+    Bishop in &ldquo;Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> Encyclopedia
+    Britannica.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> It is also to
+    be noted that within the last few years large numbers of pieces
+    bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+    Constantinople.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> One of the
+    most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a most
+    beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might
+    well have been taken for a weaver&rsquo;s model. As in many
+    prayer rugs, the engaged columns support a high arch over which
+    a panel rests above a figured spandrel. The outlines of each of
+    these parts suggest most forcibly the drawing of the prayer
+    rug, and the resemblance is carried even further; for
+    corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled masonry
+    that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+    of the entrance at each side of the arch.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> One of these
+    is represented in Dr. Bode&rsquo;s &ldquo;Knupfteppiche,&rdquo;
+    where it appears as a secondary stripe.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> An
+    intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+    Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> A. Bogolubow,
+    in his excellent work &ldquo;Tapis de l&rsquo;Asie
+    Centrale,&rdquo; divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two
+    principal groups, the Salors and Yomuds, each of which includes
+    sub-groups. These are again divisible into many tribes, almost
+    all of whom weave. As their rugs, though resembling one
+    another, show different characteristics, they might properly be
+    separated into numerous classes; but since only a few of them
+    are known in this country, they alone will be described.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> &ldquo;Desert
+    of Red Sands.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> A tent in
+    which an average of five people live.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> Dr.
+    Birdwood.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> Sometimes
+    Sehna knot.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> Sometimes one
+    thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> Rarely Iran,
+    Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> It is stated
+    that in the short space of a few weeks he created valuable
+    antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+    recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very
+    greasy soup, where they were duly boiled for a month, and after
+    that placing them in the &ldquo;foulest drain of the
+    neighbourhood,&rdquo; where they remained until seasoned.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> In
+    &ldquo;Across Coveted Lands, 1903.&rdquo;</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="footnote">
+    <p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href=
+    "#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> All references
+    of an unimportant character are indicated by the page number
+    only.</p>
+  </div>
+
+  <p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id=
+  "Page_309">307<br />
+  308<br />
+  309</a></span></p>
+
+  <h3>INDEX<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href=
+  "#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a></h3>
+
+  <ul class="IX">
+    <li><span style=
+    "margin-left: 12em; margin-top: 1.25em; margin-bottom: .75em;">A</span></li>
+
+    <li>Abbas, Shah, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">
+      89</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+      "#Page_211">211</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern named after, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sent artisans to India, <a href=
+        "#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rug industry declined after death of, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Abraham, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Acacia used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Accadians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Adighies, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Afghan rugs, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>geometric designs of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Afghan tribes, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Afghanistan, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>camel&rsquo;s wool of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Afshar rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, <a href=
+    "#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agamemnon, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agra, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Agra rugs described, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Akbar, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>received assistance from Shah Abbas, <a href=
+        "#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>established rug weaving at Lahore, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>imported Persian weavers, <a href=
+        "#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpet factory of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ak-Hissar, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ak-kal, oasis of, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Albana, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>destroyed Shiraz, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>built walls at Derbend, <a href=
+        "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Alhambra, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ali Riza, Imam, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Allahabad, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Allahabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Altai Mts., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>original home of the Turks, <a href=
+        "#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Altman, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Alum, used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Amritsar, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Amritsar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>, 305.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.</li>
+
+    <li>Anatolia, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_182">
+      182</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the &ldquo;Land of the Rising Sun,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Anatolian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Angora, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s wool, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Anilines. _See_ Dyes.</li>
+
+    <li>Animal carpets, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anjuman Industrial Art School, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anoschar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Anti-Taurus Mts., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Arabia, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Arabic features in rugs, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>notation, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Arabs, in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>overran Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ararat, Mt., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Aras river, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, <a href="#Page_28">
+      28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mosque of, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ardebil carpet, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+
+    <li>described, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ardelan district, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Armenia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, <a href=
+        "#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Armenian rugs, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_220">220</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>designs derived from, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Armenians in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>in Mosul, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Artaxerxes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Aryan races, in India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Persia, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Caucasia, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>floral ornamentation employed by, <a href=
+        "#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Asburg used as a dye, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Astrabad, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Astrakan, market for Bokharas, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>for caravans from Khiva, <a href=
+        "#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Auctions, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ayyampet, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Azerbijan province, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">B</span></li>
+
+    <li>Baber, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Babylon, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>, 103.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Bagdad, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets covering the floors of, <a href=
+        "#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>captured by Tartars, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>by Solyman the Magnificent, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Karaman subject to, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bakshis rugs described, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Baku, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Baku rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pear design in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bangalore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bangalore rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, 259.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Barbarossa, Frederic, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bardini, Stefano, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bastard teak used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bedouins, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Belshazzar, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beluches, in Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>untamed tribes of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Beluchistan, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beluchistan rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric designs in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal trefoil in, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Beni-Hassan, tombs of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bergamo rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prevailing colour tone of, <a href=
+        "#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Berlin gallery, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Beshire rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bibikabad, town of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bibikabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bijar, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bijar rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Birbul&rsquo;s blue used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Birdwood, Sir George, cited, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Birjand, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bogolubow, A., cited, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>B&ouml;hler, J., cited, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_110">
+      110</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Genghis Khan, <a href=
+        "#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the &ldquo;Noble,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s hair in, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, Princess, rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Bokhara, Royal, rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>compared with Princess, <a href=
+        "#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the arch compared with that of Tekkes, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Border stripes, defined, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persian, described, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Asia Minor, described, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Caucasian, described, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Central Asiatic, described, <a href=
+        "#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Chinese, described, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Boston Museum of Fine Arts, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Brahoes, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>British Museum, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Broussa, 181.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Buckthorns used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, <a href=
+    "#Page_16">16</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>on symbolism, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>the lotus an emblem of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Buddhist emblems, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Burujird, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Burujird rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Butea fondosa used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Butti lac used as a dye, 39.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">C</span></li>
+
+    <li>C&aelig;sarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.</li>
+
+    <li>Ca&iuml;cus valley, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cairo, Caliphs in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mecca rugs sold in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Caliphate, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Caliphs, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>prayer rugs in time of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ispahan under, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kirman rugs in palaces of, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs known in days of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Caliph Hisham, carpet of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Camel&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Carduchis, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Caria. _See_ Melez.</li>
+
+    <li>Chaldees, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism derived from, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chardin cited, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Charles Martel, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, <a href=
+    "#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Che-Hwang-te, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chichi rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kazaks contrasted with, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chinese fret, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_165">165</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Chosroes I, &ldquo;Spring of Chosroes&rdquo; carpet made
+    for, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Chunam wool, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cinnabar used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.</li>
+
+    <li>Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus cacti used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus ilicus used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coccus lacca used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cochineal used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, <a href=
+    "#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Coconada, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Colour, the artistic value of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the symbolism of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cone design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Constantinople, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persian weavers taken to, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>silk carpets sent to Sultan of, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Conventions in art, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cordova, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cossacks, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cotton, used in weaving <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mercerized, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cow&rsquo;s hair used in weaving, <a href=
+    "#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Crocus used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cr&oelig;sus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Ctesiphon, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, <a href=
+    "#Page_85">85</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reputed inventor of, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Curcuma used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Cyrus, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, 181;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Turkestan overrun by, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">D</span></li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent stars in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Cufic borders of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weave of Kabistans compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs in, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of,
+        <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mosaic drawing of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Daghestan, Royal, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Damascus, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>antique carpets of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mecca rugs sold in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Dari, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Darius, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Delhi, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Demirdji, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Demirdji rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Deodorus, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, <a href=
+    "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Derbend, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Derbend rugs described, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Designs, geometric, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>floral, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_185">185</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>almond, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>animal, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>antilope, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>arabesques, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>barber-pole, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bat, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>birds, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bird of paradise, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>butterfly, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>camel, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>chessboard, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>chrysanthemum, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cloud-band, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cocos, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>comb, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>conch, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cone, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>crab, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cross, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>crown jewel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>daisy, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>diamond, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_223">223</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>djinni, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dog, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dragon, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dragon and phoenix, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>duck, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>eagle, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Euphrates flower, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fish, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fung-kwang, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>fungus, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>gazelle, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>goat, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Joo-e, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>key-pattern, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>knot of destiny, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ky-lin, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lamp, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>latch-hook, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lily, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lion, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lion-dog, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lotus, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lozenge, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lyre, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mango, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallion, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>moon, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>octagonal disc, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, 275;</li>
+
+        <li>palm, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>palmette, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peacock, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peony, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_270">270</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ph&oelig;nix, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pole-medallion, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pomegranate, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal sawtooth, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>reciprocal trefoil, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>river loop, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rose, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>rosette, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>running latch-hook, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sacred mountain, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>scorpion, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>serpent, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>serrated leaf and wine cup, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>shield of David, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shou, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>star, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent star, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>eight-pointed star, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>stork, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sun, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunburst, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunflower, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>swastika, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tarantula, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_221">221</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tiger, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tree, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tree of life, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandyke, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>wheel of law, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>zigzag line, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Diaper pattern, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Diarbekr, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Distaff, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dix, Stewart, quoted, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Djinni. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.</li>
+
+    <li>Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, <a href=
+    "#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dragon and Phoenix carpet, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dragon carpets, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dravidians, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dyeing, 37; process of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Dyes, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>of Sultanabad, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of Oushak, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of Amritsar rugs, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Aniline dyes introduced into India, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>into China, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>objection to, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>how to distinguish, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">E</span></li>
+
+    <li>East India Company, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ecbatana, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elburz Mts., <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elizabethpol, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ellore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ellore rugs described, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>El Mirz li alla, Caliph, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Elwund Mt., <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ends, finish of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Esther, Queen, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Evil eye, superstition of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
+    168.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">F</span></li>
+
+    <li>Fairs, Oriental, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Farsistan, wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, <a href=
+        "#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Fatimid Caliphs, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Feraghan district, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Feraghan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>small designs in, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Guli Hinnai pattern of, <a href=
+        "#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Filling, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Firdousi, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Flame design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Flax used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Floral design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Friedhofteppiche, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">G</span></li>
+
+    <li>Gall nuts used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ganges river, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ganja. _See_ Gengha.</li>
+
+    <li>Gehrous district, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gengha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gengha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Genghis Khan, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Geok Teppe, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Georgian pattern, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ghiordes rugs, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karabaghs compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gibbon cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, <a href=
+    "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Girdler&rsquo;s Company, India carpet presented to,
+    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Goat&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Gobi desert, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Goodyear, Prof., cited, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gorevan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>relation of Bakshis rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>relation of Herez rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gotcha lake, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gozene, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gozene rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Grain of rice&rdquo; pattern in Chinese rugs,
+    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Granada, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Guebres, in Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>temple at Baku of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Guli Hinnai pattern, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gulistan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Gulistan treaty, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Gyze, Georg, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">H</span></li>
+
+    <li>Hafiz, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hair, of cow, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;<ul>
+    <li>of horse, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Hamadan, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hamadan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of some Irans to, <a href=
+        "#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of Karajes to, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hang Chow, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Harris, Henry T., quoted, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Havell, E. B., cited, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hegira, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hemp used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herat, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>so-called Ispahans probably made at, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herat rugs, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_89">
+      89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cloud-band in antique rugs of, <a href=
+        "#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ground colour of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>influence on Indian weaving of, <a href=
+        "#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herati pattern, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hereke, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hereke rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herez, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herez rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_150">150</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Herodotus, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Herring bone weave, described, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Shemakhas, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Himalayas, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hindu Koosh Mts., <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hoa, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Holbein, Hans, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Holbein rugs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>octagonal disc in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Homer, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mongolian capital established in Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hunting carpets, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism in, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Carpets described, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyderabad, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyderabad rugs described, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Hyder Ali, 261.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">I</span></li>
+
+    <li>Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iconium, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Imari ware, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Imeritia, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>India Museum, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indigo used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indigofera used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Indus river, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Irak-Ajemi, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iran rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to,
+        <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Irtish river, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Isbarta, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Iskenderoon gulf, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets made at Herat during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Shah Abbas transferred his court to, <a href=
+        "#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were
+        made at, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>description of city, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan blue, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>made at Ispahan, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sombre tones of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>red fields of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>blues and reds of the antique, <a href=
+        "#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>palmettes of the antique, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Modern rugs described, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">J</span></li>
+
+    <li>Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, <a href=
+    "#Page_94">94</a>;<ul>
+
+    <li>Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, <a href=
+    "#Page_253">253</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Jail system of India, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jaipur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jaipur rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Japan, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design,
+      <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Srinagar on the, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Joshaghan district, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Joshaghan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Jubbulpur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jubbulpur rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Jute, used in weaving, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Kulahs, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Vellore rugs, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Bangalore rugs, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">K</span></li>
+
+    <li>Kaaba, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kabistan, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kabistan rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>effulgent stars of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Cufic borders of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kain, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaisariyeh, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaisariyeh rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kaiser Friedrich Museum, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kang-hi rugs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_101">101</a>.<ul>
+
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karabacek, Dr., quoted, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karabagh district, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karabagh rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karadaghs compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_151">151</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shushas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karadagh district, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karadagh rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described; border stripes, <a href=
+        "#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kara-Geuz district, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kara-Geuz rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_154">154</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Karaje rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kara Kum desert, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karaman, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Karaman rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashan, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kashan rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Sarouks like that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashgar, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kashgar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kashmir, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_255">255</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>goat&rsquo;s wool of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Katchli, derivation of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern used in Tekkes, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kazak rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Afshars compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Yuruks compared with, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tcherkess compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kutais compared with, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Genghas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kazakje, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kea-king dynasty, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_272">272</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_275">275</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kenares defined, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kerim, Khan, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kermanshah, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kermanshah rugs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>corners of Khorassans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs compared with, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Amritsars mistaken for, <a href=
+        "#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kermes used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Key pattern, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khali defined, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khibitkas, defined, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>rugs made for doors of, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khiva, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Khiva rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khorassan, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herats made in, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kurdistans in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Yomuds in, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khorassan rugs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>left-hand knots in, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Mesheds to, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Khotan, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kidderminster, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, <a href=
+    "#Page_75">75</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pattern in Shirvan, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims described, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>King-te Chin, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kirghiz, steppes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>tribes, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirman, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>carpets made during Caliphate at, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirman rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Kermanshahs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some old Bergamos as valuable as, <a href=
+        "#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kirmans, Turkish, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kir-Shehr, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kir-Shehr rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>often called Anatolian, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kis-kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Arvat, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Irmak river, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kizil Kum, &ldquo;desert of red sands,&rdquo; <a href=
+    "#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Knights of St. John, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Knots, Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Sehna, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>right-hand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>left-hand, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Konieh, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Konieh rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of,
+        <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Koran, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kuba, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kuba rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kublai Khan, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kulah, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kulah rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_64">64</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lily pattern in, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, <a href=
+        "#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric leaf of, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kur valley, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, <a href=
+        "#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Karajes compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, <a href=
+        "#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurdistan, Western, rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>described, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kurds, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_191">191</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, <a href=
+        "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kutais, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+    "#Page_53">53</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Kutayah, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Kutayah rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">L</span></li>
+
+    <li>Lacquer, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ladik rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pomegranate design in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>nap of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, <a href=
+        "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_184">184</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lahore, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_256">256</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>royal factory at, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lahore rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Laristan border stripe, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Latimer, C., quoted, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lattice-work pattern, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lemons used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Lesghian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<ul>
+
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_207">207</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Lesghian tribes, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Limes used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Linen, in Sehnas, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Tabriz, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sarouks, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kashans, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Loom, described, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Lotus. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Luristan rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, 55.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">M</span></li>
+
+    <li>Madder used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Madras, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Madras rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mahal rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>similar to Muskabads, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Maharajah, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Makimonos, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Makri rugs, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Maksoud, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Malgaran, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Manchoos, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mangishlar peninsula, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, <a href=
+    "#Page_91">91</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>referred to Kirman weavings, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>visited Kashgar, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Marsulipatam, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Marsulipatam rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, <a href=
+    "#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, 227.</li>
+
+    <li>Maya ruins, swastika on, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mecca, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_98">98</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pilgrimages to, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bit of earth from, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mecca rugs, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Medallions. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Medes, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Medina, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Melez rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sometimes called Anatolians, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mersherski, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Merv Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Meshed, pilgrimages to, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Meshed rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in,
+    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Michelangelo, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mina Khan, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mina Khani pattern, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_249">249</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ming dynasty, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_268">268</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>coat of arms of, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Ming rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_298">298</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mirabad, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirzapur, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mirzapur rugs described, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mohair, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mohammed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, <a href=
+        "#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mohammedans, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>dominant in Southwestern Asia, <a href=
+        "#Page_25">25</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>invaded India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Meshed sacred to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite,
+        <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Caucasia invaded by, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>influence on weaving by, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mongols, captured Bagdad, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>gained foothold in India, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Persia, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Caucasia, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overran Turkestan, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mordants, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mordecai, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Moslems, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>preserved art treasures, <a href=
+        "#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>green sacred to, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mosul district, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mosul rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Western Kurdistans confused with, <a href=
+        "#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with,
+        <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of,
+        <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Ararat, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Ida, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Kazbek, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mt. Olympus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mudjar, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mudjar rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>frequently classed as Anatolians, <a href=
+        "#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Multan, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Multan rugs described, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, <a href=
+    "#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Mus&eacute;e des Arts Decoratifs, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Muskabad district, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Muskabad rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">N</span></li>
+
+    <li>Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>art decadence following capture of Herat by, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>destruction of Herat by, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weavers removed to Northern Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shemakha almost destroyed by, <a href=
+        "#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Shusha built by, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overthrow of Mogul dominion by, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Namads, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Namazlik, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Netsuk&eacute;s, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nigde, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nigde rugs, 101; classed as Anatolians, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>187.<ul>
+    <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li></ul></li>
+
+    <li>Nijni Novgorod, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nimrod, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nineveh, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_102">102</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>drawings on walls of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Mosul near ruins of, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Niris lake, wool obtained near, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Niris rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets,
+    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Nomadic influence, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, <a href=
+        "#Page_58">58</a>, 153.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">O</span></li>
+
+    <li>Oak gall, used as a dye, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Odjalik, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Omar Khayyam, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Onosma echioides used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Orenburg, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oriental art, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ottoman Turks, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oushak, city and district, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Oushak rugs, type of modern, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>evidences of Persian treatment in, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Outer edging in Kirmans, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>in Hamadans, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sarouks, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Bijars, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kermanshahs, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Mosuls, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>double overcasting described, <a href=
+        "#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Oxus river (Amu Daria), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_243">243</a>, 244.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">P</span></li>
+
+    <li>Palais de Commerce at Lyons, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Palm design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pamir plateau, sheep of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mountains of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Paropamisus Mts., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Parsees, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>symbolism derived from fire worship of, <a href=
+        "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>at Baku, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Parthians, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Patna rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Paul, St., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pear design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pergamus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Persepolis, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Phasis river, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pile of rugs, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Pliny, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, <a href=
+    "#Page_65">65</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Chinese cloud-bands in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>lotus in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Carpets described, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>bright hues of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.</li>
+
+    <li>Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, <a href=
+    "#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Prayer arches, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_62">62</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.</li>
+
+    <li>Priam, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Prometheus, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Punjab, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_256">256</a>, 257.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">R</span></li>
+
+    <li>Ratanjot used as a dye, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rembrandt, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rhodes, Isle of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rhodian rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_289">289</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Rion river, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>River loop. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Robinson, Vincent, cited, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubens, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Runners, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">S</span></li>
+
+    <li>Saadi, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Safavid dynasty, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Saffron used as a dye, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Salors, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>the &ldquo;Mirror of the World,&rdquo; <a href=
+        "#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Samarkand rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>swastika in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Samo-Kien, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarabend rugs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear design of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pile of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Mir-Sarabends, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Royal Sarabends, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saracenic art, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>influence, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a></li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by,
+      <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Persia under dominion of, <a href=
+        "#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Baku in possession of, <a href=
+        "#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Saraks, town of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarawan district, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarouk, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sarouk rugs, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>animal carpet with weave similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>corners of Khorassans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Bijars compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz rugs compared with, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sassanides, Kingdom of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>elaborate carpets made during rule of, <a href=
+        "#Page_74">74</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>capture of capital of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Savalans, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sedjadeh, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sehna, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sehna rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from,
+        <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sehna kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Seljukian Turks, effect on art, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>powerful in Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>overthrow by Genghis Khan, <a href=
+        "#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>invasion of Southern Persia by, <a href=
+        "#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>monuments in Armenia of, <a href=
+        "#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dominion in Persia of, <a href=
+        "#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Konieh surrendered to, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Selvage, weft selvage described, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>double selvage described, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>mixed selvage described, <a href=
+        "#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Serapi rugs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>turtle border in, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shah Abbas pattern, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shemakha, city of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shemakha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.<ul>
+      <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_216">
+      216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</li>
+
+      <li>border-stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shield of David. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Shiites, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>animal designs permitted by, <a href=
+        "#Page_72">72</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Meshed sacred to, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shiraz, wool of, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>city of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shiraz rugs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>latch-hooks in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance of Niris rugs to, <a href=
+        "#Page_119">119</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent,
+    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shirvan rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_117">117</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>weave of Kabistans compared with that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>pattern of Chichis resembling that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>geometric design of Bakus seen in, <a href=
+        "#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Kilims, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Shusha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Shusha rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, <a href=
+        "#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Silk, used for weaving, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>indigenous to Asia, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, <a href=
+        "#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>used in Kirmans, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Yezd rugs, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Hamadans, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kashans, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Sehnas, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Ghiordes, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Hereke rugs, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Kaisariyeh rugs, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>in Royal Bokharas, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, <a href=
+    "#Page_87">87</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>made at Kashan, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sindh, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sindh rugs described, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sirab, village of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sivas, Seljukian gate at, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>city of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sivas rugs described, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Smyrna, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Yuruks at, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Smyrna rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Broussa rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Indian rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Solyman, King, the ring of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>pomegranates cultivated in days of, <a href=
+        "#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>his emblem of an eight-pointed star, <a href=
+        "#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>weavers taken to Asia Minor by, <a href=
+        "#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Soumak rugs, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_292">292</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>weave of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs of cross in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, <a href=
+        "#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, <a href=
+    "#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>South Kensington Museum, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, <a href=
+    "#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.</li>
+
+    <li>Spindle, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spinning, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Spring of Chosroes carpet described, <a href=
+    "#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Srinagar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Srinagar rugs described, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Stebbing, Edward, cited, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>quoted, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>St. Sophia, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Star design. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Strabo, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Stripes. _See_ Border.</li>
+
+    <li>Suj-Bulak, town of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Suj-Bulak rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sultanabad, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sultanabad rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Indian rugs compared with those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Sumach used as a dye, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sumerians, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sung dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Swastika. Illustrated, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Symbols in colours and designs, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">T</span></li>
+
+    <li>Tabriz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>captured by Solyman the Magnificent, <a href=
+        "#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>dyers from, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>an important art centre, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>a mart for rugs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herat carpets in hall of governor at, <a href=
+        "#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tabriz rugs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
+        <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Chinese cloud-band in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Taj Mahal, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, <a href=
+    "#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamara, Queen, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamarind used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tamasp, Shah, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_84">84</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>silk rugs made during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Herat an important art centre during time of, <a href=
+        "#Page_89">89</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tamerlane, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_254">254</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Mongols united by, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Ispahan sacked by, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>artists gathered at Samarkand by, <a href=
+        "#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Samarkand made capital by, <a href=
+        "#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>Multan captured by, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tang dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tanjore district, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Taoist symbols, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tao-Kwang, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>. Rugs described, <a href=
+    "#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Tapis de l&rsquo;Asie Centrale&rdquo; quoted,
+    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tartars, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_220">220</a>;</li>
+
+    <li>Turkestan conquered by, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tartary, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.</li>
+
+    <li>Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>tri-cleft leaf in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tcherkess tribes, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Teheran, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>caravans to Meshed from, <a href=
+        "#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Teheran rugs described, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tekke, derivation of name, <a href=
+    "#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tekke rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustration of prayer arch of, <a href=
+        "#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>S design in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of,
+        <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of,
+        <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Terek valley, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Terminalia citrina used as a dye, <a href=
+    "#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, <a href=
+    "#Page_26">26</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>mart for rugs, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>caravans from Tabriz to, <a href=
+        "#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>capital of Georgia, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tiflis rugs, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of,
+        <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tiger skin pattern, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Timurids, invasion of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
+      <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>designs due to, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Titian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Toledo, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Toon, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Trebizond, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turanian races, geometric designs among, <a href=
+    "#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turkish Kilims, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turmeric used as a dye, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Turtle border, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>probable origin of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Tuz Gul, lake, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, <a href=
+    "#Page_187">187</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Type characteristics, not invariable, <a href=
+    "#Page_v">v</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>term defined, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">U</span></li>
+
+    <li>Urumiah lake, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, <a href=
+    "#Page_31">31.</a></li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">V</span></li>
+
+    <li>Valonia used as a mordant, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Value of antique carpets, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vambery, Prof., cited, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Van lake, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vandykes. _See_ Designs.</li>
+
+    <li>Vellore, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vellore rugs described, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Victoria and Albert Museum, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, <a href=
+    "#Page_80">80</a>, 259.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">W</span></li>
+
+    <li>Warangal, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Warangal rugs described, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Warp, arrangement on loom, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>characteristics of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Washing, materials for weaving, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>artificial, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Weaving described, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>illustrated, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&ldquo;Wedding of the Foundling,&rdquo; <a href=
+    "#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Weft, arrangement of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technical characteristics of, <a href=
+        "#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, <a href=
+    "#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Williams, C. F., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Whistler cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Wise men of the East, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Wool, of the camel, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>of the goat, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of sheep, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_31">31</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>of the yak, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>spinning, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>washing, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, 36.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">X</span></li>
+
+    <li>Xenophon, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Xerxes, 115.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">Y</span></li>
+
+    <li>Yak&rsquo;s hair. _See_ Wool.</li>
+
+    <li>Yaprak, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yarkand, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yarkand rugs, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>.
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_248">248</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yarn, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yerkes sale, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yezd, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yezd rugs described, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yomud rugs, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, <a href=
+        "#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_251">251</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>saddle-bags, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yomud tribes, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>robbed of their land by Tekkes, <a href=
+        "#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuan dynasty, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yung-ching, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Yung-ching rugs described, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>medallions, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuruk rugs, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;
+
+      <ul>
+        <li>technicalities in weave of, <a href=
+        "#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
+
+        <li>Rugs described, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href=
+        "#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
+
+        <li>border stripes, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+      </ul>
+    </li>
+
+    <li>Yuruk tribes, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, 220.</li>
+
+    <li>&nbsp;</li>
+
+    <li><span style="margin-left: 12em;">Z</span></li>
+
+    <li>Zabalpur rugs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zagros Mts., <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zarafshan river, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zoroaster, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href=
+    "#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+
+    <li>Zoroastrians, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  </ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
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diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
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+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #39740 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/39740)
diff --git a/old/39740-0.txt b/old/39740-0.txt
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+++ b/old/39740-0.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+       Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE I_
+
+_Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal
+Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages
+83 and 84._]
+
+SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL, Size: 34 ft. 6 in.
+by 17 ft. 6 in.
+
+
+  TRANSLATION OF INSCRIPTION.
+
+  I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold,
+  My head has no protection other than this porchway;
+  The work of the Slave of this Holy Place.
+
+                                           Maksoud of Kashan.
+                                                   946 A. H. = 1540 A. D.
+
+FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., 34 WIGMORE
+STREET, LONDON, W.,
+
+And Sold by them in 1892 to THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH
+KENSINGTON, LONDON.
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+  BY
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY
+
+  _WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR
+  EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+  AND FOUR MAPS_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+  1927
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY JOHN LANE COMPANY
+
+Printed in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+SINCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr. John
+Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics
+has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering
+this monograph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not
+only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student.
+
+In the chapter entitled “Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Century” is a
+brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art;
+and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the
+masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The
+chapters on “How to Distinguish Rugs” and on “Purchasing Rugs” should
+prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and
+the chapter on “Weaving” contains many details which have not previously
+received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.
+
+The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the
+Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not
+only a general statement of their most striking features, but also a
+technical analysis that is termed “Type Characteristics.” It should be
+understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but
+are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to
+every owner of a rug as a means for its identification.
+
+It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the
+author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion
+has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting
+discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known authorities, who are
+quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions
+and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George
+Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson,
+of New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz;
+and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges
+the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and
+James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable
+collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of
+Decorative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the
+carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and
+firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations: Miss
+Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan
+Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of
+Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C.
+Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C.
+F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B.
+Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones &
+Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of
+New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of
+London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy
+Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.
+
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY.
+
+  NEW YORK, June, 1913.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                   PAGE
+
+     I INTRODUCTION                                           15
+
+    II PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF RUG-PRODUCING
+         LANDS                                                20
+
+   III MATERIALS                                              30
+
+    IV DYEING                                                 37
+
+     V WEAVING                                                44
+
+    VI DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS                                    58
+
+   VII RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY              74
+
+  VIII CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS                          97
+
+    IX PERSIAN RUGS                                          102
+
+     X ASIA MINOR RUGS                                       163
+
+    XI CAUCASIAN RUGS                                        197
+
+   XII CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS                                  233
+
+  XIII INDIAN RUGS                                           253
+
+   XIV CHINESE RUGS                                          263
+
+    XV KILIMS                                                276
+
+   XVI HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS                               282
+
+  XVII PURCHASING RUGS                                       295
+
+
+  INDEX                                                      309
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  COLOURED PLATES
+
+  PLATE
+
+     I The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil    _Frontispiece_
+          OPPOSITE PAGE
+
+    II Oushak Carpet                                          40
+
+   III Mosul Rug                                              66
+
+    IV Bergamo Rug                                           102
+
+     V Ghiordes Prayer Rug                                   130
+
+    VI Royal Persian Garden Carpet    _Between pages 160 and 161_
+
+   VII Ladik Prayer Rug                                      190
+
+  VIII Soumak Rug                                            210
+
+    IX Samarkand Rug                                         240
+
+     X Kang-hi Rug                                           270
+
+    XI Keen-lung Rug                                         300
+
+
+  HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate  1 Khorassan Rug                                      22
+
+    ”    2 Meshed Rug                                         26
+
+    ”    3 Kirman Rug                                         30
+
+    ”    4 Shiraz Rug                                         34
+
+    ”    5 Niris Rug                                          36
+
+    ”    6 Feraghan Rug                                       42
+
+    ”    7 Feraghan Rug                                       46
+
+    ”    8 Hamadan Rug                                        52
+
+    ”    9 Sarouk Rug                                         56
+
+    ”   10 Sarabend Rug                                       58
+
+    ”   11 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    64
+
+    ”   12 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    68
+
+    ”   13 Compartment Carpet                                 70
+
+    ”   14 Persian Animal Carpet                              72
+
+    ”   15 Persian Animal Carpet                              76
+
+    ”   16 Persian Animal Carpet                              78
+
+    ”   17 So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet               80
+
+    ”   18 So-called Ispahan                                  84
+
+    ”   19 Armenian Carpet                                    86
+
+    ”   20 Asia Minor Dragon and Phœnix Carpet                88
+
+    ”   21 Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein             92
+
+    ”   22 Oushak Carpet                                      94
+
+    ”   23 Sehna Rug                                          98
+
+        Map of Persia                                        104
+
+    ”   24 Bijar Rug                                         106
+
+    ”   25 Kermanshah Rug                                    110
+
+    ”   26 Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern             114
+
+    ”   27 Gorevan Rug                                       118
+
+    ”   28 Bergamo Prayer Rug                                122
+
+    ”   29 Ghiordes Prayer Rug                               126
+
+    ”   30 Ghiordes Rug                                      132
+
+    ”   31 Kulah Prayer Rug                                  136
+
+    ”   32 Melez Prayer Rug                                  140
+
+    ”   33 Melez Rug                                         144
+
+    ”   34 Rhodian Rug                                       148
+
+    ”   35 Konieh Prayer Rug                                 152
+
+    ”   36 Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug                              154
+
+    ”    E Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs            156
+
+    ”    F Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs          158
+
+           Map of Asia Minor                                 164
+
+    ”   37 Anatolian Prayer Rug                              166
+
+    ”   38 Mudjar Prayer Rug                                 168
+
+    ”   39 Daghestan Prayer Rug                              172
+
+    ”   40 Kabistan Rug                                      176
+
+    ”   41 Kuba Rug                                          180
+
+    ”   42 Chichi Rug                                        184
+
+    ”   43 Tcherkess Rug                                     188
+
+    ”    G Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs         192
+
+    ”    H Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs       194
+
+           Map of Caucasia                                   198
+
+    ”   44 Baku Rug                                          200
+
+    ”   45 Shirvan Rug                                       202
+
+    ”   46 Soumak Rug                                        204
+
+    ”   47 Kazak Prayer Rug                                  208
+
+    ”   48 Kazak Rug                                         212
+
+    ”   49 Karabagh Prayer Rug                               214
+
+    ”   50 Gengha Prayer Rug                                 218
+
+    ”   51 Royal Bokhara Rug                                 222
+
+    ”   52 Princess Bokhara Rug                              224
+
+    ”    I Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          226
+
+    ”    J Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          228
+
+    ”    K Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs        230
+
+           Map of Turkestan                                  234
+
+    ”   53 Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern                 236
+
+    ”   54 Turkoman Rug with Pindé Pattern                   238
+
+    ”   55 Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes                  244
+
+    ”   56 Yomud Rug                                         248
+
+    ”    L Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Central
+             Asiatic Rugs                                    250
+
+    ”   57 Beshire Prayer Rug                                254
+
+    ”   58 Beshire Rug                                       258
+
+    ”   59 Afghan Rug                                        260
+
+    ”   60 Beluchistan Prayer Rug                            264
+
+    ”   61 Turkoman Saddle-bags                              268
+
+    ”    M Medallions in Chinese Rugs                        272
+
+    ”    N Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+             Chinese Rugs.                                   274
+
+    ”   62 Srinagar Rug                                      278
+
+    ”   63 XVIII Century Chinese Rug                         282
+
+    ”   64 Keen-lung Rug                                     286
+
+    ”   65 Keen-lung Rug                                     292
+
+    ”   66 Kurdish Prayer Kilim                              296
+
+
+  BLACK AND WHITE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate A An Upright Loom                                     45
+
+    ”   B Technicalities of Weaving                           49
+
+    ”   C Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Centra
+            Asiatic Rugs                                      61
+
+    ”   D Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs                    63
+
+    ”   O General Designs                                    291
+
+
+  CHARTS
+
+  Periods when Antique Carpets were made                      96
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                161
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                162
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor Rugs             196
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian Rugs              232
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Central Asiatic Rugs        252
+
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+
+
+
+ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+IT is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of
+a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic
+accomplishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic
+expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been
+sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to
+increase with each succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the
+Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was
+purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of
+thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the
+price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty
+dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,[1] a
+woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide
+was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and
+ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two
+inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of
+$35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square
+foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid
+for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are
+not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable
+to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare
+that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot
+is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one
+thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk
+rugs.
+
+If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value
+of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs
+that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square
+foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in
+those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in
+their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these
+masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and
+artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes
+it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a
+brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and
+arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of
+form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his
+palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously
+changing hue those of the woven masterpieces.
+
+Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art
+critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the
+people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension
+of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art
+is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings
+and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest
+expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in
+his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a
+marked difference in treatment. The Occidental demands that in art
+“everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious
+realism before he can grasp its meaning”[2] and fails to recognise the
+more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on
+the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his
+subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest
+appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times
+have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which
+prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal
+spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim
+of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this
+difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in
+taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them
+not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour
+and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental.
+
+By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing
+to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea
+captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large
+quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with
+crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the
+Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art
+and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the
+change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally
+as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in
+which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought,
+formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of
+semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are
+often the products of great genius and that they express thought and
+feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the
+appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this
+growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old
+worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many
+who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at
+any price.
+
+The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we
+realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value
+the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the
+highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any
+other castings in the world, and for its netsukés, which are the
+smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of
+Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its
+artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of
+silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that
+was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his
+legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that
+China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will
+never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges
+stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+before which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St.
+Peter’s, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the
+majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which
+some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we
+realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of
+Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become
+the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics,
+in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged
+from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art.
+
+However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is principally
+in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration. The
+colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow
+and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture
+acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like
+the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn
+day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with
+its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other.
+Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It
+is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest
+artistic value lies.
+
+That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not
+exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen perception of
+music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another. Even to
+those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of
+appreciation. “The fact is,” said John Ruskin, “we none of us enough
+appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour.” But as the ear can
+be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated
+to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate the beauties of
+Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest
+extent.
+
+And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us.
+They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people
+who made them. Some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers, others
+reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in
+the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism
+with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to
+commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued; and though
+the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the
+study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of
+the weavers.
+
+Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the
+highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the
+Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in
+the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the
+assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the
+appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting
+people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land
+of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in
+tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old,
+there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will
+revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty
+and creative power of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS
+
+
+THE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic
+impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This
+influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been
+subjected, but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences
+of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones
+displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or
+symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative
+and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover,
+the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate
+and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accordingly,
+the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood
+by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where
+they are woven.[3]
+
+The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are
+China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and
+Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a
+geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is
+also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast
+plateau stretches eastward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude
+towards the east.
+
+Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand
+feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the
+northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand
+feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it
+increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet
+in the lofty table-lands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as
+it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of
+this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian
+seas, to form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+of about seven thousand feet.
+
+The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches
+of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no
+drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is
+bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that
+lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the
+deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so
+that there are but few important river courses.
+
+The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and
+consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow
+perennial streams. From time immemorial these streams have been used for
+irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by
+abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built
+the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples
+that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learning to quicken the
+intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds
+delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the
+most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the
+loom were of the finest quality.
+
+Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts
+consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are
+naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used
+only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads
+drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no
+drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it
+empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes
+impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is
+scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain
+falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the
+higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh
+pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the
+rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at
+the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle
+for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.
+
+The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the
+strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have
+affected the temperament and character of the people. The boundless
+stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the
+delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable,
+thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent;
+the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These
+qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which
+lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large
+proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and
+fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same
+as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces,
+woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend less
+harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they
+frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the
+modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings
+of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than
+the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes.
+
+Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as
+well as political struggles at home, have had an important influence on
+all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the
+histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made
+for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different
+racial influences which have affected their artistic development.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1. KHORASSAN RUG]
+
+In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in
+the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the
+north of them lived another people known as the Accadians. These races
+built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the
+cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony with one another, and
+continued to prosper until about 3000 B.C., when the Semitic race of the
+Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees,
+however, allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands,
+adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 B.C. built the city
+of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by
+the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by
+developing its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and
+powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they
+became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and
+knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.
+
+About the year 2000 B.C. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham,
+migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and
+founded Nineveh. A century later the land occupied by colonists who
+settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and
+in power until, in 1300 B.C., it gained its first victory over Babylon;
+and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional
+reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria,
+and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great
+conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of
+Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the
+land now known as Persia.
+
+When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by
+Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was
+similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an
+exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in
+Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran.
+One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the
+Medes; the other, which settled in the southern part, was known as the
+Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the
+course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the
+first to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 B.C. and
+destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and
+under Nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred
+square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These
+walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon became
+famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.
+
+While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus,
+leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and
+conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of
+Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 B.C., by
+diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his
+banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of
+all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331
+B.C., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the
+Persian Empire melted away.
+
+Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took
+definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes
+and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few
+remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days,
+that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of
+which there is any knowledge.
+
+During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom
+petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their
+mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 A. D.
+an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 A. D.) and his
+grandson Chosroes II (590-628 A. D.) ruled over the country from the Oxus
+on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the
+east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury,
+the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when
+it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter.
+
+In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and
+myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost
+unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to
+the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic,
+militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as
+the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly
+overran Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+resistance. From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens,
+they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it
+after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs
+became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there intermarried with
+the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African
+descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711
+they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following
+year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of
+Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive
+battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and
+Christian Europe was saved.
+
+These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and
+religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time
+when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence
+and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and
+Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy
+tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred
+canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with
+its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace,
+where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states
+that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung
+thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of
+silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two
+thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs
+surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately,
+but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains
+as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely
+to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful
+Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England
+from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover,
+in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during
+the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art.
+
+For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohammedans was
+dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The
+great wall of China, which was built over two hundred years before
+Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions
+of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more
+fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish
+and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many
+centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and
+to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward
+and westward. About the year 1000 A. D. one of these branches known as
+the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah,
+in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its
+power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the
+capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race
+should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on
+Persian textile art.
+
+Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that
+part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of
+pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few
+followers, and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes.
+He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to
+obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in
+1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis
+Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great
+central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then
+enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western
+Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+learning that some of the Sultan’s garrison were concealed he ordered
+the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days’
+siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased
+his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages
+of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the
+Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the
+province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2. MESHED RUG]
+
+With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in
+Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the
+settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the
+early part of the XI Century, it was inappreciable as compared with
+that of Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Cæsars,
+and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty
+days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly
+treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for
+a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people
+prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled workmen
+were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the
+Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not
+surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been
+recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern
+part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the “key pattern,” as
+well as other less familiar designs of distinctly Mongolian origin,
+appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of
+this period.
+
+Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of
+the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only
+Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet,
+rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia,
+was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to
+overrun Asia and divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.
+
+Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were
+again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the
+walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of
+Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all
+opposition. Never was conqueror more rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At
+Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste
+and the people were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when
+taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a
+monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were
+defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion
+receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned to his capital at
+Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by
+surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and
+temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious
+barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century
+European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of
+wonderful workmanship and beauty.
+
+The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This
+country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race,
+which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the
+VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans invaded it, and were still
+in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi.
+After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber,
+Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts
+and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art;
+and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to
+settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+weaving.
+
+With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and
+Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick
+succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St.
+Sophia became a mosque.
+
+After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the
+Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in
+Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its
+history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the
+Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf.
+This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil
+he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp,
+which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the
+Turkish ruler, Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from
+the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured
+Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.[4] But the
+lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was
+established at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of
+the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten
+years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia,
+restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his
+country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such
+as it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to Ispahan,
+where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art
+even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most
+skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an
+influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a
+subsequent period. It is also probable that he rendered valuable
+assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country.
+He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a
+wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with
+the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence
+began.
+
+In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it
+with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who
+captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and
+recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the
+West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in
+time it was confined to its present limits.
+
+It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the
+southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant
+struggles between the different races of the East for supremacy. Even
+from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the
+deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One
+victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of
+the Indus to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be
+understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial
+influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and
+subtle charms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE MATERIALS
+
+
+AS was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living
+in unfrequented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks,
+then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have
+personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known
+patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the
+manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the
+shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after
+colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the
+industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of
+dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of
+any Oriental woven fabric.
+
+The materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of
+animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more
+limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occasionally hair of
+the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a
+western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to
+produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger
+quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are
+affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire
+qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3. KIRMAN RUG]
+
+The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the
+Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan
+the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia
+Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in districts where
+the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often
+substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving
+countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is
+preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and
+twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times
+the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been
+shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of
+Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better
+suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep
+with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the
+natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty
+mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the “Roof
+of the World,” still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with
+enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang
+the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of
+Western Asia.
+
+Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native
+stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and
+more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the
+quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on
+the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some
+deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of
+Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is
+long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the
+flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the
+sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the
+nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but
+cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality
+that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the
+other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely
+depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better
+varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well
+unite with it and that take up very little dye.
+
+The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some
+rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The goats of
+Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above
+the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it
+grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the
+most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and
+finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as
+mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account
+of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of
+recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it
+grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and
+its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky
+and brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of
+the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be
+coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with
+the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing
+next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed
+by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it
+lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers
+of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage.
+Goat’s hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed
+with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently
+pliable.
+
+Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel
+which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical
+countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern
+latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in
+quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in
+most of Persia and Turkestan the yield is small, in the table-lands of
+Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty
+plateaus of Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool
+is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older
+camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and
+lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from
+the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool
+of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more
+valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom
+woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats’ hair of similar colour is
+often substituted for it.
+
+The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes
+of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs.
+Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited
+extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be distinguished by its
+coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn
+cows’ hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle
+brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.
+
+Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it
+possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage
+of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no
+impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep.
+Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained
+from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours
+are furnished by the camel.
+
+It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks
+and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have
+employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the
+East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost
+entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the
+mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern
+Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and
+Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted,
+particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its
+cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost entirely as warp
+and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable
+than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet
+there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a
+dark colour.
+
+In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires
+the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the
+lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in
+its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are
+carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted
+from parent to child, and is practised according to different methods
+in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is
+hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it
+loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals
+are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality. After the wool
+has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open
+air.
+
+The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and combing. The
+sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an
+inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of
+burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an
+orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One
+method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between
+rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of
+“teasing” with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held
+firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the
+cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument
+or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by
+the vibrations.
+
+When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and
+then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common
+spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton;
+in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and
+about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from
+civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes
+consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a
+foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic
+tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in
+length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by
+twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to
+these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become
+closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the
+length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The
+thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so
+as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread has
+been spun, it is removed from the stone and the process begun again.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4. SHIRAZ RUG]
+
+One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried
+anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd
+following his flock, while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or
+stone, as did his ancestors thousands of years ago. On the end of the
+distaff, that rests beneath his left arm, is the ball of wool from which
+he selects and twists the fibres, while he deftly turns the short
+spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand.
+The threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of
+small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular, and
+those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in
+order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are the most irregular
+in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all
+weavers.
+
+Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used for yarn,
+since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore, are twisted
+together to form a double thread. A simple device used by many nomadic
+tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right
+angles, and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular
+to them. The threads which are attached to this piece pass through a
+hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by
+twirling them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted
+to make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of a
+professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never the work
+of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile of a few rugs
+such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone is used; whilst for
+the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled, trebled, or
+quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two, three, or four ply, and even yarn
+of six ply is sometimes used. A distinction also exists in the manner of
+twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since
+according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so
+loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a
+single revolution or so tightly as to describe several.
+
+Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the
+Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost incredible
+disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods
+transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every
+attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible.
+Accordingly, the evenness or unevenness of single threads, the looseness
+or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn
+of different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few of
+the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different
+districts.
+
+Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer, and in
+order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and
+rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is first soaked in warm water
+and carefully rinsed in cold water. It is then placed in a copper pot or
+vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or
+sulphate of soda and potash, and stirred for about an hour. After this
+thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and
+thoroughly dried in the sun.
+
+The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the
+materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule, is
+unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world, and is
+prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time. The
+simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough, yet without a doubt
+the earlier spinners and weavers, while following their flocks with
+minds free from all conventions and limitations of art, discerned the
+elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power, and from
+them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and
+delicate tracery of the woven carpets.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5. NIRIS RUG]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DYEING
+
+
+HOWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental art in any field, their
+most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour. Without it
+the beauty of the lustre tiles of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of
+China, and the delicate textiles of Western Asia would fade into
+insignificance. It is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints
+chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments
+that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of Asia and
+is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the earliest
+carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in a lesser measure
+are reflected in modern fabrics.
+
+If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful association of
+different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates the picture that
+delights the sense, a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not
+only controls the secrets of the dyes, but has mastered the difficult
+knowledge of their proper application; for the beauty of the finished
+woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on
+anything else. From father to son for many generations has been
+transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal
+products of root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use,
+by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven
+fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more technical
+knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since modern designs are
+no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets; and so
+important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction
+in his tribe.
+
+The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the
+innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are received from
+remote countries, but most of the plants from which they are extracted
+grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with
+their flocks. Many of them are used without blending, but even some of
+the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a
+number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+infinite number of rich and delicate shades.
+
+The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo. This is
+derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus
+_Indigofera_, that grow to a height of four to six feet in the East
+Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water. In about
+twelve hours fermentation ensues; and after this subsides the liquid is
+drawn off into another vat, where after one or two hours of agitation
+the indigo forms as a precipitate. Many different species of this plant
+grow wild throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes, as by
+using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades
+result.
+
+Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (_Rubia tinctorum_), that
+grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern Asia, Its colouring
+properties were known to the ancients; and for a long period it has been
+cultivated in Asia Minor, where the succulent roots of the second and
+third years’ growth are regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds
+are derived from the insect cochineal (_Coccus ilicis_) that lives on
+oaks of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+the Arabs as “kermes,” signifying Red Dye. After the discovery of
+America another species (_Coccus cacti_) was found that was more
+productive of dyeing qualities. The females, which alone are valuable,
+are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of
+acetic acid, or placing them in hot water, or in an oven. From their
+dried bodies, of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a
+pound, the dye is produced. As both these dyes are noted for their
+fastness, they are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+cochineal is preferable to madder.
+
+The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are from the
+berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the leaves of the
+sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world. An
+orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root
+stocks of a plant of the genus _Curcuma_. From time immemorial a
+beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron. It is the product of
+the stigmas of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet the dye
+is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred
+thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has something of a
+stimulating effect on the human system, it has been taken by the
+Persians when mixed with their rice.
+
+With none of these three basic colours was any national feeling
+associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of blues. The Turkomans
+of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better reds than any other colour,
+and the best yellows, even if generally inferior in positiveness to
+blues and reds, were those of the Chinese.
+
+Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the
+application of a single dye, the many thousand different tints can only
+be produced by the blending of two or more. Moreover, the qualities of
+the same dye vary greatly, as they depend on the soil where the plant
+grew, the time of year when it was removed, and the weather and other
+conditions prevailing during the dyeing.
+
+In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in carpets it
+is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded appearance, due
+probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by
+blending is less permanent than the other. The Chinese greens obtained
+from the buckthorns are generally the best.
+
+Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and reddish brown
+from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron pyrites has been
+largely used in both old and modern rugs; but unfortunately the dye has
+a corrosive effect on the wool, so that the black knots of old rugs are
+often worn to the warp.
+
+In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (_Butea frondosa_) make a
+favourite dye, from which are produced, by blending with other dyes, a
+large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper
+tones. Another well known dye is _Butti lac_, obtained from an insect,
+_Coccus lacca_, that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra cotta,
+and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it
+is blended.
+
+Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either
+singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour effects are
+produced by the application of different mordants, which it is necessary
+to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are
+unable to absorb a large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all
+mordants is alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed
+in the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate rind,
+which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best known. Valonia
+also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons, the fruit of the
+tamarind, and the mango.
+
+In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the “Carpet Weaving Industry of
+Southern India” are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned
+by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of
+dyers who originally came from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy
+from a Persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few
+of these are given below, because they show not only the dyes and
+mordants, but also the methods employed.
+
+“Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind and sift lighter
+than the light dust of the high hills; soak for ten hours; keep stirring
+it; put in the wool and soak for many hours. Boil for three hours; wash
+in kurd water, water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up;
+leave for three hours, and then wash and beat again in water.
+
+“A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for twelve hours,
+grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some _Terminalia citrina_,
+pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix thoroughly. Boil; put the water into
+the hot bath and keep stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings
+water, and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash
+with a beating and dry.
+
+“Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, _Terminalia citrina_, oak
+galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for twenty-four hours. Put in
+the wool; soak it for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three
+hours. Dip in a soda-bath, wash, and dry.
+
+“Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and alum, and steep
+for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty or thirty hours; boil
+the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash; dip in
+acidulated water; and wash again with beating.
+
+“Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from four to six days
+in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time, stirring constantly till
+a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a
+thin glass bottle and settled. Then strain through two cloths, and put
+in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water. Add mineral acid;
+steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well,
+and dry.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE II—OUSHAK CARPET_
+
+_The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar to those of
+the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in Asia Minor during
+the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the central field, the rich
+red of the medallions, and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely
+unlike the more subdued hues found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting
+with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which
+display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal
+pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the early
+Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling
+qualities of beauty and harmony._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard_]
+
+“Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,[5] and alum. Mix well
+with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil
+for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and
+dry in shade.
+
+“Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum.
+Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a
+half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.
+
+“Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of _Cupressus sempervirens_, seeds and
+seed pods of babul (_Acacia arabica_), iron-filings water, and alum.
+Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four
+hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then
+wash and dry in the sun.
+
+“Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (_Onosma echioides_), a thought of
+cochineal, manjit (_Rubia cordifolia_) or lac colour a very little, and
+cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep
+for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in
+alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.
+
+“Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal
+for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths
+and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put
+wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take
+out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more.
+Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.
+
+“Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep
+for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for
+thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after
+beating and good washing.
+
+“Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep
+the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade.”
+
+Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of
+the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate
+affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers
+preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their
+forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing
+countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality
+where the fabrics were woven.
+
+Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the
+year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less
+complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted
+some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and
+most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no
+longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well
+as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art.
+The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency
+to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the
+colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the
+resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand,
+not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more
+pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old
+vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of
+Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently
+enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured
+occupation it was in days gone by.
+
+Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly
+applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in
+its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a
+separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the
+sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy
+their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of
+these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different
+kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings
+are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended
+above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which,
+after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain.
+After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the
+dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the
+preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn
+in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well as
+the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to
+be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This
+complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different
+shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the
+same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to
+instinct is the guide.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning of
+_tempus fugit_ or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and
+weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then
+the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were
+almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the
+dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich
+colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines
+of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged
+mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as
+did their fathers’ fathers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+NEAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude
+looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now
+reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to
+what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to
+construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found
+growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed
+excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same
+height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above
+the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case,
+roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal
+beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a
+rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn
+numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other
+end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal
+beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the
+work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are
+constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and
+herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the
+weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.—AN UPRIGHT LOOM]
+
+Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or
+cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend
+in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last
+rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may
+remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a
+seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each
+other at the sides of the rug. As the work progresses, the plank is
+raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small
+diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the
+threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may
+either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it
+and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally
+used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam
+as the work progresses.
+
+In Plate A (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts
+of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in
+the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is
+wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully
+transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams.
+If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but
+if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices.
+Two other rods, known as “Healds,” are then attached to the front and
+back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to
+the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted
+between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another
+is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by
+loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the
+lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the
+front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back
+threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the
+others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one
+shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two
+threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side.
+Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread
+of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between
+the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the
+lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads
+of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by
+studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is
+increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is
+also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into
+three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are
+without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few
+embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.
+
+A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp
+covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends
+across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between
+each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow,
+perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is
+made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other
+parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent
+threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back,
+recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next
+pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of
+these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears
+as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across
+four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each
+succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed
+“herring bone” weave.
+
+By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making
+them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent
+threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread
+of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp
+and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the
+knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another
+horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn
+of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left
+to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp
+is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel
+to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which
+the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and
+to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be
+discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed
+that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction,
+which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as
+is generally the case, from top to bottom.
+
+The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat on the
+number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the
+rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the
+yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of
+knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+“filling threads” of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A
+square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of
+a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be
+made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven
+pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less
+than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven,
+as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.
+
+These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes
+are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of
+India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town
+of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were
+made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted
+even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn
+appear together at the surface included between two[6] adjacent threads
+of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn
+is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of
+tying this knot are shown in Plate B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of
+which the second is known as a “right hand” and the third as a “left
+hand” knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese,
+many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name
+from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn
+encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the
+surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in
+Plate B, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the
+right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as
+“right-hand” or “left-hand” knots,[7] but in the appearance of the
+carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully
+parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but
+with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by
+studying Plate B, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna
+knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern,
+appear in rugs of shorter nap.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos.
+15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing
+between two rows of knots.]
+
+The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood
+even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern,
+which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the
+attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The
+more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities
+of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because
+only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy
+with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method
+of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of
+treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford
+a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating
+it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the
+established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from
+the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan
+district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern
+common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been
+familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular
+district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do
+to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements
+calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed
+with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some
+strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These
+distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that
+affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.[8]
+
+THE KNOT.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but
+it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may
+be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the
+back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots
+of other rugs, as the Samarkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and
+Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or
+coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity.
+Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while
+in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined
+the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a
+Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again,
+as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or
+more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there
+is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the
+yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced.
+For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of
+yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part
+in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls,
+Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly.
+Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the
+threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot
+encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the
+other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna,
+each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as
+Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the
+back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp,
+as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such
+rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply,
+the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than
+the width.
+
+THE WARP.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the
+relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If,
+for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a
+single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot
+lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate B, Figs.
+7 and 7-a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug
+cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance
+of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans,
+Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah,
+Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that
+one thread of warp to each knot is depressed, so that the back has a
+slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate B, Figs. 8 and 8-a). And in
+the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp,
+included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely
+concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a
+double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate B, Fig.
+9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot.
+To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class
+some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent
+and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another
+class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with
+which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of
+inserting the threads of weft or “filling” between the rows of knots;
+but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is
+pulled when they are tied.
+
+THE WEFT.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical
+differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for
+distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So
+subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and
+painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers.
+Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any
+well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the
+weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate
+one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally
+fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly
+tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two
+rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the
+coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows
+of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once
+crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of
+knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas;
+the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once
+between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown
+weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are
+features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug
+expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally
+distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be
+remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred
+and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty
+years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial
+purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years
+ago.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8. HAMADAN RUG]
+
+These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is
+made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun,
+to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as
+well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to
+whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven
+with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish
+brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used,
+they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same
+piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is
+of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans,
+it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and
+Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans,
+Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres
+of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.
+
+Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the
+yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers
+compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan,
+Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the
+weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp
+are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or
+Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the
+transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of
+knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly
+or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug,
+or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp.
+Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be
+noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an
+even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais
+part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this
+unevenness is even more conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in
+Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two
+adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least
+thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated
+appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is
+nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there
+are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.
+
+The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows
+of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost
+constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single
+thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of
+and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of
+these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute
+portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles.
+In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and
+behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is
+very similar to that of Sehnas.[9] In almost all other rugs the weft
+crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of
+knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a
+few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that
+is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and
+fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it
+is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same
+rug. In Plate B, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the
+appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once,
+twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are
+likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft
+inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the
+threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots,
+then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to
+alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that
+crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.
+
+As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed
+considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will
+fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so
+that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for
+instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority
+of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots,
+be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with
+hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined
+at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack,
+so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly
+imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once
+with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack.
+These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment
+of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for
+instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots
+be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed
+in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of
+moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and
+indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as
+the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but
+they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed
+from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two
+threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the
+other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats,
+old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that
+the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while
+the other is of a single ply.
+
+The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and
+scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to
+cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press
+firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so
+that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.
+
+FINISH OF SIDES.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of
+different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be
+designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious,
+suggests the method employed. In Weft Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 11,
+Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to
+which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is
+strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two
+rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the
+heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are
+completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a
+Double Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the
+cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage
+(Plate B, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of
+a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in
+figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form
+a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 14) is used
+among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs
+receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is
+necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried
+about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is
+wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft,
+but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds
+about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more
+adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is “Mixed,” or
+made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then
+an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords.
+Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be “attached”
+more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight
+fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two
+rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus “attached,” it is
+somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.
+
+These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are
+sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is
+required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly
+done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found
+to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently
+overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9. SAROUK RUG]
+
+FINISH OF ENDS.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides,
+are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction
+exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where
+the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend
+beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in
+Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are
+finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into
+the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not
+unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web,
+selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each
+separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more
+in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or
+are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which
+hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that
+encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or
+else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though
+the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web
+of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly
+those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as
+Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the
+evil eye.
+
+In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough
+usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have
+frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of
+warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent
+overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.
+
+The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all
+the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their
+methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who
+feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most
+careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately
+between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these
+peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require
+the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without
+which expert understanding would be impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS
+
+
+HOWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour,
+Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and
+designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple
+lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled
+mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.
+
+In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders
+of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or
+realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of
+associations.
+
+Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and
+colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been
+transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with
+different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and
+moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular
+deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also
+contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which
+over 1000 years B.C. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements
+were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would
+likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire
+worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of
+Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the
+spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is
+frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers,
+the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of
+designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10. SARABEND RUG]
+
+There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague
+philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the
+early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many
+months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express
+therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly
+defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the
+great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the
+crude beginnings of philosophy.[10]
+
+The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative.
+Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots
+of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The
+former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a
+picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part
+of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For
+this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this
+work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+designated “Stripes,” though they are frequently spoken of as separate
+borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which
+is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side,
+known as “Guard stripes.” Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+“Ribbon stripes,” and those of only one or two knots in width are called
+“Lines.” The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric
+device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple;
+but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often
+exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in
+character with those of the field.
+
+The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders.
+Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and
+unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other
+hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the
+Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper
+and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal
+designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are
+represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans.
+Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and
+ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular
+shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and
+one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are
+covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is
+only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a
+saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia
+Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by
+a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of
+immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.—PRAYER ARCHES OF PERSIAN, CAUCASIAN, AND CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS
+
+No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk.
+No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8,
+Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh.
+No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13,
+Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.]
+
+The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar
+importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so
+strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or
+mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well
+as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated
+in Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in
+Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines, but that in
+rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes
+pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the
+several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas,
+which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have
+a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman
+rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia
+Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian,
+and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a
+panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is
+placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and
+Caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the
+suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from
+Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are
+placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the
+exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the
+other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special
+features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+subsequent chapters.
+
+The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern
+are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is
+adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic;
+and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous
+towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a
+large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of
+society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan
+geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement
+that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the
+floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the
+adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so
+much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had
+advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that
+at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor
+had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and
+during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+subsequently.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.—PRAYER ARCHES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9,
+10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14,
+15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian.]
+
+In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in
+the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some
+vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian
+rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals,
+lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost
+as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been
+influenced; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs
+are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating in
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of
+earlier date. Among the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however,
+few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and
+flowers form the favourite theme for decoration.
+
+The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that
+reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and
+XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued
+as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and
+India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the
+borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes,
+palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed.
+On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose,
+pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more
+modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central
+medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured
+conventionalised flowers.
+
+In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or
+motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest
+assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated
+leaf and wine cup (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in
+Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate H,
+Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found
+almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids
+in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained
+by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest
+weavers each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ
+them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries
+ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They
+therefore deserve the most careful study.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or
+have been more universally employed than has been the figure [Symbol: S]
+or [Symbol: horizontal S]. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental
+rugs excepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are
+exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as
+occasionally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found
+except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other
+countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Tekkes, and
+Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian
+group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class
+of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the
+exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not sometimes represented.
+It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor “Dragon and Phœnix”
+carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate 20 (opp. Page 88); and
+appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be
+even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an
+emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible,
+however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent,
+which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.
+
+Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the
+swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American
+Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the monuments of the Nile,
+and on the temples of India. Widely as is its distribution, its most
+usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these
+countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is
+a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented
+in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the
+beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the
+rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has
+never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate O, Figs.
+5-a, 5-b, 5-c, 5-d, 5-e, and 5-f (Page 291).
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual
+design in Caucasian and Persian rugs; it is often found in some of the
+rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other
+classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups.
+Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the “Polish Carpets”
+and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its
+drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that
+it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three
+leaves, and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form.
+
+Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated
+with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of
+them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which
+the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was
+regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The
+sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting
+at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more
+frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of
+those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly
+bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and
+it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes,
+ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among
+some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in
+the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large
+star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious
+stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with
+colours so arranged is known as “Mohammedan’s jewel design.” The
+six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the “shield of David,” was adopted
+as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly
+nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or
+India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of
+most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.
+
+Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291),
+usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which
+and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses
+placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it
+is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of
+the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate 21 (opp. Page
+92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial
+symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent
+occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all
+Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from
+Persia.
+
+The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs
+of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the
+Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some
+instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is
+represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia
+Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, “even in
+the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India,
+China, and Persia.”
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE III—MOSUL RUG_
+
+_Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of
+the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied
+the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel’s hair that
+shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the
+other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on
+the river’s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric
+designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of
+the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic
+characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes,
+on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type
+of which few now remain._
+
+  _Property of the Author_]
+
+One of the most common designs is what has been called the “latch-hook.”
+When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends
+resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as
+in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called “running
+latch-hooks.” Since they appear in the Dragon and Phœnix rug (opp.
+Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they
+are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from
+the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade
+or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to
+another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in
+artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or
+Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts
+geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central
+Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as
+the reciprocal trefoil.
+
+In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and
+Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs,
+and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they
+were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance;
+but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.
+
+The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem
+suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes
+intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of
+weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs,
+and rarely in those of other groups.
+
+In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four
+centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band
+(Plate O, Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV
+Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan,
+as well as in many of the “Polish Carpets.” Later it was introduced into
+Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic
+weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these
+are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of
+the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated
+with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the
+Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of
+the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of
+clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted
+and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and
+the deity.
+
+In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig,
+vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they
+are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of
+geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a
+series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of
+floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the
+beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or
+plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life
+had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+in the Garden of Eden grew the “Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;” and
+in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of “The Tree of Life
+which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month,
+and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations.” From
+this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the
+Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true
+believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the
+companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the
+Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that
+confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits;
+also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on
+which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient
+Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the
+earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by
+different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a
+cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental
+symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16-a, b, and c), since the
+Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence.
+It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the
+Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India
+where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was
+inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must
+have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a
+large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as
+derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically
+drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called
+Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most
+artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite
+design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used
+as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.
+
+If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven
+fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater
+favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated
+extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the
+rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in
+many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with
+flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is
+characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia
+Minor. The “Euphrates flower,” which grows by the river banks of the
+Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern
+in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less
+frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are
+generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus,
+narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of
+their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are
+intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours.
+There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers,
+which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.
+
+Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the
+pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and
+embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of
+King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like
+modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and
+spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows
+wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely
+appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the
+old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers
+emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as
+has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish
+wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the
+scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.
+
+In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some
+part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or
+palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine
+with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the
+more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate
+tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border
+take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such
+borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the
+simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.
+
+One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known
+as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is
+believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since
+there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little
+son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen,
+on which became impressed the “palm” design formed by the hand and
+incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old
+Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of
+the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above
+Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it
+symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it
+will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in
+its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia
+Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the
+rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple
+curving lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of
+its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very
+ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the
+glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising
+that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old
+Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees
+worshipped.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13. COMPARTMENT CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
+OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly
+symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more
+interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the
+serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of
+Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been
+regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently
+considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed
+to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven
+design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian
+fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the
+“turtle border” (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably
+derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis,
+and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found
+exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the
+animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable
+that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and
+palmette.
+
+Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any
+others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the
+infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck,
+conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit.
+These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.
+
+With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented
+are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the
+fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the
+order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as
+the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of
+fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The attitude, to be sure, in which
+they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in
+flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes
+ill luck.
+
+As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as
+well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia
+Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the
+law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east,
+where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very
+common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor
+that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand,
+animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were
+intended to represent symbolically the weaver’s thought. In fact, those
+masterpieces of Persian art known as the “Hunting Carpets” would lose
+much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the
+sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness
+and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the
+victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards
+and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also
+mythological creatures, as the phœnix, emblematic of life and
+resurrection, and the winged _djinni_ or Persian spirits, that often
+adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of
+Iran.
+
+Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative
+attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but
+among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To
+the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though
+difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields
+of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of
+eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the
+sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour
+of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese.
+Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are
+suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction
+with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades
+of thought.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver.
+Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily
+life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the
+still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some
+old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the
+deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be
+added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought
+and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs
+another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden
+meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY
+
+
+THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug
+weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in
+different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs
+were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact,
+during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable
+that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with
+the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of
+weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.
+Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations
+of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.
+
+Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt
+they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had
+risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt,
+that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of
+looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity
+of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh,
+where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship
+were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers
+are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree
+of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient
+writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven
+fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus,
+Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have
+mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls,
+similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.
+
+This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured,
+has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark
+tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a
+sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master’s hut several
+thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.
+Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other
+pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless
+without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of
+nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury
+increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule
+of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during
+the summer months, they were substituted. “On these mats,” wrote the
+eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, “the artist found free scope for
+displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold
+threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive
+silk and gold carpets.” Long, however, before they had reached such a
+high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making
+warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple
+web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to
+the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance,
+more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there
+appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar
+in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.
+
+Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of
+the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine
+art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226
+A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced
+in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or
+goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals,
+and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered
+with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century
+A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship
+of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period
+of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in
+his monograph “Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird,” gave the
+following description of the “Spring of Chosroes” carpet:
+
+“When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of
+the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the
+ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor,
+Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy
+weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the
+beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This
+was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.
+Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold,
+silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure
+ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of
+springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented
+flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white,
+and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the
+water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones
+of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the
+leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones.”
+
+As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a
+million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a
+single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be
+distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period
+there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the
+importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to
+luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and
+encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the
+Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the
+banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred
+feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of
+the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk
+and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the
+year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated
+treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about
+four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of
+these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven
+in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire
+royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the
+Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on
+which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as
+well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some
+of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.
+
+As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the
+finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces
+of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the
+native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving
+was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more
+probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as
+presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and
+Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and
+elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where
+many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as
+many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since
+the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they
+were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied
+to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they
+were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often
+embellished with precious stones.
+
+
+ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS
+
+To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which
+antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental
+rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist
+that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed,
+we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved
+some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about
+1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques
+which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable
+that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which
+began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half
+of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that
+their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they
+suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of
+their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and
+miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age
+of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive
+development.
+
+One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.
+Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most
+interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian
+characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was
+woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as
+well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts
+of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal
+sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are
+Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each
+end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils
+or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate
+forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and
+Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics
+indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia
+where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on
+the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character
+of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the
+field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the
+stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms
+arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to
+place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the
+interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers
+of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it
+may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is
+strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and
+harmony.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.
+Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more
+regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets
+represent the art of weaving at a very early period.
+
+Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12,
+opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Böhler
+of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of
+nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces
+remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the
+flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was
+woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece
+as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian,
+and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the
+Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year
+1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest
+that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
+
+The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers,
+from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately
+cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes,
+of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and
+those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are
+likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the
+principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques
+of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of
+leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the
+grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the
+prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in
+Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin,
+from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the
+whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has
+been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was
+felt in all the weavings.
+
+If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its
+greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are
+exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange,
+ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a
+background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an
+Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the
+leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong
+and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and
+the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses
+and in immediate contact.
+
+If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the
+drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by
+comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique
+Persian carpets.
+
+Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13,
+opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches
+wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of
+London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which
+bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six
+hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and
+silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
+Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of
+Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess
+Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de
+Commerce at Lyons.
+
+In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on
+design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at
+the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that
+more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is
+the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and
+border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets
+represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the
+higher products of Persian looms.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE
+METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as
+consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon
+encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller
+rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On
+the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of
+sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phœnix so common
+in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
+The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques
+and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field
+are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and
+flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped
+areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
+
+The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The
+main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is
+adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a
+chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating
+elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud
+bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in
+red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
+The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers
+in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of
+both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which
+is the most perfect harmony.
+
+The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the
+tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of
+the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson
+ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it
+came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre
+of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting
+carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard
+of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
+
+There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in
+Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its
+resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the
+year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that
+were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and
+hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some
+principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the
+weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
+
+A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called “Hunting
+Carpets.” The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to
+the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the
+following extract from his work: “The manuscript of Nizami, one of the
+pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for
+the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia’s most renowned
+masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these
+magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written,
+was considered one of the most remarkable ‘the like of which the eye of
+time never beheld,’ plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both
+animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the
+manuscript.”
+
+One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is
+in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was
+purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of
+ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an
+average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp
+and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently
+believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long
+time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital,
+and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it
+belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael’s reign
+and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in
+the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as
+the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border
+a dark blue characteristic of this period.
+
+The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life
+amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths
+of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to
+the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to
+one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains
+animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that
+are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller
+animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a
+perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
+Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The
+repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal
+life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow
+of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied
+during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
+Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals
+in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan
+near Kermanshah.
+
+As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence
+between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack
+of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended
+to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are
+peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear
+in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of
+symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which
+received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
+
+On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary
+standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the
+artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few
+other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and
+simplicity of colour.
+
+Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in
+the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half
+feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about
+three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is
+of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully
+studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following
+extracts are taken:
+
+“The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite
+delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow
+terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which
+spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the
+direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps
+of the mosque.
+
+“Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground,
+relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes
+the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded
+cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of
+red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a
+broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a
+so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of
+the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a
+bold design in blue.”
+
+But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the
+greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the
+border of the upper end is the following inscription:
+
+  “I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold;
+  “My head has no protection other than thy porchway;
+  “The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan,
+     in the year 946.”
+
+Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the
+character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard
+for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year
+946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date
+indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the
+fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who
+died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of
+Tamasp I.
+
+To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake;
+since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of
+the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of
+his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part
+of the Safavid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were
+used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is
+unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the
+words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers;
+and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest
+that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now
+owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length
+of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In
+the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period,
+with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side
+by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that
+rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
+Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more
+skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the
+spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow,
+and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the
+chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features
+that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia,
+Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering
+that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the
+bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
+
+  “Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
+  Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
+  Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the
+    Immaculate.
+  Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
+  The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+    Bak’r.”
+
+These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour
+sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
+Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same
+age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares
+surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in
+early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in
+Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer
+carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during
+succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern
+Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
+
+Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal
+rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of
+Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had
+previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It
+has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five
+and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the
+other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses
+twice, is partly exposed at the back.
+
+Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears
+in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the
+medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in
+the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not
+usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps
+at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly
+rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with
+their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size,
+show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was
+probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the
+influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate
+balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show
+that it is distinctly Iranian.
+
+If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page
+78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran,
+the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length
+of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the
+difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any
+particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced
+relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red
+ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter
+they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette
+forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is,
+indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so
+prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later
+than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court
+of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year
+1600.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add
+interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe
+of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and
+foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome
+plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a
+tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with
+artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where
+on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming
+shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the
+tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial
+happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central
+medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding
+colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of
+workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly
+hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed
+in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and
+precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+forms.
+
+The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets
+were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this
+piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that
+were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
+
+Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces,
+the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of
+weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists
+employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of
+the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received
+special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending
+carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of
+Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals
+were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan,
+that were made the famous “Polish” silk or “Polonaise” carpets about
+which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson
+in his “Eastern Carpets” claims that they were woven in Poland by
+Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more
+probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court
+and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by
+wealthy connoisseurs of art.
+
+How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques
+of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be
+a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts
+of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of
+them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is
+believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years
+1604 and 1650.
+
+Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold
+is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the
+earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have
+light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with
+perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing
+the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences
+combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic
+tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art
+of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
+
+One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine
+feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though
+threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver
+of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves,
+and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the
+light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all
+its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with
+mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every
+part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the
+heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern
+or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE
+KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
+
+In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is
+probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant
+designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with
+encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the
+borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting
+four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish
+pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
+
+It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate
+successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some
+of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the
+XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent
+years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of
+their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they
+came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is
+true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the
+Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent
+carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp
+and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the
+weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has
+not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period
+an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well
+known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were
+largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and
+that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known
+that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to
+another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar
+character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It
+accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets
+was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat,
+but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to
+a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
+
+Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
+The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue
+is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their
+distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably
+derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult
+of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that
+slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese
+cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were
+constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order
+furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For
+instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully
+over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they
+were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the
+XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of
+the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century
+only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years
+before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes,
+cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of
+the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the
+palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
+
+Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the
+Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times
+carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in
+Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the
+palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the
+districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of
+Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost
+uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively
+few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
+Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and
+Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their
+patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
+The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or
+lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that
+contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main
+stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques
+adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably
+represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art
+unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in
+Europe.
+
+Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those
+from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be assumed that the high
+culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of
+the Caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north; and
+that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine
+woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region
+during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being
+remarkably handsome.
+
+Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets,
+which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century
+and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice
+the breadth; the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a
+single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of
+narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing
+archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally
+some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from
+which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of
+more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.
+
+In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century carpet
+(Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these
+pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential
+characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the
+same class. The field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped
+sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet,
+and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous
+small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and
+Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge, as well as
+the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the
+effulgent stars of old Daghestans and Kabistans. An effort has been made
+to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though
+its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The
+palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal
+forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+Western Asia Minor.
+
+Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a district
+in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its
+approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a
+similar rug is represented in a fresco called the “Wedding of the
+Foundling,” painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that
+it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not
+much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other
+from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square
+compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are
+represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phœnix that was
+adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the
+chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to
+formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an
+archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets.
+
+In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which
+hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so
+frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as
+“Holbein rugs.” Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described
+indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in
+different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of
+Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf,
+and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed,
+the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni
+Mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin. They came
+from Asia Minor or Western Armenia.
+
+It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia
+Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken
+thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may
+have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been
+transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known
+pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears
+in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of
+Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs
+and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that
+suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow
+stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are
+very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that
+these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater
+Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, extended over
+the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21. PORTRAIT OF GEORG GYZE BY HANS HOLBEIN, SHOWING
+A HOLBEIN RUG WITH CUFIC BORDER]
+
+These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of
+such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were
+woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and
+1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early
+Flemish and Italian painters, it may reasonably be assumed that some of
+them were made before the end of the XV Century.
+
+A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is
+now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five
+feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field
+is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The
+prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are
+blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size,
+and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose;
+and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch.
+
+Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams
+appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this
+pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are
+outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds.
+Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of
+tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination
+of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It
+appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian
+rugs.
+
+An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars,
+since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one
+of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug.
+For this reason and on account of its general character, it seems not
+unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century.
+
+Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is probable that
+in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced
+by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in
+1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still
+remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesques,
+palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resembled more
+nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning
+of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject,
+the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost
+exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern
+and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process
+of devolution originated from these antique pieces.
+
+In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the
+Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though
+affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an
+indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir
+George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens
+introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the
+time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of
+many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude.
+Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained
+their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established
+manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers
+to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their
+knowledge of patterns and technique.
+
+It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous
+peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now
+remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other
+country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred
+knots to the square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these
+carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half
+wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the
+Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral
+forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a
+field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the
+same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered
+with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every
+part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which unlike their
+Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically
+some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression
+of an actual event.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 22. OUSHAK CARPET
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet
+and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering
+is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a
+strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird
+with a winged beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of
+the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the
+attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural.
+The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the
+field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the
+border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian
+tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is
+probably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.
+
+Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are
+known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and
+Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Century, scarcely a vestige
+can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the
+days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets.
+It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been
+ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.[15] But of
+the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once
+covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains.
+
+[Illustration: CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS
+
+
+RUGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than
+any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers
+the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps. Thrown over other
+objects they form the table, made into saddle bags they take the place
+of trunks. The followers of Islam when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in
+token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in
+cities, also, rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the
+home. Indeed, without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every house,
+where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings,
+and lighter ones are hung as portières and tapestries. Yet it is in the
+assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used, though here the
+most valued are exposed only on great occasions.
+
+In the East a rug receives a particular name according to which of these
+special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost square piece that is
+used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the “Khali;”
+and the narrow strips or “runners” that are placed at its sides and ends
+are known as the “Kenares.” It is on the Kenares that the servants are
+required to walk and the less honoured guests to stand, for they are
+rarely of such fine quality as the former. Before the divan, that
+generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and
+velvet, are seats on which are placed carpets called “Sedjadeh.” They
+are nearly twice as long as broad, and since they are of moderate size
+and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes.
+The hearth rug, termed “Odjalik,” can generally be distinguished from
+others, as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at
+the extremity. However much any of these may be valued, the one that to
+every worshipper of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+“Namazlik,” or prayer rug, at one end of which is an arch in token of
+the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful Moslem spreads his rug with
+arch directed towards Mecca, and kneeling with the palms of his hands at
+each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the
+Mohammedans of Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the
+foot of an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer rugs
+sold in America have been made solely for trade and have never been used
+in worship. They may be beautiful, but special interest attaches to old
+pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father
+and son for over half a century have often pressed. In addition to these
+are other rugs with technical names, but a classification of much
+greater importance is that which depends on the country or district
+where they are woven.
+
+When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the United
+States, they were spoken of as “Turkish,” for the reason that importers
+purchased them from Turkish merchants of Constantinople. But when it
+became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries
+farther to the east, and that large numbers of them came from Persia,
+the name “Persian,” that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour,
+was at once applied; even to-day all classes of Oriental rugs are often
+spoken of as Persian. As objects of ornament or utility, their value is
+independent of their place of origin; yet it is known that the wool of
+the nap and the dyes used in some districts are superior to those in
+others, and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve
+with age far more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will wear
+better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is made is
+important in determining the quality and value, which otherwise only a
+critical examination, that few people are able to make, would show.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 23. SEHNA RUG]
+
+Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting the class
+of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our interest. When, for
+instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish weave with its nomadic
+designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem savage as an Apache often
+rested fully half a century ago, there is called up a picture of the
+dark-visaged tribesman, fearless and untamed as were his ancestors
+who contested the march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see
+him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to ourselves
+the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl
+bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots one by one. So if we
+would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should know what people made them, and
+whence and how they journeyed, before they reached our fireside.
+
+At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a
+rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This is partly due to
+the fact that even the great importing houses are often deceived.
+Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, even farther east, great fairs
+are regularly held. Here gather the representatives of tribes from far
+distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and
+abandon of the East while bartering the products of their different
+crafts. Here come the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces
+that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail
+to such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and labelled,
+before they are resold to the importing houses of Europe and America.
+Thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from
+different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there
+is frequent opportunity for errors of classification.
+
+The characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are
+given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed that these are
+infallible guides to the locality where they were made. Often a ruler,
+by fostering art, has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from
+other districts. Thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic
+of one district would be adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans
+that pass along regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual
+pilgrimages to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for
+the dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the general
+pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft, and pile; the
+knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and the peculiarities of
+the weave, it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to
+determine in what districts almost all Oriental rugs are woven.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which some of the
+rugs are known in America are not the same as those by which they are
+known in Asia. For instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the
+Tekke Khanate are known in the Orient as “Tekkes;” but as the great
+depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of Bokhara, they are
+generally known in this country as “Bokharas.” On the other hand, there
+are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the
+western. The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the classes
+represent the cities or districts where are woven the several different
+kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided chronologically. The
+names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory, but
+are probably the best that can be chosen. The fourth group, for example,
+has frequently been called the “Turkoman;” but as it includes some of
+the rugs of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the western
+and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here employed has
+the authority of some German writers of note. So, too, the rugs of
+Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan, are included with the
+Persian group; but it should be remembered that Herat, as well as the
+districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was once part of the old Persian
+Empire.
+
+
+  GROUP I. PERSIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Khorassan district:
+            Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.
+
+  (_b_) Shiraz district:
+          Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, Niris.
+
+  (_c_) Feraghan district:
+            Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Iran, Sarouk,
+              Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad, Muskabad, Mahal,
+              Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.
+
+  (_d_) Sehna district, or Adelan province:
+            Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian Kurdistan, Karaje.
+
+  (_e_) Tabriz district:
+            Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez, Suj-Bulak, Karadagh,
+              Afshar.
+
+  (_f_) Kurdistan district:
+            Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.
+
+
+  GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.
+
+  (_a_) West Asia Minor district:
+            Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak, Ak-Hissar, Demirdji,
+              Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta, Rhodian, Broussa,
+              Hereke.
+
+  (_b_) Central Asia Minor district:
+            Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian, Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar,
+              Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile, Yuruk.
+
+
+  GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.
+
+  (_a_) North Caucasian:
+            Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend, Lesghian, Chichi,
+              Tcherkess.
+
+  (_b_) Trans Caucasian:
+            Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis, Kutais, Kazak,
+              Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.
+
+
+  GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.
+
+  (_a_) West Turkoman sub-group, Western influence:
+            Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Yomud, Khiva, Afghan,
+              Beshir.
+
+  (_b_) East Turkoman sub-group, Eastern influence:
+            Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.
+
+  (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+
+  GROUP V. INDIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Northern India:
+            Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad,
+              Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.
+
+  (_b_) Southern India:
+            Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal, Malabar, Hyderabad,
+              Marsulipatam.
+
+
+GROUP VI. CHINESE.[16]
+
+
+  (_a_) XVII Century:
+            Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi (1662-1700).
+
+  (_b_) XVIII Century:
+            1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2. Yung-ching (1722-1736).
+               3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).
+
+  (_c_) Early and Middle XIX Century.
+
+  (_d_) Late XIX Century or Modern.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+PERSIAN RUGS
+
+
+IN the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow
+the present political divisions of territory, since great and frequent
+changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding
+changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with
+the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants,
+it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Afghanistan
+on the east. The woven products of all this territory have
+characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate
+them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly
+floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to
+naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover,
+their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in
+perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia,
+Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or
+highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in
+bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of
+colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian.
+The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures,
+or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some
+Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the
+patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more
+realistically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IV—BERGAMO RUG_
+
+_The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor
+traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and border,
+yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by
+departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic
+designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the
+background of the central field, on which are three upright panels
+containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and
+forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs,
+knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and
+lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive
+of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright
+stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now
+rarely seen._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political
+influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time
+when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the
+splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under
+one and the same dominant power, which at different times was held by
+Saracens, Seljukian Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the
+end of the Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger influence
+is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and Turks have blended
+with the early people of the whole territory, until not only do all
+resemble one another, but their craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore,
+with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still
+cling to the early Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their
+frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to a much less
+degree.
+
+A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical features of the
+entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people. To
+be sure the Euphrates and Tigris, that wind sluggishly through the great
+Mesopotamian valley, and the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that
+extend from Mt. Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have
+no counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is
+little vegetation, high table-lands where during rainless summer months
+the earth is parched, and little valleys of fertile soil that are
+watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges. Throughout this
+territory, wherever physical conditions are similar, the people follow
+similar pursuits. In the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the
+higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys are
+several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment of the
+East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple articles of metal,
+and weave artistic rugs.
+
+A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life pervades
+the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of a past
+associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana, Babylon and
+Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more immediate influence of
+the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago, rugs are still produced
+that in delicacy of weave, beauty of design, and harmony of colours
+surpass those of any other part of the world. In the weave of the best
+examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the
+Royal Bokharas. In the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of
+harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the best products of
+India alone compare, is united the touch of both artist and artisan. The
+fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of
+buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils, and frequently
+encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious
+whole. The fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour,
+with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful
+lines. Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged
+with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by some nomadic
+design. Surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes, some of
+which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes
+co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern. It is,
+however, principally in the colours, which are delicate yet rich,
+subdued yet lustrous, that these rugs surpass all others. Their most
+distinctive tones are blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that
+the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and wine
+colour in field, each being subordinated to other superimposed colours
+representing floral detail.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: MAP OF PERSIA]
+
+The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal precision
+throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is of uncertain
+antiquity and origin. It consists of a central figure that generally
+represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or rosette, about which are
+grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves. Probably
+both the central and encircling figures are of Persian origin, though
+the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish
+and attributed to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally
+drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of
+these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+and a central rosette, as in Plate O, Fig. 4 (Page 291). This Herati or
+Fish Pattern, as it is frequently called, appears in many of the old
+Persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces, particularly the
+Feraghans and Herats. A less frequently seen floral pattern, which has
+been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern
+rugs, is the Guli Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate O, Fig. 3). Of this
+plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the “chief of this world
+and the next.”
+
+It occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in several
+other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered
+informally over the field. Another floral pattern frequently seen is the
+Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate O, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina
+Khan, a former Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of
+Persian Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a
+network of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their
+different designs and colours; and between them often appear other
+flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured Hinnai, so as to
+destroy too great stiffness of design. As the flowers are relatively
+large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field, this
+is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns. A
+still more formal pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of
+the Persian rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah
+Abbas. It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal motive
+is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character.
+Between the large and formal palmettes, that are arranged with
+mathematical precision, are grouped with similar regularity smaller
+palmettes, connected by angular vines and leafy branches.
+
+Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns, such as the
+Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas. Others have the
+repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the pear, on a field of rich
+colour. The remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls,
+vines, or tendrils, drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves,
+flowers, and buds in beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human
+beings, demons, and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with
+the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in the
+remote past, have been transplanted from one country to another, and
+conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is interesting to
+observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as
+possible the influences to which they are due.
+
+
+HERATS.—On great lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia,
+the city of Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+commercially a most important position, so that its people long since
+became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries.
+During the XV Century it reached its greatest prosperity, and exerted an
+important influence on the art and culture of Western Asia. Before the
+art decadence that followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in
+1731, and the removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques,
+scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among this tracery were
+palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony, which were often most
+realistically drawn.[17] These rugs are of further interest, as they
+contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed, appears
+in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati pattern.
+
+The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the antique pieces
+and show a close relationship to those of Persia. Nor is this
+surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short of the high
+standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia, are still mindful
+of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the rugs are made across the
+border in Khorassan, and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of
+that province; but their tones of colour, consisting principally of red
+or blue in the field, and light green, yellow, and ivory in the border,
+as well as most of the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields
+are covered with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in
+the same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the Feraghans,
+because their fields are covered with the Herati or Fish pattern; but
+the borders of the Feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern,
+while the borders of these adhere to the traditional Herati design. It
+is also not unusual to see a large central medallion, in which blue or
+red predominates, separated by a field of lighter colour from the
+triangular patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24. BIJAR RUG]
+
+One of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders,
+that generally have three stripes, of which the central consists of a
+continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely
+bent, thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes
+are narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical border,
+the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their large, almost
+square shapes and rather coarse weave, are important aids in
+distinguishing this class from all others. Some of the rugs recently
+made are coarse; but the older rugs have excellent dyes, lustrous nap,
+and matured tones of well-blended colours.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[18] _Colours_, principally red and blue with
+minor quantities of green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes, rarely
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as long,
+measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.[19] The rows of knots
+are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_,
+of cotton, rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only depressed.
+_Weft_, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse diameter. For a short space
+a thread of weft crosses twice, that is across and back once, between
+every two rows of knots, then three times, and so alternates every
+several rows. _Pile_, wool of medium length, soft, and silky. _Border_,
+three to five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout and firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to twenty feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to
+three quarters length.
+
+
+KHORASSANS.—Among Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of
+the Sun. In its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds
+and flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times the
+Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome, then
+retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and
+inhospitable wastes.
+
+Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness
+have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots
+where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an Omar Khayyam
+and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed. Even before the Mongolian
+invasion several hundred looms, each employing four or five women, were
+busy in the town of Toon in Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east
+is the district of Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs
+of Herati pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand, in the
+southeastern part of the province, where formerly were woven pieces of
+superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred
+knots to the square inch. Their colours were of delicate shades; and it
+was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground,
+with which was contrasted the darker tones of the Herati or pear
+patterns. Over a century ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving
+rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present
+products fall far below the early standards.
+
+Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago
+and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule, they are of large
+size and have closely woven texture. They can be distinguished from most
+others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap, which is often due
+to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as
+because it is cut long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use
+of some shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently
+it is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other Persian
+rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their colours are
+generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times brilliant, as when
+a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion.
+
+The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to copying designs
+of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit
+Meshed, and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of
+weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all Persia. One pattern,
+however, based upon the treatment of the pear design, which is employed
+in many of these pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other
+districts. It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a
+field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+the same direction, and of two or three much smaller pears partly
+resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges. Unlike the
+pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval, these are elongated
+like those of Indian rugs; and within them, as well as in the field, are
+often small floral figures. This distinctive pattern is rendered more
+effective by the colour scheme; since frequently pears of red or
+magenta, defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled
+flowers, rest upon a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also
+frequently employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to see a
+central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of
+bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two medallions. When the
+centre contains a medallion, the triangular-shaped corners are set off
+by lines that are much simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.
+
+Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are they very
+wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as several guard stripes,
+is some characteristic pattern. Occasionally it contains the Herati
+design, but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with
+incipient flower forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+bird’s head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine. This stripe,
+illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2, (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met
+with in Khorassans as to be characteristic of them. The narrow guard
+stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Many are
+“left-hand.” Knots to inch horizontally, eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of warp hang
+loose at the back of some pieces. _Weft_, almost always cotton,
+occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, excepting at intervals of
+every six or eight rows of knots, where it crosses three or more times.
+_Pile_, wool of medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. _Border_,
+three to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+MESHEDS.—In few parts of the East have the weavers received greater
+inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed.
+To Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+within a mosque resplendent with façade of blue and white tiles, and
+with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the remains of Ali Riza,
+the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb that is viewed yearly by
+nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It was for a short time the
+capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified its mosques; and here Nadir Shah,
+whose remains lie in the mausoleum, held his court after the capture of
+Delhi. Within its walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not
+far away, among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva, Bokhara,
+Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of commercial
+importance.
+
+It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were made in
+the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian traveller[20]
+who visited it during the XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the
+floor of its mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which
+has never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the most
+magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a century the
+textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now seen are generally
+of recent manufacture.
+
+As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the same silky
+appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more evenly clipped. The
+pattern, however, is generally different, as seldom is the field
+completely covered with the pear design, but whenever used, it is of
+elaborate drawing and frequently very large. Nor is the characteristic
+Khorassan border stripe, illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of
+blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral vines, in which
+appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the rugs that now exist
+were made within the last fifty years, and are of large size and
+almost square shape. The colour scheme inclines to light and often
+brilliant tones, which at times are strongly contrasted with small
+masses of much darker shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and
+weft are rarely coarse.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25. KERMANSHAH RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose or pink, blue and
+white, with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally
+Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to fifteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool or
+cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of fine quality and
+medium length. _Border_, usually from three to six stripes, occasionally
+as many as eight, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Lower end_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven
+eighths length.
+
+
+ISPAHANS.—Still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour,
+surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a
+broad, well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by Tamerlane,
+who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose to such importance
+that in the XVII Century it contained within its walls several palaces,
+one hundred and sixty mosques, over two score of colleges, nearly two
+thousand caravansaries, and about three quarters of a million people.
+Now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few
+stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets,
+abandoned bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence
+of the former capital.
+
+Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for the
+purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most experienced
+artisans, to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of
+many of the early carpets. Here, in the days of its greatest prosperity,
+were founded many industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven
+some of the best of old Persian carpets. Though Herat is now regarded
+by some authorities as the centre where the so-called Ispahan rugs were
+made, it is improbable, as previously pointed out, that all of them came
+from there. But after the death of Shah Abbas the rug industry began to
+decline; and with the removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan
+ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt
+whether such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on Oriental
+Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon at Ispahan, were
+made there or were imported from other cities; but the weaving of rugs
+has never entirely ceased; and so great is the fame of the former glory
+of the city that even now Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the
+term “Ispahan” as an epithet of superiority.
+
+The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little
+resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves show little
+similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati designs are not
+uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with
+what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and in others the field
+contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small
+foliate and floral forms placed between them. Small figures of animals
+are also occasionally represented. The border is generally narrow and
+lacking in impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red or blue
+is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are green, yellow,
+and white. The weave has variations rarely found in other rugs; for the
+warp, which is usually cotton, may also be wool, or wool and cotton
+twisted together; and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton, and may
+cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs,
+or even once or twice in the same rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[21] _Colours_, principally red and blue, with
+minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows
+of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally
+wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together. Each thread
+of warp is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread
+of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots. If it is wool,
+it generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread. _Pile_,
+wool, of short or medium length. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or
+three chords. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and fringe.
+Occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_
+at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, six to fourteen feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIRMANS.—On account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it
+is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain ridges that
+separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the west, in a measure
+protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political
+and industrial conditions of Northern Persia, it has continuously for
+over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of
+rugs. Moreover, during all this period it has been noted for the
+excellence of their quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its
+fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs’ palaces.
+When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful shawls
+and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted French traveller
+Chardin, who lived in that country during part of the XVII Century, also
+spoke most favourably of them. Even after Nadir Shah removed many of the
+most skilled weavers to the northern part of Persia subsequent to
+ascending the throne in 1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city
+and massacred many of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry
+continued to prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of
+modern pieces.
+
+To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and
+dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious
+influences of market demands and aniline colours. And to it must be
+attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile art appears nowhere
+else in greater purity; for of all the rugs on the market to-day these
+conform more nearly in texture, colour, and design to the masterpieces
+of earlier times, and show none of the foreign influences appearing in
+pieces woven in the north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as
+well as religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in secret
+their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.
+
+For long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about
+Kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills, so
+that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes
+used in the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of
+such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep and
+partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and
+yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.
+
+It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman for
+roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict them so
+profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as filling vases
+set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon
+the field. They also weave them in the borders among green leaves, as
+placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as
+are seen in other Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the
+flowers of most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they are red
+contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in the field, and of
+golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border. Sometimes, instead of a
+profusion of roses, there are other flowers, such as the sunflower,
+suggesting the old Zoroastrian faith, the cypress, or the sacred
+“cocos.” Again, the general design may be modified from one strictly
+floral, and amid the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human
+beings; but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has five
+stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any other, and
+surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red;
+though now and then, according to the general colour scheme, a very
+pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26. KURDISTAN RUG WITH MINA KHANI PATTERN]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally grey or ivory, with minor
+quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The
+rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the
+weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads
+encircled by knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally wool of
+fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool,
+short, soft, and silky. _Border_, usually of five stripes and an outer
+edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging. _Both ends_,
+a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+YEZD.—In the centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan,
+is the city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still follow
+the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great desert of
+Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an oasis, where the
+drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants
+the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls
+within. At the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they
+are rarely seen in Western markets; yet on account of the historic
+interest in its people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products
+made in other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+also for its felt “namads,” which are generally too heavy to be
+transported, since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a
+superficial area of ten thousand square feet.
+
+
+SHIRAZ.—Near the centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by
+mountains is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim
+Khan, from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then it
+has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former
+glory has departed. And yet there still remain associations to kindle
+the imagination, for without the gates are the gardens that Persian
+poets have extolled in verse; the tombs of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far
+away are the spots where Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined
+palaces that Alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.
+
+As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced large numbers
+of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were woven before the XV
+Century. As is the case with modern pieces, all of them were
+distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool, which is to be
+attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and
+valleys. One of the oldest existing rugs of this district which
+displays the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in
+the following words:[22] “As soon as I had touched it, I was certain
+that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at
+Shiraz, or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft one
+that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are older than the
+eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes such rich and deep
+colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are
+equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool,
+which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes
+one think of translucent enamel. As a piece of colour this carpet is
+certainly one of the finest, and there are very few carpets that have
+greater charm, which even the best reproduction could not give. In its
+colours there is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window,
+where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and
+dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as the
+wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz.”
+
+On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is
+referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the two following
+centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high standard of excellence
+prevalent in the principal cities of Persia; but most of those pieces
+are now extremely rare, as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or
+for exchange with foreign rulers. This city experienced the art
+decadence that began with the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of
+Kerim Khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there.
+
+Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are
+certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the excellent
+qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven are still poorer.
+On a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly Persian; but
+they generally depart widely from the early traditions, and floral forms
+are very much conventionalised. In a large number of this class the
+field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines
+and angles. Sometimes they are as small as in the Sarabends, occupying
+the whole field as the principal motive; or they may be placed less
+prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be
+as large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another very
+common pattern, known as the “pole-medallion,” consists of a narrow
+perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on
+which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs.
+In other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian
+rug, and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric
+figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals
+scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no other Persian rug in
+which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The borders usually consist of a
+number of narrow stripes, or a wide one with narrow guard stripes. One
+of them, at least, almost invariably contains some form of vine and
+leaves, and not infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear
+in Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans on
+account of the resemblance in geometric designs.
+
+Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are not
+difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about the dark
+blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow. They
+are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them have a trait of lying
+unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven
+between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends, from
+which hang a loose fringe. The sides are overcast with heavy strands of
+wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the
+case with any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+coloured tassels.
+
+There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are superior
+to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the patterns are
+geometric; but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and
+a slightly different colour scheme.
+
+Not infrequently the term “Mecca” is applied to Shiraz rugs, and the
+impression is conveyed that they were made there. Nor is the statement
+always entirely devoid of truth; for each year caravans aggregating some
+two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to
+Allah, to walk around the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving
+behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred
+earth or a strip of the temple’s covering. Each of these pilgrims bears
+offerings for propitiation, of which a large proportion are rugs; and
+whatever their size, they are invariably the choicest the devotee can
+offer. Since the Mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their
+religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles
+not directly available for their use, they sell large quantities of such
+rugs, that find their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople.
+Furthermore, the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged
+along the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from
+these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz rugs that they and
+similar pieces which had never left Persia were called Mecca rugs. This
+deception is still encouraged by some dealers, because for many buyers a
+special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been
+carried on this pilgrimage as an offering.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with
+minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots is
+generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The other half
+knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not drawn tight against
+the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that their alignment is
+slightly irregular, and the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, almost
+always wool; in a few modern rugs goats’ hair is used. Each of the
+threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+occasionally one to each knot is depressed. _Weft_, wool of medium
+diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short to medium, and
+silky. _Border_, three to five stripes. Beyond the borders, at each end,
+is frequently a narrow band of pile. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting
+in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which
+generally consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green,
+and blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at
+regular intervals of one or more feet. _Lower end_, a broad web of
+coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and
+warp loops. _Upper end_, a broad web of coloured stripes, through which
+may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to
+nine feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27. GOREVAN RUG]
+
+
+NIRIS.—A resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles to the
+westward; for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool,
+obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges, and
+the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old
+capital. This resemblance exists mostly in the soft, floccy appearance
+of the nap, and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the
+sides. The webs of each end are broad and have long fringes; but
+generally those of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or
+more parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a rule,
+flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also an
+occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern of the
+Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand, they are more
+firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in the character of their
+weave, since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other, and the weft is of wool coloured red, whereas
+in the Shiraz it is frequently of cotton.
+
+The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in Sarabends, extend
+over the field in orderly array; but they are much larger and consist of
+an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another, yet grouped
+gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown
+jewels sometimes ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue,
+and the pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is covered
+with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The typical border
+has a broad central stripe of vine and flower, with narrow guards of
+simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil. Barber-pole stripes are also
+characteristic of the borders.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely
+pressed down, so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft
+conspicuous. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes, sometimes as many
+as seven. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or
+in short lengths of different colours, such as red, blue, green,
+yellow, and black. _Both_ ends, a broad web of coloured stripes, one row
+of knots, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to seven feet. _Usual
+width_, three quarters to four fifths length.
+
+
+FERAGHANS.—Stretching eastward from the base of Mt. Elwund is the plain
+of Feraghan. Its length does not exceed forty-five miles, nor its
+breadth ten or fifteen, yet here are clustered several hundred villages.
+On account of its altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered
+with snow in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls.
+But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and the sheep are
+grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a plain of fertility and
+industry. For generations it has been productive of large numbers of
+fine rugs, and it is still possible among its villages to find some of
+those old pieces that have been regarded by the Persians themselves as
+the best examples of the textile art.
+
+When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been carefully
+observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is surprising to note the
+many distinctions observable in a large collection. These patterns may
+conveniently be divided into two groups, namely: one in which the field
+is entirely covered with diaper designs, and the other in which the
+field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour.
+Probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is covered
+with the Herati design; those in which the field is covered with the
+Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field is covered with some
+other small diaper design.
+
+The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is found in the
+very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the crumpled leaf does not
+exceed a length of four or five inches, and the rosettes are
+proportionally small, so that the ground colour is almost entirely
+concealed, and at a short distance is not distinguishable; but there are
+other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length, and the figures
+less closely clustered, so that the ground enters prominently into the
+colour scheme. The prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is
+generally rose red, which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug;
+though the small designs have shades of green, yellow, white, and light
+blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but occasionally red or
+even ivory is used. In very few other rugs are the corners separated
+from the field, unless there is a central medallion; but in almost all
+Feraghans small triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with
+those of the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+serrated edges.
+
+Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes.
+The main stripe is about three times as wide as any other, and may have
+a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white; but in many of the best
+pieces it is moss green, with blue, yellow, or red appearing in the
+overlying pattern. Of different but corresponding shades is the colour
+of the ground and designs of other stripes. Probably three fourths of
+the Feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main
+stripe; but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine with rosette or
+palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very narrow, is invariably
+represented some reciprocal figure, as the trefoil or sawtooth; and on
+the other stripes are undulating vines, with floral or quasi-floral
+figures.
+
+The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs instead of
+the Herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring, though the
+general effect is much the same. In place of crumpled leaves and
+rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the Hinnai plants
+that brighten the mountains surrounding the Feraghan plain with their
+large yellow or ivory coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is
+slightly more prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich,
+is less red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though specimens are
+not frequently seen. In these the small figures of conventionalised
+flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or
+perpendicular rows. Moreover, they generally lack the rich colouring of
+the preceding sub-groups.
+
+The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old
+Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape, with serrated
+edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati figures cover its
+surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small
+conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of
+uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule, pieces of this group are of a
+more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire
+field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that
+blend and produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of the old
+pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short, many of those
+that remain are still serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and dark blue, with
+minor quantities of yellow, light blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Sehna,
+rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, seven to eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is usually concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of weft of fine
+or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots, or
+occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only
+once, so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+HAMADANS.—A little to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that
+overlooks a small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain
+is the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of Ecbatana,
+capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb, which tradition
+declares is the burial place of Esther and Mordecai. Within the
+encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and mosques; yet the present city
+of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has
+little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which
+for a short period was mistress of the world.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28. BERGAMO PRAYER RUG]
+
+Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it once
+produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk carpets, though no
+longer are any woven there. But its looms have been busy for the last
+few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels’ hair, which have such
+marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp
+of identification. The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces,
+which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+some are simply mats, others sedjadehs, and an unusually large number
+are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs
+consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion, surrounded by a field of
+contrasting colour, from which are set off the triangular-shaped
+corners. In the large sedjadehs and in the runners, which are sometimes
+twenty feet or more in length, are often three or more pole medallions,
+though the pole device may be omitted. These medallions and corners are
+covered with small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more
+frequently with floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a
+rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or
+comb-like teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is broken
+only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently it is marked
+with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint, like a delicate
+tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a broad edging, which is at
+least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured
+stripes combined, surrounds them. As it is usually of camels’ hair and
+without pattern, it is a very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe
+has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard
+stripes have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+trefoils.
+
+To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the
+figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the
+corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large
+conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel
+or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the
+old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] “An
+irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while
+the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it
+with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners,
+within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to
+be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a
+golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it
+evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._”
+
+Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern
+products with pile of wool or goat’s hair often dyed in garish colours.
+There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering
+tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported
+from there they were often classed as products of that city.
+
+Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel’s hair than any other class
+of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and
+outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with
+the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of
+the field and border. This lavish use of camel’s hair, the broad
+encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft
+passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel’s
+hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally,
+six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton,
+frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once
+without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots
+of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
+_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel’s hair and some wool; in recent rugs,
+mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four
+stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel’s hair. _Sides_, overcast,
+generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to
+twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+IRANS.—Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are
+woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the
+province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or
+colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few
+well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a
+noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so
+loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent
+backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the
+foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show
+distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled
+by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally
+they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as
+Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on
+account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A
+half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the
+direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_,
+cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out
+distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a
+rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely
+crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front
+when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that
+is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow
+web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAROUKS.—Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an
+altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of
+Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked
+until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open
+doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply
+openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open
+fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the
+atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours
+that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls,
+sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow
+lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these
+depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived
+weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+beautiful rugs made in all the East.
+
+Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with
+mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or
+surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a
+hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven
+there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities,
+though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of
+old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
+Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful
+pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three
+decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of
+life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern
+consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more
+concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the
+four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are
+lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one
+another.
+
+Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of
+field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate
+stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and
+flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The
+borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which
+appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented
+with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern,
+which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the
+harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers
+exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for
+occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the
+reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field,
+or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion
+wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the
+sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
+
+All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is
+hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such
+short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective
+by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and
+excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground
+colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+“Ispahans;” while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with
+consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and
+foliage motives.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with
+minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots
+to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely
+linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always
+doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_,
+cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter
+crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and
+velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as
+seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a
+tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both
+ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
+_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KASHANS.—Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient
+and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of
+Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of
+the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of
+Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with
+scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is
+due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into
+Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for
+which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand
+people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest
+artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom
+Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still
+exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and
+artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile
+masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it
+would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned
+his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
+
+According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came
+from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take
+the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is
+woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces,
+though the demand for them is small.
+
+On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market,
+though it is only within recent years that they have been generally
+known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on
+account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs;
+yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is
+a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great
+number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in
+these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short
+comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the
+field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the
+most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those
+unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is
+dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly
+balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the
+very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of
+bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of
+floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks,
+so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense
+of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite
+colour make them exceedingly handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_,
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly,
+sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_,
+generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small
+diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
+_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double
+overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SABABENDS.—Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the
+boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in
+Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as
+prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this
+distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is
+Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on
+the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan,
+Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less
+important centres of weaving.
+
+Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern
+flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs
+which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
+No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for
+generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there
+any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in
+respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists
+of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller
+ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are
+long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear
+figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from
+this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati
+design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or
+the date when the piece was woven.
+
+The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it
+is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the
+prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light
+red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue;
+and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old
+pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft
+rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing
+effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to
+the other colours of the pears.
+
+With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes,
+of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground
+colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears
+have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is
+usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field
+and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an
+outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be
+balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual
+to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+with three.
+
+The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which
+signifies the “city of Mir,” and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
+They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal
+Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted
+that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter
+each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
+Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which
+the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
+For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely
+woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with
+vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at
+back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or
+blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes,
+and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower
+end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine
+grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V—GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
+
+_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high
+type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine
+technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is
+the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of
+the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border,
+and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding
+part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable
+that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman
+the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
+The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no
+other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as
+products of the XVI Century._
+
+_Property of the Author_]
+
+
+BURUJIRDS.—About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the
+south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the
+population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are
+stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of
+Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the
+Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but
+on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be
+mistaken for Iran rugs.
+
+
+SULTANABADS.—Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of
+Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of
+a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher
+prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for
+Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent
+efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are
+supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid
+regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are
+constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that
+lie within a day’s journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But
+while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only
+are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a
+difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called
+Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others
+are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely
+woven.
+
+
+MUSKABADS.—In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the
+northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
+They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they
+have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red,
+yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft,
+the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely
+woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures
+such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In
+some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral
+form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of
+different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive
+of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the
+turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral
+pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant
+finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of
+medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on
+account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave
+they are very serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at
+back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of
+medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to
+five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
+_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very
+coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to
+seven eighths length.
+
+
+JOSHAGHANS.—Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of
+Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best
+carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir
+Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the
+northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse,
+and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last
+century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine
+Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all
+sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout
+the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high
+esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
+
+In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other
+pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work
+pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is
+occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which
+combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening
+spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the
+Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
+
+Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and
+beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The
+ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and
+the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of
+the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so
+that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven;
+and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than
+that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser
+quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to
+thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that
+the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or
+reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft
+generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually
+three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or
+black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+SEHNAS.—Seldom has prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one
+made a decade ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from
+the market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those woven
+before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of Ardelan, for
+to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of them. Nevertheless,
+there are still many looms among the four or five thousand families of
+the city, where true to early traditions are woven modern fabrics that
+maintain the same floral Persian patterns, the same colour, the same
+general character of weave; but they lack the fine technique of the
+older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising that these modern pieces so
+closely resemble the old in all save quality, when it is considered that
+Sehna is distant only fifty miles from the western border of Persia;
+that it is surrounded by Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven
+rugs with nomadic features; and that it is not far distant from other
+important rug centres.
+
+To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is possible at once
+to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is exceedingly short, and the weave
+is so distinctive that with eyes closed an expert will generally
+recognise them after rubbing the hand across the front and back. Their
+patterns, also, conform to well-established types, yet have sufficient
+variety to be always interesting. They may be conveniently divided into
+two groups: one represents the entire field covered with floral designs,
+and the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion at
+the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The former, which
+is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a small diaper pattern of
+the Herati design or floral figures daintily drawn. To obviate too great
+monotony, a number of the old pieces have the leaves and flowers so
+adjusted that the ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less
+often have small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs placed
+in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a rule,
+consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or red, containing
+at its centre a single medallion of contrasting ground colour, which is
+generally dark blue or even black. The four corners of the field have
+serrated edges and are covered with floral designs similar to those of
+the medallion. The borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist
+of three stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions
+they are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of yellow
+or red, are represented designs which are also similar to those of the
+medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that were less floral than
+more modern pieces, and the turtle design so common to Feraghans was
+often used. Isolated and adventitious designs, such as are seen in all
+nomadic rugs, are never found in these pieces, nor are the floriated
+scrolls that are peculiar to Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.
+
+As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both linen and
+silk are used for the warp, and silk for overcasting, but generally the
+warp is cotton and the overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has
+given its name to the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of
+China and Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been inconsistent
+in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the Sehna knot, but a
+surprisingly large proportion of both recent and comparatively old
+pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few other rugs ever adopt the same
+style of weaving; for a thread of weft passes between two rows of knots
+but once, so that at the back only alternate threads of white cotton
+warp appear between these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered
+appearance or quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not
+drawn tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are so
+closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are not
+uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number are now and
+then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine threads and the nap
+is very short, these rugs are exceedingly thin and, accordingly, are not
+well adapted for floor use.
+
+Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their fields of deep
+blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but unfortunately they are
+somewhat marred by the long slit in the centre made to fit the saddle.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light blue, and yellow. _Knot_,
+Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely
+pressed down, but the yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely silk. A single
+thread of small diameter crosses only once between every two rows of
+knots, so that the white spots of transverse warp exposed at back have a
+quincunx appearance. _Pile_, wool clipped very short. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting. _Lower end_, a
+short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper
+end_, short web and fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+fine grain but very rough. _Length_, three to seven feet. _Width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BIJARS.—One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on the road to Tabriz, is the
+city of Bijar, capital of the district of Gehrous. It is surrounded by
+barren mountains that rise out of high table-lands, where for miles
+scarcely a habitation or bush breaks the monotony, and where not even a
+blade of grass or flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth,
+except for a short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly
+all Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and willows
+falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet there still
+remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well as a population of
+five thousand people. Without doubt the importance of the city is partly
+due to the regiment of soldiers that the governor maintains to keep in
+subjection the bands of robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers,
+live throughout the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of
+fierce foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from the
+fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and Afghanistan
+meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and settled here. After
+them is named a small river that flows a short distance to the north and
+finally empties into Lake Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the
+name Saraks to the rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the
+Turkoman characteristics.
+
+By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and Kurdish rugs,
+the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual merit. The foundation
+is generally of wool; but unlike almost all other rugs with nomadic
+features one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other in
+the process of weaving, so that it is almost or entirely concealed.
+Bijars are accordingly pieces of great firmness and durability.
+Moreover, their threads of warp and weft are of coarse diameter, so that
+they are invariably thick even when the nap is not long. They are also
+distinctive in the effective massing of bright and strong colours.
+Perhaps the association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes,
+with vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the brilliant,
+joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of Asia; but by the
+weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard many of the Persian
+colours, which, however rich, are subdued and sombre, and adopt the
+brighter hues seen in some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not
+always the case with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste;
+and though crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel’s hair be brought in
+relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the effect,
+except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never displeasing.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31. KULAH PRAYER RUG]
+
+In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the oldest pieces
+are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive of the highest Persian
+art. In many pieces a central medallion and triangular-shaped corners,
+separated by a field of plain or slightly shaded colour, is a favourite
+pattern. But the defining lines are severe, and lack the delicate
+drawing characteristic of Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be
+covered with a lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive
+forms, consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an outer
+edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are often
+represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the undulating
+vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most Persian rugs.
+Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that have none of the
+earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful with their soft wool
+and lustrous colours, as well as interesting with their blending of
+Persian and Kurdish features.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, also blue, ivory,
+green, yellow, and chocolate. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the
+weft partly hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse
+diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, of medium length, usually wool, but
+frequently partly of camel’s hair. _Border_, of three stripes, often
+with an outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting in red or purple.
+_Lower end_, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+selvage. _Upper end_, a web with loose warp fringe and sometimes a
+braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned back and hemmed.
+_Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Length_, six
+to sixteen feet. _Width_, one quarter to three fifths length.
+
+
+KERMANSHAHS.—On an ancient highway between Bagdad and Teheran is the
+city of Kermanshah. As it is situated near the frontiers of northwestern
+Persia, facing the Turkish provinces, and is surrounded by mountains
+where once wandered bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no
+government, it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A
+century ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the villages
+of the vicinity in which were made “carpets of most beautiful colour and
+fabric.” Within later years the moat has filled with rubbish, the
+encircling walls have crumbled, and the deserted bazaars and
+caravansaries show that its present population of about twelve thousand
+is but a small part of what it has been. With its decline in political
+importance followed a decline in industrial activities; yet for a long
+time it remained a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir
+George Birdwood wrote that “the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which
+at the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in the
+palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are only
+disposed of as presents.”[25] And in 1890 a traveller[26] spoke of the
+weaving as follows: “It is a process carried on in homes, hovels, and
+tents by women and children.... The vegetable dyes used are soft and
+artistic, especially a wonderful red and the various shades of indigo.
+The dull, rich tints, even when new, are quite beautiful. The women
+pursue their work chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases
+make it much of a pastime.”
+
+From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained large
+quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for years have
+been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the modern Kermanshahs
+are made elsewhere in the work-houses of exporting companies. So
+noticeable is the resemblance in drawing and colouring of some of them
+to the Kirmans of Southeastern Persia, that they are offered now and
+then by dealers as real Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and
+artistic merit of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of
+floral expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may have
+serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and with or
+without pendants. The corners are defined by lines that do not always
+conform to those of the medallion; and the borders have always several
+stripes, of which the main one is usually but little wider than the
+others. In all these different parts are floral and foliage motives that
+find expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many simpler
+forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and vines.
+
+There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with, as it is
+not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes the cypress or
+the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the field of a rare old
+Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large panels, which like so many
+small rugs contained central fields that were alternately coloured blue
+and ivory. Surrounding each of these little fields, on which were
+represented the arch of a temple and the tree of life, were borders
+wherein were woven verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of
+the borders were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels
+was a wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In fact, a
+larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other Persian rugs have
+prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran inscribed in some part of
+them, but with very few exceptions they are recently woven and bear no
+evidence of devotional usage.
+
+The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are much lighter
+than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a field of ivory
+surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes a light rose red is
+used. Other colours are light blue, green, and buff, which are softened
+by the floccy quality of the excellent and moderately short-clipped
+wool. One feature common to almost all of them is the narrow edging of
+pinkish red that surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls,
+the soft light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the
+white or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are characteristics
+by which these rugs may readily be distinguished. As they come in all
+sizes from small mats to large carpets, and have tones that harmonise
+with almost any surroundings, they are a most popular class with those
+who care little for association and ignore the fact that they are
+chemically washed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally light rose and ivory,
+also blue, green, and buff. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly eleven to eighteen. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the
+weft is conspicuous. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter,
+sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, soft and of medium length. _Border_,
+frequently of three stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many
+stripes; also an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally
+blue. _Sides_, a double overcasting in same colour as edging. _Lower
+end_, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to fourteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+WESTERN KURDISTANS.—Within the land lying between the Anti-Taurus and
+Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have their
+sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as when in the dawn of history
+they were designated the “Warriors;” or centuries later, under the name
+“Carduchis,” opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his ten thousand
+Greeks. Now they are known as “Kurds,” of whom large numbers, wild,
+brave, and hospitable, live a nomadic life among table-lands partly
+covered with sycamores and oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty
+pine-crowned mountains, that for long months are enveloped in snow.
+Doubtless the cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich
+vegetation of innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in
+a measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when contrasted
+with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but the will of their
+chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty. “There was up to a recent
+period no more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the
+East than the court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like
+another Saladin, the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his
+clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting silken
+scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the time of the
+Crusades.”[27]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32. MELEZ PRAYER RUG]
+
+Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they cultivate the
+soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages of stone houses. Many
+of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah. Others have made their homes
+in the district of Kermanshah, and not a few have wandered as far as
+Khorassan. But wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their
+appearance; for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as well as
+graceful.
+
+There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the pastoral
+life and those who dwell in villages, or between the Kurds of Asiatic
+Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has produced a marked
+difference in their textile fabrics. Those woven by the tribes that live
+among the mountains that encircle Lake Van and extend to the north of
+Diarbekr embody the wild characteristics of the weavers. They are strong
+and coarse, with close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest
+Caucasian influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a
+large central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now and then
+Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field. Moreover, the
+colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs, but possess rich,
+strong hues obtained from native dyes that applied to the excellent wool
+give it a warm, lustrous appearance. Brown is very largely used. There
+are also dark reds and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow.
+Only the Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and long
+shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance possessed by
+no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the Mosuls; but as a
+rule the pile is longer, and they are more coarsely woven. In fact, the
+yarn is so coarse that it is not unusual to see pieces with only thirty
+or forty knots to the square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they
+rarely come in large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly
+oblong. They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact that each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+the back.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white, and the natural
+colour of the undyed wool. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+four to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+closely pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter,
+and often dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, occasionally camel’s or goat’s
+hair clipped long. _Border_, generally of three stripes. _Sides_, a
+heavy double overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in
+several different colours. _Lower end_, a narrow web, through which runs
+a coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, a narrow web, one or more
+rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe. _Texture_, very stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Length_, five to sixteen feet.
+_Width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+PERSIAN KURDISTANS.—Nowhere is the influence of association among
+weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the tribes
+settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is apparent in
+weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from those seen in the
+Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is only rarely of coarse goats’
+hair, and is generally soft, brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so
+that the drawing is clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more
+varied and of more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of
+green, rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The medallion
+in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which appear some form
+of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of large figures are often
+the more dainty Herati designs borrowed from the Feraghans and the
+Sehnas, or the pear design from the Sarabends. Now and then is seen a
+rare old piece with field completely covered with drawings of the tree
+of life and strange floral conceits; but the pattern that is
+pre-eminently typical of this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani,
+though it is occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or olive,
+rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a feature
+peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of the field to
+the other, so as to suggest that their wandering life often made it
+difficult to obtain the roots and herbs necessary to produce similar
+shades. As is rarely the case with other patterns, the naturalistic
+flowers that are pendent from the undulating vine of the main stripe and
+the flowers of the field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining
+stripes of the narrow border have most simple vines.
+
+Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly woven. To
+assure firmness, one thread of warp is depressed below the other in
+tying the knots; and the weft that is thrown across for filling is of
+fair quality. On account of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good
+colours it is still possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as
+objects of utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+qualities.
+
+A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and Bijar rugs;
+but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference in the weave serves
+to distinguish one from the other. As may be seen by examining the backs
+of typical specimens, in Mosuls every thread of warp lies in the same
+plane parallel with the surface of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans
+one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an
+acute angle to that plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right
+angles to that plane.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is no longer than wide and is frequently not so long.
+The yarn is loosely woven, so that each separate ply is distinct. The
+rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed
+and the weft partly hidden at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back;
+but sometimes each is equally prominent. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots, only rarely once. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally some camel’s
+hair of medium length. _Border_, three to four stripes. _Sides_, a heavy
+double overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, five eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAJES.—Dwelling near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are
+tribes who weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of the
+Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a marked
+difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses only once between
+two rows of knots, or in a few pieces two threads of weft pass side by
+side as though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft is
+inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their weft is
+almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with long nap of
+soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with border of three
+stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often consists of a small bush
+or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in formal array throughout the
+field. Sometimes the floral forms are placed within the diamonds formed
+by a trellis pattern, but more frequently they are arranged in rows like
+the pear designs of Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much
+conventionalised and suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern
+Caucasia; and in others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic.
+Another pattern frequently followed consists of three or four large
+diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to the
+other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating vine of
+well-known Persian character generally appears in one or more of the
+stripes. As these pieces are almost always comparatively old, the
+vegetable dyes that were used for colouring have mellowed, and have a
+richness of tone that is accentuated by the depth of pile and softness
+of wool. The prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue or plum and
+red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to twelve; perpendicularly,
+seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide,
+and occasionally is longer. The rows of knots, which have even alignment
+at back, are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool, rarely cotton; each
+of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium diameter crosses
+once between every two rows of knots; but in parts of the same rug two,
+three, or even four threads of small diameter will cross side by side as
+a single coarse thread. Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or
+four times. The filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the
+back, giving an even surface. _Pile_, wool, of medium length or
+moderately long. _Border_, of three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double
+overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and short
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to
+one half length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33. MELEZ RUG]
+
+
+TABRIZ.—Although Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is
+situated in a remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has
+been one of the most important centres in the Orient for the production
+of carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and some of
+the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven there during the
+reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this industry his royal patronage.
+This city has been for a long period on the great routes of caravans
+passing to Trebizond and Tiflis from the country to the south and east,
+so that it has become the principal mart of Persia for the export of
+rugs gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still continues
+to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the employ of foreign
+companies who prescribe the character of workmanship. As a consequence,
+the rugs are of good material, excellently woven; and though many of the
+old dyes are no longer used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on
+account of the mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+Oriental spirit is largely lacking.
+
+Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of Western
+buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of a large
+central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory, blue, or red
+that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a small diamond occupies
+the centre and is surrounded by a series of concentric medallions.
+Although in these respects they correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks,
+and Kashans, the patterns of their fields lack the long scrolls and
+interlacing branches, and consist frequently of short, slender stems
+supporting fronds, leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as
+to present almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is
+a delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and yet it
+is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers were Kurds.
+Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of Kirmans, or are
+realistically drawn compositæ surrounded by delicate leaves on graceful
+stems; some times the small designs are as formal as the palmettes of
+old Ispahans, from which they were doubtless copied; again, the
+naturalistic and conventional may be blended together in an harmonious
+whole. But whatever the pattern, the different parts show the perfect
+balance so frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four
+centuries ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many exceptions, since
+the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy any coloured
+drawing.
+
+The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these rugs are
+frequently compared, in the fact that in their central stripe the
+continuous vine of leaf and flower is less conspicuous; and in its place
+are often palmettes, pears, shrubs, or formal trees separated by
+foliated scrolls. Not infrequently the smaller stripes, also, have a
+repetitive pattern of leaf and flower, though in some of the many
+stripes is usually a well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a
+series of cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and
+contain verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years
+this tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is increasing.
+
+A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the adoption
+of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton, which is used for
+the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots are carefully tied, and
+the closely woven texture presents an appearance at the back similar to
+that of Sarouks; but the almost concealed weft is generally either white
+or pink. The weave compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the
+wool of the closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so
+silky, the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost square.
+
+_Type characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to twenty;
+perpendicularly, ten to twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, as a rule, is
+cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine diameter, and
+frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short and harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, from five to eight stripes and an outer edging. _Sides_, a
+two-cord selvage. _Both ends_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine texture. _Usual length_,
+nine to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+GOREVANS.—Of the many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for
+use, few are of such moderate price as the Gorevans, which, during
+recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the province of
+Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance suggests Occidental
+craftsmanship, but in every essential they are distinctly Oriental.
+Their stout weave, large size, and nearly square shape place them in the
+class of Persian pieces often called carpets, to which belong the
+Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are
+frequently larger than any of these, and are readily distinguished from
+them by their colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same
+light shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta, buff, dark
+blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once recognised, are
+rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor are the colours
+distributed in patches so small as to blend when viewed at a short
+distance, but are of sufficient masses to be separately observed and
+analysed.
+
+The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally covered
+with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions, of which the
+longer sides of the largest are often marked with conspicuous
+indentations such as are not seen in classes made in other districts.
+All of the medallions are covered with large designs, in which the
+artist has departed from the usual forms of vine, leaf, and flower, that
+poorly imitate the splendid examples of so-called “Ispahans,” and in
+many instances has represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest
+remaining Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves, and
+flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a European
+influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has disappeared in
+the extremely conventionalised forms that are placed with set regularity
+in the field. A very noticeable feature of these rugs is the manner in
+which the designs are coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a
+large figure in two strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink
+separated by a stiffly drawn line.
+
+The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The small
+stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral and leaf
+forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of the field. The
+main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star medallions, but in most
+instances has the turtle pattern, though its treatment differs from the
+usual form seen in Feraghans. A co-ordination in colour exists between
+field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of the
+medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of the other
+stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.
+
+All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the interest of those
+that follow traditional patterns; but their stout weave, warm colours,
+and archaic designs make them both serviceable and pleasing.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dull red, dark blue, and
+buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six
+to ten. The most conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back,
+is, as a rule, longer than wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed
+down, but the warp is rarely entirely concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent. _Weft_,
+cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A thread of weft
+crosses only once between every two rows of knots, or frequently twice.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes,
+occasionally four or five. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both
+ends_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_, rather loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to sixteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+BAKSHIS.—A close relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+comparatively modern product, and several other less known sub-classes
+of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in the east central part
+of the province of Azerbijan. One of these towns, located fifty miles to
+the southeast of Tabriz, is Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that
+were highly esteemed by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted
+by a spirit of commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of
+little artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34. RHODIAN RUG]
+
+
+SERAPIS.—The rugs known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab
+in the mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east. The
+large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as they are of
+similar shape and have similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule
+they are better woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of
+concentric medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically
+drawn. Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality and is
+in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are cheerful. A field
+of ivory or some light shade of buff usually surrounds the central
+medallions, on which appear soft and pleasing tones of smaller designs.
+Yet on the whole there is a tendency to employ richer and deeper tones
+than those of Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive shades
+of colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the
+other at back, and frequently doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton,
+of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually
+in red or buff. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops or short warp
+fringe. _Upper end_, a narrow web and warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to eighteen
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+HEREZ.—The city of Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province
+of Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to the
+sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that were followed
+with slight modification in many of the former Gorevans. In a measure
+the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in the medallion pattern of some
+of these pieces, but for their gracefully flowing lines are substituted
+more rectangular ones; and in place of many colours are few, of which
+blue and a reddish copper are particularly noticeable. Another
+well-known and interesting type consists of a field of white, on which,
+with formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red, blue,
+yellow, and green, archaic leaves and flowers supported by stems and
+tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form geometric lines and
+angles. At regular intervals the branching tendrils assume the shape of
+arches, of which in larger pieces there are frequently one or two dozen;
+and so closely do they resemble prayer arches that these rugs are
+sometimes mistaken for namazliks. The borders usually consist of three
+stripes. The outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple
+floral figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are large and
+almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally excellent.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, light blue, and
+reddish brown, also some yellow and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most
+conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than
+wide. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft
+is noticeable at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each thread is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, of cotton, seldom of wool, of moderately
+coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally of three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Lower end_, a very narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_,
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, nine to
+fifteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven eighths length.
+
+
+SUJ-BULAKS.—About fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same
+distance from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital
+of Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of the
+much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large garrison
+was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in this vicinity are
+strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in the strong texture, the
+excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark colours, the finish of sides
+and ends. The patterns also are largely Kurdish, but frequently show the
+influence of Persian association.
+
+In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used. One of them
+is generally the ground colour of the central field, and shows the
+Kurdish influence by a gradual shading from end to end; the other
+appears in the overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character.
+The drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of white,
+green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line the edges of
+the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have vines and floral
+forms.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and blue, with
+minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are, as a rule, pressed down, so that the
+alignment of each half knot is very uneven; but frequently this feature
+is not regularly maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here
+and there the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, but
+occasionally one is depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, of three to four
+stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue, red,
+or brown. _Lower end_, a web through which runs a parti-coloured cord,
+and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a braided selvage in addition to
+the web. _Upper end_, the same as lower, excepting that the web is
+occasionally turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to
+seven feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to three fifths length.
+
+
+KARADAGHS.—In the extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city
+of Tabriz and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh,
+which signifies the “Black Mountain,” On its slopes and in the adjoining
+valleys rugs have been woven for at least several hundred years, and at
+one time were well known in Europe, but few have reached this country.
+Most of them are produced for home use, so that they are, as a rule,
+well woven, of good material, and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in
+colour scheme, weave, and finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh,
+which immediately adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no
+other rugs of Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much
+disregarded and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.
+
+The field of many of these rugs is completely covered with
+conventionalised flowers of several different colours, so arranged that
+diagonal lines are of similar colours. Sometimes it is covered with a
+pattern of hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some repetitive
+pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and then some form of
+pole medallion, which the weavers have learned from their more southern
+neighbours, is substituted. The patterns of the borders are either
+mechanically drawn vines or contain geometric figures characteristic of
+Caucasian pieces. For guard stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly
+used.
+
+The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A favourite colour
+for the field is blue or a camel’s hair yellow; sometimes rose is seen.
+The nap of modern pieces is medium long and of old pieces is short. The
+weave of the latter is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and
+stout threads of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+appearance of many rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, so that the warp appears at back, and the weft is
+prominent. _Warp_, wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is
+equally distinct at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of moderate length. _Border_, three to six stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of rather coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+MOSULS.—Near the ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is
+the city of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east and west,
+but it became noted for its textiles from which was derived the name
+“muslin.” At length on account of pestilence, misrule, and the sack of
+armies its population and industries have dwindled; though it is still
+the capital and commercial centre of a district that lies between the
+high table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad, and
+that extends across the Mesopotamian valley to the mountain ridges
+bordering Western Persia. Within this extensive area are large stretches
+of rich pasture, where Abraham once fed his flocks, and where each year
+Kurdish nomads from the north drive their sheep when the winter snows
+cover their own hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians
+likewise mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+can be found anywhere in the Orient.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35. KONIEH PRAYER RUG]
+
+Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul are made by
+different races and show great diversity of character. It would, indeed,
+be often difficult to distinguish them if the weave were disregarded;
+for though they are prone to yellow and russet hues, and the long wool
+is floccy as well as lustrous, there is no pattern that can be
+considered truly typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as
+stars, latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however much the
+nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always shown by the way
+in which the severer features are softened. In fact, a very large
+percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are made by the tribes that
+wander as far east as the great mountain divides along the borders of
+Western Persia, and adopt patterns and colour schemes current in
+Azerbijan and Ardelan. It accordingly happens that medallion patterns
+resembling those of Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines,
+are seen. More frequently the field is covered with small figures common
+to Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully rounded
+lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as those of the Baku
+rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces appears evidence of some
+conventionalised floral form; but now and then a rare old piece is found
+which was woven in the plains of Mesopotamia, with field completely
+covered with a naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of
+the Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by a
+delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs seen in any
+rug.
+
+The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three stripes, one
+of which usually has some simple vine, and the others some well-known
+geometric pattern. It is, also, not unusual to find an outer edging
+surrounding the border. In a few of these pieces camel’s hair is used
+even to the extent of occupying the whole field; and goat’s hair or
+sheep’s wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly employed. One of
+the most usual colours is some shade of yellow. Reddish hues also
+prevail. These rugs frequently have the same pleasing effect of slightly
+graduated changes so common in the ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a
+whole the colour scheme is lighter. On the other hand, they follow the
+shading adopted in Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the
+sudden transition between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour
+so noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present remoteness of
+the Mosul district from important highways of travel, many excellent
+pieces, which with careful use should acquire the rich tones of those
+now old, are still woven there.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally yellow and brownish red,
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently
+longer. The yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of
+knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+_Warp_, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally of
+wool, of coarse diameter and frequently dyed red or orange, but
+occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a thread of weft crosses twice
+between two rows of knots, but sometimes crosses only once; or two or
+three threads cross side by side, as in Karajes. _Pile_, wool and
+occasionally camel’s hair, of medium length. _Border_, of three stripes
+with frequently an outer edging of solid colour. _Sides_ are generally a
+heavy double overcasting, but in a few pieces there is a two-cord weft
+selvage or double selvage. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe; occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web
+is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet. _Usual width_, two
+fifths to three quarters length.
+
+Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs, such as the Teheran,
+Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and Gozene, that were woven
+within the Iranian boundaries. Some of them are no longer produced, and
+others are woven in such small numbers that but few are exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36. KIR-SHEHR PRAYER RUG]
+
+The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of Persia. The
+typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some floral form
+occupying the central field, which is two or three times as long as
+wide. The weave resembles that of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes,
+each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent
+at the back, and both warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide,
+and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage.
+
+Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs known by
+that name were once made in a district not far from Kashan, where rose
+bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be covered with
+conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again they may contain
+roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals, as if viewed from
+above. The most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour, such
+as red, blue, and yellow softened by shades of brown and green. Even the
+weft and the webs of the ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a
+two-cord selvage, warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of
+warp to each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+came in large sizes, are no longer made.
+
+Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the district of
+Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in the past have
+furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The people are
+industrious, and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving. Some
+of their rugs closely resemble the Kurdish pieces, and others correspond
+with the Irans. In the technique of weave they often follow the
+Hamadans. On the outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad,
+where, also, rugs are woven for market.
+
+For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah on the
+west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been partly occupied by
+a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as Afshars.
+They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks of Asia Minor, and the rugs
+of both tribes have many points of similarity. The wool of the nap is
+generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep. The patterns
+incorporate some of the floral features of Persian rugs, though they
+display many Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close
+resemblance to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by
+observing a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres
+of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in Kazaks
+they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back, each half of a
+knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn closely against the warp,
+while in Kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is
+drawn closer.
+
+In the country about Gozene, in the watershed of the Euphrates river,
+are made a few rugs for local use, though they occasionally reach
+Western markets. The pattern, which is very simple, usually consists of
+some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of
+maroon. Many of this class have a double foundation of warp; and
+frequently, at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel
+with the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the fact
+that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some
+knots and the right half of others. Occasionally, also, a knot is tied
+about four threads of warp. In other rugs of this class which have a
+single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of Mosuls.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their floral
+character, which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from
+side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure. Some of these
+vines have been evolved from arabesques, and others from naturalistic
+tendrils, but all are graceful. In a few pieces the stripes contain rows
+of detached flowers, rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet
+unobtrusive colours, that are always in perfect harmony with those of
+the field. Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the
+exception of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most
+elegant, pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago.
+
+
+_Primary Stripes._—In Plate E, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a
+typical Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century
+carpets. It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of
+such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe the angular and
+serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.
+
+One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate E, Fig. 2, bears
+a resemblance to the Herat stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had
+a common origin, since they were designed in adjoining and freely
+communicating districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of
+each flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+heads of birds.
+
+[Illustration: Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs]
+
+The so-called turtle pattern, Plate E, Fig. 3, has probably been derived
+from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early
+as the beginning of the XV Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The
+rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent “turtles” suggest the
+Herati pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically drawn
+and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and Serapis.
+
+A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral bushes, is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 4. It is also seen in some of the old rugs of
+Northwestern Persia. Another Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the
+Herati pattern, is represented in Fig. 5.
+
+A single row of pears (Plate E, Fig. 6) is a characteristic Luristan
+stripe.
+
+The dainty pattern of Plate E, Fig. 7, in which the vine has been
+abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device, shows a
+not unusual Herez stripe.
+
+As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never crowded, and
+represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers. A stripe commonly
+seen in this class is represented in Plate E, Fig. 8. It is also seen in
+the Bijars.
+
+On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh district, which is
+separated only by the Aras river from Caucasia, its stripes show a
+combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other Persian
+pieces. Plate E, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a rosette,
+and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans. Plate E, Fig. 10,
+represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled
+star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine.
+
+A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower, which is
+frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 11.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and
+roses that now and then is seen in old Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are
+also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs
+of Northwestern Persia.
+
+The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate E, Fig. 14, is
+sometimes seen in stripes of Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is
+a characteristic of this class.
+
+Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former are often
+more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate E, Fig. 15, is a
+stripe from an old and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and
+King Solomon’s eight-pointed star.
+
+Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes is the
+well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white
+ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this
+stripe (Plate E, Fig. 16). Its presence at once indicates that the piece
+is either a Sarabend or an Iran copy.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear pattern of a Meshed stripe.
+The graceful form, resembling in a measure the Indian drawing, is
+peculiar to these stripes.
+
+The Kirman stripe (Plate E, Fig. 18) invariably contains red roses
+naturalistically drawn, surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems.
+This is one of the most beautiful of Persian border patterns.
+
+Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah stripe, one of
+which appears in Plate E, Fig. 19, with mechanically drawn flowers,
+leaves, and vines.
+
+The formal pattern (Plate E, Fig. 20) of octagons surrounded by
+latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of Shiraz rugs, and
+indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic
+influences.
+
+The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral
+form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of these stripes is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 21.
+
+Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the
+borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of the former is
+represented in Plate E, Fig. 22.
+
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—The ornamentation of a large
+proportion of secondary stripes of Persian rugs consists of running
+vines, which fall within two divisions, according to the absence or
+presence of pendants.
+
+Plate F, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from an inner stripe of a
+Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at
+each flexure.
+
+In Plate F, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as Gorevans.
+Similar stripes are very common. As there is no pendant, the character
+of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures,
+one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE F. SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF PERSIAN RUGS]
+
+In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate F, Fig.
+3) consisting of an angular vine, from each flexure of which spring
+small designs like three-leaf clover.
+
+Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as the Bijars
+and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate F, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a
+serrated leaf, and the other is a small rosette with short curving
+tendrils.
+
+A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate F, Fig. 5. At
+each flexure is a flower of four petals, and from alternating flexures
+spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine. Stripes of
+similar drawing appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 A. D. A
+further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in
+Plate F, Fig. 6.
+
+One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F,
+Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor carpets woven during the XIII Century,
+and also in some of the earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is
+seen in modern Persian rugs.
+
+A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F, Fig. 8.
+This pattern is seen in a large number of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls,
+Bijars, Kurdistans, and Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged
+to almost the form of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.
+
+In another stripe (Plate F, Fig. 9), taken from a Feraghan, there is no
+particular enlargement to the vine, and the alternating pendants are
+buds and flowers of four petals.
+
+A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads is shown in
+Plate F, Fig. 10. In this the vine represents serrated leaves, and
+suggests one of the Shirvan patterns.
+
+A very similar stripe (Plate F, Fig. 11), taken from a Sehna, should be
+compared with those of Figs. 8 and 10, as it serves to illustrate the
+evolution of vine patterns. In fact, if a very large number of stripes
+were arranged in proper order, they would show almost imperceptible
+gradations from one type to another.
+
+One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish tribes,
+is shown in Plate F, Fig. 12; and in Fig. 13 is another vine with
+pendent pear alternating with a rosette.
+
+Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate F, Figs. 14 and 15,
+for instance, is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at
+the sides and the ends of some moderately old Persian rugs. The former
+pattern bears a resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a
+series of connecting links.
+
+A graceful pattern that is seen in Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of
+Northwestern Persia is represented in Plate F, Fig. 16. It was probably
+derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17) which is constantly used in a
+tertiary stripe, is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral
+design. It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends,
+Bijars, Sarouks, and Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan
+rugs, and in almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a tertiary
+stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate F, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost
+in the dim past, and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic
+meaning.
+
+A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its well-authenticated
+age, contains the “Y” pattern shown in Plate F, Fig. 19. It is found in
+some Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.
+
+One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate F, Fig. 20, is
+frequently found in modern Persian rugs, as well as in Iranian carpets
+woven six centuries ago.
+
+[Illustration: COLOUR PLATE VI. PERSIAN GARDEN CARPET
+
+This carpet and the one at the Naesby House, Sweden, which it resembles
+in pattern but not in colouring, are, so far as known, the only complete
+carpets of this type. The Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle
+of the XVIII. Century; this is undoubtedly much older.
+
+A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL “GARDEN” CARPET (Reputed to have been made
+for Shah ’Abbās for Safavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.
+
+31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.
+
+[_Statement of the owner_]
+
+ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., LONDON.]
+
+The pattern represents a Persian garden divided into four sections by
+two intersecting streams, which are bordered by rows of cypress trees,
+alternating with bushes on which are birds. These sections are similarly
+divided by smaller streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each
+side, into plots containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks
+rest above the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+mellowing influence of time.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Bijar       │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Feraghan    │   [G]   │   S  │ 8-13│ 7-18│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Gorevan     │    G    │      │ 6-8 │ 6-10│     │   c   │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Hamadan     │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-12│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Herat       │    G    │  [S] │ 8-11│ 6-12│ [w] │   c   │    │   │[d]│ h │
+  │Herez       │    G    │      │ 5-10│ 6-12│     │   c   │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Iran        │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-11│     │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-11│  w  │   c   │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Joshaghan   │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 8-13│ [w] │   c   │    │ e │   │ d │
+  │Kashan      │         │   S  │16-20│16-24│     │   c   │[l] │   │   │ h │
+  │Karadagh    │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 7-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Karaje      │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-12│  w  │  [c]  │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kermanshah  │         │   S  │12-18│11-18│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Khorassan   │         │   S  │ 8-13│12-20│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Kirman      │         │   S  │11-20│11-20│     │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT           │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            +─────┬───────┬────┬─────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│  P  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼─────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Bijar       │ w   │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │            │     │       │    │     │   │   │ [S] │   │   │   │
+  │Feraghan    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Gorevan     │     │   c   │    │ 1-2 │   │ S │     │   │   │ F │
+  │Hamadan     │[w]  │   c   │    │  1  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Herat       │ w   │  [c]  │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │            │     │       │    │[3-4]│   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Herez       │[w]  │   c   │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Iran        │     │   c   │    │2/[1]│ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│ w   │   c   │    │ 1-2 │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Joshaghan   │ w   │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Kashan      │     │   c   │[l] │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Karadagh    │ w   │       │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Karaje      │ w   │  [c]  │    │  1  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Kermanshah  │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │[L]│ F │
+  │Khorassan   │[w]  │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │            │     │       │    │[6-8]│   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Kirman      │ w   │  [c]  │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴─────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Bijar       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     f    │
+  │            │ [S] │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │Feraghan    │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      m    │     m    │
+  │Gorevan     │     │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Hamadan     │  W  │   │ T │   │    m/s    │      m    │     f    │
+  │Herat       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Herez       │     │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Iran        │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     l    │
+  │Mod. Ispahan│  W  │[K]│[T]│ F │    m/s    │      m    │     f    │
+  │Joshaghan   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      f    │     m    │
+  │Kashan      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  │Karadagh    │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    m/f   │
+  │Karaje      │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/l    │      c    │     l    │
+  │Kermanshah  │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Khorassan   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │    m/f   │
+  │Kirman      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Persian     │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-13│  w  │       │    │ e │ d │   │
+  │Western     │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │    G    │      │ 4-7 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Mahal       │    G    │   S  │ 7-12│ 6-12│     │   c   │    │ e │ d │   │
+  │Meshed      │   [G]   │   S  │ 8-15│12-17│ [w] │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Mosul       │    G    │      │ 5-7 │ 7-9 │  w  │  [c]  │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Muskabad    │    G    │   S  │ 6-11│ 6-11│     │   c   │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Niris       │    G    │      │ 6-11│ 7-15│  w  │       │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Sarabend    │         │   S  │ 8-13│ 9-13│     │   c   │    │ e │   │ h │
+  │Sarouk      │         │   S  │12-18│12-20│     │   c   │[l] │   │[d]│ h │
+  │Sehna       │    G    │   S  │11-20│12-24│     │   c   │[l] │ e │   │   │
+  │Serapi      │   [G]   │   S  │ 6-10│ 7-12│     │   c   │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Shiraz      │   [G]   │   S  │ 7-12│ 8-12│  w  │       │[g] │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Tabriz      │    G    │      │12-20│10-22│     │   c   │[l] │   │   │ h │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT           │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬─────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│  P  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼─────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Persian     │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Western     │     │       │    │     │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Kurdistan │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │[K]│[L]│   │
+  │Mahal       │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Meshed      │  w  │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Mosul       │  w  │  [c]  │    │2/[1]│ O │[S]│  W  │   │   │   │
+  │Muskabad    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Niris       │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Sarabend    │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │ [W] │   │   │ F │
+  │Sarouk      │     │   c   │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Sehna       │     │   c   │    │  1  │ O │   │ [W] │   │   │ F │
+  │Serapi      │     │   c   │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │[F]│
+  │Shiraz      │  w  │       │    │  2  │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │  w  │       │    │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Tabriz      │ [w] │   c   │[l] │  2  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴─────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  PERSIAN   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Persian     │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Kurdistan │  W  │   │   │ F │     l     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Western     │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Kurdistan │  W  │[K]│ T │ F │     l     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Mahal       │ [W] │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Meshed      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   m/f    │
+  │Mosul       │W/[S]│   │[T]│ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Muskabad    │ [W] │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/f    │
+  │Niris       │  W  │ K │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     l    │
+  │Sarabend    │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/f   │     f    │
+  │Sarouk      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  │Sehna       │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      m    │     m    │
+  │Serapi      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │     f    │
+  │Shiraz      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │     l    │
+  │Suj-Bulak   │  W  │   │[T]│ F │     m     │     m/c   │    m/l   │
+  │Tabriz      │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │     f    │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+
+ALL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently
+grouped together and called “Turkish” rugs; but a more natural
+classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and
+those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges
+that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river
+from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces
+that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the
+Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of
+Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other
+hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those
+woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them
+separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.
+
+Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the
+Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more
+classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in
+the shadow of the walls where Crœsus lived and among villages where
+Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who
+still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched,
+across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes
+of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of
+the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander’s conquering
+army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.
+
+When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a
+distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persian
+rugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there
+arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs
+of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the
+price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which
+large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although
+many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by
+their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and
+southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with
+seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One
+of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a
+small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the
+principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.[28] Almost
+all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself
+has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic
+spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of
+the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent
+with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to
+reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs
+possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of
+designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they
+represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further
+changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+characteristics exist in the old pieces.
+
+The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are
+the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may
+be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The
+colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the
+Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and
+yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese
+rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender,
+and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a
+few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside
+one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the
+artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+combinations.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ASIA MINOR]
+
+The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of
+other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main
+patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent
+inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal
+figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays
+distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian;
+the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives
+that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms
+and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged
+separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of
+invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel
+them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing
+of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the
+majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results;
+for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well
+as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any
+other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as
+well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for
+in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a
+background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above
+which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.
+
+Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of
+rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals,
+birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the
+religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the
+country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so
+characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic
+of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal
+trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all
+Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which
+are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country. There
+are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs,
+and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.
+
+These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result
+of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural
+art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national
+existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at
+different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of
+dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters
+that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the
+Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences
+of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer
+rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact,
+the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and
+design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic
+development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from
+years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques;
+yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and
+study.
+
+
+BERGAMOS.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean
+Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It
+is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring
+with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same
+name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had
+taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the
+seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments,
+philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars
+gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly
+encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that
+was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing
+cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any
+reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling
+relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more
+recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed
+there.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37. ANATOLIAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when aniline
+dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the Hellespont. Almost
+without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of
+colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool. An
+observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red
+that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly, and
+forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently
+of the drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the dyer
+who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool, and
+to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and
+weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs, that these
+pieces command as high a price as old Kirmans of similar age.
+
+In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs: in shape
+they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the exception rather than
+the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern, as
+is usually the case with other classes. They may have low tent-shaped
+arches like those of Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped
+sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may
+have shapes unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not
+used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the field.
+Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides at upper and
+lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks. As is not
+the case with many of the Persian rugs, the field surrounding the
+medallion is almost always covered with small designs, arranged with
+careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the
+centre. Eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently
+used, but there is a leaning to floral designs, which, however, are
+often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most
+prominent of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the
+Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form.
+The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more frequently seen in
+the main border stripe. Undulating vines do not find favour among the
+Bergamo weavers, and small isolated geometric designs are largely
+employed in the narrow border stripes, while larger, more complex
+figures often replace the floral in the main stripe.
+
+In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to
+avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected visitor surprise
+the weaver while at work, he may be required to part with a bit of his
+frock, which is then attached to the wide web of the end; should a
+similar occurrence of ill omen follow, another bit of different material
+and colour may be sewn upon this; and as a crowning talisman, a button
+may be affixed to both. Small cowrie shells from the Ægean shores are
+often used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, white, and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five and one half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+eleven. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, dyed
+red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool; generally of medium length but frequently
+long. _Border_, from one to four stripes; most frequently of three.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or
+blue, with occasionally some green or yellow. _Both ends_, a web, that
+is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed by broad
+longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may be black, white,
+brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil eye is frequently
+attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Usual
+length_, three to seven feet. _Usual width_, three quarters to nine
+tenths length.
+
+
+GHIORDES.—Whether, as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that
+lies a day’s journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of the
+ancient Gordion where tradition says the father of Midas dedicated his
+chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark which bound the pole
+to the yoke, it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there
+one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all
+other parts of Asia Minor, but equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia
+during the same period. Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still
+higher; yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of
+colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven in the
+previous century by the protégés of Tamasp and Shah Abbas.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38. MUDJAR PRAYER RUG]
+
+So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district differ from
+the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so great is their
+inferiority, that they have little interest; but fortunately it is still
+possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty
+years of age, and others still older are in the hands of collectors or
+in museums. In determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as
+weave and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or
+even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of rich, deep colour.
+Similarly, in the case of blues, greens, yellows, and even the ivories
+that rarely occupy the field, a riper and richer colour marks the
+greater age. Likewise with the drawing, greater painstaking and higher
+artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the
+oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best types are
+found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two
+hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the extremely old pieces there
+is an approach to archaic forms.
+
+The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are the kinds
+most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours, to be sure, are
+much the same, though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in
+the odjaliks. Their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric
+figures, some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive
+of Caucasian influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to
+be associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common to
+the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the distinction is
+most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform colour that make the
+namazliks so effective are wanting, and instead are frequently seen
+hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded
+latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the
+centre. At both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels
+containing quasi-floral forms, and stiff conventions occupy the
+intervening corner spaces.
+
+In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes prayer rugs,
+with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate
+drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made with unusual care, since
+they were intended for religious purposes. The pattern represents an
+entrance into a mosque; and it is not improbable that some of the
+earliest rugs were copied directly from archways, many of which still
+exist in Mohammedan countries.[29] Near the base of all Ghiordes arches,
+at each side, is a shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a
+single pilaster or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll
+work or floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other rugs they
+have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the shoulders and the
+mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very
+obtuse angle; and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that
+culminate in a blunted apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of
+the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche, though floral forms
+may take its place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost
+without exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner side of
+the arch and from all sides of the border against the field. In the
+spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or leaf form; though
+these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric
+figures. Above the spandrel is a panel, which may contain some floral
+form, scroll device, or verse from the Koran; and another panel, though
+generally with different design, is almost invariably placed beneath the
+field. A scroll resembling a large S (Plate O, Fig. 9, Page 291)
+frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms found in
+Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable.
+
+The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as
+is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of stripes, which
+generally consist of a wide central one, two secondary, and two or more
+small guard stripes. The drawing is distinctly floral, yet is widely
+different from the Persian. A design (Plate G, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or
+rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+design, and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves.
+But the more usual design (Plate G, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and
+fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate
+units face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like drawing with
+clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field,
+contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The secondary stripes have
+generally repetitive leaf forms; and running through the guard stripes
+is a simple vine, ribbon, or wave design. Occasionally, however, the
+typical Ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near
+district of Kulah, and instead of the broad central stripe are several
+narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral
+figures (Plate G, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these rugs is the
+linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool, for the
+reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age; and
+another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine
+specimens. The nap is always short, and the rugs are closely woven.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+_Warp_, wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally
+some cotton, clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three
+cords, or only infrequently an added selvage of silk. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+the corners. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of very fine grain, but
+slightly rough. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KULAHS.—About fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction,
+is the Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of
+race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited, intermarried, and
+become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another. It is not,
+therefore, surprising that some of their rugs should have similar
+technique of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general
+pattern and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the most
+experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them. In fact
+it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of
+them. In the Kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor
+are the prayer arches so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns
+the corners of some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field
+usually contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side of the
+field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between
+most of them.
+
+As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost unknown; but it
+is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble prayer rugs in the
+following respects: the borders are almost identical; the central fields
+contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground;
+both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space
+between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+spandrels of the prayer rugs.
+
+On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs
+are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true that the arch is
+flatter than that of any other rug of this group, and is defined either
+by plain sloping lines, or more frequently by stepped edges, so that it
+lacks the classic beauty of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the
+Rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are
+delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in
+any other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side of
+the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp,
+or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate with their bright
+tones the subdued richness of the ground colours. Sometimes, however,
+these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that
+represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other
+trees with many leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon
+in Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+shipped many years ago, and where they are known as “Friedhofteppiche,”
+or “Grave Rugs,”
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39. DAGHESTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+distinguishing features are in the borders, which are invariably of
+several stripes. Instead of the large central stripe with floral and
+repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands,
+from five to ten in number and about an inch in width, that contain rows
+of minute floral forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature
+of the Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe
+containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate G, Fig. 13
+(opp. Page 192), which also are peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it
+may seem, these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by
+successive degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13-a, 13-b,
+13-c, and 13-d of Plate O (Page 291). There is still another border design
+that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and
+so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the “Kulah
+stripe” (Plate H, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists of a
+repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is in reality a
+degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by observing some of the very
+old border stripes. Between the inner secondary stripe and the field is
+usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design, or a
+simple vine-like form, as in Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158). Often a
+part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the
+remaining parts have been compressed, so as to leave small detached
+figures like a row of “f’s,” as in Plate H, Fig. 2. It is not unusual to
+see both vine and detached figures in the same rug.
+
+Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel, and
+borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a yellow tint that
+is described both as golden brown and apricot; blue also is occasionally
+seen, and white is very rare. But whatever the colour of the field, that
+of the spandrel is generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and
+the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often
+appear in the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or
+blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye, since it shows
+no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have;
+yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the
+lustre peculiar to many other classes, some of them are as beautiful as
+Ghiordes.
+
+Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like are
+produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a Western market
+and taste, is the most noticeable difference, for the latter are
+inferior to the former in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with
+the wool of many is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows
+slight usage.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, brownish yellow, and
+blue, with minor quantities of green, dark brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes, Knots to inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven
+to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+the back. _Weft_, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter, sometimes
+dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft consists of a coarse
+thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating
+with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side
+once between the next two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or
+medium length. _Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a coloured mixed
+selvage of two, three, or four cords. _Both ends_, a coloured web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to three quarters length.
+
+
+OUSHAKS.—Fifty miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous
+during the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs. But
+with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed, so that
+half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the
+excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the
+interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the weavers of the
+surrounding country. Since then, however, its population has steadily
+grown, and the weaving industry has thrived, until now it is one of the
+most populous cities of Asia Minor, with looms more numerous than those
+of any other city. The weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most
+of whom are Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses,
+they are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and American
+demands.
+
+Important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs.
+Some are known as “Turkish Kirmans,” in which Persian designs are
+frequently introduced, others are of still finer workmanship, but the
+oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as “Yapraks.” These are
+distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue, of
+which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are massed to
+produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and weft, which are
+dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and often of an inferior
+grade of wool. Many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use,
+but are well adapted for salons and public halls.
+
+With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour, Oushaks would
+be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking
+pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan Solyman the Magnificent brought
+from the northwestern part of Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI
+Century. Some of them appear in the paintings of old masters, and when
+contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in
+the craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced designs
+once represented in the fields, only large stars and diamonds, defined
+by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity, remain. All of
+the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as
+sub-patterns are omitted. As works of art, the modern products are
+little esteemed; but their durability, depth of pile, and wealth of
+colour make them excellent objects of utility.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and green.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to eight;
+perpendicularly, four to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+longer than wide. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down.
+_Warp_, wool. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, usually of three stripes. _Sides_, generally a double
+overcasting, occasionally a selvage. _Both ends_, generally a web
+coloured red and a warp fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back
+is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, carpet sizes. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+AK-HISSAR.—Almost seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short
+distance to the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the
+White Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+in this district; and in recent years the work-house system has been
+established, and large quantities, that bear some resemblance to the
+modern products of Kulah and Oushak, have been exported.
+
+
+DEMIRDJI.—Half a century ago the town of Demirdji was almost
+uninhabited; but as a result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs
+and the disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at the
+historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant; but the
+fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected
+than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.
+
+
+KUTAYAH.—On the main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus
+with the Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+Anatolian plateau, wool and goat’s hair have been for a long period
+important articles in its trade. Both of them are now used in the local
+manufacture of rugs, which in a measure resemble the products of Oushak.
+
+
+SMYRNA.—The location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its
+connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior,
+have made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of
+weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies
+who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result, the Smyrna rugs are
+mere copies of well-known types of other Turkish pieces, or, as is
+generally the case, of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to
+meet the requirements of European and American tastes. Many of the rugs,
+to be sure, are well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality
+of character.
+
+
+MELEZ.—About seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from
+the Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now little
+known, but was once the market place of an important rug-producing
+district, which included a large part of the classic province of Caria.
+Accordingly, the pieces that came from there were sometimes called
+Carian, but are more generally known as Melez.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 40. KABISTAN RUG]
+
+On their face they show a close relationship to the Anatolians, and
+also, though in a less degree, to many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is
+to be expected of the products from one corner of the country, they have
+a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is
+covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged
+geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a rule the fields are not much
+wider, and often less wide, than each of the adjacent borders. Within
+this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs, which are
+widely different from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive
+of Chinese ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree
+forms (Plate O, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover, projecting in regular
+order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe, next to the
+field, are sometimes seen thumb-like figures, that fit against one
+another like the cogs of a wheel (Plate H, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this class.
+
+Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as wide as the
+remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the Ladiks. Very
+frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are
+conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems; but now and then
+the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric
+figures, and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs.
+The secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or
+the reciprocal sawtooth.
+
+The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical examples the
+lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of
+the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees, and are then
+deflected towards its centre, to return again to its sides. The
+resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the
+field at the base of the mihrab, which in conjunction with the upper
+sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This
+effect, moreover, is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of
+diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field.
+The sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule, fringed
+with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and in the
+spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a
+trellis-like sub-pattern.
+
+This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet
+noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case with many
+Bergamos, the principal tone is a dark red, which generally appears in
+the central field, and is also used almost without exception in the
+broad end webs, the side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white
+for the spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in
+other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve, which is
+present in almost every old Melez. Not always are these tones pleasing,
+as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed; but there are other pieces,
+now rapidly growing scarce, of which the colours are exceedingly rich
+and harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, with minor
+quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or
+slightly longer. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the
+warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of small
+diameter, dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length
+and sometimes short. _Border_, wide, from three to seven stripes.
+_Sides_, a selvage of two to four cords, usually coloured red. _Lower
+end_, a red web and loose warp fringe. _Upper end_, a red web, a braided
+selvage, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at
+back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half to
+six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+ISBARTA.—In the town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of
+Konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+“Spartas.” Like many other pieces made to meet the Western demand, they
+lack spontaneous individuality, but are often of excellent quality and
+coloured in delicate tones, arranged harmoniously.
+
+
+RHODIAN.—Even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering
+the southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them were
+more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the Island
+of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous Grecian and the more subtle
+Oriental arts. Here was the inspiration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the Mohammedan
+and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan mythology; and there
+is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the
+valiant knights of St. John made an impression on the weavers. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour
+full of suggestion, and that the drawing of the long central panels
+should remind one of cathedral windows.
+
+Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few now
+remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors. Some are
+odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with the exception of
+a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have colours and weave that
+bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many instances to one hundred years or
+more. On the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual
+hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle; and on
+the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which, though
+characteristic, never equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs.
+It is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.
+
+Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the
+full length of the field, and terminate at one end in flat and often
+serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and placed transversely above
+them is a low panel, that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves,
+vandykes resembling those of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia
+Minor rugs. In fact, these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing
+two or more prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs give
+force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a different
+ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never gaudy, yet
+exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and in the overlying
+figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter
+colouring. Furthermore, one of the most usual of these designs, arranged
+like pole medallions, consists of large eight-pointed stars with
+effulgent rays of brilliant hues. As we look at some of the rare old
+pieces with this pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with
+bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of “dim religious
+light.” Sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree
+of life extending from one end of the panel to the other. An equally
+common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in
+the form of a medallion (Plate O, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of these
+leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at
+the corner a small rectangular spot; but the remaining sides that form
+the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated, so as to produce
+much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are
+also frequently seen latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with
+different colours for separate squares.
+
+Between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and
+small designs. The latter consist principally of geometric and
+semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the octagonal disc, and the
+geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah rugs. No other design is more
+prevalent than the last, which may be found in all parts of these rugs.
+Sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower
+forms so common in spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most
+conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of
+underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as
+in the border stripe of Plate G, Fig. 13, (opp. Page 192), which shows
+the foliate origin of the latter.
+
+The name “Makri” is frequently applied to these rugs, since they were
+often bought in the city of that name, which is one of the harbours of
+Southwestern Asia Minor nearest to Rhodes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+considerable yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at
+back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is slightly
+depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, coloured
+red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots, rarely only once, and sometimes as many as four times. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped long. _Border_, two to three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or blue.
+_Lower end_, a web, either red or of several colours, and long warp
+fringe hanging loose or braided. _Upper end_, a web, either red or of
+several colours, beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage; also a
+long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Length_, four to seven
+feet. _Width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 41. KUBA RUG]
+
+
+BROUSSA.—At the base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles
+from the Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on account of
+the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country,
+rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The fabrics are stoutly made
+and compare favourably with those of Smyrna.
+
+
+HEREKE.—In the town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish
+factory, where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country
+about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from Kirman to
+instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns have been largely
+copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces, it is not surprising that
+many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of Persia.
+
+
+KONIEHS.—At the base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of
+Central Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is
+all that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising the
+importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east
+and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields, orchards, and gardens
+which face a great barren plain, established there a Mussulman capital,
+that became noted for its opulence and culture. In later years it
+successfully resisted the assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but
+subsequently it declined, until now the only remaining vestiges of its
+former importance are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the
+famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.
+
+In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements offered to
+the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced
+sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that grew not far to the
+north lived the kermes, from which were obtained the vermilion dyes
+famous even through Persia. The political and commercial importance of
+the city, as well as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there, but on
+account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied
+Europe, few found their way into channels of trade.
+
+Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but other kinds
+are as frequently seen. All of them contain both geometric and floral
+forms. The geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in Eastern
+Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and
+barber-pole stripes; and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn
+palm leaves and the tree-of-life design.
+
+Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of
+the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and
+rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end; again it may be
+exceedingly flat; but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of
+Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as a rule, are stepped or serrated.
+Furthermore, it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each
+step or serration into the spandrel, which is filled with small floral
+and geometric forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp;
+and arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row of
+conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These floral or
+foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class. The
+borders are more geometric than those of almost any other Asia Minor
+rugs, and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff
+formality.
+
+Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by
+the excellence of the colour scheme, which occasionally rivals that of
+the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or blues are almost invariably found
+in the fields, where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their
+richness; and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow,
+green, and white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable solely
+for their durability.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of
+knots are not very firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+two to five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. _Sides_, generally
+a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an overcasting. _Both
+ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, only moderately firm. _Weave_
+at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half
+to six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+LADIKS.—On the ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the
+village of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among
+the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern,
+though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the early prototypes
+that have been classed among the masterpieces of Asia Minor. Few of
+these old rugs remain, and they are often badly worn in spots; yet they
+display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century, and rival
+the Ghiordes in beauty of design.
+
+As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish countries,
+the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the
+namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the central fields of many
+of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions, often three in number,
+that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures. Between the
+fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels, on
+which are represented rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the
+most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their
+origin is uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity Hoa, the
+reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also geometric,
+consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the central contains
+an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very
+ornate. One of the central stripes often adopted is represented in Plate
+G, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms are
+present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh, mechanical
+drawing.
+
+In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their interesting
+arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a large number of them
+the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border,
+the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch, and the
+panels are larger than in any other prayer rug. Occasionally arches
+resembling those of the Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs are seen; but they are
+to be regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms.
+Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations, each side of
+the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration, then
+rises again to form the niche. The arch is often fringed with
+latch-hooks, and extending above the apex of each serration and the
+niche are perpendicular devices that may, also, be a development of the
+latch-hook, since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory
+origin. But whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of
+the arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar to the
+Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of reciprocally
+drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves
+and pomegranates. These are generally five in number, and are so
+gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the
+vandykes, from which they spring, are ornamented with a profusion of
+latch-hooks. The central fields are sometimes without ornament, but as a
+rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the
+central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders.
+The latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and
+consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with
+rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised
+leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at each side are very angular
+vines with three-cleft leaves, and in the narrow innermost stripe is
+generally a ribbon pattern.
+
+All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly
+contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks, like those of the
+Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue, red, or
+brown, that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs.
+But as is not the case with Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast
+between the colours of centre and ends; yet the tones are always in
+perfect harmony. Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more
+exquisite finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and
+in the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+Ladiks.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 42. CHICHI RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally nine to twelve; perpendicularly, ten to thirteen. A half
+knot as it appears at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are
+pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, wool. One of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a red
+added selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow web and warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to seven feet. _Usual width_, three
+fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIR-SHEHRS.—To the north of the great salt desert and in the southern
+part of the province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands
+between two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine
+fleeces, and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding
+country. On account of the excellence of wool, water, and natural dyes,
+as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel, many
+of the old rugs were excellent pieces, free from the taint of Western
+influences, and possessing the charm of individuality. It was due,
+moreover, to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants, and
+the Turkomans who roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the
+influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of
+red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green, for which they
+had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost
+any other weavers; yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic
+sense is rarely shocked, since the individual colours are good and the
+tones are harmonious. Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending
+of floral and geometric forms.
+
+Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats, others small
+sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The serrated sides of
+the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of
+the rather narrow fields, are formed of several parallel lines of
+different colour. In a not unusual rug, for instance, eight narrow lines
+separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red
+appeared in the following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender,
+yellow, red, and blue. The inmost line is frequently fringed with
+tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend in a row along the
+sides of the field. From the niche is usually suspended the design of an
+inverted tree of life, and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar
+devices. It is not unusual to see two arches, and there are sometimes as
+many as four, placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field
+is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and the
+horizontal panel, which may be placed at either end of the field,
+contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts.
+
+On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most characteristic
+features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two of the stripes of a
+peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow, but three or four of the
+narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation
+to those of the Kulah. When contrasted with them the broad central
+stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony, for they are
+distinctly floral and suggestive of Persian influences.
+
+On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs are soft
+and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others of the
+Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the presence of
+grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch. The nap of these
+old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is of medium length; though
+in modern pieces it is often longer, and the weft and webs are coloured
+as are those of Bergamos.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and green, also some
+blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+five to nine; perpendicularly, five to ten. A half knot as it appears at
+back is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not
+firmly pressed down, so that in places the warp shows. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug. A
+thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots,
+varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+five to eight stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+cords of different colours. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+ANATOLIANS.—To all of Asia Minor was once applied the term “Anatolia,”
+which signifies the Land of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this
+country might well be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia
+might be called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh, are
+often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of rugs known as
+Iranians, so is there a special type known as Anatolians. They are,
+however, a mixed lot, that come from parts of a wide stretch of
+territory, extending over the interior table-land to the home of the
+Kurds, and incorporating ideas received from many districts. It is,
+accordingly, difficult to define them as a type; but, as a rule, they
+are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows, with
+moderately long nap of soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a
+colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.
+
+Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora and Konieh,
+lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake Tuz Gul. Here can be
+obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in some of the old pieces
+appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther
+to the west, but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms.
+Eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a
+very old design with the shape of ram’s horns is frequently used. In
+many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is the
+greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which occasionally are
+their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant; but in
+either case they rarely contain more than three stripes, and not
+infrequently only one. Red, blue, green, and brown are the usual
+colours, but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used.
+
+Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus mountains,
+is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With the exception of
+wool and dyes they have little to their credit; for their usual
+unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long uneven nap, and
+braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, green, brown,
+and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+generally as long as wide, or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, yet the warp is frequently concealed at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed, A
+thread of weft crosses two, three, and four times between two rows of
+knots frequently varying in the same piece. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, two and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, one half to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAMANS.—At the foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that
+stretches northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the removal of
+the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the northwest, it was
+the seat of a Turkish government extending to the Mediterranean Sea; but
+to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several Saracenic
+mosques covered with rich arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the
+early period almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former
+importance of the city, it is not improbable that they compared
+favourably with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the
+other hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar to many
+of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour, obtained
+from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of Karaman.
+The pile is long, the weave is never very firm, and at each end is a
+coloured web.
+
+
+SIVAS.—In the city of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the
+villages of the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from
+time immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and ends,
+the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh effect of the
+strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found
+in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west. In the weave is a
+hint of Persian influence; for not only are both warp and weft of
+cotton, but the warp is of small diameter and well spun, and one of the
+two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The
+pattern, on the other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known
+types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends,
+and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those
+seen in Bergamos. On the white field surrounding the medallion are often
+small rosettes and floral figures. The corners of the field may be
+fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal T’s, and contain a
+rosette at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form.
+Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of floral and
+geometric figures, as well as their formality of drawing, which is
+accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are most suggestive of
+Occidental conventions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 43. TCHERKESS RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and white; also dull
+blue, green, and light yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half
+knot, as it appears at back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots
+are pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+cotton, well spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes
+doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of
+short to medium length. _Border_, narrow, one to three stripes. _Sides_,
+an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places, and with weft
+encircling inner cord of selvage. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is only slightly coarse. _Usual
+length_, three and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+MUDJARS.—Near the river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of
+Mudjar, which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a wider
+range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink, all of which
+may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug of Asia Minor
+contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in the broad borders of
+old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work.
+Many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches
+in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which is distant only twenty-five miles to the
+north; and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs
+of vandykes borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of
+life often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers may extend
+into it from the sides. Some of the best examples are very handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, yellow, blue, green,
+and ivory, also mauve and pink. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. _Warp_,
+wool. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently
+equally prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, broad, of three to four stripes.
+_Sides_, a three-cord selvage, frequently red. _Both ends_, coloured
+webs and fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_, moderately coarse. _Usual
+length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters
+length.
+
+
+NIGDES.—Near the base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part
+of the province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach Europe.
+Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by their high
+geometric arches. The borders often show the influence of the Kurdish
+tribes, and contain patterns common in the Mesopotamian valley; but
+their colour scheme of red, blue, and yellow more closely resembles the
+Anatolian. Most of them are of small size and are poorly woven.
+
+
+TUZLAS.—Another class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas.
+They are generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who
+live about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are well
+woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns. The prayer
+arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the
+Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not infrequently the
+borders have rosettes similar to those of Bergamos. The principal
+colours are red, blue, green, and ivory.
+
+
+KAISARIYEH.—One of the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of
+silk textiles is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient Cæsarea, near the
+eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were made
+there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both in
+workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their dyes are
+aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are prayer rugs with
+arches resembling the Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more
+conventional. Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia
+Minor pieces are also woven there.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VII—LADIK PRAYER RUG_
+
+_The rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the
+best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the beautiful border stripe
+of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the
+central field, and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so
+peculiar to these rugs. It is interesting to see how the pattern of the
+innermost stripe, which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and
+sides, is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed near
+the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and Rhodian lilies of
+the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of the “evil-eye.” Such
+irregularities, denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the
+charm of Oriental rugs._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+
+YURUKS.—Suggestive of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of
+Turkoman descent known as Yuruks. This term means “Wanderers;” and they
+are well named, since throughout the western part of Asia Minor they
+follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the rich pastures among the
+mountain tops of the interior, where they live in summer, to the
+fertile, sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna
+and the slopes of Mt. Olympus may be seen their black goat’s-hair tents,
+where the unexpected guest is always welcome.
+
+In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives, unaffected
+by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are different from
+those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so are these rugs entirely
+distinct, resembling more than anything else the work of the wild Kazaks
+of the Caucasus. In them will be recognised the same long nap, the same
+massing of colour, the same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple
+designs. The colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and
+yellows being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder, blue,
+green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The patterns show
+the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may contain crude,
+unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric
+designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the
+pear designs as well as floral forms, but the drawing is always far from
+realistic.
+
+Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes, and
+stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but their patterns show a
+want of all artistic feeling. Now and then, however, comes to light a
+piece that has stood the wear of more than a century, showing the touch
+of a higher craftsmanship, and with colours softened by each succeeding
+year.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine.
+The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not
+show at back. _Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of
+medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses two, three, or four times
+between every two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool,
+clipped long. _Border_, from four to six stripes, occasionally with an
+outer edging. _Sides_, generally a heavy double overcasting, but
+occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. _Lower end_, a
+coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, and
+warp loops; or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose. _Upper
+end_, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord,
+a braided selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+together at short intervals. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES
+
+Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but slight
+relationship to either the geometric patterns of the Caucasian, or the
+floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule the geometric features
+either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral
+designs, and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly
+arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with
+pendent flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by
+Caucasian weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns.
+They are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful colouring and
+delicate drawing.
+
+_Primary Stripes._—Several different stripes peculiar to Ghiordes prayer
+rugs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page
+192). The first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that
+there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The seed-like processes
+of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The second, which is found in
+many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the same pattern more conventionalised,
+with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost
+octagonal-shaped. The third is a still greater evolution of the same
+pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are
+placed at three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a
+very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a few
+old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar to those of
+Kulah rugs (Plate G, Fig. 12) are sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE G. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS]
+
+One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs
+is shown in Plate G, Fig. 6. It is a broad stripe with wide, vine-like
+bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure
+of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 7, is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe
+of the Ladik prayer rugs. The principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and
+rosettes identical with Persian forms, that are probably
+conventionalised roses. Another stripe, in which the lily is replaced by
+a conventionalised vine, is shown in Plate G, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in Ladik
+and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 9, 10, and 11,
+each of which shows a conventionalised leaf.
+
+One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate G, Fig. 12. It
+might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes, but as will
+be evident by observing a large series of Kulahs it serves the function
+of a single broad stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a
+ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by Ghiordes
+weavers.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe that appears both in Kulah
+and Rhodian rugs. As previously explained, its origin is probably
+floral, though the drawing is geometric. A formal stripe found in
+Bergamos, and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is
+represented in Plate G, Fig. 14.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate G illustrate the border stripes of Melez rugs.
+Each contains regularly spaced rosettes, separated by conventionalised
+leaf forms. A much more geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes
+are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+Plate G, Fig. 17.
+
+A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some Koniehs is
+shown in Plate G, Fig. 18.
+
+In Plate G, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented two stripes characteristic
+of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of
+bushes separated by the lily design. It is occasionally found in the
+Melez also.
+
+A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided
+into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in Plate G, Fig. 21.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk border stripe such as is
+frequently seen in modern pieces.
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—In Plate H, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page
+194), are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes
+and Kulah rugs. The first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the
+second has doubtless been derived from it.
+
+A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad band of
+perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs, is shown in
+Plate H, Fig. 3. The arrangement of three leaves in angles of
+quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of Plate
+G, Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).
+
+Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in Plate H,
+Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is also found in Kulahs is a vine and
+flower subject to many modifications.
+
+A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in
+Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very graceful, is
+shown in Plate H, Fig. 6.
+
+Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a secondary
+stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is illustrated in Plate
+H, Fig. 7. This resembles a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the
+pendent leaf is characteristic of Asia Minor.
+
+Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate H represent two tertiary stripes often seen in
+Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate the evolution of patterns; for in the
+same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the
+simple ribbon pattern of Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158), and also in
+the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of
+these and a continuous row of “_ff_” designs, as in Plate H, Fig. 2.
+
+The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is also seen
+in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is illustrated in
+Plate H, Fig. 10. A somewhat similar stripe is shown in Plate H, Fig.
+11. The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved from
+a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in Figs. 4 and
+12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE H. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA
+MINOR RUGS]
+
+In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate H are illustrated the swastika and S
+stripe, which are seen now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs,
+and also in Caucasian rugs.
+
+One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes, representing
+processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the
+stripe, is shown in Plate H, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and
+17 of Plate H, representing a row of small rosettes and a row of
+octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez rugs.
+
+The very angular vine shown in Plate H, Fig. 18, is sometimes seen in
+Koniehs.
+
+A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate H, Fig 19), found in a few
+Anatolians, represents a fret pattern, which was probably copied from
+some monument.
+
+The chain pattern (Plate H, Fig. 20) is occasionally seen as a tertiary
+stripe in the Ghiordes. It appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several
+centuries ago, and has been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes
+the lines are angular, and again the S’s are separated by small round or
+square dots.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    s = silk
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    j = jute
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Anatolian   │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Bergamo     │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Ghiordes    │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-16│  w  │  c    │[s] │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Karaman     │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 8-13│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 5-10│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Konieh      │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 6-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kulah       │    G    │      │ 5-10│ 7-12│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Ladik       │    G    │      │ 9-12│10-13│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │   │
+  │Meles       │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 6-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Rhodian     │    G    │      │ 5-8 │ 7-9 │  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Sivas       │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 9-15│     │  c    │    │   │ d │[h]│
+  │Youruk      │    G    │      │ 5-7 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬──────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │         WEFT             │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ s/l│   P   │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Anatolian   │  w  │       │    │  2-4  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Bergamo     │  w  │       │    │  2-6  │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Ghiordes    │  w  │   c   │[s] │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Karaman     │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │ S │ W/S │   │ L │   │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │  w  │       │    │  2-6  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Konieh      │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Kulah       │  w  │       │[j] │ 2/[1] │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Ladik       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Meles       │  w  │       │    │   4   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Rhodian     │  w  │       │    │2/[1-4]│   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Sivas       │  w  │   c   │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Youruk      │  w  │       │    │  2-4  │ O │[S]│  W  │[K]│ L │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │ ASIA MINOR │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Anatolian   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Bergamo     │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/l    │      f    │    m     │
+  │Ghiordes    │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │    m     │
+  │Karaman     │ W/S │   │ T │ F │     l     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Kir-Shehr   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    l     │
+  │Konieh      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │   m/f    │
+  │Kulah       │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │    l     │
+  │Ladik       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   m/f    │
+  │Meles       │  W/S│   │   │ F │   m/[s]   │     m/c   │    l     │
+  │Rhodian     │  W/S│   │   │ F │     l     │     m/c   │   m/l    │
+  │Sivas       │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │    f     │
+  │Youruk      │  W  │ K │[T]│ F │     l     │      c    │    l     │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+ASIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is rugged, that during the Middle
+Ages it was ruled by the illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the
+physical charms of its women made them favourites in the slave markets
+of Constantinople, the character and history of that country are to-day
+almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when the bards of
+ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and hung the Golden Fleece
+from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country of wonderful interest. Above
+its gorges, rivalling those of the Himalayas, rise mountains higher than
+the Alps. On the southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant
+vegetation of tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and
+in meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil. The
+river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags are the
+resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude with bear, wolf,
+and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.
+
+Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here follow
+his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine climber, botanist,
+mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the confines of this region are
+spoken some seventy languages by as many distinct clans, each of remote
+origin. Some are the descendants of the early dwellers; some are the
+Aryan stock that found its way to Europe before the beginning of
+history; still others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam
+which recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in ancient
+times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many generations have
+the present inhabitants remained among their mountain strongholds,
+unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they have been regarded as a type
+sufficiently pure and characteristic to give its name to the great
+Caucasian race.
+
+Though enjoying greater isolation than surrounding countries, the
+Caucasus at different times and in different ways has felt their
+influences. During the Augustan age of Tamara’s rule she attracted by
+her brilliancy, taste, and industry foreign courtiers and artisans.
+Hardly was she dead before Genghis Khan’s horde of conquering Mongols
+poured over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her daughter’s
+beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with their Mohammedan
+armies. For long succeeding years Persia struggled with Turkey for the
+mastery of the country, and was about to take it when Russia grasped the
+prize, but only after Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated
+vast armies.
+
+Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on the native
+art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman, Turkish, and
+Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few small geometric
+figures, that there is any evidence of the Turkoman influence; but it is
+not unusual to see border stripes and field designs adopted from the
+Turkish rugs. Some of these stripes represent both geometric and floral
+patterns, either copied directly or derived with slight modifications
+from rugs woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia.
+The Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It doubtless
+inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a large number of
+Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable from Baku rugs, as well as
+many other figures that first appeared in the rugs of Persia.
+
+Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct characteristics, which
+have a boldness and virility that are to be attributed in a measure to
+grand and rugged scenery as well as to centuries of struggle for
+independence, since in art the influence of environment is most
+apparent. They lack something of the sobriety, artistic drawing, and
+delicate colouring of those woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of
+fallen empires, and in the gardens of the East; they contain on the
+other hand, both in line and colour, the forceful expression of
+untrammelled thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of
+colour, in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character that is
+not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF CAUCASIA]
+
+
+DAGHESTANS.—In no part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in
+Daghestan, “the mountain country.” Nor is it surprising that this
+province should produce distinctive types, when it is considered that it
+has a length of over two hundred miles; that its topography is
+diversified by glaciated mountains, barren steppes, and fertile valleys;
+and that it is occupied by numerous clans, many of whom differ in origin
+as well as religion. Some of the rugs come from the city of Derbend on
+the Caspian Sea; some come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others,
+called Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other parts
+of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large
+numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became known as
+Daghestans.
+
+Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it is often
+difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which acquired the trade
+name of Daghestans are different from almost all other Caucasian pieces.
+This is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea
+and a nearly impassable mountain range, which render communication with
+surrounding territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where
+in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces spurious
+colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption of new designs,
+so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely
+used.
+
+It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are found many
+of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The dark, rich reds and
+blues of the fields, which are brightened by the ivory, light blue,
+green, and yellow of the small designs, resemble the fine colouring of
+choice Persian carpets. But the patterns are totally dissimilar; for it
+is only in a few rare old pieces, in which are copied some designs such
+as the lotus, or the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any
+likeness to the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.
+
+The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the short nap
+and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition.
+With the exception of conventionalised pears, the three-leaf sprig,
+which is commonly seen in the field, and the narrow border stripes of
+carnations, almost all of the figures are geometric; and are so
+carefully drawn, so closely clustered, that they represent an appearance
+frequently compared to mosaic work. Even when the patterns represent
+large medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or are
+divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or tessellated
+figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form or other the
+latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of small designs, the
+octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and animals, human beings,
+and the pear are not infrequently seen.
+
+As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan, namazliks as
+well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception of the unobtrusive
+arch of the namazlik, which is represented in Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61),
+there is little difference between them. There is never any panel as in
+Asia Minor rugs; nor is there a noticeable spandrel, since the space
+above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the
+field.
+
+As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by
+coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms
+employed; and these, with the exception of the carnation design, are
+rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe;
+the serrated line is also employed; and it is not unusual to find next
+to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are
+small dotted lines.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally
+longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+alignment is even and the warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back;
+occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short. _Border_,
+three to five stripes. _Sides_, a selvage of two, three, or four cords,
+or occasionally a weft-overcasting. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots
+or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is also a narrow
+braided selvage. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine
+grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_, one half to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 44. BAKU RUG]
+
+
+KABISTANS.—Within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the
+southern part of Daghestan have become known in Western markets as
+Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type that takes
+the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by
+the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans are merely a variety of
+Daghestans. Both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour
+scheme and patterns, so that many of each class are indistinguishable
+from one another.
+
+On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference
+between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic
+environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is
+by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an
+almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia
+descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the
+line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while
+the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be
+unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and
+it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs,
+like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that
+are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the
+finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in
+weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with
+equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the
+two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular;
+while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of
+the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of
+cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is
+of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a
+selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow
+selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to
+follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
+
+A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in
+Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order
+white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually
+connected (Plate O, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the
+rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered,
+the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long
+process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design.
+Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+represented in Plate J, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this
+pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and
+design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
+
+Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric
+figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of
+similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be
+covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks
+are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are
+large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the
+centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into
+smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, also some red,
+ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in
+Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a
+double overcasting or selvage. _Lower end_, a narrow web, not
+infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual
+length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one half to three quarters
+length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 45. SHIRVAN RUG]
+
+
+KUBAS.—Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan,
+in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about
+which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to
+be the residence of a Khan. For a long period previous to the treaty
+of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant
+in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the
+oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on
+the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or
+design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who
+inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
+
+In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment
+than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted
+Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with
+graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown,
+streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish
+display of large flowers _en masse_, and not detached from one another
+or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In
+each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen
+in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or
+Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some
+well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that
+has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to
+resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early
+Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any
+other Caucasian rug.
+
+Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The
+field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures
+defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre
+of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns
+consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed
+large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star
+enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the
+eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the
+different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the
+enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a
+dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting
+principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft,
+velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of
+richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which
+is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that
+they are frequently mistaken for one another, and can only be
+distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of
+weave.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown,
+occasionally some green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, fine
+wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, one to three stripes. _Sides_, a blue double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a
+knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.
+_Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+DERBENDS.—Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea,
+where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana,
+and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century “Derbend,” which in
+their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been
+visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when
+entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century;
+Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an
+easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to
+the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no
+longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the
+modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that
+find a market in the city.
+
+Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that
+reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may
+be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the
+Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work
+pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral
+mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of
+which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of
+moderate length. At the back of these older rugs is sometimes
+displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed
+closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both
+warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much
+farther to the south.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 46. SOUMAK RUG]
+
+In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products
+are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are
+ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior
+Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap,
+looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of
+Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat’s
+hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in
+the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian.
+Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which,
+fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or
+green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly
+contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour
+scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many
+of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans.
+Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking
+in artistic qualities.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve.
+Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The
+rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+at back. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, generally
+wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium
+diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently
+it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread
+of coarse diameter crosses only once. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three
+cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_ have a web,
+frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to seven
+feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+LESGHIANS.—On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend
+eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous
+tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages
+would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of
+life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them
+strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the
+snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents,
+where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost
+impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the
+Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire,
+and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
+
+It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would
+partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny
+atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the
+peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both
+patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength
+and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and
+slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of
+fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs
+excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the
+selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
+
+The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven
+south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated
+designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc,
+eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or
+three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few
+and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and
+frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting
+individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, brown wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+at back, or doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, an
+added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two,
+three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and
+a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual
+length_, five to eight feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+CHICHIS.—On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the
+valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of
+pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy
+Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work
+of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain;
+but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the
+Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their
+general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All
+floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a
+delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring
+note is eliminated.
+
+Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the
+field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices
+surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may
+be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the
+rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor
+inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of
+various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are
+outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are
+invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this
+horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row
+narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these
+small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and
+appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light
+blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead
+their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the
+valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S
+forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so
+as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides
+and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated
+line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the
+field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very
+few other classes.
+
+Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide
+as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and
+design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric
+figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral
+drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type
+generally seen (Plate I, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of
+about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal
+to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it
+not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the
+rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the
+reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of
+eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of
+Daghestans.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, blue, and red,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The
+rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen
+at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+short or medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two
+or three cords. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual
+width_, five eighths to three quarters length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 47. KAZAK PRAYER RUG]
+
+
+TCHERKESS.—The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that
+reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea
+for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to
+the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called
+“Tcherkesses,” a Tartar term for “cutter of roads” or highwaymen; and
+they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as “Adighies” or
+Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though
+their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the
+markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago
+finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a
+hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar,
+migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other
+races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
+
+Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those
+who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on
+account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come
+to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent
+pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic
+tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some
+of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a
+better understanding of this class.
+
+Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and
+nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture,
+boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks
+so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are
+constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all
+classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field
+and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+figures sometimes called “sun-bursts,” that are often regarded as crude
+copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they
+have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the
+XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so
+common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are
+sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there
+are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five
+extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the
+blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground
+is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost
+invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the
+serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently
+woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour
+rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and tawny yellow,
+with minor quantities of blue and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as
+it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only
+twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as
+four or six times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both ends_, as a rule have
+a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally
+either web or selvage may be omitted. _Texture_, very firm. Weave at
+back of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+BAKUS.—No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour
+and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that
+the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great
+mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the
+narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral
+oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from
+all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and
+night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the
+ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of
+fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of
+different religions and different races have been felt here.
+
+The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours,
+that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There
+are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black,
+as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in
+the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them
+are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there
+striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VIII—SOUMAK RUG_
+
+_The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting
+Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not
+only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen.
+Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that
+for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow,
+and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal
+trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have
+been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the
+cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent
+quality of this rare piece._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley_]
+
+An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs,
+which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (Plate O, Fig.
+6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to
+floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also,
+they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which
+they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the
+rug as they do in Sarabends.
+
+At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a
+large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines
+suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their
+origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners
+are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are
+serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs,
+crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like
+those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of
+these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are
+represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs
+woven within the last century.
+
+The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is
+always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral
+form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is
+a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from
+Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered
+that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for
+centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
+
+These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their
+characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on
+account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of
+Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful
+delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central
+medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow,
+and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back,
+occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other. _Weft_, usually
+cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a weft overcasting or a narrow
+weft selvage. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+SHIRVANS.—Between the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship
+easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races among
+whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through
+Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from the same
+sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more completely under the
+sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily to the influence of the
+Persian weavers, as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which
+are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs
+than in those of Daghestan. On the other hand, the technique of weave as
+well as finish of sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the
+refinement observable in the Daghestans.
+
+The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In them the
+foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other Caucasian
+rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment.
+Sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the
+field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices; but
+they are most frequently found in the borders. Other old pieces contain
+lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be
+designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the fields of
+most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions, stars, and diamonds
+similar to those of Daghestans, although the drawing inclines to greater
+simplicity of outline and detail; and they have greater diversity of
+colour, as tones of blue, red, green, and brown in a field of ivory are
+not unusual.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 48. KAZAK RUG]
+
+The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere
+mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit.
+Some of them resemble those found in both Daghestans and Kabistans, but
+generally the designs are drawn less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly
+because, as a rule, they are not so closely woven and the nap is not
+quite so short. Now and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks
+are seen; and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal
+parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices.
+
+There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that rarely, if
+ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat the appearance of
+pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole
+field and contains broad incisions at each side, which nearly divide it
+into three or four rectangular sections. Within each of them are
+octagonal figures, and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the
+panel so as to leave small corners to the field. Each part often
+contains small designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and other
+animal or human forms. With slight modifications this pattern is
+sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate C, Fig. 11, Page 61), but
+the section at one end is more completely an octagon, and the remainder
+is an oblong rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the
+same form of arch that is common in Daghestans.
+
+Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is
+amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their
+borders, which have a well balanced harmony of colours. They have seldom
+less than three, nor more than five stripes, of which the secondary are
+often as interesting as the primary. The best known is the one with
+serrated leaf and wine glass, represented in Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page
+226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans that it is
+almost typical of them. If the figures of the field contain latch-hooks,
+they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe.
+Such a one appears in Plate I, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian
+pattern (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally seen. A
+very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate J, Fig. 8, is only used
+when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern.
+Now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal
+row of pear designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs
+of carnations (Plate K, Fig. 1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen,
+but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and
+colour scheme. On the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in
+the selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones are
+not always so rich or harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the transverse warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three to five
+stripes. _Sides_, generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a
+double selvage, occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_, a web,
+one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four to six feet.
+_Usual width_, one half to four fifths length.
+
+
+SOUMAKS.—Seventy miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same
+distance to the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus
+begin to descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the last
+century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing centre of
+silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of
+Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take thither their rugs, from
+which its own weavers often borrow patterns. By a corruption of the name
+of the city, their fabrics are called Soumaks, though they are more
+popularly known as Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the
+back, as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+India.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 49. KARABAGH PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of pile that
+make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by
+themselves; but even apart from these characteristics, they are as
+distinct a type as any in Caucasia. On the fields of most of them are
+three or four diamond-shaped medallions, that occupy nearly the full
+width of the field and extend from one end to the other. Almost without
+exception they are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal
+sides to represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from
+very old Armenian rugs; and it is possible that once the crosses had
+a religious significance, as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of
+this type were a Christian sect; but the present weavers are mostly
+Mohammedans. At the centre of the medallions and in the triangular
+spaces at the sides are flattened octagons, which are generally
+ornamented with some star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger
+patterns and surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs,
+which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more frequently
+seen in this class than in any other, as for instance, the knot of
+destiny (Plate O, Fig. 17, Page 291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like
+a bird’s claw, which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries
+ago. Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom entirely
+lost.
+
+There are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern, and
+with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones.
+They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral designs. One recently
+examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows
+of innumerable dainty figures, which were evidently the conventionalised
+forms of small flower bushes. Not a single other design appeared in the
+field, yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it
+exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to five, are
+generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow well known
+Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the running
+latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has the simple form
+shown in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230); but now and then the more
+elaborate drawing of the Georgian stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil,
+which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running vine and rosette,
+such as the one in Plate K, Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a
+secondary stripe. The primary stripes, on the other hand, although most
+dissimilar to those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves,
+that no one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device.
+
+The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which even in the
+warp displays a silky character. The dyes are faultless, though the
+colours never acquire a lustre. Red and blue are largely employed, but
+they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces; and in both
+old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other
+Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, brown, some
+yellow, and white. _Knot_, flat stitch. Knots to inch horizontally eight
+to fourteen; perpendicularly, six to sixteen. _Warp_, wool; each thread
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots
+in old rugs, and between every second and third row in modern rugs.
+_Border_, two to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a double selvage of
+several cords, occasionally an overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web, one
+or more rows of knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. _No
+nap._ _Usual length_, five and one half to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to three quarters length.
+
+
+SHEMAKHAS.—Flatly woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha
+tribes. Some of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the
+Caucasus a short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that
+occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme
+the best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as “Royal
+Daghestans;” yet they are seldom seen and little known. In fact, they
+are frequently mistaken for Persian fabrics on account of the subdued
+richness of their deep reds, blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the
+patterns which are largely floral.
+
+Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known Georgian
+pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the secondary
+stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also resemble the Soumaks in
+the coloured woollen selvage of the sides, and in the narrow coloured
+web of “herring-bone” weave and knotted fringe of the ends. In some, the
+field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures
+containing conventionalised flowers; in others, it is merely a
+background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms;
+and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not
+frequently found in Caucasian pieces.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is almost hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, two to
+three stripes. _Sides_, a blue selvage of two or three cords. _Both
+ends_, a narrow blue web of “herring-bone” weave, a knotted selvage or
+several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, four to
+eight feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+TIFLIS.—When it is considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the
+Georgian capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what has been
+written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference
+to a type peculiar to this city and district. This is undoubtedly due to
+the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced
+there, and that the old pieces are few and but little known.
+
+Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are
+dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of their moderately
+long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz or a Meshed; the colour
+scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones, such as
+blue, green, rose, and ivory; the weave of delicate and fine threads is
+as close as that of old Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to
+determine the type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft which
+crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed
+a brown or dull red, and strung with great exactness; and the knots are
+tied with care. There is also something distinctive in many of the
+patterns; for however interesting they may be, precision of drawing is
+often combined with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for
+instance, may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part
+may represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars, occupying
+the full width of the field; and still another part may be entirely
+occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining these may be other
+pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and
+other strange devices. Likewise, many different colours may be placed in
+close relation, yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that
+the effect is not harsh. Some sort of tree-form is not unusual; but on
+the whole, the designs of both field and border are geometric.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter,
+usually dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses from three to five
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, soft wool of medium
+length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting
+or narrow selvage. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, six to
+eleven feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KUTAIS.—Among a large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen
+a few pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line both
+banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses; in the
+valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom
+beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of
+Caucasia, and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would
+have a striking individuality of their own; but they are little known as
+a distinct class. In fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks
+that they are constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a
+more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly woven,
+less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices. Moreover, as
+this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks had settled
+permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not improbable that some of its
+patterns were copied by them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 50. GENGHA RUG]
+
+A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear designs, which
+are found in a very large number of the rugs. The extension of the
+narrower end, instead of being a short, curved hook, is generally more
+developed, so that it may be as long as the major axis of the pear and
+frequently stands almost at right angles to it. Also attached to the
+sides of the pear are rectangular bead-like processes (Plate O, Fig. 6c,
+Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is divided into a number
+of bands parallel with the sides; and through them run vines, from which
+the pears are suspended. Or the pears may be arranged in regular order
+on the field without the bands and vines. Sometimes the field is reduced
+to a very small space by a broad border consisting of a number of
+stripes, some of which are often of striking patterns. One of them is
+represented in Plate I, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree of
+life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.
+
+A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis rugs, as in
+each the weft usually crosses several times; it is generally coloured
+blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of yarn. The wool of the nap
+is of the same fine quality; but the warp of the Kutais rugs, which is
+almost invariably of wool, frequently consists of a brown and white
+thread twisted together; and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the
+alignment at the back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in
+Kazaks.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and white,
+with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven.
+A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The
+rows of knots are slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than
+in Kazaks. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_,
+wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses three
+times, occasionally only once, and again four or five times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length or long. _Border_, three to five stripes.
+_Sides_, either a double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+firm. _Weave_ at back, generally of medium fine grain but occasionally
+coarse. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KAZAKS.—Of the warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along
+the southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations of
+Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a few crossed
+the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake Gotcha and Mt.
+Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives; but there still lingers
+the inherited spirit that generations ago won for them the name Kazaks,
+which denotes to the Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a
+Marauder. All of these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country
+come principally from the southern district, where may also be found the
+fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the native
+people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most distinct type, to
+which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They have bright, rich colours,
+of which a liberal amount of green is almost invariably present, though
+sparingly used in other Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them
+in the length of the nap; and no other class has such noticeable
+patterns of incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and in
+their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same relation to
+other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and Yuruk tribes bear
+to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.
+
+In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and many
+Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large patterns.
+Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal panels, which may
+be entirely plain except for a simple design fringing the edges; or as
+is more frequently the case, it may be occupied by large, slightly
+elongated octagons, within which are represented smaller figures.
+Occupying almost the entire field of other pieces are large patterns
+like medallions, perfectly balanced with reference to the centre and
+subdivided into small sections, each of which contains individual
+motives. A few of this class, also, have the “sunburst” pattern, so
+characteristic of the Tcherkess.
+
+At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal pattern, but
+contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs characteristic of
+nomadic weavings; but even these are generally arranged with the idea of
+symmetrical balance. For instance, at the centre may be a large
+geometric figure surrounded at equal distances by pairs of smaller and
+similar figures. Not infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower
+half, or of the right and left side, shows an almost perfect
+correspondence, notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most
+common of these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with
+latch-hooks, and what are known as the “tarantula” device. Of the
+innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are the most
+common; crude animal and human figures are also seen.
+
+Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little distinction between
+namazliks and sedjadehs. It is small and less graceful than that of Asia
+Minor pieces, and follows stiff lines in harmony with the general
+pattern. It is, however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has
+the shape of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened;
+but not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow bands
+that form the arch are extended transversely from each side of the base
+to the borders; and occasionally they are continued down the sides of
+the field to form at the bottom a figure similar to the square-shaped
+arch. Now and then a comb, or small figure of diamond shape, on which to
+place the bit of sacred earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab;
+and now and then crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are
+to be rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.
+
+However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there more than
+one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have generally only the
+reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the barber-pole or dotted lines.
+The absence of important secondary stripes, however, brings out more
+prominently the drawing and colouring of the main one. The most common
+pattern is what is known as the “tarantula” represented in Plate I, Fig.
+8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7),
+which was undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug,
+as the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is also
+seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in Plate I,
+Fig. 15, which, when represented in bold, rich colours on an ivory
+field, makes a most effective and beautiful border stripe. Other border
+stripes frequently employed in these rugs appear in Plate I.
+
+Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of other tribes
+have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they often resemble though
+they lack their spirit and character. The very modern Kazaks, also, are
+often of poor quality, but those made two generations or more ago were
+carefully and stoutly woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of
+vegetable colours. There is always something interestingly barbaric in
+their long, almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their
+bold designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, green, and yellow,
+also some blue, white, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is hidden at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft generally crosses only twice between every two rows of
+knots, but occasionally three or four times. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting attached
+in figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having from
+three to five cords. _Lower end_, a red or brown web and warp loops, or
+a braided selvage and fringe. _Upper end_, a red or brown web,
+occasionally a braided selvage or several rows of knots, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+KARABAGHS.—To the southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras,
+that divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+signifying “Black Vineyard.” On account of its geographic position, it
+has been subject to the Shahs for long periods, during the many
+struggles between the two countries. It is, moreover, separated from the
+rug-producing district of Karadagh by the river only; and its southern
+border is less than eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to
+which many of its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only
+natural to expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not at all
+true in the case of a large percentage of the modern products.
+
+Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and wretchedly
+dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of them resemble Kazaks
+in their geometric figures; but differ from them in their workmanship,
+since one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed; they are
+much more loosely woven; they are not so large; nor for the most part
+are they so heavy. Other pieces often lack the symbolic and other small
+designs that render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the
+central field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue, on
+which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript devices.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 51. ROYAL BOKHARA RUG]
+
+It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven half a
+century ago, with less obtrusive colouring and more chaste patterns.
+Many of the old pieces are oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length
+almost twice the breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to
+smaller and nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not
+always religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle of the
+sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble from Mecca, as
+is shown in Plate C, Fig. 12 (Page 61). The particular piece from which
+this was drawn was over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as
+long. Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers with long
+angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish red.
+
+The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one stripe
+usually contains a concession to the Persian and another to the
+Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may be of Iranian
+character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it may be the well-known
+crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may be a running vine of simple
+form.
+
+Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in artistic finish
+the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is carefully executed; the
+colours are rich; the weave is fair; but like the rare old rugs of
+Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom seen.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are only slightly
+pressed down, yet the warp is generally concealed at back. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the
+other at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, generally a double selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of
+different colours; occasionally a double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a web and warp loops, or a braided
+selvage, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+web, a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one
+half to three quarters length.
+
+SHUSHAS.—About seventy miles to the southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha,
+capital of Karabagh. Nearly two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir
+Shah on an almost inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern
+boundary of Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now
+about twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras river.
+In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are frequently
+imported to this country and sold under several names, yet are of a
+distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the surrounding country
+but differ from them in their richer and more subdued colours as well as
+in the stoutness of weave. One thread of warp to each knot is doubled
+beneath the other, whereas in the rugs of the desert tribes it is only
+depressed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the
+warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two or three cords, often attached to the sides in
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+GENGHAS.—Over the land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in
+Caucasia, Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol. During
+the period when the Persian rule extended over the country, it was the
+residence of a Khan and an important centre of trade. As it was then
+known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings of these nomads, which were
+marketed there, acquired that name.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 52. PRINCESS BOKHARA RUG]
+
+Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas incorporated
+from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more than anything
+else, and are frequently mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions
+are very marked: they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and
+they are less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly pressed
+down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from four to eight
+times between two rows of knots, which are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the narrow filling of weft is sometimes even four times as wide as
+a row of knots and presents a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme
+of numerous pieces, which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs,
+is often a preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic
+pattern. The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with latch-hooks
+and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large central figure
+surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well as apparently
+meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human, animal, or floral forms.
+The borders, likewise, include a wide scope of patterns. It is,
+therefore, largely by the character of the weave, quality of material,
+and finish of sides and ends, that these pieces can be distinguished
+from other nomadic products.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and white,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots
+are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally goat’s hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter and usually dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots, but generally three and frequently as
+many as six or eight times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+three or four stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+cords. _Lower end_, a web, usually coloured red, and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web to which a braided selvage is often added, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have been derived
+from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are characterised by geometric
+patterns, which distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible
+to trace them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated from leaf
+and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are symbolic and others are
+crude copies of familiar objects. The more artistic and realistically
+drawn floral patterns appear in the less conspicuous secondary stripes;
+but on the other hand the primary stripes contain a number of unusually
+interesting patterns, which have been copied for centuries.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES.—The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate I, Fig. 1,
+opp. Page 226) appears so frequently in Shirvans as to be almost
+typical. It is also occasionally seen in Daghestans and Kabistans; but
+probably originated in Southern Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found
+similarly drawn in rugs woven in that district about 1500 A. D. It is a
+pattern that scarcely varies with time or locality except in the number
+of serrations to the leaf and in the shape of the cup.
+
+Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I, are
+sometimes seen in Kazak and other nomadic rugs. It is not improbable
+that they have a common origin with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.
+
+In the stripe represented in Plate I, Fig. 4, is a series of wine cup
+rosettes that are occasionally seen in the old rugs from the Shirvan
+district. In fact, the wine cup design is a favourite there.
+
+Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is shown in
+Plate I, Fig. 5. This is an old nomadic pattern not frequently seen.
+
+Fig. 6 of Plate I, represents the well-known Chichi border stripe,
+composed of rosettes separated by diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To
+the rosettes are attached tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once
+some Persian vine and flower.
+
+What is known as the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks
+and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as well as in a few very modern Asia
+Minor pieces. Though its resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is
+really a rosette to which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that
+frequently contain smaller designs at their centres.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula pattern (Plate
+I, Fig. 8), that was possibly derived from the stripe with an
+eight-pointed star (Plate K, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+probable that the inspiration is Iranian and that it is intended for
+rosette and double vine. This stripe is found in Kazaks, Genghas,
+Tcherkess, and other nomadic rugs.
+
+Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate I, Fig. 9, that is now and
+then seen in old Tiflis and other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests
+a geometric rosette and double vine.
+
+Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in Plate I, Fig.
+10, is used by the nomadic weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal
+pattern found in a Caucasian primary stripe.
+
+The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate I, Fig. 11 is once in a while
+seen in old rugs of the Daghestan country.
+
+On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in Plate I,
+Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a common origin. Both are found in
+rugs of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts, and the former is
+occasionally seen in rugs of Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious
+devices are placed at the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.
+
+Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate I, Fig. 14, which is
+commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and kilims. It is purely geometric and
+resembles one used in Western Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from
+which it may have been derived.
+
+Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in Plate I,
+Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived from much more ornate forms, which
+may be seen in a XVI Century Asia Minor piece that is in the British
+Museum. It is now seldom copied, but was once a popular pattern for the
+Kazak and Kutais weavers.
+
+Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of Caucasian
+stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 of
+Plate I, represent patterns found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs.
+The last one is also occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The
+patterns shown in Plate I, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes sometimes
+seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.
+
+A much more interesting stripe because of its well authenticated
+antiquity, is the one shown in Plate J, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is
+found in rugs made in Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according
+to Dr. Martin has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the
+result of copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.[30]
+These stripes are seen in comparatively recent pieces, but principally
+in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the latch-hook
+is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more probable that
+originally they were intended for leaves. In a few stripes the design is
+elongated, and in place of a single crossbar there are several, forming
+a figure that slightly resembles a poinsetta, which is the term
+occasionally applied to it by weavers.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 2, which is found in Kazak and other
+nomadic rugs, is interesting as representing a vine of which the pendant
+flower is replaced by a T formed by latch-hooks.
+
+In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate J, are patterns of stripes found in rugs of
+the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As they are several centuries old,
+they may be derived from Armenian patterns, to which they show kinship.
+Both patterns are at times reversed as the result of copying.[31] A
+stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar origin is
+seen in Plate J, Fig. 5.
+
+Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian origin, are the
+separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular rows, form the “churn”
+stripe of Plate J, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs with a
+length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base in the ground.
+Then hanging a goat’s skin filled with milk over each of the sides, and
+seating themselves in the middle, they turned first one then the other.
+As might be expected, these stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.
+
+Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate J, represent stripes sometimes seen in Shirvans.
+The latter is undoubtedly derived from the prayer patterns that are
+often used in these rugs.
+
+What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate J, Fig. 9. It is
+found in Daghestans, Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas.
+Though a primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the
+border, but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more artistic
+rugs.
+
+Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from those of
+other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate J. The last is
+interesting on account of the leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE J. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+The stripes seen in Plate J, Figs. 13, 14 and 15 are found only in
+nomadic rugs. The last is interesting principally on account of the
+swastikas.
+
+And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan classes appear
+in Plate J, Fig. 16. It is an archaic pattern copied from a most
+interesting Daghestan prayer rug.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 17 is sometimes adopted in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia, such as the Kutais and Kazak.
+
+Another very old pattern found in the borders of the Daghestan-Shirvan
+classes is shown in Plate J, Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow
+tertiary stripes known as “barber-poles,” it differs from them by being
+very much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally contain
+short, oblong dashes.
+
+A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs from the
+districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern of Plate J,
+Fig. 19. It is particularly characteristic of old Daghestans and
+Kabistans, but must have been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia,
+as it can be traced through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic
+characters used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.
+
+Plate J, Fig. 20 represents a “bracket-chain” pattern that probably
+originated in Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+Caucasia.
+
+In Plate J, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing scorpions, that is very
+rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22 is a stripe representing birds,
+sometimes seen in Bakus.
+
+
+SECONDARY AND TERTIARY STRIPES.—As the pattern shown in Plate K, Fig. 1
+(opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers representing carnations, it has
+been called the “carnation pattern.” It is very common in Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans.
+
+Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design like a
+three-leaf clover, shown in Plate K, Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine
+with leaf and flower shown in Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately
+used in place of the carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary
+stripe. The latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral
+stripe. It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian extraction.
+
+Another floral pattern from the same district is seen in Plate K, Fig.
+4. It often accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks,
+with which its stiff drawing harmonises.
+
+Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in the same
+classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes represented in Persian
+stripes that show the influence of nomadic weavers.
+
+Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the rugs of
+Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate K, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
+All are old patterns. The third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven
+about 1250 A. D. The fourth is found in some of the oldest remaining
+rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back two and a half centuries;
+and a pattern similar to the last is seen in some Persian carpets made
+about 1650 A. D.
+
+Plate K, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes sometimes seen in Chichis and
+a few other Caucasian rugs.
+
+A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very attractive on
+account of its delicate colouring, is shown in Plate K, Fig. 13, and
+another is shown in Fig. 14. Both are used principally in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia.
+
+The stripe represented in Plate K, Fig, 15, is found in very old rugs of
+the Daghestan and Derbend types; and there is a tradition among some of
+the native weavers that the designs originally represented boat hooks
+used by the sailors of the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to
+suppose that the early weavers imitated objects of utility before those
+of mere ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it
+is equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.
+
+Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which generally
+appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate F, Fig. 17 (opp.
+Page 158). It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of
+Persian, in Indian, and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+The dainty Chain pattern of Plate K, Fig. 16 has a well authenticated
+antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century, from
+which it was probably derived. Without doubt it was a favourite pattern
+three centuries ago, as it appears in some of the early paintings in
+which Oriental carpets are represented.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE K. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF
+CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to give it a
+more graceful form.
+
+As the purely geometric pattern of Plate K, Fig. 17 is entirely lacking
+in ornamental features, it is used principally to separate more
+important stripes. Occasionally it is found in such rugs as the Chichis
+and Shirvans.
+
+Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an inside stripe
+is seen in Plate K, Fig. 18. This is evidently an archaic form and is
+found principally in pieces of the Shirvan district.
+
+The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns (Plate K,
+Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less important stripes of not only
+Caucasian but a number of Persian rugs. The former pattern appears
+constantly on the monuments of ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some
+symbolic meaning. The latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and
+Phœnix carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88) which was woven about 1350
+A. D.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │ CAUCASIAN  │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │            │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Baku        │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-11│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Chichi      │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Daghestan   │    G    │      │ 7-10│ 8-15│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Derbend     │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 6-12│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Gengha      │    G    │      │ 6-8 │ 6-9 │  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │            │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │Kabistan    │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-16│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Karabagh    │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 7-10│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Kasak       │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kuba        │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-13│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Kutais      │    G    │      │ 5-9 │ 7-12│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Lesghian    │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 6-11│  w  │       │    │[e]│ d │[h]│
+  │Shemakha    │    G    │      │ 7-11│ 7-13│  w  │       │    │   │ d │   │
+  │Shirvan     │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 8-12│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Shousha     │    G    │      │ 7-12│ 6-11│  w  │       │    │   │ d │ h │
+  │Soumak      │         │      │ 8-14│ 6-16│  w  │       │    │ e │   │   │
+  │Tcherkess   │    G    │      │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Tiflis      │    G    │      │ 6-10│ 6-10│  w  │   [c] │    │ e │   │   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │        WEFT         │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  CAUCASIAN │     │       │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │ w = │ c =   │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│  No.  │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Baku        │  w  │       │   2   │ O │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Chichi      │  w  │       │   2   │ O │[S]│  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Daghestan   │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Derbend     │  w  │  [c]  │ 2/[1] │[O]│ S │  W  │[K]│   │ F │
+  │Gengha      │  w  │       │  2-4  │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │            │     │       │ [6-8] │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │Kabistan    │  w  │   c   │[2]/[3]│ O │ S │W/[S]│   │ L │   │
+  │Karabagh    │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │W/[S]│[K]│ L │ F │
+  │Kasak       │  w  │       │2/[3-4]│ O │ S │W/[S]│   │ L │ F │
+  │Kuba        │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │[K]│   │ F │
+  │Kutais      │  w  │       │3/[1-5]│ O │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Lesghian    │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Shemakha    │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │ W/S │   │   │ F │
+  │Shirvan     │  w  │  [c]  │   2   │[O]│ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Shousha     │  w  │       │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Soumak      │  w  │       │   2   │[O]│ S │ W/S │ K │   │ F │
+  │Tcherkess   │  w  │       │2/[4-6]│   │ S │ W/S │ K │   │ F │
+  │Tiflis      │  w  │       │  3-5  │ O │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  CAUCASIAN │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Baku        │  W  │ K │   │ F │     s     │      m    │  m/f     │
+  │Chichi      │  W  │ K │   │ F │    m/s    │      m    │   m      │
+  │Daghestan   │  W  │ K │   │ F │     s     │      f    │  m/f     │
+  │Derbend     │  W  │[K]│   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/l     │
+  │Gengha      │W/[S]│   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   l      │
+  │            │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │Kabistan    │W/[S]│   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/f     │
+  │Karabagh    │W/[S]│[K]│ T │ F │     m     │      c    │   l      │
+  │Kasak       │W/[S]│[K]│   │ F │     l     │      c    │   f      │
+  │Kuba        │W/[S]│[K]│   │ F │     m     │      m    │  m/l     │
+  │Kutais      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │  m/f     │
+  │Lesghian    │  W  │ K │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   f      │
+  │Shemakha    │ W/S │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │  m/f     │
+  │Shirvan     │  W  │ K │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/c   │  m/l     │
+  │Shousha     │  W  │   │[T]│ F │     m     │     m/c   │  m/f     │
+  │Soumak      │ W/S │ K │   │ F │           │      m    │   m      │
+  │Tcherkess   │ W/S │ K │   │ F │     m     │      m    │   f      │
+  │Tiflis      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/f   │   f      │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+THE land that extends eastward about fourteen hundred miles from the
+Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the Chinese Empire, and northward
+for a similar distance from the Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and
+Afghanistan to the steppes of Western Siberia, is one of the least
+civilised parts of the eastern continent. Here until within a few recent
+years, the people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian Empire
+on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet made little
+impression on their uncultured natures. To these circumstances it is
+largely due that the rugs termed Central Asiatic, which come from this
+district, still possess to a large degree the originality of design,
+virility of character, and beauty of colour that are so rapidly
+disappearing from the woven products of countries more subject to the
+influence of Western civilisation.
+
+These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural sub-groups,
+which include:
+
+1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country as Royal
+and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and Beshires, all of
+which are made in Turkestan;[32] and the Afghan, of which part are made
+in Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.
+
+2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which re made in
+Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands made in Eastern
+Turkestan.
+
+3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in Beluchistan.
+
+No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of colour and design
+than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered that their prevailing
+tones and their simple, geometric designs are such as would readily be
+adopted by people with primitive ideas of ornamentation, it seems
+probable that they have been copied with only slight modification for a
+great many centuries, even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets
+were woven during the short period when Samarkand was capital of the
+East. This is probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the
+world has been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of philology,
+dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had come to dispel the
+mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand years later it was overrun by
+Cyrus and added to the dominion of the Medes and Persians. In the V
+Century A. D., Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following century
+Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later it was again
+overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted the vanquished to
+the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries had rolled away the Mongol
+hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it; and once again it suffered
+desolation under the iron hand of Tamerlane, “Scourge of Asia.” But in
+spite of these waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types, however
+much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap is invariably
+short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the predominating
+colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon appears. They are,
+moreover, the best woven and the most beautiful of the Central Asiatic
+rugs.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TURKESTAN]
+
+Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to the
+influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of Chinese, they
+are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter. Not
+improbably this is because Tamerlane had gathered at Samarkand noted
+artists and artisans from China, whose influence continued long after
+his death. And as traditional patterns have been transmitted for
+centuries, there is little doubt that some of the modern rugs, even
+though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In these
+pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an
+elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with
+early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even
+gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics.
+
+The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the Central
+Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman rugs than to
+any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of
+Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat’s
+hair selvage at the sides peculiar to Afghans and Tekkes. On the other
+hand, many of the patterns both of field and border resemble Persian
+workmanship; so that placing these rugs in the same group with the
+Turkoman and Turko-Chinese rugs, which are not made in an adjoining
+territory, is slightly arbitrary.
+
+
+ROYAL BOKHARAS.—The best known district in Turkestan is the Khanate of
+Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the lofty Pamir mountains
+in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus
+river, on the west. Situated in its northern half and near the centre of
+a fertile valley is its capital, Bokhara, “The Noble.” Though noted for
+its cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These and
+its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days
+when the great caravans that came from China, India, Persia, and Russia
+made it one of the great marts of the East.
+
+On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of the Kirghiz
+steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,[33] the Afghans who dwell north
+of the Paropamisus range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the
+west, came and bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these
+rugs were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan, Orenburg, or
+Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place, the term Bokhara
+was often applied to each of the different classes. Thus we hear of
+Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and
+Khiva Bokharas.
+
+Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only are the
+best woven, but are made of the finest material; even the warp of many
+of them is of soft, silky white wool. The old rugs were made in the city
+and suburbs of Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old
+and new are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon. Of
+these quarters, which are either plain or contain a small triangle of
+contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite are always white or cream
+coloured, and the other pair are of some shade of red. Small triangular
+figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons, as well as
+small diamond, oval, or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major
+axis. In the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and
+the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which
+is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs, that
+careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs
+shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally placed octagons of both
+these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures, that are usually of the
+same design regardless of the shape of the octagon. In large rugs the
+centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark
+blue colour.
+
+It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this class of
+Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven, velvet-like
+pieces. A few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk; and all
+have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of
+lighter red and ivory, that convey an idea of opulence and dignity
+worthy of a king.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, sixteen to
+twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp
+is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden. _Warp_, fine white
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, fine wool, or occasionally
+silk, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes divided by smaller coloured
+lines. _Sides_, a blue double overcasting. _Both ends_, a narrow web and
+short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to ten feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four
+fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 53. TURKOMAN RUG WITH KATCHLI PATTERN]
+
+
+PRINCESS BOKHARAS.—The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are woven by the
+Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate of Bokhara. They are
+nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by
+perpendicular and horizontal bands. Because of this pattern they are
+called “Katchlis,” a word derived from the Armenian language signifying
+“like a cross.” The bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate
+with those in part of the border; but not infrequently the designs of
+the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one, and in a
+few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure. It is generally
+believed that the well-known Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field
+and the border is intended to represent the tree of life, but some
+native weavers suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance;
+the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad diagonal lines with
+serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the
+mosque. A very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks. One of
+their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped
+prayer arch, which is in a panel entirely within their upper border.
+
+Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality, the
+warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool, and the weave is
+coarser. Also, the tones of colour are more sombre, and of browner
+shades; but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the
+ground, on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and
+dark blue, are exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within
+recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for
+commercial purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red or brown, with
+minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at
+back and the weft partly hidden. _Warp_, brown wool or goat’s hair; each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length;
+occasionally some goat’s hair is used. _Border_, three stripes,
+separated by narrow lines. _Sides_, a double overcasting or a double
+goat’s hair selvage of three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual
+length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to
+four fifths length.
+
+
+TEKKES.—A little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost unknown
+tribe called the “Tekke,” a term which is said to denote a mountain
+goat, and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men
+rode over rough mountain sides. About the beginning of the XVIII Century
+they packed their _khibitkas_,[34] and after moving southward to escape
+from the attacks of a more powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the
+southwestern corner of Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further
+eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds,
+whose ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating and
+cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred thousand. One
+fourth of them then moved eastward; and after settling on the banks of
+the Tajand, not far from the Persian town of Saraks, they attacked the
+inhabitants of Merv and captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful
+people, they occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+Daria.
+
+Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to
+fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid, hundreds or
+even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to
+blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the passes that looked down
+into the fertile valleys of Northern Persia. Stealthily creeping through
+them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash
+away with young women and children. If pursued, they would stab their
+captives, and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the deserts
+and carry away both camels and wares.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 54. TURKOMAN PRAYER RUG, WHICH ACCORDING TO A.
+BOGOLUBOW HAS THE TYPICAL PINDÉ PATTERN]
+
+Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the Russians,
+who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the Caspian
+and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the Tekkes harassed. At length in
+January, 1881, came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on
+the fortress of Geok Teppe, where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and
+seven thousand women and children had taken refuge. With the fall of
+that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the power of
+the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose ancestors for
+countless centuries had roamed the desert, recognising no master,
+yielded finally to the advance of civilisation.
+
+These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally
+known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with excellent weave and
+sterling dyes can still be found. As few of them were designed for
+mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred
+years old, and even these are rare. Indeed, any that are now forty years
+old should possess great interest, as they were woven at a time when the
+Tekkes were still a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The
+prayer arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not infrequently
+there are three arches in the same horizontal panel, which, as a rule,
+is above the field, but occasionally below it. In a great many of these
+rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field; and in
+the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually
+small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern
+shown in Plate L, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost invariably in
+the outer stripe.
+
+There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if the very
+spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground colours are brightened
+by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious
+beauty. A few would seem to speak of the early Zoroastrian faith, for in
+their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the
+burning altars of fire worshippers.
+
+The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which
+it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made for doors of the
+khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and
+hemmed, and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in
+length, by which they were suspended. Other pieces have webs at both
+ends. Many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those
+intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing
+large octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+Royal Bokharas.
+
+Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which they
+resemble, by their goat’s hair selvage at the sides, by one thread of
+warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back, and by their
+coarser character. There is, however, a great similarity in the colours,
+though in the Tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, brown, or plum,
+with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen.
+The rows of knots are slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, or occasionally goat’s hair of short or medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes, separated by coloured lines. _Sides_, a
+three-cord double goat’s hair selvage. _Lower end_, a wide coloured web
+and long warp fringe. _Upper end_, a braided selvage turned back and
+hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back of moderately fine grain. _Length_,
+five to eight feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+KHIVAS.—On the west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two
+hundred miles above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva.
+Most of the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad’s life
+or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by innumerable canals,
+crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as melons, peaches, and
+pomegranates. A large population, also, inhabits the city of Khiva,
+which before the building of the Siberian railway, was on one of the
+direct highways between east and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand
+camels regularly passed through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to
+Astrakan in fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as
+well as its own rugs and manufactured articles.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IX—SAMARKAND RUG_
+
+_Although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known
+as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand. Undoubtedly it was woven in
+some part of Turkestan that lies between these two cities; yet with the
+exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and
+lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese ornamentation.
+Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of rich deep blue, are
+six conventionalised butterflies, and near them are four clusters of
+pomegranates. At each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree
+of life, which under different forms appears so persistently in the
+woven fabrics of the East. The delicate drawing of these motives is
+accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad
+border of well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+colour is combined with unsolved symbolism._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and Bokhara
+tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and
+colours; yet they contain important differences. Those made by the Khiva
+tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect of constant struggles against
+the rigours of the desert and the fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the
+north. The wool is also coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer
+to the inch. Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive
+of Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+that separate each row of knots, are noticeable at the back, whereas
+in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible.
+
+Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the following
+description of an antique goat’s hair carpet from Khiva by Dr.
+Birdwood.[35] “The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each lozenge
+being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends terminate in a
+fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made
+entirely by the nomad women about Khiva, the head worker tracing out the
+design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed
+materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving.”
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of
+knots are but slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is generally of
+goat’s hair. _Both ends_, a web, one or more rows of knots and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+YOMUDS.—When, in 1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their
+homes in the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about one
+hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of the dreary
+sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the terrible heat of summer,
+they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of
+more favoured spots. Sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border
+of the Caspian Sea as far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the
+sandy trackless wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.
+
+Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of colour. The
+prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon, but is sometimes
+rose, plum, or dark brown; and the remaining shades correspond with the
+blue, green, brown, and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the
+ivory ground of the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour
+than the field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre
+that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.
+
+There are several distinct types, of which only one is well-known. Its
+pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser designs show that there
+has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of Caucasia. Covering the
+field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that
+suggest those of the Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been
+developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the
+latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In
+the border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and a
+geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are usually red
+and striped, are broad and have a fringe of goat’s hair, sometimes
+braided into ropelike tassels, but more often hanging loose.
+
+The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent,
+and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs.
+Their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory
+colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes;
+their border contains the running latch-hook.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat’s hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s
+hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, either
+a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a goat’s
+hair double selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad,
+reddish brown web through which, as a rule, run coloured lines or
+several narrow stripes, and a long warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BESHIRES.—On the Amu Daria and not far from Afghanistan is a small
+district from which the rugs known as Beshires now and then find their
+way to this country. As it is not far from several routes of caravans,
+these rugs show a relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes.
+Their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found
+in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the web crossed by
+several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish brown, that are usual
+in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric
+figures of the Yomuds and some Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a
+striking character of their own. Not infrequently the field is covered
+with broad, irregular scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in
+any other class of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis
+pattern, which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral
+forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have simple designs that
+incline to the geometric; but a few are of fair width and are ornamented
+with rosettes and conventionalised leaves. In namazliks, which are
+rarely seen, the prayer arch lies within the field. Almost all of this
+class found in this country are old rugs; and on account of their rich,
+harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always
+pleasing and interesting.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and brown, with
+minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide.
+The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally goat’s hair. Each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly
+depressed. _Weft_, wool or goat’s hair of medium or coarse diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes, occasionally
+only one. _Sides_, a goat’s hair selvage of two to four cords. _Both
+ends_, a wide web, crossed with several coloured stripes. _Texture_,
+stout. _Weave_, coarse. _Length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+AFGHANS.—One of the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known
+in this country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these names are
+unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the latter is
+that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of Khiva, and that
+they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor are they strictly
+Afghans, since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and
+fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu Koosh Mountains northward
+across the eastern part of the Khanate Bokhara, and are made by the
+tribesmen of both countries. In fact, they differ considerably from the
+rugs of Central and Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to
+those of floral pattern woven about Herat.
+
+Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and Teutonic
+races have met and blended; and across it have passed the armies of the
+greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist some of the most untamed
+races of the East, feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands, or
+cultivating patches of valleys, through which flow icy streams to form
+the Amu Daria. Here the rights of hospitality are held sacred, but
+wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal.
+
+When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people are taken
+into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs should be strong
+and firm in texture, bold in design, positive and striking in colour.
+Most of them are large and almost square in shape, though mats are not
+uncommon. The traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows,
+usually three in number, of large octagons, that are almost in contact.
+Between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs, which
+consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in
+others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and
+contains within its centre an eight-pointed star.
+
+With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble those of
+Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details are drawn as
+regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They are invariably divided
+into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a
+three-leaf clover. The field contains but few adventitious designs and
+they are rarely animal, as the Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the
+most common of these designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and
+Yomuds, is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel
+trappings. The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine.
+The sides have an added selvage of brown goat’s hair; and the ends
+are finished with reddish brown webs, from which hang loose fringes of
+dark wool or goat’s hair.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 55. TURKOMAN RUG OF THE SALOR TRIBES]
+
+As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours, which
+however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the field consist
+of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters of the octagon are
+of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field. In
+some pieces this red is blood colour, or nearly crimson, standing out in
+bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of
+green, orange, yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug;
+lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent
+in the red webs of the ends.
+
+Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in texture than
+most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine
+wool and goat’s fleece, as well as richness of tone, that is very
+attractive. They are exceedingly durable and moderate in price.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat’s hair; each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat’s hair. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a goat’s hair double
+selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad web of reddish
+brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow
+stripes, and a long fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAMARKANDS.—A little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+“Strewer of Gold,” has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis.
+Forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton; to
+vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear, peach, and pomegranate; and to
+gardens of fragrant flowers. Here is Samarkand, “The Mirror of the
+World.” Few cities as old remain after passing through so many
+vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its gates, the
+Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane seized and made it the
+magnificent capital of one third of the known world. His tomb and other
+remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was
+fostered here the art, the luxury, and the splendour of the East.
+
+The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward
+from the city and are often called “Malgarans.” They are not to be
+compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and
+mosques of the capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special
+interest, as in them are combined features derived from both Eastern and
+Western Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once
+part of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on one
+of the great highways of caravan travel between China and Western Asia,
+the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It appears in the
+colours that are in strong contrast; in the general pattern that shows
+little affinity for those of Persian or West Asian rugs; and even in the
+weave, in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp
+and pile.
+
+The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder,
+with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs
+and border stripes. Or again, the field may be blue, soft brown, gray,
+or tan, with which the colours of the designs and borders, that may
+contain red, yellow, and blue, invariably appear in strong contrast.
+
+Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists principally of
+rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in the centre; and if
+there be many, one is at each corner. They are usually ornamented with
+Chinese scrolls or some geometric design, as an eight-pointed star; but
+dragons, birds, or fishes are not uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers
+of Persian design, with eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion,
+and others of larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design in
+fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is further
+covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic flower forms. The
+borders are equally distinctive, and unlike those of Chinese rugs are
+relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging
+of uniform colour. One of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating
+vine; another a continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with
+frets, the barber-pole design, or a design which by some is regarded as
+the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the waves. In most pieces warp
+and weft are loosely woven, and the pile is of a medium grade of wool;
+but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and yellow.
+_Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly,
+five to eight. Each half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or
+longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the warp shows at back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally
+wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse diameter
+and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice, between every two
+rows of knots, and occasionally three times. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes with a pink edging. _Sides_, a red or
+pink overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back, rather coarse.
+_Length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, one half to three fifths
+length.
+
+
+KASHGARS AND YARKANDS.—Among the foothill plains at the western end of
+the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar and Yarkand,
+that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo visited there.
+Situated in populous and fertile districts, each has been a city of
+political and industrial importance; but on account of the great divides
+that separate them from Western Turkestan, Persia, and India, their
+commerce has been principally with Thibet and China. Thus it has
+happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics
+reached Europe and America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet
+even in the remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the
+culture of silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different
+periods they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence.
+
+These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the Chinese
+Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known
+Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much nearer to West
+Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to place them in the
+Central Asiatic group.
+
+As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship
+entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing.
+Octagonal forms, animals, and even mythical creatures are often
+distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly Chinese
+character. The narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and
+fret forms are often similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The
+colours, which lack the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often
+light; but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and
+red which show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting
+on account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes of
+this group.
+
+
+BELUCHES OR BELUCHISTANS.—“When creating the world, the Almighty made
+Beluchistan out of the refuse” are the words of an old proverb, that
+refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting
+rugs of the East. In fact, the thought is not surprising when the
+desolate character of the country is considered; for a sandy, waterless
+waste stretches over the greater part, and only in a corner to the
+northeast and in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water
+small valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land and
+farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia, untamed tribes of
+Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep, goats, and large numbers
+of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely made looms, bear little
+resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the Indian weavers to
+the east or to those of Kirman to the west. Nor are they closely related
+to the Turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped. In fact, they
+possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people. To
+these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured
+with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been chemically washed
+by dealers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 56. YOMUD RUG]
+
+One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are their tones
+of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage. They are
+principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with purple cast, and a
+dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge, particularly when
+appearing in the webs. Frequently, too, dull tones of green are seen.
+Contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably
+some ivory which appears as small detached figures in part of the
+border, or as outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric and
+represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs. Or they
+may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with large lozenges,
+or medallions, all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks.
+Still others have some crudely drawn flower design, as the Mina Khani,
+that tells of Persian influences.
+
+A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a large
+rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and frequently higher
+than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of three or four stripes.
+The main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running
+latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil, though occasionally they are
+replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern.
+
+Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the
+end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the
+rug is still serviceable. They are usually coloured in harmony with the
+colours of the field, and are marked with embroidered lines or simple
+designs. No other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen, due to
+the soft, fine wool of the pile, which in old pieces is short and
+closely woven, giving a play of colours, and velvety appearance
+unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of
+Beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are
+of rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of very
+old rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and brown,
+with minor quantities of white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are usually pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+_Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+of coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally camel’s
+hair, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy goat’s
+hair selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad embroidered
+web with warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual
+width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more geometric
+than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in
+them, though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders
+of the ends. Even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their
+identity. Octagonal figures, stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common.
+In fact, the group as a whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and
+Chinese groups more than the Persian.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES
+
+The stripe shown in Plate L, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 250) is one of many found
+in the rugs known as Royal Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as
+the small tent-like designs, which may have been derived from the
+headstalls of horses, are almost always found in it.
+
+A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with the pattern
+of the field, appears in Plate L, Fig. 2. It represents a continuous
+series of designs shaped like a Y, that were doubtless derived from
+forms of trees. More frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated
+diagonal lines, that originally may have been intended to represent
+foliage, is seen.
+
+Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes and Khivas
+is shown in Plate L, Fig. 4. It forcibly suggests the Chinese fret.
+Sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary
+stripe.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently seen in Tekkes, which is
+interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks
+similar to those of Caucasian rugs. Without doubt this is only one of
+the many instances illustrating the migration of designs.
+
+Plate L, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar to Yomuds. The running vine
+is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks, which are a
+constant feature of this class.
+
+Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of
+latch-hooks is shown in Plate L, Fig. 7. Pendent from the vine are other
+hooks shaped like frets.
+
+Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented in Plate
+L, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the
+proportion of length to width is greater; and it is probable that they
+were copied from a wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen
+in Beluchistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE L. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS]
+
+Plate L, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically drawn vine found in Beshires.
+
+Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate L, Figs. 10 and 11.
+
+In Plate L, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the most typical and interesting
+stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands. The first is supposed to represent
+the sacred mountain of Chinese lore rising out of the waves. The second
+is a vine with leaves and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.
+
+A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is seen in
+Plate L, Fig. 14.
+
+
+SECONDARY STRIPES
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a well-known form of a secondary
+stripe found in Royal Bokharas.
+
+A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in Plate L,
+Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines
+found in other groups.
+
+Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate K, Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are
+frequently found in Yomuds, and occasionally in Beluchistans.
+
+In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in Caucasian and
+Persian rugs, are very frequently used.
+
+The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate L, Fig. 17, is a
+Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian influence.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very
+large number of Afghans and in some Khivas.
+
+Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in Plate L,
+Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of
+Persian origin, and the swastikas suggest Chinese origin.
+
+In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small barber-pole
+stripes are constantly employed.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    g = goat’s hair
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  ┌────────────┬────────────────────────────┬──────────────────────────────┐
+  │            │          KNOT              │           WARP               │
+  │            ├─────────┬──────┬───────────┼─────┬───────┬────┬───────────┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │         │      │ Number to │     │       │    │ At back   │
+  │  ASIATIC   │         │      │ Inches    │     │       │    │           │
+  │            │ G =     │ S =  ├─────┬─────┤  w =│ c =   │    ├───┬───┬───┤
+  │            │ Ghiordes│ Sehna│  H  │  P  │ wool│ cotton│ s/l│ e │ d │ h │
+  ├────────────┼─────────┼──────┼─────┼─────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Afghan      │    G    │  S   │ 5-8 │ 7-10│  w  │       │[g] │ e │ d │   │
+  │Beluchistan │         │  S   │ 6-9 │ 7-10│  w  │       │[g] │ e │ d │   │
+  │Beshire     │         │  S   │ 6-9 │ 8-11│ [w] │  [c]  │ g  │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Princess    │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 8-12│16-24│  w  │       │    │ e │[d]│   │
+  │Royal       │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 8-12│14-18│  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │Tekke       │         │      │     │     │     │       │    │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │         │  S   │ 7-12│ 9-14│  w  │       │[g] │   │ d │   │
+  │Khiva       │    G    │  S   │ 6-10│ 8-14│  w  │       │[g] │ e │   │   │
+  │Samarkand   │         │  S   │ 6-8 │ 5-8 │ [w] │   c   │    │   │   │ h │
+  │Yomud       │   [G]   │  S   │ 7-12│ 9-17│  w  │       │ g  │ e │[d]│   │
+  └────────────┴─────────┴──────┴─────┴─────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬──────────────────────────┬───────┬─────────────────┐
+  │            │          WEFT            │ SIDES │     LOWER END   │
+  │            ├─────┬───────┬────┬───────┼───┬───┼─────┬───┬───┬───┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  ASIATIC   │ w = │ c =   │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │            │wool │ cotton│ g  │ No.   │ O │ S │ W/S │ K │ L │ F │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───────┼────┼───────┼───┼───┼─────┼───┼───┼───┤
+  │Afghan      │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Beluchistan │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Beshire     │ [w] │  [c]  │ g  │ 2/[1] │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Princess    │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │   │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Royal       │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │ O │[S]│  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Tekke       │     │       │    │       │   │   │     │   │   │   │
+  │  Bokhara   │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  │Khiva       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │ K │   │ F │
+  │Samarkand   │ [w] │   c   │    │   2   │ O │   │  W  │   │ L │   │
+  │Yomud       │  w  │       │    │   2   │   │ S │  W  │   │   │ F │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───────┴────┴───────┴───┴───┴─────┴───┴───┴───┘
+
+  ┌────────────┬─────────────────┬───────────┬───────────┬──────────┐
+  │            │   UPPER END     │    NAP    │   WEAVE   │ TEXTURE  │
+  │            ├─────┬───┬───┬───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │  CENTRAL   │     │   │   │   │l = long   │f = fine   │l = loose │
+  │  ASIATIC   │     │   │   │   │m = medium │m = medium │m = medium│
+  │            │ W/S │ K │ T │ F │s = short  │c = coarse │f = firm  │
+  ├────────────┼─────┼───┼───┼───┼───────────┼───────────┼──────────┤
+  │Afghan      │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    f     │
+  │Beluchistan │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │   m/l    │
+  │Beshire     │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    f     │
+  │Princess    │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │   │ F │     s     │      f    │    f     │
+  │Royal       │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │   │ F │    m/s    │     m/s   │    f     │
+  │Tekke       │     │   │   │   │           │           │          │
+  │  Bokhara   │  W  │   │[T]│ F │    m/s    │     m/f   │    f     │
+  │Khiva       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      m    │    f     │
+  │Samarkand   │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │      c    │    m     │
+  │Yomud       │  W  │   │   │ F │     m     │     m/c   │    f     │
+  └────────────┴─────┴───┴───┴───┴───────────┴───────────┴──────────┘
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+INDIAN RUGS
+
+
+THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are
+unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics,
+that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
+Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain
+stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship
+is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of
+large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared
+with other kinds of rugs.
+
+The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear
+to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished
+without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the
+Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made
+till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his
+patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture
+of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years,
+but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent
+fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in
+all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in
+vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as
+follows: “The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the
+chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own
+houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their
+manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are
+so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute
+private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age
+or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their
+sons, should they have become skilled in their father’s art. Upon the
+completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
+It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has
+always been produced.”
+
+After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the
+production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
+This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian
+Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the
+extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique
+carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
+Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of
+the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were
+removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the
+weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of
+free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes,
+and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were
+often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed
+that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly
+half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former
+condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis;
+and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
+
+Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
+European companies have established factories where natives are employed
+making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
+Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian
+products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are
+looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
+Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business
+depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline
+dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality,
+representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking;
+and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European
+patterns.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
+
+Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as
+similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the
+jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the
+northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts
+and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is
+convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and
+Southern India.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are
+Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh,
+Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
+
+
+SRINAGAR.—From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of
+Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province,
+Srinagar, the “City of the Sun.” To a large extent, they resemble the
+far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where
+winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The
+pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent
+quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly
+pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
+The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show
+European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central
+field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with
+vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool
+for which this district is renowned.
+
+
+AMRITSAR.—On account of famine and several other causes, a large number
+of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making
+shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870,
+deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus
+gave an impetus to that industry.
+
+Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as
+some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one
+of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition
+of Indian rugs at the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not
+been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and
+valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their
+patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the
+factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a
+marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique
+of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the
+square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying
+a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and
+the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is
+unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a
+rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
+The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are
+possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not
+exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
+
+There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from
+others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be
+a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of
+recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been
+followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the
+products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
+
+
+LAHORE.—About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar
+was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the
+reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of
+Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known
+carpet now in the possession of the Girdler’s Company of London. Some of
+the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and
+brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule,
+the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both
+woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory
+system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the
+capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
+It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their
+products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the
+character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each
+knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in
+lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in
+other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf
+and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less
+crowded.
+
+
+MULTANS.—One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which
+during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by
+early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are
+of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the
+jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last
+sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an
+unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of
+other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external
+influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display
+uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also
+possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they
+are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are
+seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally
+only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot
+encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a
+single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who
+have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their
+products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is
+usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
+As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours
+are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some
+of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On
+the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little
+artistic merit.
+
+
+AGRA.—Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison
+walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+“saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by
+the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for
+the ex-Empress Eugenie.” Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
+Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is
+looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots
+blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are
+very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the
+case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms
+at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported
+on elephants.
+
+
+ALLAHABAD.—Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to
+it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad,
+capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political
+importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its
+industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers
+produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and
+are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
+Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
+
+
+MIRZAPUR.—When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very
+populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not
+surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century
+ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account
+of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is
+coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited
+extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the
+harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These
+rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic
+qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief
+requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+have been made to raise their standard.
+
+
+JUBBULPUR.—Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur,
+capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School
+of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather
+than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: “The
+foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile
+which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple
+as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which
+will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were
+shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first
+unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it
+during the last four or five years.” Within recent years few have been
+exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
+
+
+SINDH.—Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the
+foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for
+pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
+
+
+JAIPUR.—In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial
+centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain
+in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant
+in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The
+vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The
+texture of weave is excellent.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras,
+Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in
+Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
+
+
+MADRAS.—Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a
+century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan,
+were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as
+Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent
+Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of
+colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present
+products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are
+made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the
+Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are
+copied from antique carpets represented in the “Vienna Carpet Book,”
+others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that
+give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
+
+
+MARSULIPATAM.—Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the
+Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the
+British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest
+produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that
+could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior
+materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The
+patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave
+way to crude drawing until “these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have
+sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves.”[36] Few of them
+are any longer imported into this country.
+
+
+ELLORE.—Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of
+Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of
+weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in
+Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he
+had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point
+of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of
+connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few
+districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
+In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms
+operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
+
+In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and
+the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the
+uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of
+craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the
+rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior
+order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their
+weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
+Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903,
+said: “The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom
+designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but
+unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the
+old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines
+unskilfully applied.”
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 59. AFGHAN RUG]
+
+In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet. The warp is
+of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp. The pile is of an
+inferior quality, as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep
+after death, known as “dead” wool, or as “Chunam” or “limed” wool, since
+it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately vegetable dyes do
+not produce in it the same results as in “live” wool; and since the
+scarcity of wool in Southern India frequently necessitates its use,
+aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed. The number of
+knots to the square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but both
+geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.
+
+
+VELLORE.—Almost a hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of
+Vellore, where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on
+their own looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in
+the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the only
+rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the largest is
+about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be obtained. The
+product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands,
+restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers.
+According to the order, the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or
+aniline dyes; they may have warp and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and
+they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured
+horizontally and perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as
+promiscuous as those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with
+a corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort has
+been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+craftsmanship.
+
+
+BANGALORE.—The principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred
+about Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of which the
+largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were constantly occupied in
+making rugs to order. The number of knots to the square inch varied
+greatly according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number of
+weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district, as well
+as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most carefully. The
+closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes; and
+the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp and weft, are regulated by
+the requirements of the trade, which is conducted largely by two or
+three English firms.
+
+
+HYDERABAD.—Splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in
+the cities of Hyderabad and Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The
+weave was exceedingly fine, and the colours were brilliant but
+harmonious. Now few rugs are produced in these cities, and they have
+poor patterns and wretched colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CHINESE RUGS
+
+
+THE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit was almost unknown to the
+Western world until the close of the last century, when a few pieces
+reached Europe, where they aroused the just admiration of art
+connoisseurs. About the beginning of this century a larger number, which
+were obtained during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of
+homes, temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City, between the
+years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public auctions for
+prices that stimulated collectors in China to search for more. But they
+have proved to be scarce when compared with other Oriental rugs, so
+that, as yet, the general public are only slightly familiar with them.
+
+Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written records
+are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many were made in
+Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to Persia and India.
+But it is more probable that they were woven in Eastern China, where
+other branches of art reached a remarkable development under the
+patronage of wealthy mandarins and the imperial court. Even if they are
+not the product of an indigenous growth, the knowledge of weaving may
+easily have been acquired from Western Asia; since it was not unusual
+several centuries ago to import weavers from one country to another to
+instruct native craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of them,
+and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of them, not only
+are unlike those of any other groups, but have well-known Chinese
+elements. A more distinctive feature are the colours, which are
+relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow, and blue, are of shades
+unlike what are seen in other rugs. Even more distinctive than these are
+the reds, which never have the primary colours found in other groups but
+resemble the tints of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon.
+Similar tones are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and
+floral ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic still are
+the small designs which are so related to the philosophic and religious
+thought of the people and to the industrial and social life that their
+Chinese origin is unmistakable.
+
+Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern China, it is
+not possible satisfactorily to assign them to different classes based on
+locality; yet without doubt important distinctions, observable also in
+the early paintings and porcelains and resulting largely from
+differences of race and character of country, exist between those woven
+in Northern China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and
+those woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such marked
+local distinctions as are found in other groups never existed in Chinese
+rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate more to stages in development
+of the textile art, so that the natural classification is based on the
+successive periods when they were woven.
+
+The absence of written and traditional history regarding the weaving of
+these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle to such
+classification. By a careful examination of large numbers of rugs, it is
+possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy in series that
+represent progressive forms of ornamentation and design from the archaic
+to the modern. A most important aid to this arrangement is the
+interdependence so conspicuous in the several arts of China; for designs
+of innumerable articles with well-established ages, especially of the
+ceramic art, have been copied by the weavers.
+
+Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in determining the
+period to which rugs belong. An important distinction, for instance,
+often exists in the manner in which the material is spun. If pieces of
+yarn be taken from old rugs and carefully examined, as they are
+untwisted, the simpler, cruder methods of spinning practised in former
+days are often apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the
+wool was very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 60. BELUCHISTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+More important often in determining the relative age of a rug than
+either design or technical peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of
+colour; for however excellent were the original dyes and whatever care
+was exercised in their application, they slowly changed under the
+mellowing influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human
+process. Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours
+were peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century, and azure
+blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow with a lemon or
+citron cast is found principally in pieces woven since the beginning of
+the XVIII Century; and green is rarely found in pieces woven before the
+middle of the XVIII Century. Aniline dyes were not introduced into China
+much before the year 1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be
+regarded as not more remote than the period when the ornamentation and
+designs it contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more
+recent, as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a rug to
+consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the weaving and designs,
+but also the evidence of colour.
+
+Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from other
+groups and divide them into separate classes; they also have many
+features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot. In all but the
+earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton; each thread of warp is
+equally prominent at the back; and the weft, which is coarser than the
+warp, crosses twice between two rows of knots. The nap of both old and
+modern rugs is almost always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or
+cotton. The sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer
+threads of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper end has a
+narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they are generally
+more loosely woven. These and other features of resemblance and of
+distinction will be more fully noticed in considering the rugs of
+different periods.
+
+In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately associated
+with the religious and philosophic thought of China. One of them is the
+Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of eternity, which is an old
+Chinese emblem, though more frequently found in rugs of Samarkand and
+Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band and the Joo-e. There are also
+mythical creatures, as the dragon, emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin,
+partly deer, partly unicorn; the Fung-Kwang or phœnix; and the
+lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the figure
+Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and butterfly,
+denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the two fishes, which
+are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess board, which are symbols of
+the literati.
+
+It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung dynasty
+(960-1280 A. D.), when for nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed,
+literature and art flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained
+with imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist. Nor
+do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan dynasty
+(1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious Mongol prince,
+Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later rugs were used in kindred
+arts of these and preceding periods.
+
+
+MING RUGS.—The oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near
+the end of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII
+Century. It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and India
+were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other branches of
+Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work that had preceded.
+Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in the splendid
+accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort that marked the Tang
+and Sung dynasties.
+
+Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship, archaic
+designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were woven with warp
+and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally for wealthy mandarins or
+the imperial court, had pile of silk attached to warp and weft of
+cotton; and others were made entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but
+constituting the most sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers’ art,
+were the rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.
+
+The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over patterns.
+Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and are arranged in
+horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to leave small diamond-shaped
+spaces between diagonally placed octagons. Within these designs are
+often the emblems of happiness or longevity, floral motives, and
+sometimes archaic dragons. In another well-known pattern the field is
+completely covered with a swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals
+with diagonal rows of bats, emblematic of happiness. Occasionally a
+field of plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with an
+all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling some of
+the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of most
+conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn stems.
+
+The essential feature, however, of a large number of these rugs, and one
+that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a central medallion
+surrounded by a field that is either plain, that is marked with a
+subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is known as the “tiger skin”
+pattern, consisting of waving lines repeated throughout the field. The
+medallions may be either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case,
+rounded; but the defining lines are angular and generally represent
+frets. Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from them
+originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the shape of
+the central medallions and the designs which cover them suggest most
+forcibly that they were copied from old mirror backs. The corners of the
+fields may contain simple scrolls, but more frequently they correspond
+closely in drawing with the central medallions.
+
+The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow, and
+generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and surrounded
+with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters of the rugs of this
+period have a stripe with a pattern of swastika-frets. Two of these
+stripes, which are very old patterns, are illustrated in Plate N, Figs.
+1 and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that have two
+border stripes with figures belong to a later period. Many of the oldest
+borders are without figured stripes, and consist merely of one or more
+stripes of plain colour.
+
+The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep, rich tones.
+Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally used in the outer
+edging that surrounded the field or in the narrow border stripes; but
+more frequently the same colour effect was obtained by the use of
+corrosive dyes that in time have often eaten the wool almost to the
+foundation of warp and weft. Wools dyed with corrosive browns are also
+used in the fields and enhance the effect of designs of contrasting
+colours, which stand out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull
+yellow and shades of blue, are also seen in the borders. The field is
+usually richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of time on
+what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and light blues,
+sky blue, and robin’s egg blue, as well as jade green and bottle green,
+are also found in these old pieces. In the metal and silk rugs the glint
+of silver even though tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown
+deeper and richer with age.
+
+
+KANG-HI.—During the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued
+from 1644 to its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars
+waged between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But during the
+reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art revived and enjoyed one
+of the most splendid periods of its history. There is, however, a
+noticeable difference between the rugs that belong to the early and to
+the late part of this reign; so that it is convenient to divide them
+into the early Kang-hi pieces, that were woven during the last part of
+the XVII Century, and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were
+woven at the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the reign of a
+particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader distinction of
+assigning them to different centuries is frequently adopted.
+
+In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of the late
+Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period, but there was a
+freer use of colour and a more decorative ornamentation. Many of the
+figures are still geometric. Frets are conspicuous in the fields of
+large numbers of these pieces. The dragon also is a favourite motive;
+but in the scrolls that represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in
+the conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a medallion in
+the centre of the field, in which others are grouped with regularity;
+while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of the rugs in which the
+fields are covered with sundry objects, as scrolls, vases, altar pieces,
+and sacred plants, also belong to this period. The borders of these and
+late Kang-hi pieces have frequently an outer edging of brown and a
+single border stripe with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has
+a well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+conventionalised dragons and frets that appear in the central
+medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however, there
+is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme of the late
+Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is largely employed in
+rugs of this period.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 61. TURKOMAN SADDLE-BAGS]
+
+The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi period in the
+remarkable development of decorative art as applied to porcelains,
+produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven at the same time.
+Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit to earlier Chinese style.
+The fields were not infrequently covered with sub-patterns of fret work,
+on which medallions appeared more prominently. The geometric figures
+were largely supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central
+medallions and corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised
+dragons, the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or the
+peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character, and there
+is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had a strong
+influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of this class, the
+foliate and floral forms no longer appear as sub-patterns but become the
+prominent feature in the decoration of the field; and the
+conventionalised flowers are arranged with precision in diagonal or
+perpendicular lines. To this period also belong rugs of a distinct type,
+in which the field represents a blending of pictorial and symbolic
+ideas, as, for instance, a homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where
+butterflies flit among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus,
+emblematic of longevity, wander.
+
+The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still continued,
+but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate designs in many of the
+figured stripes. It is not unusual to see single or double vines with
+conventionalised flowers; and though the drawing is mechanical, the
+relationship to Persian art is apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the
+swastika-fret is used. A noticeable difference also exists in the colour
+scheme of many of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display
+brighter colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+giving it a golden hue known as the “imperial yellow.”
+
+
+YUNG-CHING.—During the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though
+many of the old patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more
+ornate forms begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor in Chinese art, so that the
+use of colours and ornamentation followed broader lines. To this period
+are assigned most of those rugs in which designs are defined by lines of
+contrasting colour that has been so treated that the lines are depressed
+and throw the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however,
+to definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this period;
+since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was gradual; and the
+effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable factors in determining
+age, depends somewhat on their exposure to the elements and to use. But
+broadly speaking, figures of leaf and flower were more frequently
+adopted than in preceding periods and designs became less
+conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon and citron shades of yellow,
+also, became more prominent during this period.
+
+
+KEEN-LUNG.—The long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was
+one of the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century, as well
+as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a more
+cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for not only are
+many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese, but others are of a
+Persian character, and others still suggest Mohammedan influences
+observable in the products of Turkestan and India. Moreover, many of the
+designs show a delicate shading that is not observable in the rugs made
+during the early part of the century. As a whole they are the most
+ornate of Chinese rugs. Woven after the inspiration of Persian
+masterpieces had left its strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and
+decoration in kindred arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent
+in the drawing of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of
+early philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+craftsmanship.
+
+In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff conventional
+forms which continued through the XVII and the early part of the XVIII
+Century, disappeared. In their place was a greater refinement of design,
+a greater accuracy of drawing, which found expression in floral forms
+that reached their highest development at this time and became
+characteristic of it. Occasionally they are represented in profile as is
+usually the practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+viewed from above. Some of them, as chrysanthemums, peonies,
+sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and naturalistic. The fields of
+many of these pieces are covered with such flowers carefully arranged in
+harmonious groupings of leaf, bud and flower, but never with the formal
+and exact balance of old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with
+them in the same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion; and
+occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule these
+medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the latter part
+of this period they display elaborate ornamentation that distinguishes
+them from earlier ones; but now and then they contain fabulous
+creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few instances they are
+entirely replaced.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE X—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and subdued rich
+colouring are the characteristics of this unusual piece. The knots of
+the fine woollen yarn are tied with a precision not frequently seen in
+Chinese rugs, and the shortness of nap discloses the faithfulness with
+which an artist of no ordinary ability has represented plants and
+flowers. Their soft tones stand out in relief against a background now
+darkened and enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are of
+uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without reason,
+to the Kang-hi period._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the Taoist
+symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards, scrolls, and the
+lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of state, fruits of
+abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of longevity and happiness.
+To this class also belong many of the pieces which have neither
+medallions nor corner pieces, but have fields completely covered with a
+pattern of continuous foliate stems and conventional flowers, repeated
+with exact precision of drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is
+completely covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the “Grain of Rice” rugs, also,
+were woven during this period.
+
+The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few pieces is
+the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often the T pattern. The
+key patterns represented in Plate N, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as
+well as the dotted line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all
+of these rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces both
+stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one geometric, in
+which case the wider, that, with very few exceptions, is the floral, is
+the inner one. Very rarely the border contains two floral stripes; and
+now and then Buddhist emblems and other devices are introduced.
+
+The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is accompanied
+by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these rugs may
+conveniently be grouped in three sub-classes. The first is the Blue and
+White, with ground of ivory or ashy white and designs that have shades
+of light or dark blue. The second comprises those in which the ground is
+some shade of yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or
+apricot. Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or
+imperial yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red. The
+third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is some shade
+of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed strawberry, apricot red,
+or a deep salmon pink, which is rare. The overlying designs may be a
+shade of blue, ivory white, yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of
+both field and border are sometimes the same but are more frequently
+complementary. As a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and
+rich colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+Chinese loom.
+
+The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century, repeat with slight
+modification the patterns of the preceding period, though there is a
+tendency to use larger and coarser designs. The colours, too, are
+similar, yet they lack the deep richness that is matured only with the
+lapse of great time. Many of these rugs, as well as some woven still
+later, before the introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes,
+are beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+technique observable only in those produced before the beginning of the
+XIX Century.
+
+
+MEDALLIONS
+
+The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs is not
+only interesting but is an important aid in determining their age; yet
+it should be remembered that approved patterns were often repeated even
+after the introduction of more elaborate styles. Many of the oldest
+medallions were copied from bronzes or mirror backs, and their drawing
+is geometric except as embellished by some conventionalised figures of
+the dragon. By a process of evolution these figures, in turn, were
+converted into scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf
+and flower patterns.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a “Shou” design of octagonal
+shape, copied from an old rug which was probably woven during the early
+part of the XVII Century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE M. MEDALLIONS IN CHINESE RUGS]
+
+Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate M, represent fret-covered medallions, which
+also are found in rugs of the same period. The first is probably the
+oldest pattern; and the last, to judge by the panel surrounding it, was
+apparently copied from a bronze mirror back.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in
+Plate M, Fig. 2, but with the dragons replaced by frets.
+
+A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate M, Fig. 6. It
+shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons, of which the heads alone
+betray their origin. Such medallions are found mostly in the earliest
+rugs.
+
+By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate M with the preceding, it is apparent that
+its scrolls had a similar origin, but in this one the dragon heads have
+entirely disappeared. The design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi
+rugs.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 8, is represented a medallion that closely resembles
+some of the earliest period; but the more accurate drawing and clearer
+definition of lines shows that it is a later copy. It is found in late
+Kang-hi pieces.
+
+To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas
+represented in Plate M, Fig. 9.
+
+Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in Plate M, Fig.
+10. The particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period; but there is little doubt that similar medallions
+appeared in older rugs.
+
+In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate M, are represented two medallions with
+foliate designs that were largely employed in the early Keen-lung
+period. A comparison of the first with Fig. 13 of Plate M, shows an
+interesting step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.
+
+A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in Plate M,
+Fig. 14, in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands.
+
+Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately
+drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in Plate M, Fig. 15.
+Wreath-like borders, such as are seen in this and the preceding one, are
+found in XVIII and XIX Century pieces.
+
+
+CHINESE BORDER STRIPES
+
+The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite
+sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age of Chinese
+rugs. As was seen to be the case with medallions, the earliest stripes
+were purely geometric. In others, still very old, appeared forms of
+conventionalised dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls
+and these by ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that
+earlier designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+age is merely contributory.
+
+Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in
+the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate N (opp. Page 274), represent
+three old forms, which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the
+Kang-hi time. The pattern of Plate N, Fig. 4, in which alternate
+swastikas are reversed, is also very old.
+
+The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate N, Fig. 5. It
+is found largely in Kang-hi rugs, and if used in more recent fabrics, is
+often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated
+here, the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the
+stripe.
+
+The shading of Plate N, Fig. 6, which is somewhat similar to Plate N,
+Fig. 4, is characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.
+
+In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate N, are Key and T patterns, which are
+found in rugs of the Kang-hi and subsequent periods, but rarely in
+earlier pieces. When employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the
+XVIII Century they are often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are
+of great antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised
+clouds and thunder.
+
+A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in Plate
+N, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets represent bodies of which
+conventionalised heads alone betray their origin. The graceful scroll in
+the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms. This stripe is
+seen in old Kang-hi rugs.
+
+The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe
+(Plate N, Fig. 12) that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period. It shows the influence of older traditions on
+which are ingrafted the later inspiration.
+
+Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate N, Fig. 13) seen in what are
+known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung period. In different parts of
+the border appear the Buddhist emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law,
+and knot of destiny, separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE N. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CHINESE
+RUGS]
+
+The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and later rugs is
+shown in Plate N, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, which illustrate three stripes
+that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese
+rugs of the last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.
+
+The stripe illustrated in Plate N, Fig. 17, on which are represented
+halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms, is found
+in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the XVIII Century, as
+well as in more subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in
+which it is found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+conceits that suggest Persian influences.
+
+In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate N, are represented simple stripes
+found in XVIII Century rugs. The last of these, which is found in
+Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal
+trefoil so common in Persian pieces.
+
+The simple dotted stripe (Plate N, Fig. 22) was rarely employed before
+the middle of the XVIII Century, but has been constantly used since
+then.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+KILIMS
+
+
+KILIMS have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility, as
+some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the Egyptians and
+Babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets. The
+different links in this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not
+unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft
+hanging from one side, first suggested the greater durability and warmth
+that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts
+of yarn.
+
+It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise
+been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different steps in this
+evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue.
+The earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive
+weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple
+fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags, and consisted of
+a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced
+style, induced by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of
+patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft.
+As these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern,
+their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back, giving an
+appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in Soumaks. The third and
+most finished style, representing much higher workmanship, was produced
+by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should
+be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the
+same.
+
+Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East. The first
+not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is frequently
+substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the only floor
+covering, or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets. It
+often replaces the heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for
+all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is
+found among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate
+finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they
+receive. The third, which is the more elegant product, is invariably not
+only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns. In this
+country, the last two are used principally for portières and couch
+coverings; but in the Orient they still serve, as they have from the
+remotest times, for floor coverings; and because of the custom of
+removing the shoes when entering a house, last for a great many years.
+
+Though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim
+weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern; and
+embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple
+design, or as is frequently the case in Shirvans, to make more prominent
+the separate horizontal compartments.
+
+When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs,
+and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture.
+There are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch, measured
+at the front or back; but in pieces of the finest workmanship, there may
+be as many as fifty, and in the crudest only eight or nine. At the sides
+of the kilim, the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at
+the sides of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are
+braided about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from
+which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.
+
+The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt is made to
+copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the rectilinear. If a
+straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal, or in the
+direction of the weft, it will often be several inches in length; but a
+straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length. This is
+because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to
+another or to the adjoining field, but are turned back at its defining
+edges, so that an opening is left, which would impair the strength of
+the fabric if it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary that the
+edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned to advantage, as
+this unevenness or fringing softens lines that otherwise would be
+harsh. Defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different
+colours, which either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when
+it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour with kilim
+weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at
+one end. Even when they completely surround the field, there is
+generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of
+side and end. Prayer arches are found in some of the kilims, but their
+outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs.
+
+The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished, are largely
+responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads of weft of every hue
+that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces; yet the
+colouring never appears the same, since there are lacking the lustre and
+deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile, in which appears an
+almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the
+light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the
+part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of pile,
+the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the
+irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the devices of
+latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an
+impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are large, the effect
+of the colour is always severe; but when the field is covered with
+innumerable small figures, it is greatly softened.
+
+As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect
+the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great age remain.
+The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained
+by Dr. M. A. Stein, the archæological explorer, from the ruins near
+Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an ancient settlement, which was buried
+by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth century _anno domini_. The
+weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims, and has about
+fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish yellow, and
+red, containing very small geometric designs. With this one exception,
+so peculiarly preserved, there are probably very few over a century old.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 62. SRINAGAR RUG]
+
+Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets
+are woven, very few classes are recognised. This is because it is
+difficult to distinguish between most of them, and such differences as
+exist are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.
+
+The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed a breadth
+of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are far superior to
+all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness of design, quality of
+material, and character of workmanship. Their patterns, including
+border, are identical with those of the piled rugs; and the colours, to
+which at a short distance the small figures of the Herati design give
+the effect of blending, are the same. As is not the case with other
+kilims, the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from
+fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an
+inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as
+they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which they are
+true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble tapestries and
+are unfit for hard usage.
+
+A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are Shirvans.
+Their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal
+compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower
+bands. Not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are
+hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures; and through the more
+narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another
+peculiarity, occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform
+colour fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a
+border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands; and
+the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp. The colours are always
+pronounced, because of lack of shading, and consist mostly of red, blue,
+and ivory. Yellow and green are also used. These kilims are much heavier
+than the Sehnas, and also larger, as the average size is about five by
+nine feet; and some are even seven by twelve feet.
+
+From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a large number
+of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that the general name of
+Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are still made there by many of
+the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman origin, who wander over the Taurus
+mountains, and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average
+size is about four and a half by eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts farther to
+the east.
+
+A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the Kurds, and
+dependent on the district in which they are made, is observable in their
+kilims, as those which come from the Persian border have carefully drawn
+designs, that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous
+watershed of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely
+woven, and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in
+more artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have large
+diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others have horizontal
+bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called
+Bagdad portières; in many are wide spaces without designs; but whatever
+the pattern, there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the
+web at the end.
+
+In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually classed as
+Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are used mostly for
+portières or curtains, are divided perpendicularly into equal halves,
+that at times are united by stitches. The tribes that make them also
+make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches
+suggesting the Ghiordes design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet
+the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as “Kis-kilims” or
+girl’s kilims. These are made with the utmost care, since they are
+intended as a bride’s gift to her husband; and a sentiment of romance,
+and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of
+her accomplishments, contribute to influence the weaver. Sometimes even
+a lock of hair is added as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.
+
+The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are, accordingly,
+not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently
+be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of the largest kilims. Most
+of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider.
+
+The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known as “Merv
+Kilims,” since they are woven by Turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert
+near the old capital of Merv. The brilliant colours found in the
+products of more Western tribes are entirely wanting, and in their place
+are the few subdued, rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman
+weavings. These pieces are stoutly woven, and since the pattern is
+represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs are
+largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines
+on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented
+with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A heavy embroidered selvage, from
+which hang loose threads of warp, often occurs at the ends. These kilims
+are noted for their durability, and are usually of large size.
+
+In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus river, are
+woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is not the case with
+almost all the rugs of India. They are made by the women in their own
+homes and display an individuality which also is rare in Indian textile
+fabrics. In a monograph on “Carpet Weaving in the Punjab,” Mr. C.
+Latimer says: “The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs between
+them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by
+local tradition originally copied from the robes of the Pharaohs of
+Egypt.”
+
+Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the
+delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs;
+though they never display high, artistic perception or poetic instinct,
+nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the
+workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of
+art, and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of
+dignity, possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS
+
+
+THE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from
+it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is
+particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm
+depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line
+and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves
+a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes,
+almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known
+types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to
+the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed
+descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long
+personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is
+impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it
+easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
+
+The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of
+these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known
+patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the
+rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may
+generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their
+floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United
+States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other
+four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+remembered:
+
+   (_a_) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns;
+   and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have
+   geometric.
+
+   (_b_) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs
+   of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs
+   of the Asia Minor group.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 63. XVIII CENTURY CHINESE RUG]
+
+   (_c_) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond
+   shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
+
+   (_d_) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton
+   warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and
+   almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen
+   warp.
+
+   (_e_) That about one third of the Persian group have one of
+   the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the
+   other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the
+   case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes
+   of other groups.
+
+   (_f_) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side
+   finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both
+   overcasting and selvage.
+
+   (_g_) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both
+   light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and
+   harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have
+   colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the
+   rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue,
+   and brown.
+
+   (_h_) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the
+   Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare
+   exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with
+   woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with
+   cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
+
+   (_i_) That the few classes of rugs which have very long
+   end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes
+   with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central
+   Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+   Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
+
+Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above
+statements that:
+
+
+  (1) A rug is from Persia or Central Asia,—
+        If it has a Sehna knot.
+
+  (2) A rug is probably Persian,—
+        If the patterns are distinctly floral;
+        If the warp is cotton;
+        If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+          under the other.
+
+  (3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor, Caucasia, or Central Asia,—
+        If the pattern is geometric;
+        If the sides are selvaged.
+
+  (4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or Caucasia,—
+        If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.
+
+  (5) A rug is probably from Caucasia,—
+        If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.
+
+  (6) A rug is probably from Central Asia,—
+        If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+          and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;
+        If it has long webs at the ends.
+
+
+Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some
+of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another.
+They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups,
+depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material
+of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug
+will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+consideration.
+
+                                                      { Kashan
+                                                      { Kermanshah
+                                                      { Khorassan
+                                  { Sehna Knot (A)    { Kirman
+         { One thread of          {                   { Meshed
+         { warp to each knot      {                   { Mir Sarabend
+         { doubled under and      {                   { Sarouk.
+         { hidden at back.        {
+         {                        {                   { Gorevan
+         {                        {                   { Herat
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (B) { Herez
+         {                                            { Serapi
+         {                                            { Tabriz
+         {
+         {                                            { Feraghan
+  Cotton { Each thread of         { Sehna Knot (C)    { Mahal
+   Warp  { warp equally prominent {                   { Muskabad
+         { at back or             {                   { Royal Sarabend
+         { one slightly depressed {
+         {                        {                   { Gulistan
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (D) { Iran
+         {                                            { Joshaghan
+         {                                            { Luristan
+         {                                            { Sultanabad
+         {
+         {                        { Sehna Knot (E)      Sehna
+         { Quincunx effect        {
+         { of weft at back.       { Ghiordes Knot (F) { Hamadan
+                                                      { Ispahan (modern)
+
+
+It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all
+classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the
+technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have
+woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp;
+some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes
+knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may
+have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+twice between two rows of knots.
+
+
+           { One thread of warp to each knot doubled    (G) { Bijar.
+           { under at back                                  { Niris[37]
+           {
+           {                                                { Karadagh.
+  Woolen   {                                                { Suj-Bulak
+  Warp,    { Each of the two threads of warp to a knot      { Kurdistan.
+  Ghiordes { equally prominent at back, or one slightly (H) { Afshar.
+  Knot.    { depressed                                      { Mosul.
+           {                                                { Shiraz.[38]
+           {
+           { Quincunx effect of weft at back            (I) { Karaje.[39]
+
+
+
+With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as
+follows:
+
+
+                                                   { Gorevan.
+                                                   { Mahal.
+  Rugs invariably of carpet size                   { Muskabad.
+                                                   { Serapi.
+                                                   { Sultanabad
+
+                                                   { Bijar.
+                                                   { Herat.
+                                                   { Kermanshah.
+  Rugs frequently, but not always, of carpet size  { Khorassan.
+                                                   { Meshed.
+                                                   { Sarabend.
+                                                   { Tabriz.
+
+                                                   { Hamadan.
+  Rugs frequently seen as runners                  { Karaje.
+                                                   { Kurdistan.
+                                                   { Mosul.
+
+
+Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, “A” includes those that have
+the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans,
+Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others;
+and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In
+sub-group “B” the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap.
+The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+are designs of archaically drawn leaves, and have generally the
+so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of
+the classes of sub-group “C,” the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven.
+The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much
+coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans
+are the best woven of sub-group “D.” At the back of Luristans each half
+knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few
+Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and
+Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups “E” and “F,” the
+weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in
+Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two
+classes. The Bijars of sub-group “G” are much stouter than the Niris and
+have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled
+under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer
+than those of Bijars. Sub-group “H” contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks
+and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations
+the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western
+Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic
+character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very
+stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the
+back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as
+the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment
+of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have
+Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the
+weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
+
+Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence
+for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are
+important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
+
+A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan,
+or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
+
+If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah,
+Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or
+Sultanabad.
+
+If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend,
+Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 64. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a
+Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
+
+If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the
+rug may be a Feraghan.
+
+If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a
+Persian Kurdistan.
+
+A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap
+is long.
+
+It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the
+ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design
+or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the
+Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends
+generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered
+with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts
+project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris
+if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
+
+It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the
+sides are finished with a selvage.
+
+Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished
+at once from all others. For instance:
+
+The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of
+moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders
+of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular
+vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one
+or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes
+are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and
+have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
+
+Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati
+or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The
+only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the
+Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
+
+Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of
+camel’s hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only
+once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the
+back.
+
+Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered
+with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a
+broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle
+pattern. They have usually the same colour tones, which once seen are
+not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older
+and of better colours.
+
+The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are
+softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have
+concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in
+other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that
+correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging
+that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing
+and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once
+distinguish these pieces from all others.
+
+Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven,
+and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
+
+The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be
+distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends.
+They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds,
+Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the
+touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
+
+Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious
+designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small
+tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the
+Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and
+a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
+
+The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their
+short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks
+and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm,
+texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook
+appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The
+Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
+
+Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their
+texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great
+irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two,
+the Mahals are the better grade.
+
+A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot
+doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
+
+Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few
+exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs. They can
+be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the
+back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
+
+The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of
+Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the
+Karadagh.
+
+The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull
+colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right
+half of some knots and the left half of others.
+
+
+The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot
+conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a
+coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at
+the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have
+woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a
+distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the
+Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one
+thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining
+classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore,
+Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more
+than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and
+Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always
+constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller
+designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of
+considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch
+of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to
+Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
+
+Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of
+exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of
+resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long
+webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft.
+The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and
+their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the
+rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other
+Oriental rug.
+
+Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field, are
+almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in
+the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the
+central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is
+the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs,
+consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed
+with latch-hooks.
+
+The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the
+numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the
+border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device
+represented in Plate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
+
+The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the
+main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all
+others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and
+Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
+
+A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three
+triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
+
+As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of
+grass-green colour than any other rug.
+
+The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another
+like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in
+distinguishing Melez rugs.
+
+On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and
+other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the
+Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor
+rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads
+of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half
+knot appears very distinct from the other.
+
+
+A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all
+have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides
+that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover,
+classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances,
+as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to
+long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar
+selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp
+to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh,
+Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the
+Lesghian from the northern part.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE O. No. 1, Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani
+design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c,
+d, e, f, Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of Asia
+Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11, Combs. No. 12,
+Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14, 15, conventionalised
+leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a, b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot
+of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives of Daghestans and Kabistans.]
+
+The Soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at
+the back is unlike all other rugs. At the sides is a carefully woven
+selvage, and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun
+threads. The rugs of Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who
+dwell nearer the mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue
+or bluish green, similar ends of a narrow web of “herring-bone” weave
+and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of rich blues,
+reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are almost identical
+with them, except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the
+back, whereas in the Shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed. When
+once these selvages, the narrow end-webs of “herring-bone” weave, and
+the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known Georgian
+stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is rarely found in any but these
+three classes.
+
+The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs,
+and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are dull.
+
+Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are almost
+invariably present, and large designs surrounded by numerous small
+nomadic figures are the general features of a Kazak. The Tcherkess has a
+striking resemblance to it, so that they are constantly mistaken for one
+another; but the Tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern
+usually consists of what is known as the “Sunburst” resting on a field
+of dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of three
+stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and the two
+guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.
+
+The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of small
+geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by
+diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate I, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).
+
+Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the
+Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.
+
+Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by
+the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many
+times, between every two rows of knots, which are not appressed, so that
+the weft, as it encircles the warp, appears at the back like a narrow
+beaded surface.
+
+Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different patterns that
+it is not always easy to distinguish the classes; but it will be some
+assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated
+leaf (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the
+Shirvans, and that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228)
+is peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 65. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike other groups, but may
+naturally be divided into three sub-groups, which are also distinct from
+one another and contain well-defined classes, viz.:
+
+   (_a_) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva,
+           Yomud, and Beshire.
+
+   (_b_) Samarkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand.
+
+   (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The Afghans are almost
+always of large size, and may be recognised at once by the broad web of
+the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in
+perpendicular rows. The Royal Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not
+so wide, the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally
+by diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes have
+the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes of this
+sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs have entirely
+replaced the octagons.
+
+The rugs of sub-group “b” almost always have cotton warp; whereas the
+rugs of sub-groups “a” and “c” invariably have woollen or goat’s hair
+warp.
+
+The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to Chinese
+rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably
+have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese usually have only one or
+two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show Chinese influence.
+
+The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours may be
+identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end.
+
+In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the pattern
+first of all attracts attention; and if it be one peculiar to a single
+class, it is an important guide. But in the great majority of cases,
+this will not be sufficient. It is, therefore, desirable to observe if
+the designs be floral or geometric, if the colours be subdued or
+obtrusive, if the knot be Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton or
+wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of
+the class. The pattern and these few technical details are the only
+characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different
+kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of them, such evidence is far
+from conclusive. The back should be even more carefully examined than
+the front; because here are shown those subtle, but nevertheless
+positive distinctions, relating to the manner of tying the knot and the
+treatment of warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then, if each
+thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the
+same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent; or if one
+to each knot be depressed below the other, or if it be doubled under the
+other so as to be concealed. It should also be noticed if the weft be
+coloured or uncoloured, of fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread
+of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between
+every two rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down
+upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width,
+if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp,
+and if it is loosely or closely spun. Only by consideration of all these
+different points, and sometimes even more, such as the nature of the
+colours, the character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is
+it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PURCHASING RUGS
+
+
+AS those who have expert knowledge of the value of Oriental rugs are
+exceedingly few, compared with those who admire and wish to own them,
+the object of this chapter is to make suggestions regarding a proper
+selection, when purchasing, and to point out some of the pitfalls that
+beset the inexperienced.
+
+In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities are to be
+considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.
+
+Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it was woven,
+or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule is greatly
+exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered. One is the
+condition resulting from wear; though at times this is misleading, since
+of two pieces, one may have been handled with almost religious
+solicitude and the other exposed to the elements and to hard usage.
+Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural wear is sometimes
+counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since, as has been shown in the
+case of antique carpets, the character of drawing changed with
+succeeding periods. Even when the patterns of old carpets are copied in
+modern pieces, a distinction is usually discernible to a careful
+observer. The colours, too, play an important part in determining age;
+for not only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of Persian; but
+the mellowing influences of time, acting through the agencies of
+exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be produced by any
+artificial process.
+
+Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic numbers
+woven above a word denoting “year.” If they are indistinct on account of
+the length of the nap, they may be more clearly read in reverse order at
+the back. In the following lines, each of them is represented below the
+one in our own notation, to which it corresponds.
+
+0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+[Illustration: Arabic numerical symbols]
+
+These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan year,
+which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the middle of
+July 622, or a little before the actual flight from Medina. It should
+also be remembered that the lunar and not the solar year is considered
+in Moslem chronology; which, according to our reckoning, gains about one
+year in every thirty-three and seven tenths years. To calculate, then,
+the year of our time corresponding with the year expressed in the rug,
+from the number should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths
+part of itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding year
+would be A. D. 1247 less 37 (or 1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates
+appear in old rugs, they are generally to be depended on, but in modern
+ones they are more likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater
+age.
+
+With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently be divided
+into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made over two
+centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago; and modern rugs
+made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or within the last fifty
+years.
+
+The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as it is
+impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques and palaces.
+Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those that are owned in
+Europe and America. They consist principally of the products of Persia,
+Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many belong to the museums and the
+remainder to sovereigns and wealthy collectors. Like rare porcelains and
+old paintings, their value increases with each passing year; and the
+prices received for them range according to the fancy and caprice of the
+purchaser. They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 66. KURDISH PRAYER KILIM]
+
+The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging to the
+previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently prized to be
+placed in art museums, some belong to collectors, large numbers
+embellish the halls and drawing rooms of people of refinement, and
+others are yearly brought from the Orient; but dealers and the public
+already realise that their numbers are limited. Even now they are
+searched for in the remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and
+in a few years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have
+been exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though some
+are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are treated with
+aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are exceptionally good
+and frequently contain rare tones characteristic of the first class.
+Moreover, large numbers contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in
+mysteries that increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the
+choicest stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are beginning to
+disappear from the market, the prices at which they may be purchased are
+moderate compared with the prices of more modern pieces.
+
+The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven within the
+last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the newest, have
+colours that compare favourably with those of older pieces; but a large
+number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some woven by nomads or dwellers
+in remote villages, without thought of sale, have designs and
+workmanship such as have characterised the fabrics of these people for
+past generations; but others, which are the products of the work-house
+system, though well woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous
+individuality. Age alone has little influence in determining the value
+of these modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things being
+equal, they cost less than the old and the antique rugs.
+
+The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless carpets
+that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of Caucasia and
+Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to be found it would be
+almost priceless. The antique carpets of Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz,
+and Tabriz, woven over three centuries ago, are more valuable than
+others of equally good workmanship, of which relatively large numbers
+remain. So, too, of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the
+venerable age of the real antiques, those which are now difficult to be
+obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than those
+which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as the Joshaghan,
+Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of age, are no longer
+woven. Modern products from the same districts may adopt the old names,
+but they are not the same. Accordingly, it will be only a short time
+when they too will disappear from the market. Good examples of such
+pieces should therefore receive more careful consideration on the part
+of purchasers and collectors, as their value is increasing with each
+passing year.
+
+Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of its age or
+the locality where it was made, and is due to its peculiar type. For
+instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver threads and the so-called
+Garden Carpets of Iran represent types rather than localities. Likewise
+the Hunting Carpets of Persia, the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and
+the Dragon Carpets of Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile
+craft of no well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of
+modern rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+on account of their age, but also because they represent these rare
+types.
+
+A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable rugs which
+centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and only those
+intended for palaces or temples have been preserved. It is but natural,
+then, that the antique carpets representing the highest art of their
+time should be not only rare but also beautiful. Yet even in them is
+often a distinction that affects their value. Fortunately, very many of
+the larger number of rugs of less age, but classed as old, likewise
+possess artistic beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+colouring.
+
+It will be noticed that almost without exception careful drawing
+accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly due to the facts
+that the more excellent the weave the easier it is to clearly define
+patterns; and that on shortness of nap, which as a rule is found in
+closely woven rugs, depends accuracy of delineation. The charm of rugs
+often depends, also, on the graceful flow of lines, the careful balance
+of different parts of patterns, and the proper co-ordination between
+border and field. Careful attention should accordingly be given to the
+drawing when selecting a rug.
+
+The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on the
+colouring, since, as has been elsewhere expressed, drawing, which is
+intellectual, finds its highest development in the Occident, and
+colouring, which is sensuous, finds its highest development in the
+Orient. It at once suggests sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique
+carpets that remain and in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all
+the colours employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony,
+and are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is most
+agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are produced in
+parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which, like discordant
+notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The most pleasing effect is
+when colours of border and field are complementary, yet so in harmony as
+to accentuate the qualities of each.
+
+There are also colours which, independent of their association, are in
+themselves good or bad. The best are found in the antique carpets woven
+when the art of the dyer was an honourable profession. The colours are
+also very good in still later pieces; but for a century now some of the
+finest have not been used, and even the secret of producing them has
+been lost. Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions,
+so that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but the
+most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial processes,
+often display harsh and garish colours. This distinction is in a measure
+due to the fact that old colours were largely produced by vegetable dyes
+and the modern are too often produced by aniline. Not infrequently both
+vegetable and aniline colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes
+the quantity of aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely
+objectionable; but as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is
+so tainted.
+
+One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing some of the
+natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it brittle, so that it is
+less able to stand wear. Another is that in time some of the dyes, which
+have been applied collectively to produce a single colour, will fade or
+even disappear, so that the final colour may be a most undesirable shade
+not in harmony with those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle
+and become harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application of
+weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if produced by
+aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if produced by vegetable
+dyes. Many native weavers can distinguish by placing the wool in their
+mouths, when they experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as
+vegetable or aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to
+assume that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the colour
+spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of the vegetable
+colours will fade; and when fresh they will run during the first washing
+in water, but afterwards they are little affected either by water or
+weak acids.
+
+Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were used, there is
+a marked distinction in the appearance of old and of recently woven
+rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure to sun and weather. The
+effect of time, imperceptible at first, is shown in rich tones of
+remarkable softness and beauty, that add greatly to the value of a rug.
+It accordingly happens that artificial processes are adopted to create
+as far as possible the same results without the lapse of time. Some of
+these are as novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of
+King-te Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+porcelains.[40] Henry Savage Landor says[41] that “to manufacture
+‘Antique Carpets’ is one of the most lucrative branches of modern
+Persian carpet making. The new carpets are spread in the bazar in the
+middle of the street, where it is most crowded, and trampled upon for
+days or weeks, according to the days required, foot passengers and their
+donkeys, mules and camels making a point of treading on them in order to
+‘add to age’ in the manufacturer’s goods. When sufficiently worn down
+the carpet is removed, brushed, and ordinarily sold for double or treble
+the actual price, owing to its antiquity.”
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE XI—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best workmanship of
+the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful drawing of leaf,
+fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty colouring of blue, yellow,
+brown, and apricot on a field of ivory that are so characteristic of
+this time. The usual balance of designs throughout the field is
+maintained with precision; but, as is not always the case, different
+motives occupy corresponding positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and
+fruit may be balanced with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The
+conventional drawing of the corners and the somewhat formal panel that
+surrounds the central medallion give to the pattern strength of
+character while they detract nothing from its beauty._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give softened
+effects to the colours are known as “washing.” Most of those in vogue in
+the Orient, such as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In
+this country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+business of firms, who guard the secret of their different methods. Some
+use ammonia, borax, and soap, which also do very little injury to the
+rug. Others use chloride of lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid,
+that remove some of the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair
+its qualities for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the
+extent that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed with
+an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the colours never have
+the same richness as those which have been softened by natural processes
+operating for a long period of years. To be sure, rugs that have been
+washed are often more attractive than they were in their raw colours;
+but the older, more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time
+are always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a large
+percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country, have been
+treated by some artificial process to soften their colours or give them
+the appearance of age. It is generally necessary, when selecting a large
+rug for a floor covering, to accept a washed piece; but when a smaller
+rug or a runner will meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose
+the older unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs
+but little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish between those
+that are artificially aged and those that are not. In the case of
+others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly with a wet rag; when, if
+acid or chloride of lime has been used, it can generally be detected by
+the odour.
+
+The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the fineness of
+the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools acquire a velvety
+appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and a lustre compared with
+which other rugs look harsh and coarse. For instance, the rugs of Shiraz
+and Meshed, the Beluchistans, and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre
+of their colours; but on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor
+and Caucasia have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India
+which are made of dead or “Chunam” wool, seem lifeless.
+
+When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully observe if
+the patterns are well drawn and their different parts show a proper
+balance. He should observe if the colour tones are harmonious with one
+another, if each colour in itself is good, and if they have been
+softened by natural processes acting for a long time. And he should
+notice if the wool is coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen
+and glint in the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up
+the artistic beauty of a rug.
+
+The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to museums and
+collectors receives small consideration, though even with them the more
+perfect their condition the more valuable they are. But in case of the
+great majority of rugs, which are intended for use as well as for
+ornament, their utility is an important consideration to the purchaser.
+Rugs that have warp and weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture,
+will wear better than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one
+thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of warp
+equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is also to be
+preferred to short, since it protects the foundations of the knots from
+wearing and becoming loose.
+
+Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor to see if
+it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be examined by
+daylight and not by electric light, which gives a false impression of
+colour and sheen. It should be held up with the back turned to the
+purchaser, and carefully examined for weak spots through which the light
+may pass; since, when so held, many pieces which seem in good condition
+when lying on the floor, resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should
+also be carefully inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with
+slight tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but for
+protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition. Sometimes
+the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that continual fraying of the
+nap is prevented with difficulty. Sometimes the selvage or overcasting
+of the sides is broken and some of the threads of warp are injured. Or
+the sides may be well protected by a stout overcasting; but on
+examination it will be seen that it is not the original finishing, and
+that some of the border has disappeared. Again, it may have been
+overcast too tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus
+expose the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of rents,
+that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have been removed,
+so that they are no longer of their original length; or parts of the
+border are gone, or even the whole of it has been replaced by the
+border of another rug; yet all so deftly done that the changes are
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to be
+discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable. Broken
+threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can be replaced
+with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be straightened by
+loosening here and stretching there; borders that curl can be flattened
+by removing the yarn and overcasting again more carefully. In fact, if
+the nap be not so worn that the foundation of warp and weft is exposed,
+it is far better to choose an old rug with some rents than a new one
+with garish aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low; since
+often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface of brighter
+colours standing out in relief, on account of the worn blackish nap that
+surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can be had by buying a rug which,
+because of some imperfection that is not serious, has been passed by;
+and now and then a piece reeking with dirt has proved, when properly
+cleansed, to be a gem.
+
+The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but little
+consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most important
+indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is one of the most
+necessary conditions for utility. The warp is best observed at the ends.
+In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in some of the Persian, it is of
+cotton; in others it is of wool or goat’s hair. In the Chinese rugs the
+diameter of the threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the
+threads of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily be
+observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it consists of fine
+spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of coarse wool or cotton. The
+number of knots to the square inch does not of itself demonstrate the
+quality of texture, since a rug may have only a few knots of coarse
+diameter and be firmly woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter
+and be loosely woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally
+more knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the yarn that
+forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves are drawn tight
+and well pressed down, and if the threads of weft are carefully
+inserted and have a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost
+invariably it will be found that if the back of a rug shows good
+material, and has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking
+weaving, the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+drawing.
+
+The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on their
+size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and character, is
+constantly increasing; for the reason that their number is limited and
+each year they are more highly appreciated. It is, therefore, impossible
+to affix even approximate prices; but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale
+in 1910, when some thirty pieces were sold at auction for an average of
+about $9,400, will serve as a guide. The following are some of the
+pieces sold and the prices realised:
+
+
+  Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4 inches, attributed
+    to Western Persia, at end of XVI Century, and purchased by
+    the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.                          $5,600
+
+  Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on page 86                 5,600
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        4,700
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        3,500
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 11 inches by 4 feet
+    10 inches                                                      12,300
+
+  Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet 2½ inches by 6 feet
+    5 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque        35,500
+
+  Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet 11 inches by 5 feet
+    10 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque and
+    purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.             15,200
+
+  Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34 feet 5 inches by 16 feet
+    8 inches, flat stitch                                           8,600
+
+  Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size 16 feet 4 inches
+    by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+    of Art, N. Y.                                                  19,600
+
+  Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of Ardebil, XVI Century,
+    size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5 inches                     27,000
+
+
+The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently old to
+belong to the antique class also depends as much on the technique of
+weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the size; yet even this must
+be taken into consideration. In proportion to their size the most
+expensive of these rugs are the Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia;
+the Ghiordes and Ladiks from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans
+from Caucasia; and the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia.
+Considering both utility and attractiveness the least expensive are
+probably the Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks
+from Asia Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans and
+Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is the case with antique carpets, the
+prices of all old rugs in good condition are steadily advancing.
+
+There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to increase
+with each year, since on account of the gradual opening of Oriental
+countries to the markets of the world, and the greater demand for rugs,
+the wages of weavers are increasing. Some of them, as the Tabriz,
+Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now
+made almost exclusively under the direction of the work-house system,
+and are sold at prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time
+the prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.
+
+When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are generally
+preferred on account of their soft colouring and refined patterns, that
+harmonise with the furnishings of most reception rooms. Less expensive
+and more showy are the Gorevans, which are suitable for halls or dining
+rooms. In the Afghans, which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined
+durability with a moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian
+rugs, as the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly good
+texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs required both for
+ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul, Bergamo, Tcherkess,
+Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.
+
+As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can be
+practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too much
+circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with intention, a dealer
+will declare that the wool of a rug which has been coloured with aniline
+dyes has been coloured with vegetable dyes only; that a rug washed with
+acid has matured naturally; that a new rug which has been artificially
+worn almost to the knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs
+to the class desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a
+Bijar for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a reputation
+which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is difficult to learn
+the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do well to make an effort to
+test its reliability by inquiring about the qualities of some class of
+rugs with which he is familiar before purchasing others; and if there
+appears to be any intention to deceive, he should at once look
+elsewhere. In any event, he should take a guarantee that the rug
+purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public, and
+will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake has been
+made.
+
+At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the fairest
+prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are being closed or
+where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur, when every opportunity is
+given the purchaser to thoroughly examine in advance pieces which are
+sold without reservation to the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare
+pieces are sometimes bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule,
+unless the purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully
+examined a coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a rug.
+The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too favourable
+impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of other real or
+fictitious purchasers and the words of the auctioneer too often lead
+beyond the dictates of good judgment. At such times one would do well to
+remember the old words _caveat emptor_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Yerkes sale.
+
+[2] Stewart Dix, in “Arts of Old Japan.”
+
+[3] The influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as
+expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt,
+and there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the native
+rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile and the boundless
+desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing
+country, and none of its ancient rugs remain, it will only be briefly
+referred to in this work, though symbolic designs which had their origin
+there during the Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign
+weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.
+
+[4] It is said that he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor
+and Constantinople.
+
+[5] This is a product of flowers of the genus _Delphinum_ that grows in
+the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from Afghanistan.
+
+[6] In a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.
+
+[7] Most Sehna knots are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a
+large proportion of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.
+
+[8] As far as the writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention
+to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For this
+reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would
+otherwise be necessary.
+
+[9] A few of the weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a
+double foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice
+between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is this method
+followed in other districts.
+
+[10] Sir George Birdwood has made the statement that “A deep and
+complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in India,
+pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the carpet itself
+prefigures space and eternity, and the general pattern or filling, as it
+is technically termed, the fleeting, finite universe of animated beauty.
+Every colour has its significance; and the design, whether mythological
+or natural, human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their symbolism,
+wherever they are introduced, generally following that of their colours.
+The very irregularities either in drawing or colouring, to be observed
+in almost every Oriental carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are
+seldom accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+evil eye and insure good luck.”
+
+[11] The equivalent of 106 feet square.
+
+[12] See his work, “The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil.”
+
+[13] Ismael reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.
+
+[14] 1586-1628.
+
+[15] These will be considered in a later chapter.
+
+[16] This group includes both antique and modern rugs.
+
+[17] Robert Kerr Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor
+of the audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in 1818,
+“was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those of that manufacture
+being the richest that can be made.”
+
+[18] By “Type Characteristics” is meant the characteristics of such
+types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are exceptions to
+these types.
+
+[19] As this is the case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this
+feature will be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.
+
+[20] Ibn Batutah.
+
+[21] Of modern Ispahans.
+
+[22] “Burlington Magazine,” December, 1909.
+
+[23] In “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[24] Sidney Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that “the dyes of
+Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in Persia.”
+
+[25] “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[26] Mrs. Elizabeth Bishop in “Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan.”
+
+[27] Encyclopedia Britannica.
+
+[28] It is also to be noted that within the last few years large numbers
+of pieces bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+Constantinople.
+
+[29] One of the most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a
+most beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might well
+have been taken for a weaver’s model. As in many prayer rugs, the
+engaged columns support a high arch over which a panel rests above a
+figured spandrel. The outlines of each of these parts suggest most
+forcibly the drawing of the prayer rug, and the resemblance is carried
+even further; for corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled
+masonry that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+of the entrance at each side of the arch.
+
+[30] One of these is represented in Dr. Bode’s “Knupfteppiche,” where it
+appears as a secondary stripe.
+
+[31] An intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.
+
+[32] A. Bogolubow, in his excellent work “Tapis de l’Asie Centrale,”
+divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two principal groups, the Salors
+and Yomuds, each of which includes sub-groups. These are again
+divisible into many tribes, almost all of whom weave. As their rugs,
+though resembling one another, show different characteristics, they
+might properly be separated into numerous classes; but since only a few
+of them are known in this country, they alone will be described.
+
+[33] “Desert of Red Sands.”
+
+[34] A tent in which an average of five people live.
+
+[35] In “Industrial Arts of India.”
+
+[36] Dr. Birdwood.
+
+[37] Sometimes Sehna knot.
+
+[38] Sometimes one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the
+other.
+
+[39] Rarely Iran, Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.
+
+[40] It is stated that in the short space of a few weeks he created
+valuable antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very greasy soup,
+where they were duly boiled for a month, and after that placing them in
+the “foulest drain of the neighbourhood,” where they remained until
+seasoned.
+
+[41] In “Across Coveted Lands, 1903.”
+
+[42] All references of an unimportant character are indicated by the
+page number only.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX[42]
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abbas, Shah, 88, 89, 169, 211;
+    pattern named after, 105;
+    sent artisans to India, 111;
+    rug industry declined after death of, 112.
+
+  Abraham, 23, 31.
+
+  Acacia used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Accadians, 23.
+
+  Adighies, 209.
+
+  Afghan rugs, 293, 304, 305;
+    geometric designs of, 62;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 56, 57, 235.
+    Rugs described, 243, 244, 245;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Afghan tribes, 90.
+
+  Afghanistan, 41, 103, 233, 243, 244;
+    camel’s wool of, 82.
+
+  Afshar rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, 113.
+
+  Agamemnon, 166.
+
+  Agra, 255, 257.
+
+  Agra rugs described, 257.
+
+  Akbar, Shah, 28;
+    received assistance from Shah Abbas, 29;
+    established rug weaving at Lahore, 94;
+    imported Persian weavers, 253;
+    carpet factory of, 256.
+
+  Ak-Hissar, 175.
+
+  Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+    Rugs described, 175, 176.
+
+  Ak-kal, oasis of, 238.
+
+  Albana, 204.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 169, 181, 246;
+    destroyed Shiraz, 115;
+    built walls at Derbend, 204.
+
+  Alhambra, 25.
+
+  Ali Riza, Imam, 110.
+
+  Allahabad, 258.
+
+  Allahabad rugs described, 258.
+
+  Altai Mts., 29;
+    original home of the Turks, 26.
+
+  Altman, Benjamin, 85.
+
+  Alum, used as a mordant, 40, 41.
+
+  Amritsar, 255, 258.
+
+  Amritsar rugs, 101, 257, 305.
+    Rugs described, 255.
+
+  Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.
+
+  Anatolia, 163, 182;
+    the “Land of the Rising Sun,” 187.
+
+  Anatolian rugs, 101, 176, 190, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63.
+    Rugs described, 187, 188, 189;
+    border stripes, 195.
+
+  Angora, 27, 185, 187;
+    goat’s wool, 32.
+
+  Anilines. _See_ Dyes.
+
+  Animal carpets, 86, 87.
+
+  Anjuman Industrial Art School, 259.
+
+  Anoschar, 76.
+
+  Anti-Taurus Mts., 140, 187, 190.
+
+  Arabia, 24, 29, 32.
+
+  Arabic features in rugs, 85;
+    notation, 296;
+    symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, 141.
+
+  Arabs, in Persia, 103;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Ararat, Mt., 103, 219.
+
+  Aras river, 151, 157, 224.
+
+  Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, 28;
+    mosque of, 82, 127.
+
+  Ardebil carpet, 15;
+    described, 83, 84.
+
+  Ardelan district, 100, 129, 133, 153.
+
+  Armenia, 209;
+    origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Armenian rugs, 91, 170, 209, 220;
+    designs derived from, 64, 65, 67, 209, 214, 215.
+    Rugs described, 91.
+
+  Armenians in Persia, 103;
+    in Mosul, 103.
+
+  Artaxerxes, 103.
+
+  Aryan races, in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 103;
+    in Caucasia, 197;
+    in Turkestan, 234;
+    floral ornamentation employed by, 62.
+
+  Asburg used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Astrabad, 241.
+
+  Astrakan, market for Bokharas, 235;
+    for caravans from Khiva, 240.
+
+  Auctions, 306.
+
+  Ayyampet, 259.
+
+  Azerbijan province, 26, 145, 147, 148, 149, 153.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Baber, Shah, 28.
+
+  Babylon, 23, 24, 74, 102, 103.
+
+  Bagdad, 81, 138, 152;
+    carpets covering the floors of, 25;
+    captured by Tartars, 27,
+    by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Karaman subject to, 188.
+
+  Bakshis rugs described, 148.
+
+  Baku, 210, 214.
+
+  Baku rugs, 101, 292;
+    pear design in, 70, 129, 153, 198, 202.
+    Rugs described, 210, 211, 212;
+    border stripes, 229.
+
+  Bangalore, 259, 261.
+
+  Bangalore rugs, 101, 259.
+    Rugs described, 261.
+
+  Barbarossa, Frederic, 181.
+
+  Bardini, Stefano, 85.
+
+  Bastard teak used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Bedouins, 103.
+
+  Belshazzar, 24.
+
+  Beluches, in Kirman, 113;
+    untamed tribes of, 248.
+
+  Beluchistan, 233.
+
+  Beluchistan rugs, 205, 234, 239, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 56, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    geometric designs in, 62;
+    S design in, 64;
+    zigzag line in, 66;
+    reciprocal trefoil in, 160, 230.
+    Rugs described, 248, 249;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Beni-Hassan, tombs of, 74.
+
+  Bergamo rugs, 101, 289, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prevailing colour tone of, 178.
+    Rugs described, 166, 167, 168;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Berlin gallery, 92.
+
+  Beshire rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    zigzag line in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 243;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Bibikabad, town of, 154.
+
+  Bibikabad rugs described, 155.
+
+  Bijar, 129, 136.
+
+  Bijar rugs, 100, 153, 256, 286, 288, 302, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, 143.
+    Rugs described, 136, 137;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Birbul’s blue used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Birdwood, Sir George, cited, 62, 70, 94, 122, 138;
+    quoted, 59, 241, 253, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Birjand, 108.
+
+  Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, 138.
+
+  Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, 79, 227, 228.
+
+  Bogolubow, A., cited, 233.
+
+  Böhler, J., cited, 79.
+
+  Bokhara, 100, 110, 245;
+    captured by Genghis Khan, 26;
+    the “Noble,” 236.
+
+  Bokhara rugs, 100, 243, 305;
+    goat’s hair in, 32;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53.
+
+  Bokhara, Princess, rugs, 101, 233, 235, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 237, 238;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Bokhara, Royal, rugs, 101, 103, 233, 241, 242, 243, 244, 293, 304;
+    compared with Princess, 237;
+    the arch compared with that of Tekkes, 239.
+    Rugs described, 235, 236;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Border stripes, defined, 59;
+    Persian, described, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160;
+    Asia Minor, described, 192, 193, 194, 195;
+    Caucasian, described, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231;
+    Central Asiatic, described, 250, 251;
+    Chinese, described, 273, 274, 275.
+
+  Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 94.
+
+  Brahoes, 248.
+
+  British Museum, 82.
+
+  Broussa, 181.
+    Rugs described, 181.
+
+  Buckthorns used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, 16;
+    on symbolism, 58;
+    the lotus an emblem of, 69.
+
+  Buddhist emblems, 271, 274.
+
+  Burujird, 131.
+
+  Burujird rugs described, 131.
+
+  Butea fondosa used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Butti lac used as a dye, 39.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cæsarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.
+
+  Caïcus valley, 166.
+
+  Cairo, Caliphs in, 25;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Caliphate, 20, 76.
+
+  Caliphs, 24, 25, 77, 90, 91, 115;
+    prayer rugs in time of, 85;
+    Ispahan under, 111;
+    Kirman rugs in palaces of, 113;
+    Tabriz rugs known in days of, 145.
+
+  Caliph Hisham, carpet of, 76.
+
+  Camel’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Carduchis, 140.
+
+  Caria. _See_ Melez.
+
+  Chaldees, 23;
+    symbolism derived from, 66.
+
+  Chardin cited, 113.
+
+  Charles Martel, 25.
+
+  Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, 112.
+
+  Che-Hwang-te, 26.
+
+  Chichi rugs, 100, 290, 292;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Kazaks contrasted with, 220.
+    Rugs described, 207, 208;
+    border stripes, 226, 231.
+
+  Chinese fret, 67, 165;
+    influence, 293;
+    medallions, 272, 273.
+
+  Chosroes I, “Spring of Chosroes” carpet made for, 76.
+
+  Chunam wool, 261, 301.
+
+  Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, 131.
+
+  Cinnabar used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.
+
+  Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, 112.
+
+  Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, 80.
+
+  Coccus cacti used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus ilicus used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus lacca used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochineal used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, 86.
+
+  Coconada, 259.
+
+  Colour, the artistic value of, 18;
+    the symbolism of, 59, 72.
+
+  Cone design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Constantinople, 27, 98, 99, 118, 181, 197, 209;
+    Persian weavers taken to, 28;
+    silk carpets sent to Sultan of, 87.
+
+  Conventions in art, 16.
+
+  Cordova, 25.
+
+  Cossacks, 218, 219.
+
+  Cotton, used in weaving 30;
+    mercerized, 30.
+
+  Cow’s hair used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Crocus used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Crœsus, 163.
+
+  Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Ctesiphon, 76, 102, 103.
+
+  Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, 85;
+    in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, 92, 166, 202, 229;
+    reputed inventor of, 183.
+
+  Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Curcuma used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cyrus, 24, 115, 181; Turkestan overrun by, 234.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Daghestan, 198, 206, 214.
+
+  Daghestan rugs, 205, 212, 213, 216, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    effulgent stars in, 91;
+    Cufic borders of, 92;
+    Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, 167;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    designs in, 211;
+    colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of, 214;
+    mosaic drawing of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 198, 199, 200;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230.
+
+  Daghestan, Royal, 216.
+
+  Damascus, 17;
+    antique carpets of, 95;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Dari, 211, 257.
+
+  Darius, 215.
+
+  Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, 259.
+
+  Delhi, 28, 110.
+
+  Demirdji, 164, 176.
+
+  Demirdji rugs described, 176.
+
+  Deodorus, 74.
+
+  Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, 281.
+
+  Derbend, 199, 204.
+
+  Derbend rugs described, 204, 205;
+    border stripes, 230.
+
+  Designs, geometric, 62, 64, 185;
+    floral, 62, 64, 68, 185;
+    almond, 70;
+    animal, 89, 83, 91, 112, 114, 126, 137, 165, 200, 211, 213, 225, 248;
+    antilope, 72;
+    arabesques, 71, 79, 81, 83, 94, 104, 156, 175;
+    barber-pole, 117, 118, 119, 153, 182, 200, 215, 229, 242, 246, 251;
+    bat, 71, 266;
+    birds, 71, 87, 91, 119, 114, 137, 165, 229, 246, 270, 292;
+    bird of paradise, 71;
+    butterfly, 71, 246, 266, 269, 270;
+    camel, 72;
+    chessboard, 271;
+    chrysanthemum, 271;
+    cloud-band, 67, 90, 106, 265, 274;
+    cocos, 114;
+    comb, 67, 208, 213, 221;
+    conch, 274;
+    cone, 70;
+    crab, 71;
+    cross, 67, 92, 236, 237;
+    crown jewel, 70, 112;
+    daisy, 64, 69;
+    diamond, 91, 141, 145, 177, 200, 203, 212, 223;
+    djinni, 72;
+    dog, 72, 213;
+    dragon, 71, 246, 266, 268, 273, 274;
+    dragon and phoenix, 92;
+    duck, 71, 81, 87;
+    eagle, 71;
+    Euphrates flower, 69, 189;
+    fish, 165, 246;
+    fung-kwang, 266;
+    fungus, 269;
+    gazelle, 95;
+    goat, 72;
+    Joo-e, 265, 274;
+    key-pattern, 27, 267, 274;
+    knot of destiny, 274;
+    ky-lin, 265;
+    lamp, 165, 170, 182;
+    latch-hook, 67, 74, 117, 145, 155, 167, 169, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186,
+      187, 189, 200, 202, 203, 212, 215, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228, 231,
+      242, 249, 250, 251, 278, 282, 288;
+    lily, 167, 170, 172, 184, 193, 230;
+    lion, 72, 95;
+    lion-dog, 266;
+    lotus, 64, 68, 69, 89, 199;
+    lozenge, 62, 91, 123, 141, 206, 220, 225, 249;
+    lyre, 271;
+    mango, 70;
+    medallion, 60, 86, 87, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 121, 123, 126, 134,
+      138, 139, 145, 149, 169, 183, 189, 200, 212, 214, 215, 220, 267,
+      269, 271, 272, 273;
+    moon, 65, 69;
+    octagonal disc, 66, 92, 180, 200, 206, 213, 220, 275; palm, 70;
+    palmette, 70, 71, 89, 90, 94, 106, 121, 177;
+    peacock, 71;
+    pear, 70, 106, 109, 110, 116, 129, 142, 145, 153, 165, 191, 200, 201,
+      207, 218, 219;
+    peony, 104, 270;
+    phœnix, 72;
+    pole-medallion, 117, 152, 179;
+    pomegranate, 69, 167;
+    reciprocal sawtooth, 78, 121, 130, 209, 221, 231;
+    reciprocal trefoil, 121, 130, 160, 165, 208, 215, 221, 249;
+    river loop, 70;
+    rose, 62, 69, 139, 193;
+    rosette, 70, 94, 104, 121, 188, 193, 201, 207, 208, 221, 226, 230,
+      290, 292;
+    running latch-hook, 67, 242;
+    sacred mountain, 265;
+    scorpion, 71;
+    S design, 64, 91, 92, 170, 195, 206, 208, 211, 213, 220;
+    serpent, 71;
+    serrated leaf and wine cup, 64;
+    shield of David, 66;
+    Shou, 266, 272;
+    star, 62, 65, 71, 93, 112, 183, 200, 203;
+    effulgent star, 201, 211;
+    eight-pointed star, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187, 193, 206, 207, 208, 210,
+      213, 220, 236, 244, 246, 250;
+    stork, 71, 266;
+    sun, 65, 66, 69;
+    sunburst, 209, 220, 292;
+    sunflower, 69, 271;
+    swastika, 64, 65, 194, 229, 246, 248, 271, 273;
+    tarantula, 71, 209, 220, 221;
+    tiger, 95;
+    tree, 137;
+    tree of life, 60, 68, 182, 186, 189, 219, 237;
+    tri-cleft leaf, 78, 91, 184, 199, 208, 211, 215, 226;
+    turtle, 71;
+    vandyke, 179, 183, 184, 187, 189, 290;
+    wheel of law, 266;
+    zigzag line, 66, 67.
+
+  Diaper pattern, 102, 263.
+
+  Diarbekr, 141.
+
+  Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird,76.
+
+  Distaff, 36.
+
+  Dix, Stewart, quoted, 16.
+
+  Djinni. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.
+
+  Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, 92.
+
+  Dragon and Phoenix carpet, 65, 231.
+
+  Dragon carpets, 91, 298.
+
+  Dravidians, 28.
+
+  Dyeing, 37; process of, 42, 43.
+
+  Dyes, 30;
+    of Sultanabad, 131;
+    of Oushak, 174;
+    of Amritsar rugs, 256;
+    Aniline dyes introduced into India, 254, into China, 265;
+    objection to, 299;
+    how to distinguish, 299, 300.
+
+
+  E
+
+  East India Company, 254.
+
+  Ecbatana, 103, 122.
+
+  Elburz Mts., 103.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, 25.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 29.
+
+  Elizabethpol, 224.
+
+  Ellore, 259, 260.
+
+  Ellore rugs described, 260.
+
+  El Mirz li alla, Caliph, 77.
+
+  Elwund Mt., 120, 122, 129.
+
+  Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, 140.
+
+  Ends, finish of, 57.
+
+  Esther, Queen, 122.
+
+  Evil eye, superstition of, 59, 168.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fairs, Oriental, 99.
+
+  Farsistan, wool of, 31;
+    antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, 115.
+
+  Fatimid Caliphs, 90.
+
+  Feraghan district, 125, 129, 131.
+
+  Feraghan rugs, 100, 132, 133, 142, 147, 153, 156, 285, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 55;
+    small designs in, 60;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    Guli Hinnai pattern of, 105;
+    pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, 106.
+    Rugs described, 120, 121, 122;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Filling, 52.
+
+  Firdousi, 110.
+
+  Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flame design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flax used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Floral design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Friedhofteppiche, 172.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gall nuts used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Ganges river, 17, 258.
+
+  Ganja. _See_ Gengha.
+
+  Gehrous district, 136.
+
+  Gengha, 224.
+
+  Gengha rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54.
+    Rugs described, 224, 225;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Genghis Khan, 26, 78, 198, 234.
+
+  Geok Teppe, 238.
+
+  Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Georgian pattern, 213, 215, 228, 230, 292.
+
+  Ghiordes, 164, 168, 175, 176, 206.
+
+  Ghiordes rugs, 65, 101, 183, 184, 191, 289, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    Karabaghs compared with, 225.
+    Rugs described, 168, 169, 170, 171;
+    border stripes, 192, 193, 194, 195.
+
+  Gibbon cited, 25.
+
+  Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, 67.
+
+  Girdler’s Company, India carpet presented to, 94, 256.
+
+  Goat’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Gobi desert, 21, 26, 29.
+
+  Goodyear, Prof., cited, 69.
+
+  Gorevan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 287, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, 131;
+    relation of Bakshis rugs to, 148;
+    relation of Herez rugs to, 149.
+    Rugs described, 146, 147, 148;
+    border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Gotcha lake, 224.
+
+  Gozene, 156.
+
+  Gozene rugs, 100, 154, 289;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54.
+    Rugs described, 54.
+
+  “Grain of rice” pattern in Chinese rugs, 271.
+
+  Granada, 25.
+
+  Guebres, in Kirman, 113;
+    temple at Baku of, 210.
+
+  Guli Hinnai pattern, 104, 120, 121;
+   illustrated, 291.
+
+  Gulistan rugs, 100, 154, 286.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Gulistan treaty, 203.
+
+  Gyze, Georg, 92.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hafiz, 115.
+
+  Hair, of cow, 30, 33; of horse, 33.
+
+  Hamadan, 122, 129, 136, 143, 155.
+
+  Hamadan rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54, 55;
+    similarity of some Irans to, 125;
+    similarity of Karajes to, 144;
+    similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 122, 123, 124;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Hang Chow, 266.
+
+  Harris, Henry T., quoted, 40, 260.
+
+  Havell, E. B., cited, 260.
+
+  Hegira, 296.
+
+  Hemp used in weaving, 30, 33, 261, 263.
+
+  Herat, 105, 110, 244, 285;
+    captured by Nadir Shah, 29;
+    so-called Ispahans probably made at, 89, 112.
+
+  Herat rugs, 69, 89, 100;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    cloud-band in antique rugs of, 67;
+    ground colour of, 95;
+    influence on Indian weaving of, 255.
+    Rugs described, 105, 106;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Herati pattern, 89, 94, 104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 120, 121, 129, 132,
+    134, 142, 152,153, 157, 165, 170, 201;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Hereke, 181.
+
+  Hereke rugs described, 181.
+
+  Herez, 149.
+
+  Herez rugs, 101, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+      Rugs described, 149, 150;
+    border stripes, 157.
+
+  Herodotus, 74.
+
+  Herring bone weave, described, 47;
+    in Shemakhas, 216, 217, 292.
+
+  Himalayas, 41.
+
+  Hindu Koosh Mts., 244.
+
+  Hoa, 183.
+
+  Holbein, Hans, 92, 93.
+
+  Holbein rugs, 298;
+    octagonal disc in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 92, 93.
+
+  Homer, 69, 74, 110, 163.
+
+  Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, 26;
+    Mongolian capital established in Persia by, 78.
+
+  Hunting carpets, 298;
+    symbolism in, 72.
+    Carpets described, 82.
+
+  Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, 257.
+
+  Hyderabad, 259, 262.
+
+  Hyderabad rugs described, 262.
+
+  Hyder Ali, 261.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, 110.
+
+  Iconium, 181.
+
+  Imari ware, 17.
+
+  Imeritia, 218.
+
+  India Museum, 122.
+
+  Indigo used as a dye, 38, 40.
+
+  Indigofera used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Indus river, 17, 24, 29.
+
+  Irak-Ajemi, 124, 127, 129.
+
+  Iran rugs, 100;
+      similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 124, 125;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Irtish river, 26.
+
+  Isbarta, 178.
+
+  Iskenderoon gulf, 163.
+
+  Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, 82;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, 84;
+    carpets made at Herat during reign of, 89;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, 127.
+
+  Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Shah Abbas transferred his court to, 29;
+    probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were made at, 89;
+    description of city, 111.
+
+  Ispahan blue, 42.
+
+
+
+  Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, 69;
+      made at Ispahan, 89;
+      sombre tones of, 90;
+      red fields of, 95;
+      blues and reds of the antique, 127;
+      palmettes of the antique, 145.
+    Modern rugs described, 111, 112, 113.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, 94;
+    Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, 253.
+
+  Jail system of India, 254.
+
+  Jaipur, 255, 259.
+
+  Jaipur rugs described, 259.
+
+  Japan, 17.
+
+  Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design, 70;
+    Srinagar on the, 255.
+
+  Joshaghan district, 132.
+
+  Joshaghan rugs, 100, 286, 298;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50.
+    Rugs described, 132, 133;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Jubbulpur, 255, 258.
+
+  Jubbulpur rugs described, 258, 259.
+
+  Jute, used in weaving, 30, 33;
+    in Kulahs, 174;
+    in Vellore rugs, 261;
+    in Bangalore rugs, 262.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kaaba, 117.
+
+  Kabistan, 199.
+
+  Kabistan rugs, 101, 204, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      effulgent stars of, 91;
+      Cufic borders of, 92;
+      patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 200, 201, 202;
+      border stripes, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Kain, 108.
+
+  Kaisariyeh, 190.
+
+  Kaisariyeh rugs described, 190, 191.
+
+  Kaiser Friedrich Museum, 79, 92.
+
+  Kang-hi rugs, 78, 101.
+    Rugs described, 268, 269;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Karabacek, Dr., quoted, 74.
+
+  Karabagh district, 222, 224.
+
+  Karabagh rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+      technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      Karadaghs compared with, 151;
+      Shushas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 222, 223.
+
+  Karadagh district, 151.
+
+  Karadagh rugs, 100, 286, 289.
+    Rugs described; border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Kara-Geuz district, 155.
+
+  Kara-Geuz rugs, 100, 154.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Karaje rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 143, 144.
+
+  Kara Kum desert, 241.
+
+  Karaman, 188.
+
+  Karaman rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 188.
+    Kilims, 278, 279.
+
+  Kashan, 115, 127, 155.
+
+  Kashan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 35, 51, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    pattern of Sarouks like that of, 134;
+    correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, 145.
+    Rugs described, 127, 128, 129;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Kashgar rugs, 101, 234, 282, 292.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248.
+
+  Kashmir, 70, 255;
+    goat’s wool of, 32, 114.
+
+  Katchli, derivation of, 237;
+    pattern used in Tekkes, 239, 293.
+
+  Kazak rugs, 101, 290, 292, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141;
+    Afshars compared with, 155;
+    Yuruks compared with, 191;
+    Tcherkess compared with, 209;
+    Kutais compared with, 222;
+    Genghas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 219, 220, 221, 222;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229.
+
+  Kazakje, 220.
+
+  Kea-king dynasty, 272.
+    Rugs described, 272.
+
+  Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, 270, 271, 272;
+    border stripes, 274, 275;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Kenares defined, 97.
+
+  Kerim, Khan, 115;
+    royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, 116.
+
+  Kermanshah, 83, 129, 138.
+
+  Kermanshah rugs, 134, 137, 147, 160, 285, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146;
+    Amritsars mistaken for, 256.
+    Rugs described, 138, 139, 140;
+    border stripes, 38.
+
+  Kermes used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Key pattern, 27.
+
+  Khali defined, 97.
+
+  Khibitkas, defined, 238;
+    rugs made for doors of, 239.
+
+  Khiva, 110, 240, 241, 244.
+
+  Khiva rugs, 100, 233, 235, 242, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 240, 241;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Khorassan, 107, 115, 127;
+    wool of, 31;
+    Herats made in, 106;
+    Kurdistans in, 141;
+    Yomuds in, 241.
+
+  Khorassan rugs, 60, 100, 117, 288;
+    left-hand knots in, 48;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    resemblance of Mesheds to, 110.
+    Rugs described, 107, 108, 109, 110;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Khotan, 278.
+
+  Kidderminster, 260.
+
+  Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, 75;
+    pattern in Shirvan, 227.
+    Kilims described, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281.
+
+  King-te Chin, 300.
+
+  Kirghiz, steppes, 235;
+    tribes, 240.
+
+  Kirman, 113, 115, 203, 206, 248;
+    wool of, 31;
+    carpets made during Caliphate at, 90;
+    early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, 181.
+
+  Kirman rugs, 100, 285, 297, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 51, 53;
+    resemblance of Kermanshahs to, 138;
+    flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, 145;
+    some old Bergamos as valuable as, 167.
+    Rugs described, 113, 114, 115;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Kirmans, Turkish, 174.
+
+  Kir-Shehr, 185.
+
+  Kir-Shehr rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of, 167;
+    prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of, 183;
+    often called Anatolian, 187;
+    prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of, 189;
+    prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of, 190.
+    Rugs described, 185, 186;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Kis-kilims, 280.
+
+  Kizil Arvat, 241.
+
+  Kizil Irmak river, 185, 189.
+
+  Kizil Kum, “desert of red sands,” 235.
+
+  Knights of St. John, 28, 179.
+
+  Knots, Ghiordes, 48;
+    Sehna, 48;
+    right-hand, 48;
+    left-hand, 48;
+    peculiarities of, 48;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Konieh, 188, 190.
+
+  Konieh rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of, 186;
+    prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of, 187.
+    Rugs described, 181, 182, 183;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Koran, 72.
+
+  Kuba, 199, 202.
+
+  Kuba rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+    Rugs described, 202, 203, 204;
+    border stripes, 228.
+
+  Kublai Khan, 266.
+
+  Kulah, 164, 171, 174.
+
+  Kulah rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 64;
+    lily pattern in, 167;
+    Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, 171;
+    geometric leaf of, 180;
+    prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, 186.
+    Rugs described, 171, 172, 173, 174;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Kur valley, 207, 214.
+
+  Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, 105;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141.
+    Rugs described, 142, 143;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Kurdistan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 57;
+    Karajes compared with, 143;
+    ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of, 154;
+    some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, 155.
+
+  Kurdistan, Western, rugs, 100, 286;
+      described, 140, 141, 142.
+    Kilims, 280.
+
+  Kurds, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 187, 191;
+    located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, 238.
+
+  Kutais, 218.
+
+  Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 218, 219;
+      border stripes, 227, 229.
+
+  Kutayah, 176.
+
+  Kutayah rugs described, 176.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lacquer, 17.
+
+  Ladik rugs, 101, 167, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    pomegranate design in, 70;
+    border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of, 177;
+    vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, 179;
+    nap of, 186;
+    Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, 187;
+    vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, 189.
+    Rugs described, 183, 184;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Lahore, 255, 256;
+    royal factory at, 94.
+
+  Lahore rugs, 101, 305.
+    Rugs described, 256, 257.
+
+  Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, 300.
+
+  Laristan border stripe, 157.
+
+  Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Latimer, C., quoted, 281.
+
+  Lattice-work pattern, 119, 121, 133, 134, 137, 204.
+
+  Lemons used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Lesghian rugs, 101, 199, 290.
+    Rugs described, 206, 207.
+
+  Lesghian tribes, 206, 207.
+
+  Limes used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Linen, in Sehnas, 135;
+    in Tabriz, 146;
+    in Ghiordes, 171;
+    in Sarouks, 127;
+    in Kashans, 128.
+
+  Loom, described, 44;
+    illustrated, 45.
+
+  Lotus. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Luristan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Madder used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Madras, 259.
+
+  Madras rugs described, 259, 260.
+
+  Mahal rugs, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    similar to Muskabads, 131, 132.
+
+  Maharajah, 259.
+
+  Makimonos, 180.
+
+  Makri rugs, 180.
+
+  Maksoud, 84, 127, 128.
+
+  Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, 26.
+
+  Malgaran, 246.
+
+  Manchoos, 268.
+
+  Mangishlar peninsula, 238.
+
+  Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, 91;
+    referred to Kirman weavings, 113;
+    visited Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Marsulipatam, 259, 260.
+
+  Marsulipatam rugs described, 260.
+
+  Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 89, 90, 116,
+    227.
+
+  Maya ruins, swastika on, 65.
+
+  Mecca, 77, 98;
+    pilgrimages to, 99;
+    bit of earth from, 221, 223.
+
+  Mecca rugs, 117, 118.
+
+  Medallions. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Medes, 23, 24, 66, 234.
+
+  Medina, 77, 296.
+
+  Melez rugs, 101, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    sometimes called Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 176, 177, 178;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Mersherski, 88.
+
+  Merv Kilims, 280, 281.
+
+  Meshed, pilgrimages to, 99, 108.
+
+  Meshed rugs, 100, 147, 217, 288, 301.
+    Rugs described, 110, 111;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in, 78, 79, 80,
+    82, 85, 86, 91, 93.
+
+  Michelangelo, 16.
+
+  Mina Khan, 105.
+
+  Mina Khani pattern, 105, 142, 152, 249;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Ming dynasty, 78, 81, 266, 268;
+    coat of arms of, 92.
+
+  Ming rugs, 101, 298.
+    Rugs described, 266.
+
+  Mirabad, 130.
+
+  Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, 267, 272, 273.
+
+  Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.
+
+  Mirzapur, 255, 258.
+
+  Mirzapur rugs described, 258.
+
+  Mohair, 174.
+
+  Mohammed, 24;
+    epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, 104.
+
+  Mohammedans, 98, 103, 113, 237, 257;
+    dominant in Southwestern Asia, 25;
+    invaded India, 28;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110;
+    prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite, 165;
+    Caucasia invaded by, 198;
+    influence on weaving by, 58, 270.
+
+  Mongols, captured Bagdad, 26;
+    gained foothold in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 62;
+    in Caucasia, 198;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Mordants, 40.
+
+  Mordecai, 122.
+
+  Moslems, 70;
+    preserved art treasures, 76;
+    green sacred to, 85.
+
+  Mosul district, 152.
+
+  Mosul rugs, 101, 286, 287, 302, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    Western Kurdistans confused with, 141;
+    Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with, 143;
+    resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of, 156.
+    Rugs described, 152, 153, 154;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Mt. Ararat, 103, 219.
+
+  Mt. Ida, 163.
+
+  Mt. Kazbek, 206.
+
+  Mt. Olympus, 181, 191.
+
+  Mudjar, 189.
+
+  Mudjar rugs, 101, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    frequently classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 189, 190;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Multan, 255.
+
+  Multan rugs described, 257.
+
+  Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, 67.
+
+  Musée des Arts Decoratifs, 79.
+
+  Muskabad district, 131.
+
+  Muskabad rugs, 100, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 131, 132;
+      border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, 29;
+    influence of, 103;
+    art decadence following capture of Herat by, 106;
+    destruction of Herat by, 110;
+    weavers removed to Northern Persia by, 113, 132;
+    Shemakha almost destroyed by, 214;
+    Shusha built by, 224;
+    overthrow of Mogul dominion by, 254.
+
+  Namads, 115, 122.
+
+  Namazlik, 98, 150.
+
+  Netsukés, 17.
+
+  Nigde, 190.
+
+  Nigde rugs, 101;
+   classed as Anatolians, 187.
+   Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Nijni Novgorod, 235.
+
+  Nimrod, 23.
+
+  Nineveh, 23, 102;
+    drawings on walls of, 74;
+    Mosul near ruins of, 152.
+
+  Niris lake, wool obtained near, 31.
+
+  Niris rugs, 100, 204, 286, 287, 304.
+    Rugs described, 119, 120.
+
+  Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets, 82.
+
+  Nomadic influence, 106;
+    characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, 58, 153.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oak gall, used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Odjalik, 97.
+
+  Omar Khayyam, 108, 110.
+
+  Onosma echioides used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Orenburg, 235, 240.
+
+  Oriental art, 16.
+
+  Ottoman Turks, 27, 28.
+
+  Oushak, city and district, 164, 176.
+
+  Oushak rugs, type of modern, 94;
+    evidences of Persian treatment in, 166.
+    Rugs described, 174, 175.
+
+  Outer edging in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Hamadans, 123;
+    in Sarouks, 126;
+    in Bijars, 137;
+    in Kermanshahs, 139;
+    in Mosuls, 153.
+
+  Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Oxus river (Amu Daria), 23, 24, 235, 238, 240, 243, 244.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Palais de Commerce at Lyons, 80.
+
+  Palm design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pamir plateau, sheep of, 31;
+    mountains of, 235.
+
+  Paropamisus Mts., 235.
+
+  Parsees, 103;
+    symbolism derived from fire worship of, 58, 71;
+    at Baku, 211.
+
+  Parthians, 24.
+
+  Patna rugs, 101.
+
+  Paul, St., 166, 181.
+
+  Pear design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pergamus, 166, 168.
+
+  Persepolis, 103.
+
+  Phasis river, 197.
+
+  Pile of rugs, 47.
+
+  Pliny, 74.
+
+  Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, 65;
+    Chinese cloud-bands in, 67;
+    lotus in, 69.
+    Carpets described, 88;
+    bright hues of, 90.
+
+  Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.
+
+  Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, 106, 138.
+
+  Prayer arches, 60, 62;
+    illustrated, 61, 63.
+
+  Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.
+
+  Priam, 166.
+
+  Prometheus, 197.
+
+  Punjab, 255, 256, 257.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Ratanjot used as a dye, 16.
+
+  Rembrandt, 16.
+
+  Rhodes, Isle of, 28, 178.
+
+  Rhodian rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 178, 179, 180;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Rion river, 218.
+
+  River loop. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Robinson, Vincent, cited, 80, 81, 86, 88, 254, 258, 259.
+
+  Rubens, 16.
+
+  Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Runners, 97.
+
+  Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saadi, 115.
+
+  Saddle-bags, 117, 135, 249.
+
+  Safavid dynasty, 29, 81, 83, 84, 85, 89, 103.
+
+  Saffron used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Salors, 233.
+
+  Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, 27;
+    the “Mirror of the World,” 245.
+
+  Samarkand rugs, 101, 233, 265, 282, 293;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50;
+      swastika in, 65.
+    Rugs described, 245, 246, 247;
+      border stripes, 251.
+
+  Samo-Kien, 246.
+
+  Sarabend rugs, 285, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    pear design of, 70, 116, 119, 144, 153;
+    turtle border in, 71;
+    pile of, 133.
+    Rugs described, 129, 130;
+    border stripes, 158, 160.
+    Mir-Sarabends, 130.
+    Royal Sarabends, 130.
+
+  Saracenic art, 21;
+    influence, 58, 80, 88, 166.
+
+  Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by, 94;
+    Persia under dominion of, 103;
+    Baku in possession of, 210.
+
+  Saraks, town of, 136, 238.
+
+  Sarawan district, 129, 131.
+
+  Sarouk, 125.
+
+  Sarouk rugs, 134, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    animal carpet with weave similar to that of, 86;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    patterns of Bijars compared with those of, 137.
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146.
+    Rugs described, 125, 126, 127;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Sassanides, Kingdom of, 24;
+    elaborate carpets made during rule of, 74;
+    capture of capital of, 75.
+
+  Savalans, 131.
+
+  Sedjadeh, 97.
+
+  Sehna, 48, 129, 133.
+
+  Sehna rugs, 100, 286, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    medallions of, 60;
+    turtle border in, 71.
+    Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from, 142.
+    Rugs described, 133, 134, 135;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Sehna kilims, 278.
+
+  Seljukian Turks, effect on art, 26;
+    powerful in Asia Minor, 27;
+    overthrow by Genghis Khan, 78;
+    invasion of Southern Persia by, 90;
+    monuments in Armenia of, 91;
+    dominion in Persia of, 103;
+    Konieh surrendered to, 181.
+
+  Selvage, weft selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    mixed selvage described, 56.
+
+  Serapi rugs, 285;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 148, 149;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Shah Abbas pattern, 198, 206.
+
+  Shemakha, city of, 214.
+
+  Shemakha rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+   Rugs described, 216, 217;
+      border-stripes, 228.
+
+  Shield of David. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Shiites, 58;
+    animal designs permitted by, 72;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110.
+
+  Shiraz, wool of, 31;
+    city of, 115.
+
+  Shiraz rugs, 100, 286, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    latch-hooks in, 67;
+    resemblance of Niris rugs to, 119;
+    pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, 201;
+    wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, 217.
+    Rugs described, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+    border stripes, 158;
+    saddle-bags, 117.
+
+  Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Shirvan rugs, 101, 290, 292, 293, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, 117;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    pattern of Chichis resembling that of, 207;
+    geometric design of Bakus seen in, 211;
+    some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, 225.
+    Rugs described, 212, 213, 214;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231.
+    Kilims, 278.
+
+  Shusha, 224.
+
+  Shusha rugs, 101, 290.
+    Rugs described, 224.
+
+  Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, 49.
+
+  Silk, used for weaving, 33;
+    indigenous to Asia, 33;
+    cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, 247;
+    used in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Yezd rugs, 115;
+    in Hamadans, 122;
+    in Kashans, 128;
+    in Sehnas, 134, 135;
+    in Ghiordes, 178;
+    in Hereke rugs, 181;
+    in Kaisariyeh rugs, 190;
+    in Royal Bokharas, 236.
+
+  Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, 87;
+    made at Kashan, 128.
+
+  Sindh, 255, 259.
+
+  Sindh rugs described, 259.
+
+  Sirab, village of, 148.
+
+  Sivas, Seljukian gate at, 170;
+    city of, 188.
+
+  Sivas rugs described, 188, 189.
+
+  Smyrna, 164, 175, 176;
+    Yuruks at, 191.
+
+  Smyrna rugs, 101;
+    Broussa rugs compared with those of, 181;
+    Indian rugs compared with those of, 254.
+    Rugs described, 176.
+
+  Solyman, King, the ring of, 66;
+    pomegranates cultivated in days of, 69;
+    his emblem of an eight-pointed star, 158.
+
+  Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, 28;
+    weavers taken to Asia Minor by, 94, 175.
+
+  Soumak rugs, 290, 292;
+    weave of, 47;
+    designs of cross in, 67;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91, 209;
+    Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, 203;
+    patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 214, 215, 216;
+    border stripes, 228, 230.
+
+  Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, 231.
+
+  South Kensington Museum, 15, 83, 259.
+
+  Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, 25.
+
+  Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.
+
+  Spindle, 34, 35.
+
+  Spinning, 34, 35.
+
+  Spring of Chosroes carpet described, 76.
+
+  Srinagar, 70, 255.
+
+  Srinagar rugs described, 255.
+
+  Stebbing, Edward, cited, 82;
+    quoted, 83, 84.
+
+  St. Sophia, 19, 28.
+
+  Star design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, 278.
+
+  Strabo, 74.
+
+  Stripes. _See_ Border.
+
+  Suj-Bulak, town of, 150.
+
+  Suj-Bulak rugs, 286.
+    Rugs described, 150, 151.
+
+  Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sultanabad, 129, 131, 132.
+
+  Sultanabad rugs, 286;
+      Indian rugs compared with those of, 254, 256.
+    Rugs described, 131.
+
+  Sumach used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Sumerians, 23.
+
+  Sung dynasty, 266.
+
+  Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, 58, 72, 91, 99, 165, 254.
+
+  Swastika. Illustrated, 291. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Symbols in colours and designs, 18, 19, 20, 58, 59, 72.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tabriz, 136, 145, 148, 151, 227;
+    captured by Solyman the Magnificent, 28, 94;
+    dyers from, 40;
+    an important art centre, 89;
+    a mart for rugs, 99;
+    Herat carpets in hall of governor at, 106.
+
+  Tabriz rugs, 286, 287, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 55;
+    Chinese cloud-band in, 67;
+    medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, 149.
+    Rugs described, 145, 146.
+
+  Taj Mahal, 94, 257.
+
+  Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, 83.
+
+  Tamara, Queen, 197, 198.
+
+  Tamarind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Tamasp, Shah, 28, 82, 169;
+    Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, 84;
+    silk rugs made during reign of, 87;
+    Herat an important art centre during time of, 89;
+    Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, 145.
+
+  Tamerlane, 172, 254;
+    Mongols united by, 27;
+    Ispahan sacked by, 111;
+    artists gathered at Samarkand by, 234;
+    Samarkand made capital by, 246;
+    Multan captured by, 257.
+
+  Tang dynasty, 266.
+
+  Tanjore district, 259.
+
+  Taoist symbols, 271.
+
+  Tao-Kwang, 272. Rugs described, 272.
+
+  “Tapis de l’Asie Centrale” quoted, 233.
+
+  Tartars, 26, 220;
+    Turkestan conquered by, 234.
+
+  Tartary, 31, 32.
+
+  Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.
+
+  Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, 290, 292, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91;
+    long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of, 141;
+    sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 208, 209, 210;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tcherkess tribes, 209.
+
+  Teheran, 138;
+    caravans to Meshed from, 110.
+
+  Teheran rugs described, 154, 155.
+
+  Tekke, derivation of name, 238.
+
+  Tekke rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of, 235;
+    similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, 242;
+    designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of, 244.
+    Rugs described, 238, 239, 240;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Terek valley, 207, 208.
+
+  Terminalia citrina used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, 26;
+    mart for rugs, 99;
+    caravans from Tabriz to, 145;
+    capital of Georgia, 217.
+
+  Tiflis rugs, 298;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53;
+    resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of, 219.
+    Rugs described, 217, 218;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tiger skin pattern, 267.
+
+  Timurids, invasion of, 103, 136;
+    designs due to, 80, 166.
+
+  Titian, 16.
+
+  Toledo, 17.
+
+  Toon, 108.
+
+  Trebizond, 145, 163.
+
+  Turanian races, geometric designs among, 62.
+
+  Turkish Kilims, 280.
+
+  Turmeric used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Turtle border, 121, 132, 157;
+    probable origin of, 71, 79.
+
+  Tuz Gul, lake, 187, 190.
+
+  Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Type characteristics, not invariable, v;
+    term defined, 107.
+
+
+  U
+
+  Urumiah lake, 150, 155, 224.
+
+  Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, 31.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valonia used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Value of antique carpets, 15, 16, 304.
+
+  Vambery, Prof., cited, 241.
+
+  Van lake, 141, 152, 224.
+
+  Vandykes. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Vellore, 259, 261.
+
+  Vellore rugs described, 261.
+
+  Victoria and Albert Museum, 93.
+
+  Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, 80, 259.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Warangal, 259, 262.
+
+  Warangal rugs described, 262.
+
+  Warp, arrangement on loom, 46;
+    characteristics of, 51, 52;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Washing, materials for weaving, 33, 34, 36;
+    artificial, 300, 301.
+
+  Weaving described, 46, 47;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  “Wedding of the Foundling,” 92.
+
+  Weft, arrangement of, 47;
+    technical characteristics of, 52, 53, 54, 55.
+
+  Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, 181.
+
+  Williams, C. F., 78, 79, 93.
+
+  Whistler cited, 17.
+
+  Wise men of the East, 127.
+
+  Wool, of the camel, 30, 32, 124, 153, 249;
+    of the goat, 30, 31, 142, 241, 245, 249;
+    of sheep, 30, 31;
+    of the yak, 30, 33;
+    spinning, 33;
+    washing, 33, 36.
+
+
+  X
+
+  Xenophon, 99, 140, 181.
+
+  Xerxes, 115.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yak’s hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Yaprak, 175.
+
+  Yarkand, 247.
+
+  Yarkand rugs, 234, 265, 282, 293.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Yarn, 35.
+
+  Yerkes sale, 15, 82, 86, 304, 306.
+
+  Yezd, 110, 115, 222.
+
+  Yezd rugs described, 115.
+
+  Yomud rugs, 205, 233, 235, 293, 304;
+    colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, 243.
+    Rugs described, 241, 242;
+    border stripes, 250, 251;
+    saddle-bags, 242.
+
+  Yomud tribes, 235;
+    robbed of their land by Tekkes, 231, 241.
+
+  Yuan dynasty, 266.
+
+  Yung-ching, 269.
+
+  Yung-ching rugs described, 269, 270;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Yuruk rugs, 289, 290, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 191, 192;
+    border stripes, 194.
+
+  Yuruk tribes, 155, 163, 191, 220.
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zabalpur rugs, 101.
+
+  Zagros Mts., 21, 103, 140.
+
+  Zarafshan river, 245.
+
+  Zoroaster, 18, 58, 210.
+
+  Zoroastrians, 69.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Oriental Rugs
+       Antique and Modern
+
+Author: Walter A. Hawley
+
+Release Date: May 20, 2012 [EBook #39740]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ORIENTAL RUGS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE I_
+
+_Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal
+Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages
+83 and 84._]
+
+SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL, Size: 34 ft. 6 in.
+by 17 ft. 6 in.
+
+
+  TRANSLATION OF INSCRIPTION.
+
+  I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold,
+  My head has no protection other than this porchway;
+  The work of the Slave of this Holy Place.
+
+                                           Maksoud of Kashan.
+                                                   946 A. H. = 1540 A. D.
+
+FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., 34 WIGMORE
+STREET, LONDON, W.,
+
+And Sold by them in 1892 to THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH
+KENSINGTON, LONDON.
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+  BY
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY
+
+  _WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR
+  EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+  AND FOUR MAPS_
+
+  NEW YORK
+  DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
+  1927
+
+
+COPYRIGHT, 1913 BY JOHN LANE COMPANY
+
+Printed in U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+SINCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr. John
+Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics
+has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering
+this monograph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not
+only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student.
+
+In the chapter entitled "Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Century" is a
+brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art;
+and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the
+masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The
+chapters on "How to Distinguish Rugs" and on "Purchasing Rugs" should
+prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and
+the chapter on "Weaving" contains many details which have not previously
+received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.
+
+The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the
+Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not
+only a general statement of their most striking features, but also a
+technical analysis that is termed "Type Characteristics." It should be
+understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but
+are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to
+acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to
+every owner of a rug as a means for its identification.
+
+It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the
+author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion
+has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting
+discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known authorities, who are
+quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions
+and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George
+Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson,
+of New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz;
+and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges
+the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and
+James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable
+collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of
+Decorative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the
+carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes
+particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and
+firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations: Miss
+Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan
+Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of
+Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C.
+Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C.
+F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca
+Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B.
+Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones &
+Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of
+New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of
+London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now
+owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South
+Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy
+Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.
+
+
+  WALTER A. HAWLEY.
+
+  NEW YORK, June, 1913.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                                   PAGE
+
+     I INTRODUCTION                                           15
+
+    II PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF RUG-PRODUCING
+         LANDS                                                20
+
+   III MATERIALS                                              30
+
+    IV DYEING                                                 37
+
+     V WEAVING                                                44
+
+    VI DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS                                    58
+
+   VII RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY              74
+
+  VIII CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS                          97
+
+    IX PERSIAN RUGS                                          102
+
+     X ASIA MINOR RUGS                                       163
+
+    XI CAUCASIAN RUGS                                        197
+
+   XII CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS                                  233
+
+  XIII INDIAN RUGS                                           253
+
+   XIV CHINESE RUGS                                          263
+
+    XV KILIMS                                                276
+
+   XVI HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS                               282
+
+  XVII PURCHASING RUGS                                       295
+
+
+  INDEX                                                      309
+
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  COLOURED PLATES
+
+  PLATE
+
+     I The Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil    _Frontispiece_
+          OPPOSITE PAGE
+
+    II Oushak Carpet                                          40
+
+   III Mosul Rug                                              66
+
+    IV Bergamo Rug                                           102
+
+     V Ghiordes Prayer Rug                                   130
+
+    VI Royal Persian Garden Carpet    _Between pages 160 and 161_
+
+   VII Ladik Prayer Rug                                      190
+
+  VIII Soumak Rug                                            210
+
+    IX Samarkand Rug                                         240
+
+     X Kang-hi Rug                                           270
+
+    XI Keen-lung Rug                                         300
+
+
+  HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate  1 Khorassan Rug                                      22
+
+    "    2 Meshed Rug                                         26
+
+    "    3 Kirman Rug                                         30
+
+    "    4 Shiraz Rug                                         34
+
+    "    5 Niris Rug                                          36
+
+    "    6 Feraghan Rug                                       42
+
+    "    7 Feraghan Rug                                       46
+
+    "    8 Hamadan Rug                                        52
+
+    "    9 Sarouk Rug                                         56
+
+    "   10 Sarabend Rug                                       58
+
+    "   11 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    64
+
+    "   12 Carpet from Northwestern Persia                    68
+
+    "   13 Compartment Carpet                                 70
+
+    "   14 Persian Animal Carpet                              72
+
+    "   15 Persian Animal Carpet                              76
+
+    "   16 Persian Animal Carpet                              78
+
+    "   17 So-called Polish or Polonaise Carpet               80
+
+    "   18 So-called Ispahan                                  84
+
+    "   19 Armenian Carpet                                    86
+
+    "   20 Asia Minor Dragon and Phoenix Carpet               88
+
+    "   21 Portrait of Georg Gyze by Hans Holbein             92
+
+    "   22 Oushak Carpet                                      94
+
+    "   23 Sehna Rug                                          98
+
+        Map of Persia                                        104
+
+    "   24 Bijar Rug                                         106
+
+    "   25 Kermanshah Rug                                    110
+
+    "   26 Kurdistan Rug with Mina Khani Pattern             114
+
+    "   27 Gorevan Rug                                       118
+
+    "   28 Bergamo Prayer Rug                                122
+
+    "   29 Ghiordes Prayer Rug                               126
+
+    "   30 Ghiordes Rug                                      132
+
+    "   31 Kulah Prayer Rug                                  136
+
+    "   32 Melez Prayer Rug                                  140
+
+    "   33 Melez Rug                                         144
+
+    "   34 Rhodian Rug                                       148
+
+    "   35 Konieh Prayer Rug                                 152
+
+    "   36 Kir-Shehr Prayer Rug                              154
+
+    "    E Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs            156
+
+    "    F Secondary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs          158
+
+           Map of Asia Minor                                 164
+
+    "   37 Anatolian Prayer Rug                              166
+
+    "   38 Mudjar Prayer Rug                                 168
+
+    "   39 Daghestan Prayer Rug                              172
+
+    "   40 Kabistan Rug                                      176
+
+    "   41 Kuba Rug                                          180
+
+    "   42 Chichi Rug                                        184
+
+    "   43 Tcherkess Rug                                     188
+
+    "    G Primary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs         192
+
+    "    H Secondary Border-Stripes of Asia Minor Rugs       194
+
+           Map of Caucasia                                   198
+
+    "   44 Baku Rug                                          200
+
+    "   45 Shirvan Rug                                       202
+
+    "   46 Soumak Rug                                        204
+
+    "   47 Kazak Prayer Rug                                  208
+
+    "   48 Kazak Rug                                         212
+
+    "   49 Karabagh Prayer Rug                               214
+
+    "   50 Gengha Prayer Rug                                 218
+
+    "   51 Royal Bokhara Rug                                 222
+
+    "   52 Princess Bokhara Rug                              224
+
+    "    I Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          226
+
+    "    J Primary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs          228
+
+    "    K Secondary Border-Stripes of Caucasian Rugs        230
+
+           Map of Turkestan                                  234
+
+    "   53 Turkoman Rug with Katchli Pattern                 236
+
+    "   54 Turkoman Rug with Pindé Pattern                   238
+
+    "   55 Turkoman Rug of the Salor Tribes                  244
+
+    "   56 Yomud Rug                                         248
+
+    "    L Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of Central
+             Asiatic Rugs                                    250
+
+    "   57 Beshire Prayer Rug                                254
+
+    "   58 Beshire Rug                                       258
+
+    "   59 Afghan Rug                                        260
+
+    "   60 Beluchistan Prayer Rug                            264
+
+    "   61 Turkoman Saddle-bags                              268
+
+    "    M Medallions in Chinese Rugs                        272
+
+    "    N Primary and Secondary Border-Stripes of
+             Chinese Rugs.                                   274
+
+    "   62 Srinagar Rug                                      278
+
+    "   63 XVIII Century Chinese Rug                         282
+
+    "   64 Keen-lung Rug                                     286
+
+    "   65 Keen-lung Rug                                     292
+
+    "   66 Kurdish Prayer Kilim                              296
+
+
+  BLACK AND WHITE ENGRAVINGS
+
+  Plate A An Upright Loom                                     45
+
+    "   B Technicalities of Weaving                           49
+
+    "   C Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Centra
+            Asiatic Rugs                                      61
+
+    "   D Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs                    63
+
+    "   O General Designs                                    291
+
+
+  CHARTS
+
+  Periods when Antique Carpets were made                      96
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                161
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Persian Rugs                162
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Asia Minor Rugs             196
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Caucasian Rugs              232
+
+  Technicalities in the weave of Central Asiatic Rugs        252
+
+
+
+
+  ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+  ANTIQUE AND MODERN
+
+
+
+
+ORIENTAL RUGS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+IT is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of
+a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic
+accomplishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic
+expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been
+sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to
+increase with each succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the
+Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and
+exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was
+purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of
+thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the
+price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty
+dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,[1] a
+woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide
+was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and
+ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two
+inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of
+$35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square
+foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid
+for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are
+not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable
+to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare
+that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot
+is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one
+thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk
+rugs.
+
+If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value
+of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs
+that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square
+foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in
+those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in
+their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these
+masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and
+artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes
+it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a
+brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and
+arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of
+form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his
+palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously
+changing hue those of the woven masterpieces.
+
+Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art
+critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the
+people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension
+of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art
+is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The
+Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings
+and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest
+expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in
+his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a
+marked difference in treatment. The Occidental demands that in art
+"everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious
+realism before he can grasp its meaning"[2] and fails to recognise the
+more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on
+the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his
+subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest
+appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times
+have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which
+prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal
+spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character,
+and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim
+of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this
+difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in
+taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them
+not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour
+and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental.
+
+By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing
+to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea
+captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large
+quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with
+crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the
+Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art
+and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the
+change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally
+as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in
+which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought,
+formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of
+semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are
+often the products of great genius and that they express thought and
+feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the
+appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this
+growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old
+worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where
+dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many
+who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at
+any price.
+
+The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we
+realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value
+the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the
+highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any
+other castings in the world, and for its netsukés, which are the
+smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of
+Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its
+artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a
+country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of
+silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that
+was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his
+legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that
+China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will
+never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges
+stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane,
+before which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St.
+Peter's, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the
+majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which
+some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we
+realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of
+Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become
+the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics,
+in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged
+from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art.
+
+However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is principally
+in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration. The
+colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow
+and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture
+acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like
+the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn
+day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy,
+pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with
+its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other.
+Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It
+is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest
+artistic value lies.
+
+That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not
+exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen perception of
+music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another. Even to
+those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of
+appreciation. "The fact is," said John Ruskin, "we none of us enough
+appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour." But as the ear can
+be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated
+to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate the beauties of
+Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest
+extent.
+
+And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us.
+They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people
+who made them. Some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers, others
+reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in
+the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism
+with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to
+commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued; and though
+the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the
+study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of
+the weavers.
+
+Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the
+highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the
+Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in
+the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the
+assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the
+appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting
+people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of
+Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land
+of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in
+tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old,
+there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will
+revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty
+and creative power of the past.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS
+
+
+THE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic
+impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This
+influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been
+subjected, but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences
+of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones
+displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or
+symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution,
+partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative
+and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover,
+the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate
+and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accordingly,
+the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood
+by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where
+they are woven.[3]
+
+The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are
+China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and
+Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a
+geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is
+also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast
+plateau stretches eastward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude
+towards the east.
+
+Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand
+feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the
+northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand
+feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it
+increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet
+in the lofty table-lands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as
+it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of
+this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian
+seas, to form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation
+of about seven thousand feet.
+
+The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches
+of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no
+drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is
+bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that
+lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the
+deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so
+that there are but few important river courses.
+
+The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and
+consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow
+perennial streams. From time immemorial these streams have been used for
+irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by
+abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built
+the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples
+that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learning to quicken the
+intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds
+delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy,
+religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the
+most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the
+loom were of the finest quality.
+
+Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts
+consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are
+naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used
+only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads
+drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no
+drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it
+empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes
+impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is
+scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any
+animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain
+falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the
+higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh
+pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the
+rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at
+the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle
+for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.
+
+The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the
+strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have
+affected the temperament and character of the people. The boundless
+stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the
+delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable,
+thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent;
+the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These
+qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which
+lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large
+proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and
+fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same
+as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces,
+woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend less
+harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they
+frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the
+modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings
+of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than
+the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes.
+
+Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as
+well as political struggles at home, have had an important influence on
+all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the
+histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made
+for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different
+racial influences which have affected their artistic development.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1. KHORASSAN RUG]
+
+In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in
+the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the
+north of them lived another people known as the Accadians. These races
+built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the
+cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony with one another, and
+continued to prosper until about 3000 B.C., when the Semitic race of the
+Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees,
+however, allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands,
+adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 B.C. built the city
+of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by
+the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by
+developing its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and
+powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they
+became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and
+knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.
+
+About the year 2000 B.C. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham,
+migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and
+founded Nineveh. A century later the land occupied by colonists who
+settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and
+in power until, in 1300 B.C., it gained its first victory over Babylon;
+and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional
+reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria,
+and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great
+conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of
+Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in
+supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the
+land now known as Persia.
+
+When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by
+Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was
+similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an
+exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in
+Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran.
+One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the
+Medes; the other, which settled in the southern part, was known as the
+Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the
+course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the
+first to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the
+viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 B.C. and
+destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and
+under Nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred
+square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These
+walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon became
+famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.
+
+While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus,
+leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and
+conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of
+Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 B.C., by
+diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his
+banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of
+all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike
+Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331
+B.C., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the
+Persian Empire melted away.
+
+Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took
+definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes
+and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few
+remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days,
+that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of
+which there is any knowledge.
+
+During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia,
+and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom
+petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their
+mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 A. D.
+an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the
+Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 A. D.) and his
+grandson Chosroes II (590-628 A. D.) ruled over the country from the Oxus
+on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the
+east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury,
+the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when
+it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter.
+
+In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and
+myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost
+unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to
+the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic,
+militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as
+the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly
+overran Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward
+into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all
+resistance. From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens,
+they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it
+after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs
+became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there intermarried with
+the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African
+descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711
+they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following
+year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern
+Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of
+Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive
+battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and
+Christian Europe was saved.
+
+These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and
+religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time
+when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence
+and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and
+Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy
+tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred
+canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with
+its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace,
+where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour,
+possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states
+that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung
+thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of
+silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two
+thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs
+surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately,
+but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains
+as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely
+to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful
+Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England
+from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover,
+in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during
+the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art.
+
+For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohammedans was
+dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The
+great wall of China, which was built over two hundred years before
+Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions
+of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more
+fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes
+was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish
+and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many
+centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and
+to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward
+and westward. About the year 1000 A. D. one of these branches known as
+the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah,
+in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its
+power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the
+capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race
+should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on
+Persian textile art.
+
+Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that
+part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of
+pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few
+followers, and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes.
+He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to
+obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in
+1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis
+Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great
+central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then
+enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western
+Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but
+learning that some of the Sultan's garrison were concealed he ordered
+the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days'
+siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased
+his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages
+of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the
+Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan,
+grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the
+province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2. MESHED RUG]
+
+With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in
+Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the
+settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the
+early part of the XI Century, it was inappreciable as compared with
+that of Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over
+Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Cæsars,
+and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty
+days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly
+treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for
+a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people
+prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled workmen
+were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the
+Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many
+Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive
+advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not
+surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been
+recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern
+part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the "key pattern," as
+well as other less familiar designs of distinctly Mongolian origin,
+appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of
+this period.
+
+Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of
+the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only
+Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet,
+rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia,
+was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to
+overrun Asia and divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.
+
+Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were
+again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the
+walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of
+Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all
+opposition. Never was conqueror more rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At
+Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste
+and the people were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when
+taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a
+monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies
+of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were
+defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion
+receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned to his capital at
+Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by
+surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and
+temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious
+barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian
+predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from
+Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century
+European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of
+wonderful workmanship and beauty.
+
+The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This
+country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race,
+which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the
+VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans invaded it, and were still
+in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi.
+After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber,
+Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts
+and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art;
+and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to
+settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in
+weaving.
+
+With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and
+Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick
+succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St.
+Sophia became a mosque.
+
+After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the
+Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in
+Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its
+history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the
+Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf.
+This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil
+he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp,
+which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the
+Turkish ruler, Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from
+the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured
+Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.[4] But the
+lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was
+established at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of
+the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these
+monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten
+years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia,
+restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his
+country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such
+as it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to Ispahan,
+where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art
+even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most
+skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an
+influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a
+subsequent period. It is also probable that he rendered valuable
+assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country.
+He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a
+wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with
+the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian
+art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence
+began.
+
+In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it
+with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who
+captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and
+recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the
+West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in
+time it was confined to its present limits.
+
+It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the
+southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant
+struggles between the different races of the East for supremacy. Even
+from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the
+deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One
+victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of
+the Indus to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the
+present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be
+understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial
+influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and
+subtle charms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE MATERIALS
+
+
+AS was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living
+in unfrequented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks,
+then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have
+personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known
+patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the
+manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the
+shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after
+colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their
+patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the
+industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of
+dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of
+any Oriental woven fabric.
+
+The materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of
+animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more
+limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occasionally hair of
+the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a
+western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to
+produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger
+quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these
+materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are
+affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire
+qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3. KIRMAN RUG]
+
+The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the
+Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan
+the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia
+Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in districts where
+the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often
+substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving
+countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is
+preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not
+alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and
+twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times
+the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been
+shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of
+Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia,
+Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better
+suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep
+with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the
+natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty
+mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and
+Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the "Roof
+of the World," still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with
+enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang
+the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of
+Western Asia.
+
+Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native
+stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and
+more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the
+quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on
+the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some
+deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of
+Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is
+long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the
+flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake
+Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are
+produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the
+sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the
+nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but
+cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality
+that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the
+other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely
+depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better
+varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well
+unite with it and that take up very little dye.
+
+The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some
+rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The goats of
+Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above
+the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it
+grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed
+only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the
+most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and
+finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as
+mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account
+of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of
+recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it
+grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and
+its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky
+and brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine
+wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of
+the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be
+coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with
+the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing
+next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed
+by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it
+lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers
+of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at
+the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage.
+Goat's hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed
+with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently
+pliable.
+
+Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel
+which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical
+countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern
+latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in
+quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in
+most of Persia and Turkestan the yield is small, in the table-lands of
+Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty
+plateaus of Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool
+is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual
+moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older
+camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and
+lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from
+the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool
+of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more
+valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom
+woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats' hair of similar colour is
+often substituted for it.
+
+The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes
+of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs.
+Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited
+extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be distinguished by its
+coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn
+cows' hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle
+brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.
+
+Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it
+possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage
+of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no
+impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep.
+Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained
+from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours
+are furnished by the camel.
+
+It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks
+and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have
+employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the
+East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost
+entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the
+mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern
+Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and
+Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been
+sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted,
+particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its
+cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost entirely as warp
+and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable
+than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet
+there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a
+dark colour.
+
+In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires
+the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the
+lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in
+its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are
+carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted
+from parent to child, and is practised according to different methods
+in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an
+abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is
+hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it
+loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals
+are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality. After the wool
+has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open
+air.
+
+The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and combing. The
+sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an
+inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of
+burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an
+orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One
+method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between
+rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle
+has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older
+method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of
+"teasing" with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held
+firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the
+cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument
+or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by
+the vibrations.
+
+When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and
+then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common
+spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton;
+in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and
+about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from
+civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes
+consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a
+foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic
+tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of
+convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in
+length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by
+twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to
+these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become
+closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the
+length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The
+thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so
+as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is
+attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread has
+been spun, it is removed from the stone and the process begun again.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4. SHIRAZ RUG]
+
+One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried
+anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd
+following his flock, while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or
+stone, as did his ancestors thousands of years ago. On the end of the
+distaff, that rests beneath his left arm, is the ball of wool from which
+he selects and twists the fibres, while he deftly turns the short
+spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand.
+The threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of
+small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun
+with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular, and
+those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in
+order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are the most irregular
+in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all
+weavers.
+
+Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used for yarn,
+since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore, are twisted
+together to form a double thread. A simple device used by many nomadic
+tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right
+angles, and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular
+to them. The threads which are attached to this piece pass through a
+hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by
+twirling them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted
+to make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of a
+professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never the work
+of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile of a few rugs
+such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone is used; whilst for
+the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled, trebled, or
+quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two, three, or four ply, and even yarn
+of six ply is sometimes used. A distinction also exists in the manner of
+twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since
+according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so
+loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a
+single revolution or so tightly as to describe several.
+
+Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the
+Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost incredible
+disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods
+transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every
+attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible.
+Accordingly, the evenness or unevenness of single threads, the looseness
+or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn
+of different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few of
+the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different
+districts.
+
+Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer, and in
+order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and
+rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is first soaked in warm water
+and carefully rinsed in cold water. It is then placed in a copper pot or
+vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or
+sulphate of soda and potash, and stirred for about an hour. After this
+thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and
+thoroughly dried in the sun.
+
+The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the
+materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule, is
+unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world, and is
+prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time. The
+simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough, yet without a doubt
+the earlier spinners and weavers, while following their flocks with
+minds free from all conventions and limitations of art, discerned the
+elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power, and from
+them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and
+delicate tracery of the woven carpets.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5. NIRIS RUG]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+DYEING
+
+
+HOWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental art in any field, their
+most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour. Without it
+the beauty of the lustre tiles of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of
+China, and the delicate textiles of Western Asia would fade into
+insignificance. It is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints
+chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments
+that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East.
+This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of Asia and
+is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the earliest
+carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in a lesser measure
+are reflected in modern fabrics.
+
+If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful association of
+different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates the picture that
+delights the sense, a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not
+only controls the secrets of the dyes, but has mastered the difficult
+knowledge of their proper application; for the beauty of the finished
+woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on
+anything else. From father to son for many generations has been
+transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal
+products of root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use,
+by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven
+fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more technical
+knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since modern designs are
+no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets; and so
+important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction
+in his tribe.
+
+The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the
+innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are received from
+remote countries, but most of the plants from which they are extracted
+grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with
+their flocks. Many of them are used without blending, but even some of
+the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a
+number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an
+infinite number of rich and delicate shades.
+
+The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo. This is
+derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus
+_Indigofera_, that grow to a height of four to six feet in the East
+Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water. In about
+twelve hours fermentation ensues; and after this subsides the liquid is
+drawn off into another vat, where after one or two hours of agitation
+the indigo forms as a precipitate. Many different species of this plant
+grow wild throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to
+produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes, as by
+using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades
+result.
+
+Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (_Rubia tinctorum_), that
+grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern Asia, Its colouring
+properties were known to the ancients; and for a long period it has been
+cultivated in Asia Minor, where the succulent roots of the second and
+third years' growth are regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds
+are derived from the insect cochineal (_Coccus ilicis_) that lives on
+oaks of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among
+the Arabs as "kermes," signifying Red Dye. After the discovery of
+America another species (_Coccus cacti_) was found that was more
+productive of dyeing qualities. The females, which alone are valuable,
+are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of
+acetic acid, or placing them in hot water, or in an oven. From their
+dried bodies, of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a
+pound, the dye is produced. As both these dyes are noted for their
+fastness, they are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed
+cochineal is preferable to madder.
+
+The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are from the
+berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the leaves of the
+sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world. An
+orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root
+stocks of a plant of the genus _Curcuma_. From time immemorial a
+beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron. It is the product of
+the stigmas of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four
+thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet the dye
+is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred
+thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has something of a
+stimulating effect on the human system, it has been taken by the
+Persians when mixed with their rice.
+
+With none of these three basic colours was any national feeling
+associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of blues. The Turkomans
+of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better reds than any other colour,
+and the best yellows, even if generally inferior in positiveness to
+blues and reds, were those of the Chinese.
+
+Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the
+application of a single dye, the many thousand different tints can only
+be produced by the blending of two or more. Moreover, the qualities of
+the same dye vary greatly, as they depend on the soil where the plant
+grew, the time of year when it was removed, and the weather and other
+conditions prevailing during the dyeing.
+
+In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in carpets it
+is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded appearance, due
+probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by
+blending is less permanent than the other. The Chinese greens obtained
+from the buckthorns are generally the best.
+
+Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and reddish brown
+from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron pyrites has been
+largely used in both old and modern rugs; but unfortunately the dye has
+a corrosive effect on the wool, so that the black knots of old rugs are
+often worn to the warp.
+
+In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (_Butea frondosa_) make a
+favourite dye, from which are produced, by blending with other dyes, a
+large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper
+tones. Another well known dye is _Butti lac_, obtained from an insect,
+_Coccus lacca_, that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for
+cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra cotta,
+and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it
+is blended.
+
+Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either
+singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour effects are
+produced by the application of different mordants, which it is necessary
+to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are
+unable to absorb a large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all
+mordants is alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed
+in the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate rind,
+which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best known. Valonia
+also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons, the fruit of the
+tamarind, and the mango.
+
+In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the "Carpet Weaving Industry of
+Southern India" are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned
+by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of
+dyers who originally came from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy
+from a Persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few
+of these are given below, because they show not only the dyes and
+mordants, but also the methods employed.
+
+"Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind and sift lighter
+than the light dust of the high hills; soak for ten hours; keep stirring
+it; put in the wool and soak for many hours. Boil for three hours; wash
+in kurd water, water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up;
+leave for three hours, and then wash and beat again in water.
+
+"A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for twelve hours,
+grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some _Terminalia citrina_,
+pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix thoroughly. Boil; put the water into
+the hot bath and keep stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings
+water, and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash
+with a beating and dry.
+
+"Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, _Terminalia citrina_, oak
+galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for twenty-four hours. Put in
+the wool; soak it for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three
+hours. Dip in a soda-bath, wash, and dry.
+
+"Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and alum, and steep
+for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty or thirty hours; boil
+the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash; dip in
+acidulated water; and wash again with beating.
+
+"Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from four to six days
+in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time, stirring constantly till
+a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a
+thin glass bottle and settled. Then strain through two cloths, and put
+in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water. Add mineral acid;
+steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well,
+and dry.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE II—OUSHAK CARPET_
+
+_The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar to those of
+the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in Asia Minor during
+the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the central field, the rich
+red of the medallions, and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely
+unlike the more subdued hues found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting
+with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which
+display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal
+pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders
+are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the early
+Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling
+qualities of beauty and harmony._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard_]
+
+"Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,[5] and alum. Mix well
+with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil
+for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and
+dry in shade.
+
+"Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum.
+Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a
+half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.
+
+"Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of _Cupressus sempervirens_, seeds and
+seed pods of babul (_Acacia arabica_), iron-filings water, and alum.
+Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four
+hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then
+wash and dry in the sun.
+
+"Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (_Onosma echioides_), a thought of
+cochineal, manjit (_Rubia cordifolia_) or lac colour a very little, and
+cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep
+for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in
+alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.
+
+"Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal
+for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths
+and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put
+wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take
+out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more.
+Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.
+
+"Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep
+for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for
+thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after
+beating and good washing.
+
+"Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep
+the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade."
+
+Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of
+the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate
+affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers
+preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their
+forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing
+countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality
+where the fabrics were woven.
+
+Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the
+year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less
+complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted
+some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and
+most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no
+longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well
+as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art.
+The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency
+to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the
+colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than
+others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the
+resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand,
+not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more
+pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old
+vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of
+Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently
+enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the
+dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured
+occupation it was in days gone by.
+
+Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly
+applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in
+its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a
+separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the
+sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy
+their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of
+these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located
+on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long
+experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different
+kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings
+are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended
+above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which,
+after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain.
+After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the
+dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the
+preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn
+in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well as
+the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to
+be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This
+complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different
+shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the
+same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest
+precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to
+instinct is the guide.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning of
+_tempus fugit_ or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and
+weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then
+the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were
+almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the
+dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich
+colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines
+of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged
+mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as
+did their fathers' fathers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+WEAVING
+
+
+NEAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude
+looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now
+reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to
+what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to
+construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found
+growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed
+excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same
+height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam,
+and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above
+the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case,
+roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal
+beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a
+rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn
+numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other
+end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal
+beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed
+perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the
+work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are
+constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and
+herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the
+weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE A.—AN UPRIGHT LOOM]
+
+Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or
+cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend
+in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last
+rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may
+remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a
+seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each
+other at the sides of the rug. As the work progresses, the plank is
+raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both
+upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small
+diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the
+threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may
+either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it
+and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally
+used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam
+as the work progresses.
+
+In Plate A (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts
+of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in
+the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is
+wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully
+transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams.
+If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but
+if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices.
+Two other rods, known as "Healds," are then attached to the front and
+back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to
+the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted
+between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another
+is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by
+loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the
+lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been
+tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the
+front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back
+threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the
+others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one
+shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two
+threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side.
+Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread
+of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an
+advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between
+the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the
+lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads
+of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by
+studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is
+increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is
+also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7. FERAGHAN RUG]
+
+The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into
+three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are
+without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few
+embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.
+
+A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp
+covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends
+across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between
+each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow,
+perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is
+made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other
+parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent
+threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back,
+recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next
+pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of
+these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears
+as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across
+four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each
+succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed
+"herring bone" weave.
+
+By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making
+them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent
+threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread
+of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp
+and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the
+knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another
+horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn
+of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is
+completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left
+to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp
+is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel
+to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which
+the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and
+to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be
+discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed
+that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction,
+which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as
+is generally the case, from top to bottom.
+
+The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat on the
+number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the
+rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the
+yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of
+knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several
+"filling threads" of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A
+square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of
+a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be
+made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven
+pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less
+than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven,
+as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.
+
+These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes
+are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of
+India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town
+of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were
+made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted
+even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn
+appear together at the surface included between two[6] adjacent threads
+of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn
+is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of
+tying this knot are shown in Plate B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of
+which the second is known as a "right hand" and the third as a "left
+hand" knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese,
+many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name
+from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn
+encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the
+surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in
+Plate B, Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the
+right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as
+"right-hand" or "left-hand" knots,[7] but in the appearance of the
+carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully
+parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but
+with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by
+studying Plate B, in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes
+knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna
+knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern,
+appear in rugs of shorter nap.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4,
+5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12,
+Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos.
+15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing
+between two rows of knots.]
+
+The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood
+even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern,
+which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the
+attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The
+more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and
+examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities
+of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because
+only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy
+with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method
+of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of
+treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford
+a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful
+classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating
+it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the
+established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from
+the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan
+district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern
+common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been
+familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular
+district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do
+to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since
+weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements
+calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed
+with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some
+strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These
+distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that
+affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.[8]
+
+THE KNOT.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but
+it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may
+be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the
+back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara,
+Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots
+of other rugs, as the Samarkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and
+Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or
+coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity.
+Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while
+in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined
+the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed
+the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a
+Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again,
+as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or
+more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there
+is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the
+yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced.
+For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of
+yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part
+in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls,
+Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly.
+Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the
+threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot
+encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the
+other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna,
+each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as
+Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the
+back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp,
+as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such
+rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply,
+the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than
+the width.
+
+THE WARP.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the
+relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If,
+for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a
+single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will
+be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot
+lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate B, Figs.
+7 and 7-a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug
+cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance
+of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans,
+Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah,
+Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that
+one thread of warp to each knot is depressed, so that the back has a
+slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate B, Figs. 8 and 8-a). And in
+the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp,
+included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely
+concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a
+double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate B, Fig.
+9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot.
+To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class
+some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent
+and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another
+class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it
+entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a
+remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with
+which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of
+inserting the threads of weft or "filling" between the rows of knots;
+but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is
+pulled when they are tied.
+
+THE WEFT.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical
+differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for
+distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So
+subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and
+painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers.
+Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any
+well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the
+weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate
+one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally
+fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly
+tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two
+rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the
+coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows
+of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once
+crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of
+knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft
+that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas;
+the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once
+between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown
+weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are
+features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug
+expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally
+distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be
+remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred
+and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty
+years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial
+purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years
+ago.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8. HAMADAN RUG]
+
+These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is
+made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun,
+to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as
+well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to
+whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven
+with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish
+brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used,
+they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces,
+as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same
+piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is
+of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans,
+it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and
+Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans,
+Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres
+of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.
+
+Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the
+yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers
+compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan,
+Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the
+weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp
+are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or
+Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the
+transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of
+knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two
+halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly
+or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug,
+or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp.
+Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be
+noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an
+even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais
+part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this
+unevenness is even more conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in
+Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two
+adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least
+thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated
+appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is
+nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there
+are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.
+
+The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows
+of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost
+constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single
+thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of
+and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of
+these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute
+portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles.
+In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and
+behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is
+very similar to that of Sehnas.[9] In almost all other rugs the weft
+crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of
+knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a
+few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that
+is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the
+Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and
+fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it
+is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same
+rug. In Plate B, Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the
+appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once,
+twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are
+likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for
+instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft
+inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the
+threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots,
+then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to
+alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that
+crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.
+
+As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed
+considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will
+fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so
+that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for
+instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority
+of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots,
+be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with
+hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined
+at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack,
+so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly
+imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once
+with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack.
+These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable
+constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment
+of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for
+instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots
+be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed
+in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of
+moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and
+indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as
+the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but
+they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed
+from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two
+threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the
+other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats,
+old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that
+the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while
+the other is of a single ply.
+
+The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and
+scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to
+cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press
+firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so
+that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.
+
+FINISH OF SIDES.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of
+different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be
+designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double
+Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious,
+suggests the method employed. In Weft Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 11,
+Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to
+which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is
+strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the
+knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two
+rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the
+heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are
+completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a
+Double Overcasting (Plate B, Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the
+cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several
+threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage
+(Plate B, Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of
+a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in
+figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form
+a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate B, Fig. 14) is used
+among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs
+receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is
+necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried
+about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is
+wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy
+cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft,
+but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds
+about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more
+adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is "Mixed," or
+made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then
+an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords.
+Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be "attached"
+more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight
+fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two
+rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus "attached," it is
+somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.
+
+These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are
+sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is
+required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly
+done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found
+to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently
+overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the
+stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9. SAROUK RUG]
+
+FINISH OF ENDS.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides,
+are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction
+exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where
+the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend
+beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in
+Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are
+finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into
+the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not
+unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web,
+selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally
+forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each
+separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more
+in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or
+are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which
+hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that
+encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or
+else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though
+the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web
+of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly
+those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the
+Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as
+Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the
+evil eye.
+
+In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough
+usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have
+frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of
+warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent
+overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.
+
+The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all
+the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their
+methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who
+feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most
+careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately
+between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these
+peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require
+the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without
+which expert understanding would be impossible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS
+
+
+HOWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour,
+Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and
+designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple
+lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled
+mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.
+
+In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders
+of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or
+realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of
+associations.
+
+Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important
+influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and
+colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been
+transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with
+different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and
+moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular
+deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also
+contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which
+over 1000 years B.C. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements
+were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would
+likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire
+worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of
+Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of
+Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the
+spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is
+frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers,
+the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of
+designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited
+them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10. SARABEND RUG]
+
+There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague
+philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the
+early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many
+months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express
+therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost
+thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly
+defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the
+great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the
+crude beginnings of philosophy.[10]
+
+The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative.
+Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots
+of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The
+former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a
+picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part
+of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For
+this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this
+work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are
+designated "Stripes," though they are frequently spoken of as separate
+borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which
+is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side,
+known as "Guard stripes." Very narrow stripes are sometimes called
+"Ribbon stripes," and those of only one or two knots in width are called
+"Lines." The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric
+device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple;
+but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often
+exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in
+character with those of the field.
+
+The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders.
+Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and
+unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other
+hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the
+Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper
+and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others
+consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal
+designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are
+represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans.
+Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and
+ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular
+shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and
+one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are
+covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is
+only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid
+colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a
+saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most
+gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia
+Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by
+a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of
+immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE C.—PRAYER ARCHES OF PERSIAN, CAUCASIAN, AND CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS
+
+No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk.
+No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8,
+Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh.
+No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13,
+Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.]
+
+The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar
+importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so
+strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or
+mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well
+as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated
+in Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in
+Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines, but that in
+rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes
+pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the
+several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans,
+which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas,
+which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have
+a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman
+rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia
+Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian,
+and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a
+panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is
+placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and
+Caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the
+suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from
+Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are
+placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the
+exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the
+other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special
+features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in
+subsequent chapters.
+
+The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern
+are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is
+adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic;
+and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous
+towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a
+large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of
+society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan
+geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India,
+Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George
+Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement
+that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the
+floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the
+adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so
+much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had
+advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that
+at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor
+had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and
+during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns
+were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than
+subsequently.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE D.—PRAYER ARCHES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9,
+10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14,
+15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian.]
+
+In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in
+the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some
+vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian
+rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals,
+lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost
+as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been
+influenced; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs
+are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found
+both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating in
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of
+earlier date. Among the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however,
+few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and
+flowers form the favourite theme for decoration.
+
+The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that
+reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and
+XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued
+as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and
+India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the
+borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes,
+palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine
+antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed.
+On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose,
+pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more
+modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central
+medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured
+conventionalised flowers.
+
+In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or
+motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest
+assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated
+leaf and wine cup (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in
+Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate H,
+Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found
+almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids
+in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained
+by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest
+weavers each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has
+been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ
+them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries
+ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They
+therefore deserve the most careful study.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or
+have been more universally employed than has been the figure [Symbol: S]
+or [Symbol: horizontal S]. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental
+rugs excepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are
+exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as
+occasionally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found
+except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other
+countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Tekkes, and
+Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian
+group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class
+of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the
+exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not sometimes represented.
+It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor "Dragon and Phoenix"
+carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate 20 (opp. Page 88); and
+appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be
+even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an
+emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible,
+however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent,
+which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.
+
+Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the
+swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American
+Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the monuments of the Nile,
+and on the temples of India. Widely as is its distribution, its most
+usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these
+countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is
+a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented
+in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the
+beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the
+rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom
+appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The
+universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its
+primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has
+never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate O, Figs.
+5-a, 5-b, 5-c, 5-d, 5-e, and 5-f (Page 291).
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual
+design in Caucasian and Persian rugs; it is often found in some of the
+rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other
+classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups.
+Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the "Polish Carpets"
+and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its
+drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that
+it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three
+leaves, and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form.
+
+Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated
+with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of
+them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which
+the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was
+regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The
+sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters
+intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting
+at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more
+frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of
+those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly
+bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and
+it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes,
+ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among
+some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in
+the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large
+star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious
+stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with
+colours so arranged is known as "Mohammedan's jewel design." The
+six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the "shield of David," was adopted
+as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly
+nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or
+India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of
+most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.
+
+Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate O, Fig. 10, Page 291),
+usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which
+and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses
+placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it
+is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of
+the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate 21 (opp. Page
+92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial
+symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent
+occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all
+Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from
+Persia.
+
+The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs
+of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the
+Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some
+instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is
+represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia
+Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, "even in
+the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by
+implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to
+represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India,
+China, and Persia."
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE III—MOSUL RUG_
+
+_Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of
+the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied
+the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel's hair that
+shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the
+other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on
+the river's banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric
+designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of
+the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic
+characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes,
+on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type
+of which few now remain._
+
+  _Property of the Author_]
+
+One of the most common designs is what has been called the "latch-hook."
+When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends
+resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as
+in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called "running
+latch-hooks." Since they appear in the Dragon and Phoenix rug (opp.
+Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they
+are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from
+the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes
+perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade
+or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to
+another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in
+artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or
+Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts
+geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central
+Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as
+the reciprocal trefoil.
+
+In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and
+Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs,
+and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they
+were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance;
+but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.
+
+The design of a comb (Plate O, Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem
+suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes
+intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of
+weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs,
+and rarely in those of other groups.
+
+In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four
+centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band
+(Plate O, Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV
+Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan,
+as well as in many of the "Polish Carpets." Later it was introduced into
+Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic
+weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these
+are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of
+the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated
+with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the
+Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of
+the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of
+clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted
+and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and
+the deity.
+
+In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig,
+vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they
+are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of
+geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a
+series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of
+floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the
+beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or
+plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life
+had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that
+in the Garden of Eden grew the "Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;" and
+in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of "The Tree of Life
+which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month,
+and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations." From
+this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the
+Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true
+believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the
+companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the
+Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that
+confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits;
+also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on
+which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient
+Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the
+earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by
+different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a
+cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is
+symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12. CARPET FROM NORTHWESTERN PERSIA
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental
+symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate O, Figs. 16-a, b, and c), since the
+Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence.
+It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the
+Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India
+where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was
+inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must
+have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a
+large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as
+derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest
+development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically
+drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called
+Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most
+artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite
+design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used
+as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.
+
+If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven
+fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater
+favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated
+extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the
+rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in
+many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with
+flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is
+characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia
+Minor. The "Euphrates flower," which grows by the river banks of the
+Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern
+in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less
+frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are
+generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus,
+narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of
+their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are
+intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours.
+There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers,
+which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire
+worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.
+
+Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the
+pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and
+embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of
+King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like
+modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and
+spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows
+wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely
+appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer
+rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these,
+whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the
+old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers
+emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as
+has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish
+wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the
+scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.
+
+In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some
+part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or
+palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine
+with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the
+more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate
+tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border
+take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such
+borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the
+simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents
+symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.
+
+One of the most interesting designs (Plate O, Fig. 6, Page 291) is known
+as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is
+believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since
+there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little
+son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand
+into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen,
+on which became impressed the "palm" design formed by the hand and
+incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old
+Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of
+the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above
+Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it
+symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it
+will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the
+course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in
+its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia
+Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the
+rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple
+curving lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of
+its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very
+ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its
+antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the
+glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising
+that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old
+Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees
+worshipped.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13. COMPARTMENT CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM
+OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly
+symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more
+interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the
+serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of
+Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been
+regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently
+considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed
+to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven
+design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian
+fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the
+"turtle border" (Plate E, Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably
+derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans
+and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis,
+and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found
+exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the
+animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable
+that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and
+palmette.
+
+Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any
+others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the
+infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck,
+conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit.
+These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.
+
+With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented
+are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the
+fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the
+order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as
+the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of
+fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The attitude, to be sure, in which
+they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in
+flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes
+ill luck.
+
+As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as
+well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia
+Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the
+law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east,
+where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very
+common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels
+are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor
+that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand,
+animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were
+intended to represent symbolically the weaver's thought. In fact, those
+masterpieces of Persian art known as the "Hunting Carpets" would lose
+much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without
+symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the
+sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness
+and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the
+victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards
+and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also
+mythological creatures, as the phoenix, emblematic of life and
+resurrection, and the winged _djinni_ or Persian spirits, that often
+adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of
+Iran.
+
+Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative
+attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but
+among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To
+the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though
+difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields
+of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of
+eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the
+sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour
+of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese.
+Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are
+suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction
+with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades
+of thought.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver.
+Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily
+life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the
+still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some
+old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the
+deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an aesthetic taste be
+added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought
+and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs
+another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden
+meaning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY
+
+
+THERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug
+weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in
+different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs
+were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact,
+during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun
+flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable
+that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with
+the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of
+weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow.
+Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations
+of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.
+
+Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt
+they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had
+risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt,
+that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of
+looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity
+of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the
+Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh,
+where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are
+elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship
+were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers
+are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree
+of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient
+writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven
+fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus,
+Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have
+mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls,
+similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets,
+carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.
+
+This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured,
+has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark
+tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a
+sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master's hut several
+thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat.
+Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other
+pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless
+without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots
+and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of
+nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury
+increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule
+of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during
+the summer months, they were substituted. "On these mats," wrote the
+eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, "the artist found free scope for
+displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold
+threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive
+silk and gold carpets." Long, however, before they had reached such a
+high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making
+warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple
+web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to
+the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance,
+more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until
+the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there
+appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar
+in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.
+
+Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of
+the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine
+art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226
+A. D. to 632 A. D.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced
+in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or
+goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals,
+and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered
+with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century
+A. D. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship
+of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period
+of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such
+results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in
+his monograph "Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird," gave the
+following description of the "Spring of Chosroes" carpet:
+
+"When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of
+the Arabs in the year 637 A. D., they found in the royal palace, the
+ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square
+metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor,
+Anoschar (531-579 A. D.), used it also, but only during the stormy
+weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The
+festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the
+beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This
+was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes.
+Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold,
+silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure
+ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of
+springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented
+flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white,
+and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the
+yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the
+water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones
+of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the
+leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones."
+
+As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a
+million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a
+single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be
+distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period
+there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the
+importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+During the Caliphate (632 to 1258 A. D.) the Moslem rulers, devoted to
+luxury, preserved the art treasures of their conquered subjects and
+encouraged them to renewed efforts. This is particularly true of the
+Caliphs and sultans of Syria and Egypt. A carpet that adorned the
+banquet hall of the Caliph Hisham of Egypt, who died 743 A. D., was of
+silk interwoven with strands of gold, and had a length of three hundred
+feet and a breadth of one hundred and fifty feet. All of the rooms of
+the Egyptian palaces, occupied by the sultans, contained carpets of silk
+and satin; and the mosques of Syria were similarly furnished. In the
+year 1067 A. D. one of the Caliphs was forced to sell his accumulated
+treasures, which consisted, besides jewels and works of art, of about
+four thousand bales of carpets. Dr. Martin states that a single one of
+these bales contained several hundred perfect carpets, which were woven
+in silk and gold, and that some of them contained portraits of entire
+royal families. One of them, valued at about $300,000, was made for the
+Caliph el Mirz li alla in the year 964 A. D. It was of blue silk, on
+which were represented the heavens and the earth, seas and rivers, as
+well as the holy cities Mecca and Medina. Such was the character of some
+of the carpets woven during the days of the Caliphs.
+
+As the imperfect records which have been left us indicate that the
+finest carpet collections of this period were in the mosques and palaces
+of Syria and Egypt, it has been assumed that they were woven by the
+native artisans. To some extent this is doubtless true, as rug weaving
+was one of the oldest industries of these countries. But it is more
+probable that most of them were made elsewhere and were acquired as
+presents or by purchase. Some were made in Armenia, Assyria, and
+Turkestan; but the largest number, as well as the most costly and
+elaborate, doubtless came from the same hills and towns of Persia where
+many of the finest pieces are woven to-day. In several of these towns as
+many as three or four hundred looms were constantly at work; and since
+the carpets consisted of warp and weft only, it is probable that they
+were produced far more rapidly than modern rugs in which knots are tied
+to the warp. But if they lacked the richness of deep, heavy pile, they
+were elaborately woven with threads of gold and silver, and were often
+embellished with precious stones.
+
+
+ANTIQUE PERSIAN CARPETS
+
+To the tendency of overestimating the age of art objects to which
+antiquity adds value, there is no exception in the case of Oriental
+rugs, yet there is good reason to believe that a few pieces still exist
+that were woven in Persia as early as the XIII or XIV Century. Indeed,
+we cannot positively affirm that there may not be religiously preserved
+some relic of the Seljukian dynasty, which ruled in Persia till about
+1150 A. D., for we have little knowledge of what some of the old mosques
+which no Christian has ever entered may contain; but it is more probable
+that the oldest remaining pieces belong to the Mongolian period, which
+began with the invasion of the armies of Genghis Khan in the first half
+of the XIII Century. This conclusion is based partly on the facts that
+their archaic patterns indicate a very remote period, and that they
+suggest early Mongolian influences. Moreover, as the age of rugs of a
+somewhat later period can be determined by the evidence of similarity of
+their designs with those of early tiles, metal work, pottery, and
+miniatures, of established age, it is possible to infer the relative age
+of these older pieces by comparison of patterns showing a progressive
+development.
+
+One of the oldest Persian pieces now existing, the property of C. F.
+Williams, Esq., of Norristown, Pa., is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art
+of New York (Plate 11, opp. Page 64). It is also one of the most
+interesting. In it are found Persian, Armenian, Caucasian, and Mongolian
+characteristics, which serve to determine the district where it was
+woven and to suggest its age. Its Sehna knot, cotton warp and weft, as
+well as much of the drawing, are typical of Persia. The tri-cleft leaf
+and stem seen in the two lower corners, in the main stripe, and in parts
+of the field are found in almost all Armenian rugs. The reciprocal
+sawtooth of the outer border stripe and the geometric inner stripe are
+Caucasian features. Certain colour tones, the octagonal discs at each
+end of the large central palmettes, and more particularly the tendrils
+or scrolls of the main stripe of the border which resemble the foliate
+forms as they appear in Chinese rugs and porcelains of the late Ming and
+Kang-hi periods, are Mongolian. The combination of these characteristics
+indicates that it was made in the most northwesterly part of Persia
+where in 1258 Hulaku Khan established his capital, and his successors
+ruled for over a century. Here undoubtedly the craft of weaving
+flourished for a long period, and exercised an important influence on
+the surrounding countries. To judge by the colours; the formal character
+of the border; the rigid lines of the large palmette motives of the
+field, which are not seen in carpets of a much later period; and the
+stiff, archaic character of the bushes with foliage and blossoms
+arranged mechanically on the thick trunks, it is not unreasonable to
+place this piece as early as the middle of the XIV Century, during the
+interval between the overthrow of the Seljukian dynasty by the followers
+of Genghis Khan and the later invasion of the Timurids. In fact, it
+may be even older, since those graceful lines that belong to the highest
+art of a subsequent period are entirely lacking. But in the drawing is
+strength, and in the colours, a few of which have faded, are beauty and
+harmony.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16. PERSIAN ANIMAL CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN
+MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Such old pieces are very rare, yet a similar one, belonging to Prof. W.
+Bode, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its drawing is more
+regular, and the trunks of the trees are broader. These two carpets
+represent the art of weaving at a very early period.
+
+Of equal interest and higher artistic merit is another carpet (Plate 12,
+opp. Page 68), belonging to C. F. Williams, Esq., and at present in the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art but formerly in the possession of J. Böhler
+of Munich. It has a length of nearly seventeen feet and a breadth of
+nearly twelve. There are about three hundred knots to the square inch.
+Though much of that stiffness of drawing found in the earlier pieces
+remains, the more pliant branches and less regular setting of the
+flowers indicate a later date; so that it is not improbable that it was
+woven about the first of the XV Century. Dr. Martin regards this piece
+as one of the oldest of the Timurid period if not from the Mongolian,
+and says that the trees resemble those in a Mongolian miniature in the
+Musée des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and in a manuscript from the year
+1396. At any rate, they display more formal drawing than the trees of
+more recent carpets. The character of pattern and the colouring suggest
+that it was woven in Northwestern Persia.
+
+The field is skilfully divided into three subfields by beds of flowers,
+from which slender trees rise and partly screen from view more stately
+cypresses. The subdivisions are further indicated by pairs of palmettes,
+of which the upper pair mark a transition between the lower pair and
+those more elegant forms commonly seen two centuries later. There are
+likewise palmettes of simpler form in the two guard stripes. But the
+principal ornamentation of the rich border is the interlacing arabesques
+of three different colours, which are decorated with a slender wreath of
+leaf and flower. There is, moreover, a particular interest in the
+grouping of the arabesques since they form a design which may be the
+prototype of the so-called turtle borders so frequently seen in
+Feraghans and Gorevans, and is itself derived, according to Dr. Martin,
+from a still older form in which branching arabesques extend across the
+whole field. It may not be unreasonable to assume that this pattern has
+been handed down from that earlier period when a Saracenic influence was
+felt in all the weavings.
+
+If the chief interest in this piece is centred in the pattern, its
+greatest charm lies in its soft, dainty colours, some of which are
+exquisitely beautiful. They are expressed in delicate shades of orange,
+ivory, light green, sable brown, and light and dark blue on a
+background of pinkish red. This pattern and colouring suggest an
+Eastern wood when the first frost of autumn has left its touch on the
+leaves. The border contains the same colours as the field but is strong
+and effective, since the soft tones are in the narrow guard stripes and
+the deeper colours appear in the broad central stripe in larger masses
+and in immediate contact.
+
+If this carpet was woven about 1400 A. D., as seems not improbable, the
+drawing of the trees, palmettes, and border designs becomes by
+comparison an important guide for determining the age of other antique
+Persian carpets.
+
+Very different, indeed, from the preceding is a woollen piece (Plate 13,
+opp. Page 70), sixteen feet four inches long by eleven feet two inches
+wide, that was formerly in the collection of Mr. Vincent Robinson of
+London, but is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, which
+bought it at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $19,600. It has about six
+hundred knots to the square inch, and is woven with warp of cotton and
+silk, and with weft of silk. The pile is velvety, and the texture,
+drawing, and colouring display a high grade of artistic craftsmanship.
+Another of similar character is represented in the Vienna Publication of
+Oriental Carpets of 1889, at which time it belonged to the Countess
+Clotilde Clam-Gallas of Vienna; and a third belongs to the Palais de
+Commerce at Lyons.
+
+In no other rugs from Iran is the effect of Mongolian tradition on
+design more noticeable; but that this was due to the Timurid invasion at
+the end of the XIV Century is doubtful, and it is not improbable that
+more immediate intervention with China determined the motives. Nor is
+the Saracenic influence obscured, since in every part of the field and
+border is seen the perfect rhythm of graceful arabesques. Such carpets
+represent, in fact, the transition from those earlier pieces to the
+higher products of Persian looms.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 17. SO-CALLED POLISH OR POLONAISE CARPET IN THE
+METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK]
+
+One of the simplest ways of studying the pattern is to regard it as
+consisting of a number of units formed by a large rounded octagon
+encircled by eight heart-shaped escutcheons, and with a smaller
+rounded octagon at the centre of the diagonal lines connecting them. On
+the large octagons, which are of dark blue crossed by narrow bands of
+sable brown, is represented the fight of dragon and phoenix so common
+in the ornamentation of the Ming dynasty; and in the smaller octagons,
+which are plum colour, are four running lions in red, blue, and green.
+The eight escutcheons alternate in crimson and blue, and have arabesques
+and Chinese ducks. The large pentagonal-shaped areas of the ivory field
+are covered with a most symmetrically drawn tracery of tendrils and
+flowers in red, yellow, and blue; and in the smaller hexagonal-shaped
+areas are cloud bands of similar colours.
+
+The border shows a marked advance over that of the preceding piece. The
+main stripe, which follows a pattern that with slight modification is
+adopted in many of the carpets of this and a later period, consists of a
+chain-like series of octagons similar to those of the field, separating
+elongated panels with crenated edges. The latter are adorned with cloud
+bands in yellow interlaced with delicate tendrils supporting flowers in
+red, yellow, green, and white, on a dark blue field; and surrounding
+them on a red ground is also a delicate tracery of leaves and flowers.
+The outer and inner stripes have arabesques and tendrils bearing flowers
+in red, green, and blue on a ground of golden yellow. All the colours of
+both field and border have mellowed into rich, beautiful hues in which
+is the most perfect harmony.
+
+The intricacy and character of design, the delicacy of drawing, and the
+tones of colour indicate that this piece was woven near the beginning of
+the Safavid dynasty, in the early part of the XVI Century. Mr. Robinson
+ascribes its origin to Bagdad; but it seems far more probable that it
+came from the northwestern part of Persia, which was an important centre
+of textile art only a few years later. This piece and the two others
+described on the pages just preceding are among the most interesting
+carpets now existing; for they represent not only a very high standard
+of the textile craft, but also most important steps in its development.
+
+There is no evidence to indicate how early animal carpets were woven in
+Persia. Dr. Martin found a piece with archaic drawing, that from its
+resemblance to an old tile of established age, he placed at about the
+year 1300 A. D.; but it was about the beginning of the XVI Century that
+were woven the first of those masterly pieces which displayed animals
+surrounded by a maze of floral life. Lions, leopards, boars, deer, and
+hounds were the principal motives. To each of these was ascribed some
+principle or quality, so that it has been assumed that the aim of the
+weaver was to give expression to some theme of interest.
+
+A number of these carpets represent the chase and are called "Hunting
+Carpets." The best of them are regarded by Dr. Martin as belonging to
+the latter half of the XVI Century for reasons indicated in the
+following extract from his work: "The manuscript of Nizami, one of the
+pearls of the British Museum, which was executed in Tabriz 1539-1542 for
+the Shah Tamasp, has the most wonderful designs on the margins. Although
+the manuscripts and the miniatures are signed by Persia's most renowned
+masters, there is nothing to give a hint as to who has drawn these
+magnificent borders. This manuscript, which at the time it was written,
+was considered one of the most remarkable 'the like of which the eye of
+time never beheld,' plainly proves that the large carpets with hunting
+scenes must be relegated to a later time or to about 1560-1570. Both
+animals and trees are of a far more stately and earlier character in the
+manuscript."
+
+One of the best of these pieces with animals (Plate 14, opp. Page 72) is
+in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, in New York, by which it was
+purchased at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $15,200. It has a length of
+ten feet eleven inches with a breadth of five feet ten inches, and an
+average of four hundred and eighty knots to the square inch. Both warp
+and weft are of silk, and the pile is of wool. As it was confidently
+believed by Mr. Edward Stebbing[12] that this piece belonged for a long
+time to the Mosque of Ardebil, where Ismael had established his capital,
+and from which Tamasp subsequently moved; it is not improbable that it
+belongs to the early period, between the closing years of Ismael's reign
+and the first part of the reign of Tamasp.[13] Nor is there anything in
+the technique of colour or design to convey a different impression, as
+the general colour of the field is a claret red, and that of the border
+a dark blue characteristic of this period.
+
+The most noticeable feature of the carpet is the display of animal life
+amid the carefully balanced arrangement of floral figures. Four-fifths
+of the field can be divided into two perfect squares with sides equal to
+the breadth of the field; and the remainder will be equivalent to
+one-half of one of these squares. Each quarter of a square contains
+animals, probably intended to represent a lion, leopard, and boar, that
+are perfectly balanced with those of the adjacent and alternating
+quarters. Moreover, the same balance exists in the case of the smaller
+animals and floral forms. Thus it appears that each square forms a
+perfect unit in which is shown a remarkable relation between all parts.
+Such mathematical exactness indicates the highest artistic skill. The
+repetition of pattern also accentuates the predominant idea of animal
+life, which is rendered even more noticeable by the strong golden yellow
+of some of the group. Whoever has studied the early Iranian monuments
+remembers with how slight variation some of the drawing has been copied
+during subsequent generations; so that it is not surprising that Mr.
+Stebbing should call attention to the resemblance of some of the animals
+in this carpet to those of the rock-carved sculptures of Tak-i-Bostan
+near Kermanshah.
+
+As is the case with most modern Persian rugs, there is no correspondence
+between the size of the animals and the flowers. Nevertheless the lack
+of harmony is not felt, as the animal and the floral life are intended
+to be regarded separately. The principal flowers of the field are
+peonies, some of which are woven with silver threads. They also appear
+in the border arranged with perfect precision within the folds of
+symmetrical cloud-bands and interlacing arabesques. The latter form a
+well-executed repetitive figure that suggests an origin for the
+reciprocal trefoil or lily pattern, as it is sometimes called, which
+received its highest development in the silk rugs of a later century.
+
+On the whole, this piece is not far short of the highest sumptuary
+standard of a subsequent period, and is an excellent example of the
+artistic development of the earliest part of the Safavid dynasty. In few
+other carpets is combined such intricacy of design with richness and
+simplicity of colour.
+
+Of still greater interest than the last is the Arbedil Carpet, now in
+the South Kensington Museum. It has a length of thirty-four and a half
+feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half; the texture shows about
+three hundred and twenty-five knots to the square inch; and the pile is
+of wool tied to warp and weft of silk. It has been very carefully
+studied by Mr. Edward Stebbing, from whose description the following
+extracts are taken:
+
+"The body ground is blue, covered with a floral tracery of exquisite
+delicacy and freedom of treatment. A central medallion of pale yellow
+terminates on its outer edge in sixteen minaret-shaped points from which
+spring sixteen cartouches; four green, four red, and eight light cream;
+and from two of these again, as it were, suspended and hanging in the
+direction of the respective ends of the carpet, two of the sacred lamps
+of the mosque.
+
+"Quarter sections of the central medallion also on a pale yellow ground,
+relieved by tracery, form the angles; while a broader border completes
+the glorious design, a border of the alternate elongated and rounded
+cartouches filled with floral and other tracery, the former on a base of
+red, the latter on a rich brown ground flanked on the inner side by a
+broad band of cream seven inches wide, relieved by a variation of a
+so-called cloud pattern, and a narrower band of crimson near the body of
+the carpet; and on the outer side by a single broad band, also seven
+inches wide, of tawny hue, shading from dark to light, and relieved by a
+bold design in blue."
+
+But however exquisite the tracery, however delicate the colouring, the
+greatest interest centres in the fact that in a panel adjoining the
+border of the upper end is the following inscription:
+
+  "I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold;
+  "My head has no protection other than thy porchway;
+  "The work of the slave of the holy place, Maksoud of Kashan,
+     in the year 946."
+
+Here is revealed the age of the carpet, which not only determines the
+character of workmanship of a particular period, but affords a standard
+for determining by comparison the relative age of other pieces. The year
+946 corresponds with our year 1540 A. D., and the position of the date
+indicates that it was inscribed a little before the completion of the
+fabric. Accordingly, it would not be unreasonable to assume that the
+carpet was begun during the closing years of the reign of Ismael, who
+died at Ardebil in 1524, and that it was finished during the reign of
+Tamasp I.
+
+To infer that at this period were many such carpets would be a mistake;
+since this was doubtless woven by the order of the court, and by one of
+the most skilled artisans, who may have made it the crowning labour of
+his life. It indicates the highest technique acquired in the early part
+of the Safavid dynasty.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 18. SO-CALLED ISPAHAN IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Besides the mosque carpets, other pieces such as small prayer rugs were
+used for devotional purposes. When the first of them were made is
+unknown, though they existed in the days of the Caliphs, when the
+words of the Prophet were still fresh in the memories of his followers;
+and they were also used at an early period among Turkomans. The oldest
+that remain belong to the early part of the Safavid rule. One that was
+formerly in the collection of Stefano Bardini of Florence and is now
+owned by Mr. Benjamin Altman, appeared at the exhibit of the
+Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1910. It is a woollen piece with a length
+of nearly five and a half feet and a breadth of three and a quarter. In
+the central field is a prayer arch resembling some of a later period,
+with outlines gracefully recurving near the base and broken on each side
+by a pentagonal-shaped flower. All parts of each of the two trees that
+rise from the bottom of the field are reversely duplicated in the other.
+Some of the stiffness of drawing of the earlier carpets remains, but the
+blossoms are clustered more naturally and the whole treatment is more
+skilful. The effect of the scroll-work on the red ground of the
+spandrel; of the suspended lamp with its bright flowers of red, yellow,
+and pink; and of the blossoming trees beneath, is most pleasing; but the
+chief interest centres in the outer border stripe, where appear features
+that are more interesting than harmonious, features derived from Persia,
+Assyria, Mongolia, and Arabia. The rounded octagons have Cufic lettering
+that recalls early Mesopotamian civilisation; the cartouches at the
+bottom with their cloud-bands suggest Mongolian conquests; and the upper
+cartouches contain the following verses from the Koran:
+
+  "Iman the victorious and expected Mahdi, the Lord of the Age.
+  Zalsi and Hason; and bless the standing proof.
+  Oh Lord bless Mohammed the chosen one. Ali, the elect, Fatimeh the
+    Immaculate.
+  Jofer Sadik, Mooza Kazin, Ali Riza Mohammed Taki, Mohammed Nakee, Ali.
+  The two branches Harson and Hussein Bless Ali Zaimulubbad Mohammed
+    Bak'r."
+
+These verses, the archaic lamp, and the green of the field, a colour
+sacred to Moslems, all indicate the religious character of the carpet.
+Similar features also appear in another antique piece of about the same
+age, but the Cufic characters of the border are within squares
+surrounded by circles that resemble Chinese seals as they appear in
+early manuscripts. Both of these pieces were probably woven in
+Northwestern Persia about the middle of the XVI Century. Few such prayer
+carpets remain, though without doubt they were used by devotees during
+succeeding periods, and it is not unusual to see, even in modern
+Kermanshahs, prayer arches of the same pattern.
+
+Of totally different character but of about the same age is an animal
+rug (Plate 15, opp. Page 76) that belongs to the Metropolitan Museum of
+Art. It was bought at the Yerkes sale in 1910, for $5,600, and had
+previously belonged to the collection of Vincent Robinson of London. It
+has a length of about seven and a half feet with a breadth of about five
+and a half, and consists of woollen pile tied to cotton warp crossed by
+woollen weft. The weave is not unlike what is seen in many modern
+Sarouks; as the knot is Sehna, one thread of warp is doubled under the
+other in each knot, and the coloured thread of weft, which crosses
+twice, is partly exposed at the back.
+
+Like so many of the old Persian pieces, the ground colour of red appears
+in the main field, and is strongly contrasted with the dark blue of the
+medallion and dark green of the corners. Red and green also appear in
+the border contrasted with yellow. This association of colour is not
+usual, nor is the repetitive pattern of the border with its sharp cusps
+at many of the angles, nor the trapeziform corners, and the nearly
+rectangular medallion. Likewise the mechanically formed bushes with
+their quince-like fruit, on which sit birds of disproportionate size,
+show a departure from the accepted traditions of the Safavid schools.
+Yet these very features awaken new interest, and suggest that it was
+probably woven in some part of Northern or Western Persia where the
+influence of the court was not paramount. Nevertheless the accurate
+balance of the different halves, and the drawing of the palmettes show
+that it is distinctly Iranian.
+
+If this last piece be compared with the animal rug (Plate 16, opp. Page
+78) that was presented to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by Mr. Cochran,
+the wide contrast will at once be noticeable. As the latter has a length
+of about eight and two-thirds feet with a breadth of nearly six, the
+difference in size and proportions is not great; nor is there any
+particular difference in the number of animals; nor in the balanced
+relation of upper and lower, right and left halves; nor in the red
+ground of the main fields. But here the resemblance ends. Whereas in the
+former the animals are one of the most prominent features, in the latter
+they are subordinate to the rich assemblage of floral and palmette
+forms, that occupy not only the field but also the border. It is,
+indeed, a piece that marks a transition from the animal rugs, so
+prominent in the early part of the XVI Century but rarely woven later
+than its end, to the more elegant pieces, so characteristic of the court
+of Ispahan, which belong almost exclusively to the XVII Century. It
+accordingly seems not without reason to assign it to about the year
+1600.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 19. ARMENIAN CARPET IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF
+ART, NEW YORK]
+
+Not only do these different elements that denote a transition add
+interest; they also give a most pleasing effect. The main border stripe
+of a rich green with its well-drawn palmettes surrounded by vines and
+foliated stalks, on which rest naturally drawn birds of handsome
+plumage, and the chaste floral designs of the narrow guards, serve as a
+tasteful frame to the central picture. Here again the outer field, with
+artistic effect, brings into greater relief the central medallion, where
+on a ground of greenish yellow, standing and seated amidst blossoming
+shrubs in red, blue, and green, as in a garden, are richly dressed human
+forms. Apart from these, yet perhaps intended in some way to reflect the
+tenor of their thoughts, are four ducks, emblematic of matrimonial
+happiness. Whatever may have been the original shade of the central
+medallion, it is now slightly out of harmony with the surrounding
+colours, and is perhaps the only jarring note in this exquisite piece of
+workmanship. Not improbably the present shade is due to the unfriendly
+hand of time, since the artistic genius of the weaver is fully displayed
+in the masterly arrangement of other colours and in the delicacy and
+precision of the drawing of the perfectly balanced floral and animal
+forms.
+
+The difficulty of determining the locality where the antique carpets
+were woven is often greater than in the case of modern rugs, but this
+piece was probably one of the last of those fine old animal carpets that
+were woven in the northwestern part of Persia.
+
+Though modern silk rugs fail to awaken the interest of woollen pieces,
+the old silk carpets were formerly regarded as the choicest products of
+weaving. As a rule, they were the work of the most skilled artists
+employed in the imperial factory under the direction and patronage of
+the court. It was during the reign of Shah Tamasp that they received
+special attention. Following a custom that had been in vogue of sending
+carpets as presents to foreign courts, in 1566 he sent to the Sultan of
+Constantinople a number of pieces on which flowers, birds, and animals
+were woven with silk on threads of gold. But it was doubtless after his
+successor Shah Abbas I had begun to embellish his capital at Ispahan,
+that were made the famous "Polish" silk or "Polonaise" carpets about
+which there has been so much controversy. It is true that Mr. Robinson
+in his "Eastern Carpets" claims that they were woven in Poland by
+Persians taken there by a Pole named Mersherski; but it seems far more
+probable that they were woven under the supervision of the Persian court
+and were either sent as presents to European sovereigns or purchased by
+wealthy connoisseurs of art.
+
+How many of these pieces may be hidden away in the palaces and mosques
+of the far East it is impossible to determine, but two hundred would be
+a very conservative estimate of the number owned by the different courts
+of Europe and by private collectors of that country and America. One of
+them was presented to the Danish court as late as 1639; and it is
+believed that all that reached Europe arrived there between the years
+1604 and 1650.
+
+Their beauty is exquisite and chaste. To the threads of silver and gold
+is tied silken nap that often displays a striking brilliancy. Unlike the
+earlier Persian carpets which had more subdued hues, these pieces have
+light tones such as salmon, rose, and green, which are arranged with
+perfect harmony. Moreover, there is an elegance of design representing
+the highest types of Iranian, Saracenic, and Mongolian influences
+combined. Here in perfection are dainty floral forms, the rhythmic
+tracery of arabesques, and delicate cloud-bands. In them the textile art
+of the East reached a perfection that probably has never been surpassed.
+
+One of these (Plate 17, opp. Page 80), that has a length of about nine
+feet and a breadth of five and a half, belongs to the Metropolitan
+Museum of Art. In many respects it is typical of its class, though
+threads of yellow and grey are substituted for the usual gold and silver
+of the foundation. On a field of rose are outlined palmettes, leaves,
+and scrolls in green, blue, brown, and salmon, that harmonise with the
+light blue of the border. All of these colours blend with pleasing
+effect and soften lines that in a print seem harsh. Furthermore with all
+its complexity of detail, every part of the pattern is arranged with
+mathematical precision. That a carpet with such perfect balance of every
+part, such intricacy of elaborate detail, such graceful curves of the
+heavy foliate leaves should be woven without copying some older pattern
+or a carefully executed drawing, seems improbable.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 20. ASIA MINOR DRAGON AND PHOENIX CARPET IN THE
+KAISER FRIEDRICH MUSEUM, BERLIN]
+
+In this piece and in others of the same class can be recognised what is
+probably the prototype of more conventionalised and less elegant
+designs so often seen in modern Persian pieces, since the palmette with
+encircling lancet leaves in its borders is most suggestive of the
+borders of modern Herats; and the rhomboidal-shaped figure connecting
+four palmettes at the centre is equally suggestive of the Herati or fish
+pattern seen in the field of innumerable Feraghans.
+
+It was also during the reign of Shah Abbas[14] and his immediate
+successors that most of the so-called Ispahans were woven, though some
+of them appeared as early as the XV and some as late as the close of the
+XVII Century. As in the case with the Polish silk carpets, within recent
+years some difference of opinion has existed regarding the place of
+their manufacture. After careful research, Dr. Martin believes that they
+came from Herat and with this idea some other authorities concur. It is
+true that Herat belonged to the Persian Empire during the reign of the
+Safavid dynasty, and that even in the days of Shah Ismael magnificent
+carpets were woven there. It is also true that during the time of Tamasp
+and Abbas it was as important an art centre as Tabriz, and that the
+weaving of carpets was a leading industry there. Furthermore, there has
+not been found the same evidence to show that Ispahan was at this period
+an equally important centre of weaving. On the other hand, it is well
+known that the splendid industrial and art products of this period were
+largely due to the direct encouragement and favour of the court, and
+that the court was for most of the time at Ispahan. It is also known
+that skilled artisans were repeatedly removed from one district to
+another at the command of a sovereign, so that carpets of similar
+character might be woven contemporaneously in remote parts of Persia. It
+accordingly seems not improbable that the original type of these carpets
+was evolved at Herat and that many of them at least were made at Herat,
+but that others were also made at Ispahan. At any rate they were made to
+a great extent under the influence that emanated from Ispahan.
+
+Almost without exception they are pieces of large size and oblong shape.
+The ground colour of the field is usually red, the border blue; but blue
+is occasionally used in the field and green in the border. Their
+distinguishing feature is the use of the palmette, that was probably
+derived from the lotus, so frequently associated with the Buddhist cult
+of India and China. In the field it generally occurs in pairs that
+slightly vary in size. Of almost equal importance are the Chinese
+cloud-bands and the scrolls or arabesques. These three designs were
+constant motives in almost all the Ispahans; but they were subject to
+modifications in size and shape, which appearing in chronological order
+furnish some guide to the time when the carpets were woven. For
+instance, the palmettes were at first small and distributed plentifully
+over the field; later they became larger, until in a few instances they
+were a yard in diameter. Dr. Martin says that in the first part of the
+XVII Century the palmettes began to be very large and the richness of
+the interior design to disappear; until at the end of the XVII Century
+only a few were sufficient to cover the ground that one hundred years
+before was almost hidden by innumerable designs of small palmettes,
+cloud-bands, and scroll work. He also states that towards the middle of
+the XVII Century the borders began to lose their importance and that the
+palmettes were surrounded by two long, narrow leaves.
+
+Though most of the antique Iranian carpets that remain were woven in the
+Northern provinces, it is well known that even from earliest times
+carpets of elaborate design and skilful technique were also woven in
+Southern Persia. In fact, many of the wonderful pieces that adorned the
+palaces and mosques of the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt came from the
+districts of Fars and Kirman. The latter, notwithstanding invasions of
+Seljukian Turks, Mongolians, and Afghans, has continued almost
+uninterruptedly as a centre of the textile industry; yet comparatively
+few pieces exist that were woven there three or four centuries ago.
+Their colour scheme harmonises more with that of the carpets of Western
+Persia than with the more sombre tones of the old animal carpets and
+Ispahans, or with the brighter hues of the so-called Polish. Their
+patterns also show a distinction from those of northern textile fabrics.
+The fields are often artificially divided, by foliate stalks or
+lance-shaped leaves with serrated edges, into rhomboidal figures that
+contain mechanically drawn shrubs, palmettes, or flowers. In the main
+stripe of the border are generally represented interlacing arabesques
+adorned with flowering vines or arabesques and a sub-pattern of vines.
+Mongolian designs are rarely seen in any of these pieces, which probably
+represent more closely than any other Persian carpets native art
+unaffected by foreign influences. Almost all of them are now owned in
+Europe.
+
+Of the early rugs, those woven in Armenia are far less known than those
+from Persia. Nevertheless, it may reasonably be assumed that the high
+culture that was manifested in Bagdad and Ctesiphon during the sway of
+the Caliphs was felt among the mountainous districts to the north; and
+that the Seljukian rulers, who left such artistic monuments in the old
+Armenian capitals, appreciated and encouraged the manufacture of fine
+woollen fabrics. In fact, Marco Polo, who travelled through that region
+during the latter part of the XIII Century, referred to them as being
+remarkably handsome.
+
+Probably the oldest remaining pieces are the so-called Dragon carpets,
+which, it is believed, were produced from the XIV to the XVII Century
+and possibly even earlier. Not infrequently the length is at least twice
+the breadth; the very narrow border occasionally consists of only a
+single stripe; and the field is occupied by a trellis-like pattern of
+narrow, conventionalised leaves, within which are designs containing
+archaic flowers and dragons. The ground colour of the field is generally
+some shade of red, that of the border white, and the leaves are yellow,
+blue, or green. In the borders of many of them appear an S motive from
+which undoubtedly was derived the design so frequently seen in panels of
+more recent Asia Minor prayer rugs.
+
+In the Metropolitan Museum of Art of New York is a XV Century carpet
+(Plate 19, opp. Page 86), which, though widely differing from these
+pieces in general pattern, so closely resembles them in the essential
+characteristics of weave and colour that it is unquestionably of the
+same class. The field is occupied by concentric diamonds with stepped
+sides. The encircling bands, that are mostly red, yellow, and violet,
+and the corners, that are white, contain numerous archaic forms,
+including palmettes, trees, birds, and animals. There are also numerous
+small designs of the tri-cleft leaf so common to the Circassian and
+Soumak rugs; and the ray-like edges of the central lozenge, as well as
+the four palmettes that rest upon it, suggest the origin of the
+effulgent stars of old Daghestans and Kabistans. An effort has been made
+to balance similar designs in corresponding parts of the field, though
+its centre is at one side of the geometric centre of the diamonds. The
+palmettes show distinctly a strong Persian influence and the animal
+forms likewise show that it was not woven by a sectarian Sunnite of
+Western Asia Minor.
+
+Part of a very unusual carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88), from a district
+in Eastern Asia Minor, is in the Kaiser Friedrich Museum at Berlin. Its
+principal interest lies in the fact that it is very old and that its
+approximate age has been determined. In the hospital at Siena, Italy, a
+similar rug is represented in a fresco called the "Wedding of the
+Foundling," painted by Domenico di Bartolo about the year 1440, so that
+it is reasonable to conclude that this particular piece was woven not
+much later. In fact, its character would indicate that it or some other
+from which it has been copied was much older. Each of the nearly square
+compartments contain octagons, within which on a yellow field are
+represented the mythical fight of the dragon and phoenix that was
+adopted as the Ming coat of arms. It is interesting to note that the
+chain pattern of the brownish-black main border stripe is not unlike
+what is seen in modern pieces, but the running latch hooks of the
+corners and the small S designs are unusually stiff. This disposition to
+formal drawing, which is conspicuous in all parts of the rug, shows an
+archaic style noticeable only in the very earliest carpets.
+
+In the celebrated painting of Georg Gyze (Plate 21, opp. Page 92) which
+hangs in the Berlin Gallery, is represented a rug of a class so
+frequently seen in the paintings of Hans Holbein that they are known as
+"Holbein rugs." Their marked dissimilarity to those previously described
+indicates that they were woven under different circumstances if not in
+different regions. Neither in the fields nor borders is any trace of
+Mongolian or Persian influences; and the absence of all floral, leaf,
+and animal forms so usual in most antique carpets is noticeable. Indeed,
+the fact that animal forms rarely appear in the art of the Sunni
+Mohammedans aids in determining the place of their origin. They came
+from Asia Minor or Western Armenia.
+
+It has generally been assumed that they were woven in Western Asia
+Minor, because they were purchased there in former centuries and taken
+thence to Europe; but they possess many features that indicate they may
+have been woven farther to the east, whence many could easily have been
+transported westward in caravans. Their borders contain the well-known
+pattern derived from Cufic letters which, more conventionalised, appears
+in later years only in such rugs as the Kabistans and Daghestans of
+Eastern Caucasia. Most of them also contain the small octagonal discs
+and larger octagonal figures with Greek crosses at the centre that
+suggest forcibly the designs of Southeastern Caucasia. The narrow
+stripes of ribbon and chain pattern found in many of them also are
+very common in Caucasian rugs; so that it seems not improbable that
+these Holbein rugs were made within the boundaries of that greater
+Armenia which, embracing the upper Mesopotamian valley, extended over
+the eastern part of Asia Minor and the southern part of modern Caucasia.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 21. PORTRAIT OF GEORG GYZE BY HANS HOLBEIN, SHOWING
+A HOLBEIN RUG WITH CUFIC BORDER]
+
+These rugs claim the attention not only because they have borders of
+such interesting origin, but by the fact that the age when they were
+woven is ascertainable. As Holbein lived between the years 1497 and
+1543, and some other rugs of this type appear in the works of early
+Flemish and Italian painters, it may reasonably be assumed that some of
+them were made before the end of the XV Century.
+
+A very excellent example of this class, owned by Mr. C. F. Williams, is
+now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. It has a length of about five
+feet with a breadth of three and a half. The ground colour of the field
+is an olive green and that of the main stripe of the border is red. The
+prevailing colours of the designs, which are entirely geometric, are
+blue, green, and ivory. All of these rugs are small or of moderate size,
+and are slightly oblong. Some of them have a ground colour of green; and
+yellow is frequently found in the pattern. The weaving is rather loose;
+and compared with Persian rugs they have fewer knots to the square inch.
+
+Another carpet from Asia Minor that also belongs to Mr. C. F. Williams
+appears in Plate 22, opp. Page 94. It is the only entire rug with this
+pattern that is known, though a piece of a similar rug is in the
+Victoria and Albert Museum at London. On fields of blue and red are
+outlined three large four-pointed stars separated by smaller diamonds.
+Within these figures and in the surrounding field is a network of
+tracery supporting conventionalised leaf and floral forms. Between the
+field and the main stripe of the narrow border is a close co-ordination
+of pattern, but the simple ribbon of the inner guard seems alien. It
+appears without modification in many later Asia Minor and Caucasian
+rugs.
+
+An important feature are the double knots at the corners of the stars,
+since they are identical with designs found in a manuscript made for one
+of the Shahs in 1435, and thus assist to determine the age of the rug.
+For this reason and on account of its general character, it seems not
+unreasonable to place it as early as the middle of the XV Century.
+
+Similar carpets were woven during a long period, and it is probable that
+in the latter half of the following century they were largely influenced
+by the weavers that Solyman the Magnificent, after capturing Tabriz in
+1534, transported to his own country. The same general features still
+remained, but the detail was more elaborate and ornate. Arabesques,
+palmettes, and floral forms, both of field and border, resembled more
+nearly the Iranian character. But at a later period, after the beginning
+of the general decadence to which every industry and art were subject,
+the patterns became much simpler, and the colours were reduced almost
+exclusively to red and blue with a little green. At length, both pattern
+and colours assumed the type of modern Oushaks, that by a slow process
+of devolution originated from these antique pieces.
+
+In Armenia and Asia Minor it is probable that weaving existed before the
+Christian era, and that the earliest carpets which remain, though
+affected by more eastern influences, are largely the product of an
+indigenous art. But in India it was otherwise. It is true that Sir
+George Birdwood is authority for the statement that the Saracens
+introduced carpet-weaving there; but it is most probable that at the
+time of the invasion of the armies of Tamerlane and during the lives of
+many of his successors, whatever carpets were woven were very crude.
+Even when the Moguls began to build and embellish palaces, they obtained
+their carpets from Persia. But at length Shah Akbar established
+manufacturies at Lahore about the year 1580, and invited Persian weavers
+to settle there. From them the native workmen acquired much of their
+knowledge of patterns and technique.
+
+It was during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628-1658), builder of the famous
+peacock throne and Taj Mahal, that most of the choicest pieces that now
+remain were woven. In delicacy of texture they rival those of any other
+country, and it is not unusual to find pieces with nearly eight hundred
+knots to the square inch; moreover, all their designs are depicted with
+remarkable clearness of definition. One of the most noted of these
+carpets is the woollen piece, about eight yards long by two and a half
+wide, that was made at the royal factory at Lahore and presented to the
+Girdlers Company of London in 1634. The mingling of leaf and floral
+forms, as well as the Herati designs of rosette and crumpled leaf, on a
+field of red, shows unmistakably its relation to Persian carpets. At the
+same period were woven large numbers of others with fields covered
+with an imposing display of superbly drawn flowers, of which every
+part from root to leaf tips was represented with astonishing realism.
+Another class included the animal or hunting carpets, which unlike their
+Persian prototypes seem intended not so much to portray symbolically
+some historic event or abstract idea, as to convey a correct impression
+of an actual event.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 22. OUSHAK CARPET
+
+Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
+York]
+
+One of these, a woollen piece with a length of eight and a quarter feet
+and a breadth of five and a quarter, is in the Boston Museum of Fine
+Arts. The inspiration was from some old Persian piece, but the rendering
+is peculiarly Indian. In this representation of an Oriental jungle is a
+strange mingling of the real and unreal. The struggle of a monster bird
+with a winged beast, half lion, half elephant, and the demoniac faces of
+the border suggest the inspiration of early pagan mythology; but the
+movements of the running gazelles and the stealthily creeping tiger, the
+attitude of the driver of the cart and his attendant, are most natural.
+The drawing as a whole is exceedingly delicate. The ground colour of the
+field is the red of most Ispahans and Herats of this period, but the
+border is a cream colour, a combination not in accord with Persian
+tradition. The other colours are fawn, blue, pink, grey and brown. It is
+probably the only Indian hunting carpet of its kind.
+
+Few strictly antique carpets from other countries of the Orient are
+known. Of the innumerable pieces that were surely woven in Caucasia and
+Western Turkestan before the end of the XVII Century, scarcely a vestige
+can be found. Nor are there many from the looms of Syria, though in the
+days of the Caliphs every mosque was adorned with magnificent carpets.
+It is true a few sterling pieces of Saracenic character, that have been
+ascribed to the region about Damascus, still exist. There are also a few
+rare and beautiful pieces that have come to light in China.[15] But of
+the countless thousands that in almost every country of the Orient once
+covered floors of palaces and mosques, representing one of the most
+refined arts, now nearly lost, only an insignificant fraction remains.
+
+[Illustration: CHART INDICATING PERIODS WHEN ANTIQUE CARPETS WERE MADE]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MODERN RUGS
+
+
+RUGS contribute to the comfort of the nomad more than
+any other fabric. With them he closes the entrance to his tent or covers
+the floor and couches on which he sits and sleeps. Thrown over other
+objects they form the table, made into saddle bags they take the place
+of trunks. The followers of Islam when at prayer kneel on a rug, and in
+token of affection spread one over the grave of a friend. To dwellers in
+cities, also, rugs contribute largely to the comfort and luxury of the
+home. Indeed, without them the splendour of Oriental life would seem
+incomplete, since they are the principal furnishings of every house,
+where stout woven pieces with long pile are spread as floor coverings,
+and lighter ones are hung as portières and tapestries. Yet it is in the
+assembly or dining hall that the finest rugs are used, though here the
+most valued are exposed only on great occasions.
+
+In the East a rug receives a particular name according to which of these
+special purposes it is adapted. The large, almost square piece that is
+used to cover the centre of the assembly hall is known as the "Khali;"
+and the narrow strips or "runners" that are placed at its sides and ends
+are known as the "Kenares." It is on the Kenares that the servants are
+required to walk and the less honoured guests to stand, for they are
+rarely of such fine quality as the former. Before the divan, that
+generally surrounds three walls and is covered with fine cloth and
+velvet, are seats on which are placed carpets called "Sedjadeh." They
+are nearly twice as long as broad, and since they are of moderate size
+and excellent quality they are frequently used for many other purposes.
+The hearth rug, termed "Odjalik," can generally be distinguished from
+others, as each end of the field is of triangular shape with the apex at
+the extremity. However much any of these may be valued, the one that to
+every worshipper of Allah has the most sacred association is the
+"Namazlik," or prayer rug, at one end of which is an arch in token of
+the mosque. At call for prayer the faithful Moslem spreads his rug with
+arch directed towards Mecca, and kneeling with the palms of his hands at
+each side of the centre he bows his head till it touches the rug. As the
+Mohammedans of Persia are unwilling that a Namazlik be trampled by the
+foot of an infidel, few from there can be bought; but the Mohammedans of
+other countries are less scrupulous, so that many of the prayer rugs
+sold in America have been made solely for trade and have never been used
+in worship. They may be beautiful, but special interest attaches to old
+pieces of which the well-worn nap shows where the knees of both father
+and son for over half a century have often pressed. In addition to these
+are other rugs with technical names, but a classification of much
+greater importance is that which depends on the country or district
+where they are woven.
+
+When the Oriental rugs first appeared in the market of the United
+States, they were spoken of as "Turkish," for the reason that importers
+purchased them from Turkish merchants of Constantinople. But when it
+became known that they had been taken there by caravans from countries
+farther to the east, and that large numbers of them came from Persia,
+the name "Persian," that to the mind of many conveys ideas of splendour,
+was at once applied; even to-day all classes of Oriental rugs are often
+spoken of as Persian. As objects of ornament or utility, their value is
+independent of their place of origin; yet it is known that the wool of
+the nap and the dyes used in some districts are superior to those in
+others, and that in consequence the beauty of some rugs will improve
+with age far more than that of others. It is also known that because in
+certain districts the material of warp and weft, as well as the
+workmanship, is of a superior quality, the rugs made there will wear
+better than others. The knowledge, then, of where a rug is made is
+important in determining the quality and value, which otherwise only a
+critical examination, that few people are able to make, would show.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 23. SEHNA RUG]
+
+Furthermore, the knowledge of where a rug is made, suggesting the class
+of people who wove it, adds immeasurably to our interest. When, for
+instance, we look at an old piece of Kurdish weave with its nomadic
+designs and shaggy nap, on which a Moslem savage as an Apache often
+rested fully half a century ago, there is called up a picture of the
+dark-visaged tribesman, fearless and untamed as were his ancestors
+who contested the march of Xenophon over two thousand years ago. We see
+him wandering with his flocks over the hills while he watches for a
+chance to fall upon an unsuspecting stranger. We picture to ourselves
+the hut of brush upon the mountain side where a slender barbaric girl
+bends to tie, with wonderful patience, the knots one by one. So if we
+would enjoy our Oriental rugs, we should know what people made them, and
+whence and how they journeyed, before they reached our fireside.
+
+At the request of a purchaser the vendor is ever ready to classify a
+rug, but his statements are not always reliable. This is partly due to
+the fact that even the great importing houses are often deceived.
+Throughout Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, even farther east, great fairs
+are regularly held. Here gather the representatives of tribes from far
+distant quarters to enjoy for a few days or weeks the gay life and
+abandon of the East while bartering the products of their different
+crafts. Here come the purchasing agents looking for rugs; and the pieces
+that may be brought from afar are bought and shipped by camel and rail
+to such great marts as Tabriz, Tiflis, and Constantinople, where the
+bales are unpacked and the rugs assorted, classified and labelled,
+before they are resold to the importing houses of Europe and America.
+Thus both in the buying from the itinerant agent of rugs assembled from
+different quarters and in the reassortment at the exporting cities there
+is frequent opportunity for errors of classification.
+
+The characteristics of the different groups and classes of rugs are
+given in later chapters, but it should not be presumed that these are
+infallible guides to the locality where they were made. Often a ruler,
+by fostering art, has drawn to his capital artists and artisans from
+other districts. Thus designs and quality of workmanship characteristic
+of one district would be adopted in another. So, too, the great caravans
+that pass along regular routes eastward and westward, and the annual
+pilgrimages to Meshed and Mecca, have been most potent influences for
+the dissemination of designs. Yet taking into consideration the general
+pattern and smaller designs; the material of warp, weft, and pile; the
+knot; the dyes; the finish of sides and ends, and the peculiarities of
+the weave, it is possible with a reasonable amount of certainty to
+determine in what districts almost all Oriental rugs are woven.
+
+It should be borne in mind, however, that the names by which some of the
+rugs are known in America are not the same as those by which they are
+known in Asia. For instance, the rugs made by some of the tribes of the
+Tekke Khanate are known in the Orient as "Tekkes;" but as the great
+depot for Turkestan carpets was formerly the city of Bokhara, they are
+generally known in this country as "Bokharas." On the other hand, there
+are local distinctions in the eastern countries not known in the
+western. The accompanying classification, therefore, is slightly
+arbitrary, but should be convenient for reference; since the classes
+represent the cities or districts where are woven the several different
+kinds, excepting the Chinese, which are divided chronologically. The
+names of the groups are not in each instance entirely satisfactory, but
+are probably the best that can be chosen. The fourth group, for example,
+has frequently been called the "Turkoman;" but as it includes some of
+the rugs of Afghanistan, and also those of Beluchistan, which is remote
+from Turkestan, that name is not sufficiently comprehensive. The
+district where these rugs are made is, strictly speaking, the western
+and southwestern part of Central Asia; but the term here employed has
+the authority of some German writers of note. So, too, the rugs of
+Herat, though it is now a city of Afghanistan, are included with the
+Persian group; but it should be remembered that Herat, as well as the
+districts of Mosul and Kurdistan, was once part of the old Persian
+Empire.
+
+
+  GROUP I. PERSIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Khorassan district:
+            Herat, Khorassan, Meshed.
+
+  (_b_) Shiraz district:
+          Ispahan, Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, Niris.
+
+  (_c_) Feraghan district:
+            Feraghan, Hamadan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Iran, Sarouk,
+              Kashan, Sarabend, Burujird, Sultanabad, Muskabad, Mahal,
+              Joshaghan, Gulistan, Teheran.
+
+  (_d_) Sehna district, or Adelan province:
+            Sehna, Bijar, Kermanshah, Persian Kurdistan, Karaje.
+
+  (_e_) Tabriz district:
+            Tabriz, Gorevan, Bakshis, Serapi, Herez, Suj-Bulak, Karadagh,
+              Afshar.
+
+  (_f_) Kurdistan district:
+            Western Kurdistan, Mosul, Gozene.
+
+
+  GROUP II. ASIA MINOR OR TURKISH.
+
+  (_a_) West Asia Minor district:
+            Bergamo, Ghiordes, Kulah, Oushak, Ak-Hissar, Demirdji,
+              Kutayah, Smyrna, Melez, Isbarta, Rhodian, Broussa,
+              Hereke.
+
+  (_b_) Central Asia Minor district:
+            Konieh, Ladik, Kir-Shehr, Anatolian, Karaman, Sivas, Mudjar,
+              Nigde, Tuzla, Kaisariyeh, Zile, Yuruk.
+
+
+  GROUP III. CAUCASIAN.
+
+  (_a_) North Caucasian:
+            Daghestan, Kabistan, Kuba, Derbend, Lesghian, Chichi,
+              Tcherkess.
+
+  (_b_) Trans Caucasian:
+            Baku, Shirvan, Soumak, Shemakha, Tiflis, Kutais, Kazak,
+              Karabagh, Shusha, Gengha.
+
+
+  GROUP IV. CENTRAL ASIATIC.
+
+  (_a_) West Turkoman sub-group, Western influence:
+            Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Yomud, Khiva, Afghan,
+              Beshir.
+
+  (_b_) East Turkoman sub-group, Eastern influence:
+            Samarkand, Kashgar, Yarkand.
+
+  (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+
+  GROUP V. INDIAN.
+
+  (_a_) Northern India:
+            Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad,
+              Mirzapur, Zabalpur, Patna, Jaipur.
+
+  (_b_) Southern India:
+            Madras, Mysore, Bangalore, Warangal, Malabar, Hyderabad,
+              Marsulipatam.
+
+
+GROUP VI. CHINESE.[16]
+
+
+  (_a_) XVII Century:
+            Late Ming 1600-1643 and Early Kang-hi (1662-1700).
+
+  (_b_) XVIII Century:
+            1. Late Kang-hi (1700-1722). 2. Yung-ching (1722-1736).
+               3. Keen-lung (1736-1795).
+
+  (_c_) Early and Middle XIX Century.
+
+  (_d_) Late XIX Century or Modern.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+PERSIAN RUGS
+
+
+IN the grouping of Oriental rugs, it is not always desirable to follow
+the present political divisions of territory, since great and frequent
+changes in national boundaries have occurred without corresponding
+changes in the traditional style of weaving. Thus it happens that with
+the rugs made in Persia, which is still called Iran by its inhabitants,
+it is desirable to group those made within that former Iran that
+included the valley of Mesopotamia on the west and part of Afghanistan
+on the east. The woven products of all this territory have
+characteristics that are similar to one another and that differentiate
+them from those of other countries. Their patterns are distinctly
+floral, representing leaf, bud, and flower, and show a tendency to
+naturalistic drawing with graceful and often intricate lines. Moreover,
+their colour schemes of delicate tones are not only beautiful but in
+perfect harmony. In marked contrast with them are the rugs of Caucasia,
+Asia Minor, and Central Asia, which have patterns of geometric shape or
+highly conventionalised flower forms, and colours that often appear in
+bold contrast. In the Chinese rugs, also, is generally less harmony of
+colour, as well as less co-ordination of design, than in the Persian.
+The scroll and floral patterns appear on the field in isolated figures,
+or else imitate with more formal drawing the diaper pattern of some
+Iranian carpets. Only in the rugs of India is there a similarity to the
+patterns and colour tones of those of Persia; but the designs are more
+realistically drawn, less artistically arranged, and less profuse.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IV—BERGAMO RUG_
+
+_The weaver of this interesting Bergamo followed the early Asia Minor
+traditions in the use of rich, deep blue and red of field and border,
+yet in respect to pattern showed his freedom from conventionality by
+departing from types peculiar to his district and adopting many nomadic
+designs prevalent throughout Anatolia. Reciprocal latch-hooks form the
+background of the central field, on which are three upright panels
+containing octagonal discs; and latch-hooks surrounding lozenges and
+forming what may originally have been intended to represent the tree of
+life appear almost as conspicuously in the border. There are also combs,
+knots of destiny, and innumerable S-forms. The panels at the upper and
+lower ends of the field and the reciprocal vandykes are most suggestive
+of Ladiks, but in the place of pomegranates at the ends of the upright
+stalks are small checquered squares. Bergamos with such patterns are now
+rarely seen._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+The similarity in the rugs of the Persian group is due to past political
+influences as well as to common ties of race and religion. From the time
+when Ctesiphon and Babylon vied with the cities of Persia in the
+splendour of their capitals, all of this territory was repeatedly under
+one and the same dominant power, which at different times was held by
+Saracens, Seljukian Turks, Timurids, and Safavids; and even after the
+end of the Safavid dynasty the influence of Nadir Shah was felt over
+Mesopotamia as well as Western Afghanistan. A still stronger influence
+is that of race; for Aryans, Arabs, Armenians, and Turks have blended
+with the early people of the whole territory, until not only do all
+resemble one another, but their craftsmanship is similar. Furthermore,
+with the exception of a few rapidly disappearing Parsees, who still
+cling to the early Zoroastrian faith, all are Mohammedans; and in their
+frequent pilgrimages to the same shrines is a constant interchange of
+ideas and exchange of fabrics. It is true Asia Minor, Caucasia, and
+India have shared to some extent the same influences, but to a much less
+degree.
+
+A resemblance, also, exists between many of the physical features of the
+entire country that affect the habits and industries of the people. To
+be sure the Euphrates and Tigris, that wind sluggishly through the great
+Mesopotamian valley, and the great ranges of the Elburz and Zagros, that
+extend from Mt. Ararat easterly and southeasterly through Persia, have
+no counterpart; but on the other hand in Mesopotamia, Persia, and
+Western Afghanistan are great stretches of sandy wastes where there is
+little vegetation, high table-lands where during rainless summer months
+the earth is parched, and little valleys of fertile soil that are
+watered by streams from the encircling mountain ridges. Throughout this
+territory, wherever physical conditions are similar, the people follow
+similar pursuits. In the deserts the impoverished Bedouins live; in the
+higher lands some two millions of nomads follow their sheep and goats,
+pitching their tents wherever there is pasture; in the valleys are
+several millions of people, who, with the placid contentment of the
+East, irrigate their garden patches, fashion simple articles of metal,
+and weave artistic rugs.
+
+A general decadence in social, political, and industrial life pervades
+the whole country; yet due partly to the inheritance of a past
+associated with the glories of Persepolis and Ecbatana, Babylon and
+Nineveh, Bagdad and Ctesiphon, and to the more immediate influence of
+the textile masterpieces of three centuries ago, rugs are still produced
+that in delicacy of weave, beauty of design, and harmony of colours
+surpass those of any other part of the world. In the weave of the best
+examples is displayed a technical skill only approached by a few of the
+Royal Bokharas. In the fine rhythm of lines and in the colour scheme of
+harmonious and delicate tones, with which a few of the best products of
+India alone compare, is united the touch of both artist and artisan. The
+fields of the old pieces are lavishly covered with intricate designs of
+buds and blossoms supported by vines or tendrils, and frequently
+encircled by arabesques that interlace so as to form an harmonious
+whole. The fields of the modern pieces are frequently of solid colour,
+with central medallions and triangular corners defined by graceful
+lines. Again, the ground colour of the field, which is either uniform or
+slightly shading from one end to the other, is covered with
+realistically drawn or conventionalised floral designs that are arranged
+with studied precision, and are now and then relieved by some nomadic
+design. Surrounding the fields are borders of several stripes, some of
+which contain an undulating vine with pendent flowers or palmettes
+co-ordinate in drawing and colouring with the main pattern. It is,
+however, principally in the colours, which are delicate yet rich,
+subdued yet lustrous, that these rugs surpass all others. Their most
+distinctive tones are blues, reds, browns, and greens, so arranged that
+the ground colours of border and field generally contrast yet remain in
+perfect harmony; as where there is some moss green in border and wine
+colour in field, each being subordinated to other superimposed colours
+representing floral detail.
+
+[ILLUSTRATION: MAP OF PERSIA]
+
+The best known of the floral patterns, repeated with formal precision
+throughout the field, is the Herati pattern, which is of uncertain
+antiquity and origin. It consists of a central figure that generally
+represents a rose, but sometimes a peony or rosette, about which are
+grouped other figures like crumpled or lance-shaped leaves. Probably
+both the central and encircling figures are of Persian origin, though
+the latter have been regarded by some authorities as representing fish
+and attributed to Egypt or to China; in fact, they are occasionally
+drawn so as distinctly to show eyes and fins. Very frequently four of
+these figures are arranged about a lattice-shaped design with pendants
+and a central rosette, as in Plate O, Fig. 4 (Page 291). This Herati or
+Fish Pattern, as it is frequently called, appears in many of the old
+Persian rugs and in most of the modern pieces, particularly the
+Feraghans and Herats. A less frequently seen floral pattern, which has
+been used from a very remote time and is still represented in modern
+rugs, is the Guli Hinnai, or Flower of Hinnai (Plate O, Fig. 3). Of this
+plant Mohammed was so fond that he called it the "chief of this world
+and the next."
+
+It occurs as a formal pattern in many of the Feraghans, and in several
+other rugs in which its bright five-petalled flowers are scattered
+informally over the field. Another floral pattern frequently seen is the
+Mina Khani, illustrated in Plate O, Fig. 2, that was named after Mina
+Khan, a former Persian ruler. It is particularly characteristic of
+Persian Kurdish pieces in which a dark blue field is covered by a
+network of intersecting olive-coloured vines. At the intersections are
+placed large flowers that alternate in regular series according to their
+different designs and colours; and between them often appear other
+flowers, such as the smaller and brighter coloured Hinnai, so as to
+destroy too great stiffness of design. As the flowers are relatively
+large and sufficiently separate to show the intervening blue field, this
+is one of the most effective of the formal repetitive floral patterns. A
+still more formal pattern (Plate O, Fig. 1), which appeared in some of
+the Persian rugs of the XVI and XVII centuries, was named after Shah
+Abbas. It is not unlikely that it was suggested by the Mina Khani
+design, to which it bears a slight resemblance; but the principal motive
+is so conventionalised that it has lost much of the floral character.
+Between the large and formal palmettes, that are arranged with
+mathematical precision, are grouped with similar regularity smaller
+palmettes, connected by angular vines and leafy branches.
+
+Only a few Persian rugs have the formal repetitive patterns, such as the
+Herati, Guli Hinnai, Mina Khani, and Shah Abbas. Others have the
+repetitive pattern of bushes, flowers, or the pear, on a field of rich
+colour. The remainder have patterns consisting largely of scrolls,
+vines, or tendrils, drawn with exquisite art and decorated with leaves,
+flowers, and buds in beautiful profusion; also birds, beasts, human
+beings, demons, and other imaginary shapes, sometimes associated with
+the foliage but frequently bearing no apparent relation to it, appear as
+special motives. Since many of these forms, which originated in the
+remote past, have been transplanted from one country to another, and
+conventionalised to meet the new environment, it is interesting to
+observe the designs in the different classes of rugs and trace as far as
+possible the influences to which they are due.
+
+
+HERATS.—On great lines of travel between India, Turkestan, and Persia,
+the city of Herat in Northwestern Afghanistan for centuries occupied
+commercially a most important position, so that its people long since
+became familiar with the best fabrics of the surrounding countries.
+During the XV Century it reached its greatest prosperity, and exerted an
+important influence on the art and culture of Western Asia. Before the
+art decadence that followed the capture of the city by Nadir Shah in
+1731, and the removal of many of its artisans to Persia, its looms were
+producing some of the best rugs of the Orient, which excelled in
+delicacy of drawing and in perfect harmony of colours. The fields
+contained patterns of serrated leaves entwined with flowing arabesques,
+scrolls, and Chinese cloud-bands. Conspicuous among this tracery were
+palmettes and such flowers as the lotus and peony, which were often most
+realistically drawn.[17] These rugs are of further interest, as they
+contained in field and border the design that, slightly changed, appears
+in many of the later rugs of Persia as the Herati pattern.
+
+The modern rugs are as unlike other Afghans as were the antique pieces
+and show a close relationship to those of Persia. Nor is this
+surprising, as the weavers, though falling far short of the high
+standards of the time when Herat was part of Persia, are still mindful
+of the early traditions. Moreover, many of the rugs are made across the
+border in Khorassan, and have the silky pile peculiar to the rugs of
+that province; but their tones of colour, consisting principally of red
+or blue in the field, and light green, yellow, and ivory in the border,
+as well as most of the patterns, are dissimilar. In one type the fields
+are covered with pear designs; but their bent narrow ends always turn in
+the same direction, whilst those of other rugs turn in different
+directions in alternate rows. Another type suggests the Feraghans,
+because their fields are covered with the Herati or Fish pattern; but
+the borders of the Feraghans usually have the well-known turtle pattern,
+while the borders of these adhere to the traditional Herati design. It
+is also not unusual to see a large central medallion, in which blue or
+red predominates, separated by a field of lighter colour from the
+triangular patterns of the corners. Now and then, a nomadic influence is
+seen in the small adventitious figures of the field.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 24. BIJAR RUG]
+
+One of the most characteristic features of this class are the borders,
+that generally have three stripes, of which the central consists of a
+continuous vine of crumpled leaves so conventionalised as to be merely
+bent, thorny stalks partly enveloping formal rosettes. The other stripes
+are narrow, and have some simple undulating vine. This typical border,
+the stout, closely woven warp and weft of cotton, their large, almost
+square shapes and rather coarse weave, are important aids in
+distinguishing this class from all others. Some of the rugs recently
+made are coarse; but the older rugs have excellent dyes, lustrous nap,
+and matured tones of well-blended colours.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[18] _Colours_, principally red and blue with
+minor quantities of green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes, rarely
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to eleven; perpendicularly,
+nine to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is about as long,
+measured in direction of length of rug, as wide.[19] The rows of knots
+are firmly pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_,
+of cotton, rarely wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+generally doubled under the other, sometimes it is only depressed.
+_Weft_, wool, occasionally cotton; of coarse diameter. For a short space
+a thread of weft crosses twice, that is across and back once, between
+every two rows of knots, then three times, and so alternates every
+several rows. _Pile_, wool of medium length, soft, and silky. _Border_,
+three to five stripes, and frequently an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout and firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to twenty feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to
+three quarters length.
+
+
+KHORASSANS.—Among Iranians, Khorassan is often spoken of as the Land of
+the Sun. In its northern part are long ranges of mountains where herds
+and flocks find excellent pastures, and intervening valleys where the
+soil is cultivated. But the remainder of the province, with the
+exception of scattered oases, where small towns and villages are
+located, is almost entirely a desert, from which in classic times the
+Parthians advanced to harass the armies of Greece and Rome, then
+retreated to seek the protection of its vast salt marshes and
+inhospitable wastes.
+
+Nevertheless, in the little villages surrounded by a dreary wilderness
+have been produced as beautiful rugs as in those more favoured spots
+where prevailed cultured influences that could develop an Omar Khayyam
+and produce the sacred shrine of Meshed. Even before the Mongolian
+invasion several hundred looms, each employing four or five women, were
+busy in the town of Toon in Central Khorassan. Lying farther to the east
+is the district of Kain, which was once renowned for its beautiful rugs
+of Herati pattern, but of later years has produced coarser pieces with
+inferior designs and bad colours. Still better known was Birjand, in the
+southeastern part of the province, where formerly were woven pieces of
+superior workmanship that contained from two hundred to three hundred
+knots to the square inch. Their colours were of delicate shades; and it
+was not unusual to employ ivory or other light tones for the ground,
+with which was contrasted the darker tones of the Herati or pear
+patterns. Over a century ago many such towns in Khorassan were weaving
+rugs of artistic design and beautiful colours, but as a rule the present
+products fall far below the early standards.
+
+Most of the Khorassans now seen were made almost fifty years or more ago
+and rival the best of modern Persian rugs. As a rule, they are of large
+size and have closely woven texture. They can be distinguished from most
+others by the silkiness of their moderately long nap, which is often due
+to the fact that it is from the fleece of a yearling lamb as well as
+because it is cut long and unevenly. Another characteristic is the use
+of some shade of red, as a pink, rose, or wine colour. Very frequently
+it is magenta or even purple, which are rarely found in other Persian
+rugs. Blue and cream are also largely employed. Their colours are
+generally softened by age, yet are warm, and at times brilliant, as when
+a large field of bright rose red or blue surrounds a central medallion.
+
+The diversity of pattern in Khorassans is partly due to copying designs
+of rugs brought from other provinces by the pilgrims who yearly visit
+Meshed, and to the remoteness from one another of different centres of
+weaving in a province occupying one fourth of all Persia. One pattern,
+however, based upon the treatment of the pear design, which is employed
+in many of these pieces, at once distinguishes them from rugs of other
+districts. It consists of large pears arranged in regular order on a
+field of dark colour with their principal axes inclined diagonally in
+the same direction, and of two or three much smaller pears partly
+resting on them and partly projecting beyond their edges. Unlike the
+pear designs in other Persian rugs, which are oval, these are elongated
+like those of Indian rugs; and within them, as well as in the field, are
+often small floral figures. This distinctive pattern is rendered more
+effective by the colour scheme; since frequently pears of red or
+magenta, defined by lines of yellow and containing white petalled
+flowers, rest upon a ground of dark blue. The Herati design is also
+frequently employed, and in very old pieces are occasionally represented
+birds and animals naturalistically drawn. It is not unusual to see a
+central medallion or large vase of flowers surrounded by a field of
+bright uniform colour, and in some rugs are two medallions. When the
+centre contains a medallion, the triangular-shaped corners are set off
+by lines that are much simpler than those in Sarouks and Kermanshahs.
+
+Few other rugs have more noticeable borders; for not only are they very
+wide, but in the main stripe, which is as wide as several guard stripes,
+is some characteristic pattern. Occasionally it contains the Herati
+design, but more frequently it consists of a heavy undulating vine with
+incipient flower forms, that at times almost assume the appearance of a
+bird's head resting on a sub-pattern of double floral vine. This stripe,
+illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2, (opp. Page 156) is so frequently met
+with in Khorassans as to be characteristic of them. The narrow guard
+stripes usually contain some simple vine or ornate reciprocal figure.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Many are
+"left-hand." Knots to inch horizontally, eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+doubled under the other. A few short lengths of threads of warp hang
+loose at the back of some pieces. _Weft_, almost always cotton,
+occasionally wool of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between two rows of knots, excepting at intervals of
+every six or eight rows of knots, where it crosses three or more times.
+_Pile_, wool of medium length, silky and unevenly clipped. _Border_,
+three to six stripes, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+MESHEDS.—In few parts of the East have the weavers received greater
+inspiration from sacred and historic association than those of Meshed.
+To Shiite Mohammedans it contains the most holy spot in Persia; for
+within a mosque resplendent with façade of blue and white tiles, and
+with gilded minarets of exquisite design, lie the remains of Ali Riza,
+the eighth Imam or Moslem priest, in a tomb that is viewed yearly by
+nearly one hundred thousand pilgrims. It was for a short time the
+capital of Shah Abbas, who beautified its mosques; and here Nadir Shah,
+whose remains lie in the mausoleum, held his court after the capture of
+Delhi. Within its walls was born Firdousi, the Homer of Persia; and not
+far away, among the mountains to the west, was the home of the poet and
+astronomer, Omar Khayyam. Not only devotees but large numbers of
+merchants regularly visit the city in the caravans from Khiva, Bokhara,
+Herat, Yezd, and Teheran, so that it is also a city of commercial
+importance.
+
+It is possible that a few of those matchless pieces which were
+attributed to Herat before its destruction by Nadir Shah were made in
+the district near Meshed, since according to an Arabian traveller[20]
+who visited it during the XIV Century many fine carpets then lay on the
+floor of its mosque. It is also believed that within the shrine, which
+has never been entered by an unbeliever, still remain some of the most
+magnificent carpets of the Orient. But for more than a century the
+textile industry has been declining, and the rugs now seen are generally
+of recent manufacture.
+
+As a rule, these rugs are of the Khorassan type, and have the same silky
+appearance of nap, though it is shorter and more evenly clipped. The
+pattern, however, is generally different, as seldom is the field
+completely covered with the pear design, but whenever used, it is of
+elaborate drawing and frequently very large. Nor is the characteristic
+Khorassan border stripe, illustrated in Plate E, Fig. 2 (opp. Page 156),
+employed. On the other hand, it is not usual to see large central
+medallions, with floral designs in tones of rose or pink on fields of
+blue or ivory, and borders with undulating floral vines, in which
+appears evidence of Herati influence. Most of the rugs that now exist
+were made within the last fifty years, and are of large size and
+almost square shape. The colour scheme inclines to light and often
+brilliant tones, which at times are strongly contrasted with small
+masses of much darker shades. The wool is excellent, and the warp and
+weft are rarely coarse.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 25. KERMANSHAH RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally rose or pink, blue and
+white, with minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally
+Sehna, rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally, eight to fifteen;
+perpendicularly, twelve to seventeen. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally wool; one of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool or
+cotton, of fine diameter and usually dyed blue. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of fine quality and
+medium length. _Border_, usually from three to six stripes, occasionally
+as many as eight, and generally an outer edging of uniform colour.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of same colour as edging. _Lower end_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven
+eighths length.
+
+
+ISPAHANS.—Still imposing in the ruins of its former splendour,
+surrounded by orchards, vineyards, and groves of trees that shade a
+broad, well-watered plain, is the ancient city of Ispahan. Under the
+Caliphs it became the capital of Persia; and though sacked by Tamerlane,
+who slew seventy thousand of its inhabitants, it rose to such importance
+that in the XVII Century it contained within its walls several palaces,
+one hundred and sixty mosques, over two score of colleges, nearly two
+thousand caravansaries, and about three quarters of a million people.
+Now the population has dwindled to about sixty thousand; and the few
+stately mosques and colleges that remain amid miles of deserted streets,
+abandoned bazaars, and ruined homes but feebly reflect the magnificence
+of the former capital.
+
+Here was the royal court of Shah Abbas, who sent to Italy, for the
+purpose of studying decorative art, a number of the most experienced
+artisans, to whom are accredited some of the gracefully drawn designs of
+many of the early carpets. Here, in the days of its greatest prosperity,
+were founded many industries, and on its looms were undoubtedly woven
+some of the best of old Persian carpets. Though Herat is now regarded
+by some authorities as the centre where the so-called Ispahan rugs were
+made, it is improbable, as previously pointed out, that all of them came
+from there. But after the death of Shah Abbas the rug industry began to
+decline; and with the removal of the capital to Shiraz, in 1760, Ispahan
+ceased to be a rug-producing centre of consequence. There may be a doubt
+whether such enormous carpets, as the one with length of sixty feet and
+breadth of thirty that Sir Purdon Clark in his monograph on Oriental
+Carpets mentions as lying in the hall of Chehel Sutoon at Ispahan, were
+made there or were imported from other cities; but the weaving of rugs
+has never entirely ceased; and so great is the fame of the former glory
+of the city that even now Oriental dealers will often apply to rugs the
+term "Ispahan" as an epithet of superiority.
+
+The few modern pieces which reach the western markets bear little
+resemblance to their prototypes; and even among themselves show little
+similarity of pattern, though the pear and Herati designs are not
+uncommon. In some rugs a century old the field is almost covered with
+what is known as the Persian crown jewel, and in others the field
+contains diamond-shaped medallions arranged in regular order with small
+foliate and floral forms placed between them. Small figures of animals
+are also occasionally represented. The border is generally narrow and
+lacking in impressive individuality, so that the character of the rugs
+depends largely on the pattern of the field and the well-seasoned
+colours, which are always rich and harmonious. Some shade of red or blue
+is usually chosen for the ground; and in the designs are green, yellow,
+and white. The weave has variations rarely found in other rugs; for the
+warp, which is usually cotton, may also be wool, or wool and cotton
+twisted together; and the weft may likewise be wool or cotton, and may
+cross between the rows of knots either once or twice in different rugs,
+or even once or twice in the same rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._[21] _Colours_, principally red and blue, with
+minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows
+of knots are firmly pressed down. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally
+wool; in a few pieces wool or cotton are twisted together. Each thread
+of warp is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread
+of weft crosses once or twice between two rows of knots. If it is wool,
+it generally crosses twice; if of cotton, two threads are generally
+placed side by side and cross together once as a single thread. _Pile_,
+wool, of short or medium length. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or
+three chords. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and fringe.
+Occasionally the web is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_
+at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, six to fourteen feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIRMANS.—On account of the isolated position of Kirman in Southeastern
+Persia, where the almost impassable saline and sandy deserts by which it
+is surrounded on the north and east, and the mountain ridges that
+separate it from the fertile valleys of Persia on the west, in a measure
+protected it from the repeated invasions that disturbed the political
+and industrial conditions of Northern Persia, it has continuously for
+over a thousand years been an important centre for the manufacture of
+rugs. Moreover, during all this period it has been noted for the
+excellence of their quality. As early as the Mohammedan conquests its
+fabrics were taken to furnish the floors and divans of Caliphs' palaces.
+When Marco Polo visited Persia in 1270 he wrote of the beautiful shawls
+and carpets made by the women of Kirman; and the noted French traveller
+Chardin, who lived in that country during part of the XVII Century, also
+spoke most favourably of them. Even after Nadir Shah removed many of the
+most skilled weavers to the northern part of Persia subsequent to
+ascending the throne in 1739, and Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged the city
+and massacred many of the inhabitants in 1794, the rug industry
+continued to prosper, and to-day that district is producing the best of
+modern pieces.
+
+To this isolation is also largely due the excellence of the weave and
+dyes, since the artisans have in a measure escaped the pernicious
+influences of market demands and aniline colours. And to it must be
+attributed the fact that the old Iranian textile art appears nowhere
+else in greater purity; for of all the rugs on the market to-day these
+conform more nearly in texture, colour, and design to the masterpieces
+of earlier times, and show none of the foreign influences appearing in
+pieces woven in the north. And yet in Kirman is complexity of race as
+well as religion; for the Beluches who have wandered across the desert
+mingle with the Persians; and the Guebres, still practising in secret
+their fire worship, meet with the Mohammedans.
+
+For long ages silkworms have been cultivated in the district about
+Kirman and fed on the mulberry trees that grow wild among its hills, so
+that it is not surprising that small quantities of silk are sometimes
+used in the rugs; but as a rule the pile is entirely of wool, yet of
+such fine quality and so well woven that many of the old pieces have a
+lustrous and silky appearance. This wool, which is white and of
+unusually fine texture, is partly the product of the native sheep and
+partly the product of a variety of goats that live among the ridges and
+yield fleeces almost as fine as those of Kashmir.
+
+It is probably because of the fondness of the people of Kirman for
+roses, which they cultivate for the attar, that they depict them so
+profusely in their rugs. Sometimes they represent them as filling vases
+set in rows, or again as formal bouquets arranged in regular order upon
+the field. They also weave them in the borders among green leaves, as
+placed there tenderly and not hanging from such stiffly formed vines as
+are seen in other Persian rugs. Nor are they conventionalised like the
+flowers of most modern rugs; but petal, leaf, and stem are drawn with a
+precision that suggests the work of Indian weavers. Usually they are red
+contrasting with a ground colour of soft, ashy grey in the field, and of
+golden yellow in the rich, harmonious border. Sometimes, instead of a
+profusion of roses, there are other flowers, such as the sunflower,
+suggesting the old Zoroastrian faith, the cypress, or the sacred
+"cocos." Again, the general design may be modified from one strictly
+floral, and amid the foliage may be introduced birds, animals, or human
+beings; but the naturalistic drawing is always noticeable. In modern
+pieces the central medallion is often adopted, yet the general
+resemblance to older pieces is evident. As a rule the border has five
+stripes, of which the main one is twice the width of any other, and
+surrounding the outer is a narrow edging that is usually pinkish red;
+though now and then, according to the general colour scheme, a very
+pleasing effect is obtained by substituting an edging of moss green.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 26. KURDISTAN RUG WITH MINA KHANI PATTERN]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally grey or ivory, with minor
+quantities of faun, yellow, rose, and blue. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eleven to twenty; perpendicularly, eleven to twenty. The
+rows of knots are pressed down so that the warp is concealed and the
+weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads
+encircled by knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally wool of
+fine diameter, occasionally cotton, and frequently dyed blue. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool,
+short, soft, and silky. _Border_, usually of five stripes and an outer
+edging of uniform colour that is generally pink but sometimes green.
+_Sides_, a double overcasting of the same colour as edging. _Both ends_,
+a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at
+back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+YEZD.—In the centre of a sandy plain, midway between Kirman and Kashan,
+is the city of Yezd, where almost the last of the Iranian
+fire-worshippers, now a small part of the total population, still follow
+the ancient faith. Though partly shut off from the great desert of
+Khorassan by a mountain range, the city is only an oasis, where the
+drifting sands that buried the old city ever suggest to the inhabitants
+the dread spirit of desolation which finds an echo in ruined walls
+within. At the present time very few piled rugs are woven there and they
+are rarely seen in Western markets; yet on account of the historic
+interest in its people, the name is sometimes applied to modern products
+made in other districts. At one time it was noted for its silk rugs, and
+also for its felt "namads," which are generally too heavy to be
+transported, since some of them have a thickness of two inches and a
+superficial area of ten thousand square feet.
+
+
+SHIRAZ.—Near the centre of a small, well-cultivated valley encircled by
+mountains is Shiraz, capital of Farsistan. During the reign of Kerim
+Khan, from 1760 to 1779, it was the capital of Persia; but since then it
+has suffered from earthquakes and neglect until now much of its former
+glory has departed. And yet there still remain associations to kindle
+the imagination, for without the gates are the gardens that Persian
+poets have extolled in verse; the tombs of Saadi and Hafiz; and not far
+away are the spots where Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes lived, and the ruined
+palaces that Alexander destroyed in a night of drunken revelry.
+
+As early as the time of the Caliphs this district produced large numbers
+of carpets; though few, if any, remain that were woven before the XV
+Century. As is the case with modern pieces, all of them were
+distinguished for their soft and beautiful wool, which is to be
+attributed to the climate and pasture of the surrounding mountains and
+valleys. One of the oldest existing rugs of this district which
+displays the characteristic wool is referred to by Dr. F. R. Martin in
+the following words:[22] "As soon as I had touched it, I was certain
+that we had to deal with a very rare kind of carpets which were made at
+Shiraz, or at least with the brilliant Shiraz wool. Most of the carpets
+made of that wool are lost, because the material was such a soft one
+that it was easily worn out. I know of very few which are older than the
+eighteenth century. No wool in all Persia takes such rich and deep
+colour as the Shiraz wool. The deep blue and the dark ruby red are
+equally extraordinary, and that is due to the brilliancy of the wool,
+which is firmer and, so to say, more transparent than silk, and makes
+one think of translucent enamel. As a piece of colour this carpet is
+certainly one of the finest, and there are very few carpets that have
+greater charm, which even the best reproduction could not give. In its
+colours there is something of an early Gothic stained-glass window,
+where the dust of ages has so covered the design that it has become
+obscured and the imagination of the spectator must complete it.
+Certainly the Persians for whom this carpet was made used to sit and
+dream for hours over the beauty of its colours, beautiful as the
+wonderful landscape surrounding Shiraz."
+
+On account of the design and workmanship of this remarkable piece it is
+referred by Dr. Martin to the XV Century. During the two following
+centuries the carpets of Shiraz attained the high standard of excellence
+prevalent in the principal cities of Persia; but most of those pieces
+are now extremely rare, as they were woven chiefly for imperial use or
+for exchange with foreign rulers. This city experienced the art
+decadence that began with the XVIII Century, yet under the patronage of
+Kerim Khan imperial factories for weaving were again established there.
+
+Though some of the rugs made eighty or even sixty years ago are
+certainly beautiful, these modern pieces, as a rule, lack the excellent
+qualities of early rugs, and those more recently woven are still poorer.
+On a few of them are depicted designs that are strictly Persian; but
+they generally depart widely from the early traditions, and floral forms
+are very much conventionalised. In a large number of this class the
+field is covered with pear designs which are described by straight lines
+and angles. Sometimes they are as small as in the Sarabends, occupying
+the whole field as the principal motive; or they may be placed less
+prominently within diagonal or perpendicular stripes. Again, they may be
+as large as in Khorassans and grouped with other designs. Another very
+common pattern, known as the "pole-medallion," consists of a narrow
+perpendicular bar connecting two or more large diamond-shaped figures on
+which are grouped conventionalised floral forms and geometric designs.
+In other pieces the pattern is as geometric as that of any Caucasian
+rug, and it is not unusual to see both field and border profusely
+adorned with latch-hooks enclosed within and surrounding geometric
+figures. Nor is it unusual to see small figures of men and animals
+scattered through the field. Indeed, there is no other Persian rug in
+which the pattern is so heterogeneous. The borders usually consist of a
+number of narrow stripes, or a wide one with narrow guard stripes. One
+of them, at least, almost invariably contains some form of vine and
+leaves, and not infrequently the row of small X figures that also appear
+in Shirvans. In fact, the rugs are sometimes mistaken for Shirvans on
+account of the resemblance in geometric designs.
+
+Though there is such variety in the patterns, these rugs are not
+difficult to recognise. There is something distinctive about the dark
+blues and reds contrasted with smaller areas of ivory and yellow. They
+are, as a rule, loosely woven, and many of them have a trait of lying
+unevenly on the floor. Not infrequently an extra band of pile is woven
+between the border and the broad embroidered webs of the ends, from
+which hang a loose fringe. The sides are overcast with heavy strands of
+wool varied like a barber-pole at regular intervals; and, as is not the
+case with any other class, they are often ornamented at intervals with
+coloured tassels.
+
+There are also large numbers of Shiraz saddle-bags, which are superior
+to any others made. They resemble the Caucasian, as the patterns are
+geometric; but they may be distinguished from them by the finer wool and
+a slightly different colour scheme.
+
+Not infrequently the term "Mecca" is applied to Shiraz rugs, and the
+impression is conveyed that they were made there. Nor is the statement
+always entirely devoid of truth; for each year caravans aggregating some
+two hundred thousand souls enter that city to make their devotions to
+Allah, to walk around the sacred stone within the Kaaba, and leaving
+behind their forgotten sins to return homeward with a bit of sacred
+earth or a strip of the temple's covering. Each of these pilgrims bears
+offerings for propitiation, of which a large proportion are rugs; and
+whatever their size, they are invariably the choicest the devotee can
+offer. Since the Mohammedan priests regard the best interests of their
+religion and themselves as conserved by a disposition of all articles
+not directly available for their use, they sell large quantities of such
+rugs, that find their way to Cairo, Damascus, and Constantinople.
+Furthermore, the pilgrims carry many pieces which are sold or exchanged
+along the routes of the caravans or at Mecca, and ultimately reach the
+same markets. Such a large number of the pieces that years ago came from
+these sources were of the well-known type of Shiraz rugs that they and
+similar pieces which had never left Persia were called Mecca rugs. This
+deception is still encouraged by some dealers, because for many buyers a
+special interest is attached to a piece that they are persuaded has been
+carried on this pilgrimage as an offering.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory, with
+minor quantities of yellow and green. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. At back one of the half knots is
+generally smaller than the other and pressed to one side. The other half
+knot is about as long as wide, and the yarn is not drawn tight against
+the warp. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that their alignment is
+slightly irregular, and the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, almost
+always wool; in a few modern rugs goats' hair is used. Each of the
+threads encircled by a knot is almost equally prominent at back, or
+occasionally one to each knot is depressed. _Weft_, wool of medium
+diameter, frequently coloured red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short to medium, and
+silky. _Border_, three to five stripes. Beyond the borders, at each end,
+is frequently a narrow band of pile. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting
+in a barber-pole stripe or in short lengths of different colours, which
+generally consist of two of the following colours: red, yellow, green,
+and blue. In some pieces small tufts of wool protrude from the sides at
+regular intervals of one or more feet. _Lower end_, a broad web of
+coloured stripes, through which may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and
+warp loops. _Upper end_, a broad web of coloured stripes, through which
+may run a dovetailed coloured cord, and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to
+nine feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 27. GOREVAN RUG]
+
+
+NIRIS.—A resemblance exists between the rugs that take their name from
+Lake Niris and those of Shiraz, which is distant only fifty miles to the
+westward; for many of each class are woven with the same silky wool,
+obtained from sheep that graze in the intervening mountain ranges, and
+the shepherd weavers about the lake have acquired ideas from the old
+capital. This resemblance exists mostly in the soft, floccy appearance
+of the nap, and in the barber-pole or parti-coloured overcasting of the
+sides. The webs of each end are broad and have long fringes; but
+generally those of the Shiraz are embroidered and crossed with one or
+more parti-coloured cords, whilst those of Niris pieces are, as a rule,
+flatly woven in stripes of different colours. There is also an
+occasional resemblance in pattern, but the best known pattern of the
+Niris is rarely seen in the Shiraz. On the other hand, they are more
+firmly woven; and there is a slight difference in the character of their
+weave, since one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other, and the weft is of wool coloured red, whereas
+in the Shiraz it is frequently of cotton.
+
+The pears are the favourite design, and, like those in Sarabends, extend
+over the field in orderly array; but they are much larger and consist of
+an assemblage of bright colours isolated from one another, yet grouped
+gracefully in a way that might readily suggest the origin of crown
+jewels sometimes ascribed to them. Frequently the ground is a dark blue,
+and the pears are of red, blue, green, and ivory. Violet and yellow are
+also employed. In other types, less usually seen, the field is covered
+with a lattice-work pattern containing small figures. The typical border
+has a broad central stripe of vine and flower, with narrow guards of
+simpler vine or reciprocal trefoil. Barber-pole stripes are also
+characteristic of the borders.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to fifteen. The rows of knots are not closely
+pressed down, so that at the back the warp is noticeable and the weft
+conspicuous. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+depressed below the other at back and frequently doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes, sometimes as many
+as seven. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting in a barber-pole stripe or
+in short lengths of different colours, such as red, blue, green,
+yellow, and black. _Both_ ends, a broad web of coloured stripes, one row
+of knots, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to seven feet. _Usual
+width_, three quarters to four fifths length.
+
+
+FERAGHANS.—Stretching eastward from the base of Mt. Elwund is the plain
+of Feraghan. Its length does not exceed forty-five miles, nor its
+breadth ten or fifteen, yet here are clustered several hundred villages.
+On account of its altitude of seven thousand feet, the ground is covered
+with snow in winter, and the people are then huddled in their low mud
+houses, and the flocks and herds are gathered within the village walls.
+But in the spring the men are cultivating the fields, and the sheep are
+grazing on the banks of numerous streams. It is a plain of fertility and
+industry. For generations it has been productive of large numbers of
+fine rugs, and it is still possible among its villages to find some of
+those old pieces that have been regarded by the Persians themselves as
+the best examples of the textile art.
+
+When the characteristic patterns of Feraghans have once been carefully
+observed, they are never forgotten; yet it is surprising to note the
+many distinctions observable in a large collection. These patterns may
+conveniently be divided into two groups, namely: one in which the field
+is entirely covered with diaper designs, and the other in which the
+field contains a central medallion surrounded by uniform colour.
+Probably nine tenths of these rugs fall within the first group, which is
+divisible into three sub-groups: those in which the field is covered
+with the Herati design; those in which the field is covered with the
+Guli Hinnai design; and those in which the field is covered with some
+other small diaper design.
+
+The Herati design is the one most frequently seen, and is found in the
+very oldest of existing Feraghans. As a rule, the crumpled leaf does not
+exceed a length of four or five inches, and the rosettes are
+proportionally small, so that the ground colour is almost entirely
+concealed, and at a short distance is not distinguishable; but there are
+other pieces in which the leaf is over a foot in length, and the figures
+less closely clustered, so that the ground enters prominently into the
+colour scheme. The prevailing colour of the leaf and rosette is
+generally rose red, which gives a distinctly reddish tone to the rug;
+though the small designs have shades of green, yellow, white, and light
+blue. The ground is usually a rich, dark blue; but occasionally red or
+even ivory is used. In very few other rugs are the corners separated
+from the field, unless there is a central medallion; but in almost all
+Feraghans small triangular-shaped corners, with colours contrasting with
+those of the field, are separated from it by lines bearing teeth or
+serrated edges.
+
+Surrounding the field is a border that has from five to seven stripes.
+The main stripe is about three times as wide as any other, and may have
+a ground colour of red, blue, or ivory white; but in many of the best
+pieces it is moss green, with blue, yellow, or red appearing in the
+overlying pattern. Of different but corresponding shades is the colour
+of the ground and designs of other stripes. Probably three fourths of
+the Feraghans now seen have the well-known turtle design in the main
+stripe; but it is sometimes replaced by the rose design shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 12 (opp. Page 156), or by an undulating vine with rosette or
+palmettes. On the innermost stripe, which is very narrow, is invariably
+represented some reciprocal figure, as the trefoil or sawtooth; and on
+the other stripes are undulating vines, with floral or quasi-floral
+figures.
+
+The Feraghans with fields covered with Guli Hinnai designs instead of
+the Herati show a difference in both drawing and colouring, though the
+general effect is much the same. In place of crumpled leaves and
+rosettes of reddish hue are the star-like flowers of the Hinnai plants
+that brighten the mountains surrounding the Feraghan plain with their
+large yellow or ivory coloured petals. The pattern, as a whole, is
+slightly more prominent, and the prevailing colour tone, which is rich,
+is less red and more yellow. There is, however, a very noticeable
+difference in the pattern of the third sub-group, though specimens are
+not frequently seen. In these the small figures of conventionalised
+flowers sometimes have geometric shapes and are arranged in diagonal or
+perpendicular rows. Moreover, they generally lack the rich colouring of
+the preceding sub-groups.
+
+The central medallion is found not only in modern but also in old
+Feraghans. It is generally of diamond or hexagonal shape, with serrated
+edges and with pendants. Almost invariably Herati figures cover its
+surface, and not infrequently some lattice-work design with small
+conventionalised leaves or flowers appear faintly on the field of
+uniform colour surrounding it. As a rule, pieces of this group are of a
+more striking and handsome appearance than those in which the entire
+field is covered with numerous minute figures of equally rich hues that
+blend and produce, when viewed at a distance, an undefined colour. The
+border designs are similar to those of the other group. All of the old
+pieces were stoutly woven; and though the nap was short, many of those
+that remain are still serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and dark blue, with
+minor quantities of yellow, light blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Sehna,
+rarely Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eight to thirteen;
+perpendicularly, seven to eighteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is usually concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton; each of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, cotton, occasionally dyed blue or pink. A thread of weft of fine
+or medium diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots, or
+occasionally a thread of coarse diameter with much slack crosses only
+once, so that the transverse warp produces a quincunx effect. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+HAMADANS.—A little to the northeast of Elwund and at an altitude that
+overlooks a small, well-cultivated valley adjacent to the Feraghan plain
+is the city of Hamadan. On this site was the ancient city of Ecbatana,
+capital of Media; and here guarded by Jews is a tomb, which tradition
+declares is the burial place of Esther and Mordecai. Within the
+encircling walls are gardens, bazaars, and mosques; yet the present city
+of forty thousand inhabitants with its general misery and squalor has
+little to remind one of the magnificence of that former capital which
+for a short period was mistress of the world.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 28. BERGAMO PRAYER RUG]
+
+Like Yezd, Hamadan is famous for its namads; and like Yezd it once
+produced, according to tradition, most beautiful silk carpets, though no
+longer are any woven there. But its looms have been busy for the last
+few generations weaving rugs of wool and camels' hair, which have such
+marked individuality that they bear unmistakably on their face the stamp
+of identification. The few old rugs that remain are sterling pieces,
+which are stoutly woven and of excellent dyes. They come in many sizes;
+some are simply mats, others sedjadehs, and an unusually large number
+are runners. The typical pattern of the mats and smaller sedjadehs
+consists of a central diamond-shaped medallion, surrounded by a field of
+contrasting colour, from which are set off the triangular-shaped
+corners. In the large sedjadehs and in the runners, which are sometimes
+twenty feet or more in length, are often three or more pole medallions,
+though the pole device may be omitted. These medallions and corners are
+covered with small, carefully drawn geometric figures, or more
+frequently with floral designs such as appear in Feraghans, and as a
+rule are defined by serrated lines or are fringed with hooks or
+comb-like teeth. The colour of the surrounding field is unobtrusive. In
+some pieces it is void of pattern, and its monotonous tone is broken
+only by slight variations of shade; yet not infrequently it is marked
+with faint lines of slightly darker or lighter tint, like a delicate
+tracery. Not only are the borders wide, but a broad edging, which is at
+least one half and sometimes two thirds as wide as all the coloured
+stripes combined, surrounds them. As it is usually of camels' hair and
+without pattern, it is a very noticeable characteristic. The main stripe
+has an undulating vine with conventionalised flowers, and the two guard
+stripes have a simpler vine, or, more frequently, the reciprocal
+trefoils.
+
+To this general type, however, are many exceptions. Sometimes the
+figures of the medallion and corners are more geometric; sometimes the
+corners are omitted; the outside edging may be decorated with large
+conventionalised floral or geometric figures; and occasionally a camel
+or some other animal is represented in the field or border. A few of the
+old rugs were strikingly handsome. Dr. George Birdwood refers to a large
+Hamadan that formerly hung in the India Museum in these words:[23] "An
+irregular lozenge form, a little island of bright clustering flowers, of
+which the prevailing colours are red and blue, adorns the centre; while
+the wide extended ground of yellow, in irregular shades, surrounds it
+with a rippling amber sea; and there are blue pieces in the corners,
+within the broad blue border worked in arabesques. It is a carpet not to
+be laid on a floor, but to be hung in a gallery, to be looked at like a
+golden sunset. It was a sacrilege to remove it from the mosque where it
+evidently was once spread under the great dome. _Beati possidentes._"
+
+Most of the old pieces have disappeared, and in their places are modern
+products with pile of wool or goat's hair often dyed in garish colours.
+There are also many nondescript rugs, which were gathered from wandering
+tribes or surrounding villages and taken to Hamadan, since for a long
+time it has been one of the great rug markets of Persia. When exported
+from there they were often classed as products of that city.
+
+Moderately old Hamadans contain more camel's hair than any other class
+of rugs, since in very many of them it forms the pile of both field and
+outer edging, where its soft tones of pale chestnut colour contrast with
+the bright shades of blue, red, and yellow yarn used in other parts of
+the field and border. This lavish use of camel's hair, the broad
+encircling edging, the cotton warp, and a single thread of coarse weft
+passing once between two rows of knots, distinguish them from all other
+rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally the chestnut of camel's
+hair with red and blue. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally,
+six to nine; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally cotton,
+frequently wool; of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses only once
+without slack between every two rows of knots, so that the white spots
+of transverse cotton warp exposed at back have a quincunx appearance.
+_Pile_, in old rugs, mostly camel's hair and some wool; in recent rugs,
+mostly wool clipped short. _Border_, wide, generally of three or four
+stripes, and a broad outer edging of camel's hair. _Sides_, overcast,
+generally in brown or red. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_, at back is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, three to
+twenty-four feet. _Width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+IRANS.—Although neither a city nor district of Persia is called Iran, a
+well-defined class of rugs is known to the trade by that name. They are
+woven by some of the old Iranian stock dwelling principally in the
+province of Irak-Ajemi. These people follow no particular pattern or
+colour scheme of their own, but to a large extent copy those of a few
+well-known Persian classes; yet in other respects their rugs have a
+noticeable individuality. They are woven with a Ghiordes knot and so
+loosely that if the rug be observed from the front, as it is bent
+backward in a plane parallel to the direction of the weft, the
+foundation threads of warp and weft, which are of cotton, will show
+distinctly between the knots. Each of the two threads of warp encircled
+by a single knot are equally prominent at the back. Ordinarily the
+threads of weft cross twice between the rows of knots, but occasionally
+they cross only once, as in Hamadans. Many of the fabrics regarded as
+Sarabends, Feraghans, and even Hamadans are in reality Irans, which on
+account of their inferior workmanship are much less valuable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally, six to eleven; perpendicularly, seven to eleven. A
+half knot as it appears at back is frequently longer, measured in the
+direction of the length of the rug, than wide. The rows of knots are not
+pressed down closely, so that the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_,
+cotton; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back; they are not closely strung, so that each half knot stands out
+distinctly. _Weft_, cotton; a thread of weft of coarse diameter as a
+rule crosses twice between each two rows of knots, and only rarely
+crosses but once. The weft is conspicuous between the knots at front
+when the rug is bent backwards. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+generally four to six stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double overcasting that
+is generally brown or black, but sometimes red. _Lower end_, a narrow
+web. _Upper end_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, two fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAROUKS.—Towards the western end of the Feraghan plain and at an
+altitude of seventy-five hundred feet is the mud-walled village of
+Sarouk. Here, shaded by poplars, are clustered one hundred and fifty
+houses, with floors, roofs, and sides of mud that has dried and cracked
+until it admits the wind. The sun and light enter through the open
+doors, for there are no windows. Nor are there chimneys, but simply
+openings between the rafters to permit the escape of smoke from the open
+fireplace in the floor below and the entrance of more wind. At times the
+atmosphere is not only oppressive with smoke, but is laden with odours
+that arise from the pens beneath and beside the houses, where fowls,
+sheep, and goats are huddled. During the winter and early spring snow
+lies on the ground; a little later a hot summer follows. Yet amid these
+depressing surroundings and under these adverse conditions lived
+weavers who gave the name of their little village to some of the most
+beautiful rugs made in all the East.
+
+Now and then is seen an old piece with surface like velvet and with
+mellowed tones of perfect harmony that has come from these huts or
+surrounding hills; but probably not one in a score, perhaps not one in a
+hundred, of the Sarouks now offered for sale in this country was woven
+there, as most of them are made in the work-houses of larger cities,
+though they follow essentially the general appearance and technique of
+old and genuine pieces, even if lacking some of their best qualities.
+Nevertheless, the modern pieces are of handsome colour, of graceful
+pattern, and are well woven. Some of them, which were made two or three
+decades ago, had large designs of the cypress, willow, or the tree of
+life, as well as realistically drawn animals represented in the fields;
+but the great majority of those now seen invariably follow a pattern
+consisting of a large medallion with pendants, or of two or more
+concentric medallions resting on the field, from which are set off the
+four corners. Defining the edges of both medallions and corners are
+lines that are most artistically irregular, yet correspond with one
+another.
+
+Between each part is the greatest co-ordination, for the designs of
+field, corners, medallions, and borders are similar. On long delicate
+stems that bend and interlock like carved tracery are leaves, buds, and
+flowers, suggesting the craftsmanship of the best days of old Iran. The
+borders generally have only three stripes: a broad main stripe on which
+appears an elaborately drawn undulating vine with pendent flowers, and a
+narrow guard stripe on each side. Sometimes the guards are ornamented
+with only a simple vine, but more frequently with a reciprocal pattern,
+which, however, is so well drawn as to conflict in no wise with the
+harmony of the floral forms. In the drawing of the borders the weavers
+exercise greater latitude than in any other part of the rug; for
+occasionally they add a narrow outer edging of dark colour, place the
+reciprocal figure next to the innermost stripe as a fringe to the field,
+or increase the number of stripes to seven. Rarely is the medallion
+wanting in modern pieces, but now and then the pendants are replaced by
+bunches of flowers, and in some pieces the corners extend along the
+sides in undulating lines until they meet near the centre.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 29. GHIORDES PRAYER RUG]
+
+All of these pieces are so closely woven that the fine bluish weft is
+hardly discernible at the back. Very few other rugs have such
+short-cut wool, which has a velvety appearance, rendered more effective
+by the soft, rich colours that are always in perfect harmony and
+excellent taste. As a rule they are dark. Ever present in the ground
+colours are deep blues and reds, suggestive of the hues of the so-called
+"Ispahans;" while olives, delicate greens, and ivory represent with
+consummate dignity of tone and design a lavish tracery of leaves and
+foliage motives.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue and red, with
+minor quantities of green, olive, buff, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots
+to inch horizontally twelve to eighteen; perpendicularly, twelve to
+twenty. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back. _Warp_, cotton, rarely
+linen; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is almost always
+doubled under the other; in a few pieces it is only depressed. _Weft_,
+cotton, of small diameter, dyed blue. A thread of weft of fine diameter
+crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, short and
+velvety. _Border_, generally of three stripes but sometimes as many as
+seven. Occasionally there is an outer edging of dark colour. _Sides_, a
+tightly wound double overcasting of red, blue, or black wool. _Both
+ends_, a narrow web, or web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Length_, four to twelve feet.
+_Width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KASHANS.—Near the centre of the province of Irak-Ajemi, on the ancient
+and well-travelled highway between Ispahan and Teheran, is the city of
+Kashan, from which, according to an old tradition, the three Wise Men of
+the East followed the Star of Bethlehem. Like many of the cities of
+Persia it is now largely in ruins; its homes are infested with
+scorpions; for many months of the year the heat, which in a measure is
+due to the proximity of the great salt desert that extends far into
+Khorassan, is unendurable; yet in spite of these inconveniences, for
+which perhaps familiarity has in a measure lent contempt, forty thousand
+people live there. In the past it has produced some of the greatest
+artists and artisans of weaving. It was once the home of Maksoud, whom
+Shah Ismael I ordered to weave the famous carpet of the Mosque of
+Ardebil, which, ranking among the greatest woven products that still
+exist, bears unmistakable evidence of the wonderful technique and
+artistic skill then practised in Kashan. Without a doubt other textile
+masterpieces of the XVI and XVII Centuries were woven there, for it
+would be unreasonable to believe that the city where Maksoud had learned
+his art was not at that time a prominent rug-producing centre.
+
+According to Persian tradition many of the antique silk carpets came
+from Kashan. At any rate, it has been for a long time customary to take
+the raw silk from other places to be spun and dyed there. Some of it is
+woven into rugs, which are considered among the best of modern pieces,
+though the demand for them is small.
+
+On the other hand, the woollen pieces are now found in every market,
+though it is only within recent years that they have been generally
+known. Occasionally they are defined as a higher grade of Sarouks, on
+account of the striking resemblance in texture, colours, and designs;
+yet there are certain distinctions: the warp is often linen, the nap is
+a little shorter, the texture slightly firmer, and there are a great
+number of border stripes. A feature that is more frequently found in
+these two classes than in any other is the fringe of hooks or short
+comb-like teeth that border the innermost stripe and extend into the
+field. Without doubt Kashans are among the most perfect as well as the
+most expensive woollen products of the modern Persian looms. Their
+velvet-like surface and rich sheen give them an appearance that to those
+unfamiliar with rugs seems like that of silken pieces. The fine wool is
+dyed with rich, deep tones of blue, olive, red, and brown; the perfectly
+balanced pattern is artistic as well as ornate; and on account of the
+very short nap the drawing of each minute detail is clear. In place of
+bold designs accentuated by masses of colour are delicate tracings of
+floral and foliage motives, of graceful arabesques and foliated stalks,
+so expressed in rhythmic lines and harmonious tones as to give a sense
+of the greatest refinement. Even though these rugs be modern and
+chemically washed, their wealth of artistic workmanship and exquisite
+colour make them exceedingly handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+yellowish brown, with minor quantities of light blue and green. _Knot_,
+Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally sixteen to twenty; perpendicularly,
+sixteen to twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down so
+that the warp is concealed and the weft almost hidden at back. _Warp_,
+generally cotton, rarely linen; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, generally cotton, of small
+diameter, dyed blue; rarely linen. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, very short and velvety.
+_Border_, generally of seven stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double
+overcasting in dark red, blue, or brown. _Lower end_, a narrow web.
+_Upper end_, a narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of very fine grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+SABABENDS.—Standing on the top of lofty Elwund, that rises on the
+boundary between the provinces of Ardelan and Irak-Ajemi, in
+Northwestern Persia, one would see within a radius of ninety miles as
+prolific a centre of rug weaving as anywhere exists. Just within this
+distance to the northwest are Sehna and Bijar, to the southeast is
+Sultanabad, to the southwest is Kermanshah; and skirting the mountain on
+the eastern side are the high plains where lie the districts of Hamadan,
+Feraghan, and Sarawan, as well as the village of Sarouk and less
+important centres of weaving.
+
+Among the valleys of the Sarawan district, that lies on the northern
+flanks of mountain ranges extending as far as Ispahan, are made the rugs
+which, by a corruption of the word Sarawan, are known as the Sarabends.
+No other rugs of Persia have a pattern that is so simple, and that for
+generations has been followed with so little variation. Nor are there
+any other modern rugs that have changed less from the old styles in
+respect to colour and quality. The typical pattern of the field consists
+of rows of pear designs arranged in transverse lines, with the smaller
+ends pointing in different directions in alternate lines. The pears of
+the field show great diversity of shape, but those of the borders are
+long, narrow, and most angular; yet they never assume the rectilinear
+figures found in Baku rugs. Only very rarely is there any departure from
+this pattern; though in a few old pieces is an adaptation of the Herati
+design, and now and then is seen a geometric figure, or human form, or
+the date when the piece was woven.
+
+The ground colour of the field may be blue, red, or white. If blue, it
+is so largely covered with pinkish or rose-coloured pears that the
+prevailing hue, when the pieces are viewed from a distance, is light
+red. If, on the other hand, the field is red, the pears are mostly blue;
+and if the field is ivory white, the pears are red and blue. In all old
+pieces the blue has rich, deep tones, the red has mellowed into soft
+rose or delicate pink, and the white has turned to ivory. This pleasing
+effect is increased by shades of yellow and green, which are added to
+the other colours of the pears.
+
+With few exceptions the borders have a large number of narrow stripes,
+of which the central is about one third the aggregate width. Its ground
+colour is ivory white, but the angular vine and pendent, narrow pears
+have the same colours as those of the field. On each side of it is
+usually a stripe with ground colour corresponding to that of the field
+and with an undulating vine and rosette. Almost invariably there is an
+outer stripe of reciprocal trefoil in red and blue, which may be
+balanced by a reciprocal sawtooth adjoining the field. It is not unusual
+to see large pieces with two white stripes, and very rarely one is seen
+with three.
+
+The best of these pieces are made in the town of Mirabad, which
+signifies the "city of Mir," and are accordingly called Mir-Sarabends.
+They can be distinguished from others, known to the trade as Royal
+Sarabends, by the fact that in tying the knots the yarn is so twisted
+that one thread of warp is doubled under the other; and in the latter
+each of the two threads appear with equal prominence at the back.
+Neither of them should ever be mistaken for Iran imitations, in which
+the pile is of much looser texture and is tied with the Ghiordes knot.
+For durability, there are very few modern pieces that will give the
+satisfaction of Sarabends; for as a rule they are stoutly and closely
+woven, and though there is monotony in the pattern, those coloured with
+vegetable dyes will grow more beautiful with age.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red or blue, with minor
+quantities of ivory, yellow, and green. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to thirteen; perpendicularly, nine to thirteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at
+back. _Warp_, cotton. In Mir-Sarabends one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is doubled under the other at back. In Royal Sarabends each is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, cotton, of fine diameter, and dyed red or
+blue. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, five to seven stripes,
+and occasionally even more. _Sides_, a red double overcasting. _Lower
+end_, a web, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a web and short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine
+grain. _Length_, five to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE V—GHIORDES PRAYER RUG_
+
+_Only now and then is seen a prayer Ghiordes that represents such a high
+type of artistic skill. The weaving follows more closely the fine
+technique of the Persian than that of the Asia Minor weaver. Yet it is
+the drawing and colouring that claim attention. The delicate tracery of
+the spandrel, the minute delineation of tendril and leaf in the border,
+and the perfect balance of every part of one side with a corresponding
+part in the other, resemble the finest workmanship of old Iran. Not only
+so, but the beautiful border pattern of rosette and leaf is so
+suggestive of the well-known Herati design that it seems not improbable
+that here is shown the influence of those Persian weavers that Solyman
+the Magnificent took with him to Asia Minor after his capture of Tabriz.
+The colour also displays dainty tones and careful shading found in no
+other class of Asia Minor rugs. Such pieces are usually regarded as
+products of the XVI Century._
+
+_Property of the Author_]
+
+
+BURUJIRDS.—About sixty miles to the west of Sultanabad and forty to the
+south of the Sarawan district is the city of Burujird. It is in a rich,
+well-watered valley and is surrounded by numerous hamlets. Most of the
+population are engaged in agriculture; and only a small part, who are
+stimulated by the increased prices occasioned by the rug industry of
+Sultanabad, are weavers. They produce pieces that resemble closely the
+Sarabend rugs, as the field is generally occupied with pear designs; but
+on account of the Ghiordes knot and cotton warp and weft, they might be
+mistaken for Iran rugs.
+
+
+SULTANABADS.—Southeastward from the plain of Feraghan is the city of
+Sultanabad, which in recent years has become important as the centre of
+a great rug industry controlled by Europeans and Americans. Higher
+prices, resulting from the constantly increasing Western demand for
+Persian rugs, have stimulated the native weavers to more persistent
+efforts. Those who are too poor to purchase wool and dyes[24] are
+supplied by the companies. Others, who are more dependent, are paid
+regular wages. Thus it happens that not only large numbers of looms are
+constantly at work in the city, but a hundred hamlets and villages that
+lie within a day's journey produce rugs that are marketed there. But
+while the output has been increased the true artistic spirit has been
+suppressed, and patterns favoured or supplied by foreign purchasers only
+are in demand. Most of the rugs are well woven, though there is a
+difference in grades. Some take the name of the city, others are called
+Savalans, from a range of mountains that lie to the north, and others
+are known as Mahals. Most of them are large pieces, rather coarsely
+woven.
+
+
+MUSKABADS.—In the district of Muskabad, a short distance to the
+northwest of Sultanabad, are produced rugs very similar to the Mahals.
+They come in the same large carpet sizes and nearly square shapes; they
+have almost the same harmonious colour scheme of unobtrusive red,
+yellow, blue, green, and ivory; they have the same cotton warp and weft,
+the same finish of sides and ends; but as a rule they are less closely
+woven. The patterns are varied. Occasionally they have large figures
+such as are seen in Gorevans, though these are more usual in Mahals. In
+some of them the field is covered with conventionalised leaf and floral
+form. But the usual type has two or more concentric medallions of
+different colours covered with the small Herati designs so distinctive
+of the Feraghans. When such is the case, the border has usually the
+turtle pattern in the main stripe and some stiffly drawn vine and floral
+pattern in the smaller stripes. But the velvety appearance, the elegant
+finish of old Feraghans, is always lacking. The nap is of soft wool of
+medium length, but the surface of the back displays coarse texture.
+These pieces lack the artistic qualities of most Persian rugs; but on
+account of their excellent quality of material and stoutness of weave
+they are very serviceable.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to fourteen; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed at
+back, and frequently nearly doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of
+medium to coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to
+five stripes, with a narrow outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting.
+_Lower end_, a very narrow web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, short
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of very
+coarse grain. _Length_, ten to eighteen feet. _Width_, two thirds to
+seven eighths length.
+
+
+JOSHAGHANS.—Lying to the southeast of Sultanabad and to the north of
+Ispahan is a district where a century ago were woven some of the best
+carpets of Persia, known as Joshaghans or Djushghans. Even long before
+then it was noted for its textile fabrics; but during the reign of Nadir
+Shah, who removed many of the best artisans from the central to the
+northwestern part of Persia, the carpet weaving received a new impulse,
+and continued to flourish there until nearly the middle of the last
+century. Since that time it has almost ceased, so that the genuine
+Joshaghans of rich, deep colour and skilfully drawn pattern are all
+sixty or more years of age. They may still be found scattered throughout
+the country, and should be carefully preserved; for they merit the high
+esteem accorded to them by the Persians themselves.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 30. GHIORDES RUG]
+
+In a few of these pieces are seen the Shah Abbas pattern. In other
+pieces the field is covered with scrolls, or with a lattice-work
+pattern in which small floral forms are the motives. Again it is
+occupied by pear designs encircled by small rounded figures, which
+combined form the outlines of a larger pear, while in the intervening
+spaces are small floral forms. The principal border stripe generally
+consists of floral designs, which not infrequently are some form of the
+Herati pattern. The secondary stripes often contain floral vines.
+
+Whatever the pattern of the field, the effect is always striking and
+beautiful; for the lines are never harsh, and the colours are rich. The
+ground is very frequently a rose tint, but is sometimes dark blue; and
+the overlying designs are rose, yellow, green, and ivory. The colours of
+the border are generally the same as those of the smaller designs, so
+that the effect is always harmonious. These rugs are excellently woven;
+and the soft lustrous wool of the pile, which is usually longer than
+that of Sarabends and Feraghans, has often an appearance like plush.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with lesser
+quantities of yellow, green, brown, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, eight to
+thirteen. The rows of knots are not always firmly pressed down, so that
+the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, usually cotton, occasionally wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at the back. _Weft_, wool, sometimes dyed red, brown, or
+reddish brown, but frequently of natural colour. A thread of weft
+generally crosses twice, but sometimes three times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length. _Border_, usually
+three stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting that is generally brown or
+black. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to sixteen feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+SEHNAS.—Seldom has prophecy been more precisely fulfilled than the one
+made a decade ago that the old Persian rugs would rapidly disappear from
+the market. Nor is it better exemplified than in the case of those woven
+before the middle of the last century in Sehna, capital of Ardelan, for
+to-day it is exceedingly difficult to obtain any of them. Nevertheless,
+there are still many looms among the four or five thousand families of
+the city, where true to early traditions are woven modern fabrics that
+maintain the same floral Persian patterns, the same colour, the same
+general character of weave; but they lack the fine technique of the
+older pieces. It is, indeed, surprising that these modern pieces so
+closely resemble the old in all save quality, when it is considered that
+Sehna is distant only fifty miles from the western border of Persia;
+that it is surrounded by Kurdish tribes who for generations have woven
+rugs with nomadic features; and that it is not far distant from other
+important rug centres.
+
+To one familiar with the leading characteristics it is possible at once
+to distinguish these rugs. Their nap is exceedingly short, and the weave
+is so distinctive that with eyes closed an expert will generally
+recognise them after rubbing the hand across the front and back. Their
+patterns, also, conform to well-established types, yet have sufficient
+variety to be always interesting. They may be conveniently divided into
+two groups: one represents the entire field covered with floral designs,
+and the other represents a field of uniform colour with a medallion at
+the centre, or with two or more concentric medallions. The former, which
+is undoubtedly the older group, has generally a small diaper pattern of
+the Herati design or floral figures daintily drawn. To obviate too great
+monotony, a number of the old pieces have the leaves and flowers so
+adjusted that the ground conveys the effect of lattice work, or less
+often have small trees of cypress regularly placed amid the other floral
+designs. Again, the field may be covered with large pear designs placed
+in rows. Of modern pieces the most beautiful pattern, as a rule,
+consists of a field of rich, uniform colour, as ivory or red, containing
+at its centre a single medallion of contrasting ground colour, which is
+generally dark blue or even black. The four corners of the field have
+serrated edges and are covered with floral designs similar to those of
+the medallion. The borders, which are invariably narrow, usually consist
+of three stripes, but sometimes of only two. With very few exceptions
+they are floral, and in the main one, that has a ground colour of yellow
+or red, are represented designs which are also similar to those of the
+medallion. Some of the old Sehnas had borders that were less floral than
+more modern pieces, and the turtle design so common to Feraghans was
+often used. Isolated and adventitious designs, such as are seen in all
+nomadic rugs, are never found in these pieces, nor are the floriated
+scrolls that are peculiar to Sarouks, Kashans, and Kermanshahs.
+
+As is seldom the case with modern rugs, occasionally both linen and
+silk are used for the warp, and silk for overcasting, but generally the
+warp is cotton and the overcasting is of wool. The city of Sehna has
+given its name to the kind of knot with which almost all the rugs of
+China and Turkestan as well as many of the rugs of India and Persia are
+tied; yet strange as it may seem, its own weavers have been inconsistent
+in its use. To be sure, most of its rugs have the Sehna knot, but a
+surprisingly large proportion of both recent and comparatively old
+pieces have the Ghiordes knot. Only a few other rugs ever adopt the same
+style of weaving; for a thread of weft passes between two rows of knots
+but once, so that at the back only alternate threads of white cotton
+warp appear between these knots and thus give to the weave a checkered
+appearance or quincunx effect. Moreover, the yarn of the knots is not
+drawn tightly against the warp, so that in whatever direction the hand
+is rubbed the surface feels like a file. Very few other rugs are so
+closely woven, as four hundred knots to the square inch are not
+uncommon; and in very old pieces nearly double that number are now and
+then met with. Since both warp and weft are of fine threads and the nap
+is very short, these rugs are exceedingly thin and, accordingly, are not
+well adapted for floor use.
+
+Some old saddle-bags are still to be found, rich in their fields of deep
+blues and floral forms of brighter tones, but unfortunately they are
+somewhat marred by the long slit in the centre made to fit the saddle.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+ivory, with lesser quantities of green, light blue, and yellow. _Knot_,
+Sehna, often Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally eleven to twenty;
+perpendicularly, twelve to twenty-four. The rows of knots are closely
+pressed down, but the yarn of knots is not drawn tight against the warp.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally linen, rarely silk. Each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+generally cotton, occasionally wool or linen, rarely silk. A single
+thread of small diameter crosses only once between every two rows of
+knots, so that the white spots of transverse warp exposed at back have a
+quincunx appearance. _Pile_, wool clipped very short. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a tightly wound double overcasting. _Lower end_, a
+short web, or web and warp loops, or web and short warp fringe. _Upper
+end_, short web and fringe. _Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+fine grain but very rough. _Length_, three to seven feet. _Width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BIJARS.—One hundred miles beyond Hamadan, on the road to Tabriz, is the
+city of Bijar, capital of the district of Gehrous. It is surrounded by
+barren mountains that rise out of high table-lands, where for miles
+scarcely a habitation or bush breaks the monotony, and where not even a
+blade of grass or flower brightens the cracked and sun-parched earth,
+except for a short season of the year. As is the case throughout nearly
+all Persia, the spirit of desolation has crept into the city; the
+grapevine climbs over ruined walls; the shade of poplars and willows
+falls alike on decaying palace and crumbling houses. Yet there still
+remain caravansaries, schools, and mosques, as well as a population of
+five thousand people. Without doubt the importance of the city is partly
+due to the regiment of soldiers that the governor maintains to keep in
+subjection the bands of robbers and fierce Kurds who, in large numbers,
+live throughout the surrounding country. Nor are they the only tribes of
+fierce foreign blood dwelling in this region; for it is stated that
+during the invasions of the Timurids, a body of Turkomans from the
+fortress town of old Saraks, where the corners of Persia and Afghanistan
+meet Turkestan, followed the conqueror westward and settled here. After
+them is named a small river that flows a short distance to the north and
+finally empties into Lake Urumiah; and it is not unusual to apply the
+name Saraks to the rugs woven about Bijar, though they have none of the
+Turkoman characteristics.
+
+By adopting some of the best qualities of both Persian and Kurdish rugs,
+the Bijar weavers have produced pieces of unusual merit. The foundation
+is generally of wool; but unlike almost all other rugs with nomadic
+features one thread of warp to each knot is doubled beneath the other in
+the process of weaving, so that it is almost or entirely concealed.
+Bijars are accordingly pieces of great firmness and durability.
+Moreover, their threads of warp and weft are of coarse diameter, so that
+they are invariably thick even when the nap is not long. They are also
+distinctive in the effective massing of bright and strong colours.
+Perhaps the association with ranges of treeless hills, with salt wastes,
+with vast plains where rainless months leave the grass parched and the
+flowers withered, has deadened the Persian love for the brilliant,
+joyous colours so acutely cherished in other parts of Asia; but by the
+weavers of Bijar it is not unusual to discard many of the Persian
+colours, which, however rich, are subdued and sombre, and adopt the
+brighter hues seen in some of the rugs of Asia Minor. Yet, as is not
+always the case with the latter, there is no sense of outraged taste;
+and though crimson reds, deep blues, or tawny camel's hair be brought in
+relief against a field of strongly contrasting colour, the effect,
+except in modern pieces of poor dyes, is never displeasing.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 31. KULAH PRAYER RUG]
+
+In the pattern much latitude is exercised, but only in the oldest pieces
+are found the gracefully flowing lines suggestive of the highest Persian
+art. In many pieces a central medallion and triangular-shaped corners,
+separated by a field of plain or slightly shaded colour, is a favourite
+pattern. But the defining lines are severe, and lack the delicate
+drawing characteristic of Kermanshahs and Sarouks. Or the field may be
+covered with a lattice-work pattern that contains small repetitive
+forms, consisting of slender stems supporting one or more flowers.
+Frequently a rug is covered with a medley of designs composed of
+conventionalised flowers, crudely drawn trees, as well as birds,
+animals, or human beings. The borders generally consist of an outer
+edging of plain colour, and three stripes, on which are often
+represented purely geometric forms, but more frequently the undulating
+vine and pendent leaves, such as are common to most Persian rugs.
+Fortunately many sterling pieces still remain that have none of the
+earmarks of factory-made rugs, but are beautiful with their soft wool
+and lustrous colours, as well as interesting with their blending of
+Persian and Kurdish features.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, also blue, ivory,
+green, yellow, and chocolate. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back and the
+weft partly hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse
+diameter, frequently dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, of medium length, usually wool, but
+frequently partly of camel's hair. _Border_, of three stripes, often
+with an outer edging. _Sides_, a double overcasting in red or purple.
+_Lower end_, a web that is occasionally coloured or a narrow braided
+selvage. _Upper end_, a web with loose warp fringe and sometimes a
+braided selvage. The webbing is occasionally turned back and hemmed.
+_Texture_, very firm. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Length_, six
+to sixteen feet. _Width_, one quarter to three fifths length.
+
+
+KERMANSHAHS.—On an ancient highway between Bagdad and Teheran is the
+city of Kermanshah. As it is situated near the frontiers of northwestern
+Persia, facing the Turkish provinces, and is surrounded by mountains
+where once wandered bands of homeless marauding Kurds who recognised no
+government, it was formerly a most important stronghold of defence. A
+century ago Robert Kerr Porter, who visited the city, referred to the
+luxurious gardens and orchards that surrounded it, and to the villages
+of the vicinity in which were made "carpets of most beautiful colour and
+fabric." Within later years the moat has filled with rubbish, the
+encircling walls have crumbled, and the deserted bazaars and
+caravansaries show that its present population of about twelve thousand
+is but a small part of what it has been. With its decline in political
+importance followed a decline in industrial activities; yet for a long
+time it remained a rug-producing centre of importance. In 1880 Sir
+George Birdwood wrote that "the finest Oriental rugs of our time, which
+at the Vienna Exhibition astonished all beholders, are those made in the
+palace of the Governor of Kermanshah, in Kurdistan, and are only
+disposed of as presents."[25] And in 1890 a traveller[26] spoke of the
+weaving as follows: "It is a process carried on in homes, hovels, and
+tents by women and children.... The vegetable dyes used are soft and
+artistic, especially a wonderful red and the various shades of indigo.
+The dull, rich tints, even when new, are quite beautiful. The women
+pursue their work chiefly in odds and ends of time, and in some cases
+make it much of a pastime."
+
+From this city and the surrounding hills are still obtained large
+quantities of rugs, which follow the same patterns that for years have
+been characteristic of this district. Yet most of the modern Kermanshahs
+are made elsewhere in the work-houses of exporting companies. So
+noticeable is the resemblance in drawing and colouring of some of them
+to the Kirmans of Southeastern Persia, that they are offered now and
+then by dealers as real Kirmans, though they lack the fine technique and
+artistic merit of the latter. They possess, however, the same wealth of
+floral expression, for throughout border and field are sprays of flowers
+on delicate vines and foliate stalks. Most of the pieces now seen
+contain at the centre of the field a large medallion, which may have
+serrated or lobed edges, be oval or of diamond shape, and with or
+without pendants. The corners are defined by lines that do not always
+conform to those of the medallion; and the borders have always several
+stripes, of which the main one is usually but little wider than the
+others. In all these different parts are floral and foliage motives that
+find expression in sunflowers, roses, tulips, daisies, and many simpler
+forms, supported by delicate branching sprays and vines.
+
+There are, however, other patterns less frequently met with, as it is
+not unusual to see elaborate pear designs, and sometimes the cypress or
+the palm tree naturalistically drawn. Covering the field of a rare old
+Kermanshah recently seen were thirty large panels, which like so many
+small rugs contained central fields that were alternately coloured blue
+and ivory. Surrounding each of these little fields, on which were
+represented the arch of a temple and the tree of life, were borders
+wherein were woven verses from the Koran, and at the intersections of
+the borders were floral designs like roses. Encircling all the panels
+was a wide border containing escutcheons in which were woven other
+verses. Without doubt this rug was used for sacred purposes. In fact, a
+larger proportion of Kermanshahs than almost any other Persian rugs have
+prayer arches as well as verses from the Koran inscribed in some part of
+them, but with very few exceptions they are recently woven and bear no
+evidence of devotional usage.
+
+The general colour scheme is distinctive, for the tones are much lighter
+than those of most other Persian rugs. Frequently a field of ivory
+surrounds the central medallion, though sometimes a light rose red is
+used. Other colours are light blue, green, and buff, which are softened
+by the floccy quality of the excellent and moderately short-clipped
+wool. One feature common to almost all of them is the narrow edging of
+pinkish red that surrounds the border. This edging, the foliate scrolls,
+the soft light tones, and the rather coarse weaving, that leaves the
+white or sometimes pinkish weft exposed at the back, are characteristics
+by which these rugs may readily be distinguished. As they come in all
+sizes from small mats to large carpets, and have tones that harmonise
+with almost any surroundings, they are a most popular class with those
+who care little for association and ignore the fact that they are
+chemically washed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally light rose and ivory,
+also blue, green, and buff. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally
+twelve to eighteen, perpendicularly eleven to eighteen. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back, but the
+weft is conspicuous. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter,
+sometimes dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, soft and of medium length. _Border_,
+frequently of three stripes of almost equal width, but sometimes many
+stripes; also an outer edging that is generally red, but occasionally
+blue. _Sides_, a double overcasting in same colour as edging. _Lower
+end_, a narrow web and warp loops, or short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to fourteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+WESTERN KURDISTANS.—Within the land lying between the Anti-Taurus and
+Zagros mountains, where the Euphrates and Tigris rivers have their
+sources, dwell a people almost as untamed as when in the dawn of history
+they were designated the "Warriors;" or centuries later, under the name
+"Carduchis," opposed the retreat of Xenophon and his ten thousand
+Greeks. Now they are known as "Kurds," of whom large numbers, wild,
+brave, and hospitable, live a nomadic life among table-lands partly
+covered with sycamores and oaks, or follow their sheep over lofty
+pine-crowned mountains, that for long months are enveloped in snow.
+Doubtless the cheering influence of green hillsides and the rich
+vegetation of innumerable valleys, where streams flow perennially, is in
+a measure responsible for their more sprightly aspect when contrasted
+with that of the Persians. They recognise no law but the will of their
+chief, to whom they maintain strictest fealty. "There was up to a recent
+period no more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the
+East than the court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like
+another Saladin, the bey ruled in patriarchial state, surrounded by his
+clansmen with reverence and affection, and attended by a body-guard of
+young Kurdish warriors, clad in chain armor, with flaunting silken
+scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance, and sword, as in the time of the
+Crusades."[27]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 32. MELEZ PRAYER RUG]
+
+Large numbers, also, are settled in Persia, where they cultivate the
+soil of small tracts of land, or live in villages of stone houses. Many
+of them are scattered around Lake Urumiah. Others have made their homes
+in the district of Kermanshah, and not a few have wandered as far as
+Khorassan. But wherever they may be, they are distinguished by their
+appearance; for the men are bold and handsome, and the young women, whom
+custom permits to appear unveiled in public, are beautiful as well as
+graceful.
+
+There is no racial distinction between the Kurds who live the pastoral
+life and those who dwell in villages, or between the Kurds of Asiatic
+Turkey and those of Persia; yet environment has produced a marked
+difference in their textile fabrics. Those woven by the tribes that live
+among the mountains that encircle Lake Van and extend to the north of
+Diarbekr embody the wild characteristics of the weavers. They are strong
+and coarse, with close weave, long nap, and bold patterns, that suggest
+Caucasian influence devoid of artistic feeling. In some of them is a
+large central diamond or lozenge surrounded by latch-hooks, as well as
+floral forms so conventionalised as to be purely geometric; now and then
+Arabic symbols and letters are scattered over the field. Moreover, the
+colours lack the delicate shades of Persian rugs, but possess rich,
+strong hues obtained from native dyes that applied to the excellent wool
+give it a warm, lustrous appearance. Brown is very largely used. There
+are also dark reds and blues brightened by dashes of white and yellow.
+Only the Kazaks, Tcherkess, and one or two Asia Minor weaves are trimmed
+with such long nap, which, together with the deep colours and long
+shaggy fringe, give these pieces a semi-barbaric appearance possessed by
+no other rugs. Sometimes they are confused with the Mosuls; but as a
+rule the pile is longer, and they are more coarsely woven. In fact, the
+yarn is so coarse that it is not unusual to see pieces with only thirty
+or forty knots to the square inch. Like the Persian-Kurdish rugs, they
+rarely come in large, almost square shapes, and are frequently decidedly
+oblong. They may, however, easily be distinguished from them by their
+cruder patterns, darker colours, coarser texture, and the fact that each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+the back.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white, and the natural
+colour of the undyed wool. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+four to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine. A half knot, as it appears
+at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are
+closely pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by
+a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter,
+and often dyed a reddish colour. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, occasionally camel's or goat's
+hair clipped long. _Border_, generally of three stripes. _Sides_, a
+heavy double overcasting, usually in brown or black, occasionally in
+several different colours. _Lower end_, a narrow web, through which runs
+a coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, a narrow web, one or more
+rows of knots and long, coarse warp fringe. _Texture_, very stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Length_, five to sixteen feet.
+_Width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+PERSIAN KURDISTANS.—Nowhere is the influence of association among
+weavers more evident than in the Kurdish rugs woven by the tribes
+settled in the rich valleys of Northwestern Persia, as is apparent in
+weave, colours, and pattern, which differ widely from those seen in the
+Kurdish rugs of Asiatic Turkey. The warp is only rarely of coarse goats'
+hair, and is generally soft, brown wool. The pile is much shorter, so
+that the drawing is clearly defined. Likewise, the colours are more
+varied and of more delicate tones so as to include lighter shades of
+green, rose, and ivory with the darker reds, blues, and browns. But the
+chief distinction consists of the more artistic pattern. The medallion
+in the centre of the field with corner pieces in which appear some form
+of repetitive pattern is most common. Instead of large figures are often
+the more dainty Herati designs borrowed from the Feraghans and the
+Sehnas, or the pear design from the Sarabends. Now and then is seen a
+rare old piece with field completely covered with drawings of the tree
+of life and strange floral conceits; but the pattern that is
+pre-eminently typical of this type of Kurdish pieces is the Mina Khani,
+though it is occasionally adopted in other rugs. The white and yellowish
+flowers, connected by a lattice work sub-pattern of brown or olive,
+rests on a ground of dark blue, that in accordance with a feature
+peculiar to rugs of Kurdish weaves varies from one end of the field to
+the other, so as to suggest that their wandering life often made it
+difficult to obtain the roots and herbs necessary to produce similar
+shades. As is rarely the case with other patterns, the naturalistic
+flowers that are pendent from the undulating vine of the main stripe and
+the flowers of the field have nearly the same drawing. The two remaining
+stripes of the narrow border have most simple vines.
+
+Almost without exception rugs of this class are stoutly woven. To
+assure firmness, one thread of warp is depressed below the other in
+tying the knots; and the weft that is thrown across for filling is of
+fair quality. On account of the firm texture, excellent wool, and good
+colours it is still possible to obtain moderately old pieces, that as
+objects of utility as well as ornament are desirable for their sterling
+qualities.
+
+A similarity exists between the Persian-Kurdish, Mosul, and Bijar rugs;
+but a precise, even if easily overlooked, difference in the weave serves
+to distinguish one from the other. As may be seen by examining the backs
+of typical specimens, in Mosuls every thread of warp lies in the same
+plane parallel with the surface of the pile; in the Persian Kurdistans
+one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is depressed at an
+acute angle to that plane; and in Bijars one of the two threads of warp
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other so as to be at right
+angles to that plane.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is no longer than wide and is frequently not so long.
+The yarn is loosely woven, so that each separate ply is distinct. The
+rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is largely concealed
+and the weft partly hidden at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the other at back;
+but sometimes each is equally prominent. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots, only rarely once. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally some camel's
+hair of medium length. _Border_, three to four stripes. _Sides_, a heavy
+double overcasting in dark colour. _Lower end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and warp loops. _Upper end_, web crossed by a
+parti-coloured cord, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, very firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet.
+_Usual width_, five eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAJES.—Dwelling near Hamadan, in the northwestern part of Persia, are
+tribes who weave rugs that are known in the markets as Karajes. In their
+colour scheme, length of nap, and texture they resemble many of the
+Kurdistans; but in the technicalities of weave they show a marked
+difference. As a rule, a single thread of weft crosses only once between
+two rows of knots, or in a few pieces two threads of weft pass side by
+side as though one. In this particular they resemble Hamadans; but the
+alignment of their knots at the back is more regular, their weft is
+inserted with some slack, their warp is of wool, and their weft is
+almost always of wool. They are generally runners, with long nap of
+soft, lustrous wool, with rich colours, and with border of three
+stripes. The pattern is Iranian, and very often consists of a small bush
+or sprig of leaf and flower disposed in formal array throughout the
+field. Sometimes the floral forms are placed within the diamonds formed
+by a trellis pattern, but more frequently they are arranged in rows like
+the pear designs of Sarabends. In some pieces they are very much
+conventionalised and suggest similar figures seen in rugs of Southern
+Caucasia; and in others stem, leaf, and flower are very realistic.
+Another pattern frequently followed consists of three or four large
+diamond-shaped medallions extending from one end of the field to the
+other. The borders are moderately narrow, and an undulating vine of
+well-known Persian character generally appears in one or more of the
+stripes. As these pieces are almost always comparatively old, the
+vegetable dyes that were used for colouring have mellowed, and have a
+richness of tone that is accentuated by the depth of pile and softness
+of wool. The prevailing tone of many is a deep plum colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue or plum and
+red, with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to twelve; perpendicularly,
+seven to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide,
+and occasionally is longer. The rows of knots, which have even alignment
+at back, are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool, rarely cotton; each
+of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool, rarely cotton; a single thread of medium diameter crosses
+once between every two rows of knots; but in parts of the same rug two,
+three, or even four threads of small diameter will cross side by side as
+a single coarse thread. Occasionally a thread of weft crosses three or
+four times. The filling of weft stands up as high as the knots at the
+back, giving an even surface. _Pile_, wool, of medium length or
+moderately long. _Border_, of three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy double
+overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and short
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, eight to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to
+one half length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 33. MELEZ RUG]
+
+
+TABRIZ.—Although Tabriz, capital of the province of Azerbijan, is
+situated in a remote corner of Persia, from the earliest times it has
+been one of the most important centres in the Orient for the production
+of carpets. They were well known in the days of the Caliphs; and some of
+the earliest masterpieces that now remain were woven there during the
+reign of Shah Tamasp, who extended to this industry his royal patronage.
+This city has been for a long period on the great routes of caravans
+passing to Trebizond and Tiflis from the country to the south and east,
+so that it has become the principal mart of Persia for the export of
+rugs gathered from surrounding regions. Nevertheless, it still continues
+to produce its own pieces; but the weavers are in the employ of foreign
+companies who prescribe the character of workmanship. As a consequence,
+the rugs are of good material, excellently woven; and though many of the
+old dyes are no longer used, the colours as a rule are fair; yet on
+account of the mathematical exactness of their formal patterns the truly
+Oriental spirit is largely lacking.
+
+Since the rugs are made solely to meet the requirements of Western
+buyers, the patterns are various. Most of them consist of a large
+central medallion surrounded by a broad field of ivory, blue, or red
+that extends to the sides and ends. In others, a small diamond occupies
+the centre and is surrounded by a series of concentric medallions.
+Although in these respects they correspond with Kermanshahs, Sarouks,
+and Kashans, the patterns of their fields lack the long scrolls and
+interlacing branches, and consist frequently of short, slender stems
+supporting fronds, leaves, flowers, or the pear designs arranged so as
+to present almost the appearance of lace-work. Sometimes the drawing is
+a delicate tracery representing intertwining arabesques. A field
+completely covered with the small designs peculiar to Sehnas, or
+containing the disjunct forms of nomadic rugs, is never seen; and yet it
+is not improbable that many of the early Tabriz weavers were Kurds.
+Sometimes the flowers are similar to the roses of Kirmans, or are
+realistically drawn compositæ surrounded by delicate leaves on graceful
+stems; some times the small designs are as formal as the palmettes of
+old Ispahans, from which they were doubtless copied; again, the
+naturalistic and conventional may be blended together in an harmonious
+whole. But whatever the pattern, the different parts show the perfect
+balance so frequently seen in the antique pieces of three or four
+centuries ago. Nevertheless, to these types are many exceptions, since
+the weavers will produce for hire any class of rug or copy any coloured
+drawing.
+
+The borders differ from those of Kermanshahs, with which these rugs are
+frequently compared, in the fact that in their central stripe the
+continuous vine of leaf and flower is less conspicuous; and in its place
+are often palmettes, pears, shrubs, or formal trees separated by
+foliated scrolls. Not infrequently the smaller stripes, also, have a
+repetitive pattern of leaf and flower, though in some of the many
+stripes is usually a well-drawn vine. Again, the border may consist of a
+series of cartouches that have been copied from much older rugs and
+contain verses of the Koran or of Persian poets. Within recent years
+this tendency among the Tabriz and Kermanshah weavers to imitate not
+only borders but also fields of old masterpieces is increasing.
+
+A feature peculiar to a very large number of these rugs is the adoption
+of very finely spun linen for the warp; though cotton, which is used for
+the weft, is sometimes substituted. The knots are carefully tied, and
+the closely woven texture presents an appearance at the back similar to
+that of Sarouks; but the almost concealed weft is generally either white
+or pink. The weave compared with that of Kermanshahs is finer, but the
+wool of the closely shorn nap is neither so soft to the touch nor so
+silky, the colours are harsher, and the patterns more formal. These rugs
+are made in all sizes, though most are large and almost square.
+
+_Type characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally twelve to twenty;
+perpendicularly, ten to twenty-two. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is hidden and the weft partly concealed at back.
+_Warp_, generally cotton, frequently linen; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is doubled under the other. _Weft_, as a rule, is
+cotton, occasionally it is wool or linen, of fine diameter, and
+frequently dyed pink. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short and harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, from five to eight stripes and an outer edging. _Sides_, a
+two-cord selvage. _Both ends_, a narrow web and loose warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine texture. _Usual length_,
+nine to eighteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+GOREVANS.—Of the many rugs now made in Persia and designed primarily for
+use, few are of such moderate price as the Gorevans, which, during
+recent years, have been imported in large numbers from the province of
+Azerbijan in Northwestern Persia. A hasty glance suggests Occidental
+craftsmanship, but in every essential they are distinctly Oriental.
+Their stout weave, large size, and nearly square shape place them in the
+class of Persian pieces often called carpets, to which belong the
+Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mesheds, and rugs of Tabriz. Yet they are
+frequently larger than any of these, and are readily distinguished from
+them by their colours and patterns. It is true that they have the same
+light shades, but the tones are in a distinctly different scale,
+consisting principally of dull brick-red, light terra cotta, buff, dark
+blue, dull green, yellow, and ivory, which, when once recognised, are
+rarely mistaken for those of any other rugs. Nor are the colours
+distributed in patches so small as to blend when viewed at a short
+distance, but are of sufficient masses to be separately observed and
+analysed.
+
+The patterns are equally distinctive. The field is generally covered
+with a number of concentric hexagonal-shaped medallions, of which the
+longer sides of the largest are often marked with conspicuous
+indentations such as are not seen in classes made in other districts.
+All of the medallions are covered with large designs, in which the
+artist has departed from the usual forms of vine, leaf, and flower, that
+poorly imitate the splendid examples of so-called "Ispahans," and in
+many instances has represented them in the archaic drawing of the oldest
+remaining Persian carpets. Hard, straight lines with angles replacing
+graceful curves define the medallions, corners, stems, leaves, and
+flowers. And not infrequently the formal treatment shows a European
+influence, as when all semblance of leaf and flower has disappeared in
+the extremely conventionalised forms that are placed with set regularity
+in the field. A very noticeable feature of these rugs is the manner in
+which the designs are coloured, as it is not unusual to represent a
+large figure in two strongly contrasting colours, as blue and pink
+separated by a stiffly drawn line.
+
+The designs of the corners are similar to those of the central
+medallions, but the designs of the borders are dissimilar. The small
+stripes are marked with Persian vines of well-known floral and leaf
+forms that show nothing of the drawing characteristic of the field. The
+main stripe occasionally has cartouches and star medallions, but in most
+instances has the turtle pattern, though its treatment differs from the
+usual form seen in Feraghans. A co-ordination in colour exists between
+field and border. The ground of both the main stripe and one of the
+medallions is often a dark blue or a red, while the ground of the other
+stripes corresponds with those of other medallions.
+
+All of the Gorevans are modern pieces, and so lack the interest of those
+that follow traditional patterns; but their stout weave, warm colours,
+and archaic designs make them both serviceable and pleasing.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dull red, dark blue, and
+buff, with minor quantities of green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six
+to ten. The most conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back,
+is, as a rule, longer than wide. The rows of knots are somewhat pressed
+down, but the warp is rarely entirely concealed at back. _Warp_, cotton;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is usually depressed below
+the other at back; sometimes both threads are equally prominent. _Weft_,
+cotton, of coarse diameter, sometimes dyed blue. A thread of weft
+crosses only once between every two rows of knots, or frequently twice.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally of three stripes,
+occasionally four or five. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both
+ends_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_, rather loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to sixteen feet. _Usual
+width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+BAKSHIS.—A close relationship exists between the Gorevans, which are a
+comparatively modern product, and several other less known sub-classes
+of earlier origin that are woven in small towns in the east central part
+of the province of Azerbijan. One of these towns, located fifty miles to
+the southeast of Tabriz, is Bakshis, which formerly produced rugs that
+were highly esteemed by the Persians, before the weavers were corrupted
+by a spirit of commercialism. Those which are exported to-day are of
+little artistic value, are poorly coloured, and carelessly woven. The
+patterns are inferior copies of other well-known classes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 34. RHODIAN RUG]
+
+
+SERAPIS.—The rugs known as Serapis are named after the village of Sirab
+in the mountainous district between Tabriz and Ardebil; but they are
+made not only there, but also in the country farther to the east. The
+large sizes are frequently mistaken for Gorevans, as they are of
+similar shape and have similar finish of sides and ends, yet as a rule
+they are better woven. Many of them follow the same patterns of
+concentric medallions, but the lines of others are more artistically
+drawn. Although the borders lack the gracefully symmetric vines of old
+Iranian pieces, the drawing is interesting in its individuality and is
+in harmony with that of the field. All the colours are cheerful. A field
+of ivory or some light shade of buff usually surrounds the central
+medallions, on which appear soft and pleasing tones of smaller designs.
+Yet on the whole there is a tendency to employ richer and deeper tones
+than those of Gorevans. The smaller pieces often contain more elaborate
+patterns, but there are always the same pleasing and unobtrusive shades
+of colour.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, generally Sehna,
+frequently Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally much depressed below the
+other at back, and frequently doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton,
+of coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two cords, or double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion to the sides. The selvage or overcasting is usually
+in red or buff. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops or short warp
+fringe. _Upper end_, a narrow web and warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, ten to eighteen
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+HEREZ.—The city of Herez is in the extreme eastern part of the province
+of Azerbijan, where for a long time the weavers steadily adhered to the
+sterling values of early fabrics and produced pieces that were followed
+with slight modification in many of the former Gorevans. In a measure
+the rugs of Tabriz also are reflected in the medallion pattern of some
+of these pieces, but for their gracefully flowing lines are substituted
+more rectangular ones; and in place of many colours are few, of which
+blue and a reddish copper are particularly noticeable. Another
+well-known and interesting type consists of a field of white, on which,
+with formal precision, are represented, in delicate shades of red, blue,
+yellow, and green, archaic leaves and flowers supported by stems and
+tendrils that are so conventionalised as to form geometric lines and
+angles. At regular intervals the branching tendrils assume the shape of
+arches, of which in larger pieces there are frequently one or two dozen;
+and so closely do they resemble prayer arches that these rugs are
+sometimes mistaken for namazliks. The borders usually consist of three
+stripes. The outer and inner are narrow guards containing some simple
+floral figure, and the broad central stripe has often a continuous vine
+with formal leaves and a conspicuous design suggestive of the
+cloud-band. The tones are never harsh; many of the pieces are large and
+almost square, and the wool of the pile is generally excellent.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, light blue, and
+reddish brown, also some yellow and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, six to twelve. The most
+conspicuous half of a knot, as it appears at the back, is longer than
+wide. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the weft
+is noticeable at back. _Warp_, cotton; one of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is depressed below the other at back, or each thread is
+equally prominent. _Weft_, of cotton, seldom of wool, of moderately
+coarse diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows
+of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally of three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Lower end_, a very narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Upper end_, a short warp fringe. _Texture_,
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain. _Usual length_, nine to
+fifteen feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to seven eighths length.
+
+
+SUJ-BULAKS.—About fifty miles to the south of Lake Urumiah and the same
+distance from the western boundary of Persia is the old Kurdish capital
+of Suj-Bulak. Kurds still largely predominate in the district and
+comprise most of the population of the city, to the discomfort of the
+much smaller number of Persians, for whose protection a large garrison
+was formerly maintained. Accordingly, the rugs made in this vicinity are
+strongly characteristic of Kurdish pieces in the strong texture, the
+excellent quality of wool, the rich, dark colours, the finish of sides
+and ends. The patterns also are largely Kurdish, but frequently show the
+influence of Persian association.
+
+In typical old pieces deep reds and blues are largely used. One of them
+is generally the ground colour of the central field, and shows the
+Kurdish influence by a gradual shading from end to end; the other
+appears in the overlying pattern, which partakes of a floral character.
+The drawing sometimes represents flowering plants, such as the rose
+bush, arranged in perpendicular rows and brightened by tints of white,
+green, or yellow. Detached flowers not infrequently line the edges of
+the field. The wide borders also, as a rule, have vines and floral
+forms.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and blue, with
+minor quantities of brown, green, yellow, and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to
+twelve. The rows of knots are, as a rule, pressed down, so that the
+alignment of each half knot is very uneven; but frequently this feature
+is not regularly maintained in all parts of the same rug, so that here
+and there the warp is noticeable at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back, but
+occasionally one is depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, of three to four
+stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords in blue, red,
+or brown. _Lower end_, a web through which runs a parti-coloured cord,
+and a warp fringe. Frequently there is a braided selvage in addition to
+the web. _Upper end_, the same as lower, excepting that the web is
+occasionally turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to
+seven feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to three fifths length.
+
+
+KARADAGHS.—In the extreme northwestern part of Persia, between the city
+of Tabriz and the river Aras, is a mountain range called Kara Dagh,
+which signifies the "Black Mountain," On its slopes and in the adjoining
+valleys rugs have been woven for at least several hundred years, and at
+one time were well known in Europe, but few have reached this country.
+Most of them are produced for home use, so that they are, as a rule,
+well woven, of good material, and of vegetable dyes. They resemble in
+colour scheme, weave, and finish of sides and ends the rugs of Karabagh,
+which immediately adjoins this district on the north. Indeed, in no
+other rugs of Persia are the traditions of Iranian weavers so much
+disregarded and Caucasian ideas so closely followed.
+
+The field of many of these rugs is completely covered with
+conventionalised flowers of several different colours, so arranged that
+diagonal lines are of similar colours. Sometimes it is covered with a
+pattern of hexagonal-shaped figures containing geometric forms or
+conventionalised floral designs. Again, it may contain the Herati
+pattern or one similar to the Mina-Khani. In fact, some repetitive
+pattern of small design is the usual type; but now and then some form of
+pole medallion, which the weavers have learned from their more southern
+neighbours, is substituted. The patterns of the borders are either
+mechanically drawn vines or contain geometric figures characteristic of
+Caucasian pieces. For guard stripes the reciprocal trefoil is constantly
+used.
+
+The colour scheme is generally bright and pleasing. A favourite colour
+for the field is blue or a camel's hair yellow; sometimes rose is seen.
+The nap of modern pieces is medium long and of old pieces is short. The
+weave of the latter is excellent, so that the closely pressed knots and
+stout threads of weft make at the back an even surface unlike the coarse
+appearance of many rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, yellow, green,
+and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, so that the warp appears at back, and the weft is
+prominent. _Warp_, wool; each of the threads encircled by a knot is
+equally distinct at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, occasionally
+dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of moderate length. _Border_, three to six stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow
+web and short warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of rather coarse grain. _Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+MOSULS.—Near the ruins of ancient Nineveh, on the bank of the Tigris, is
+the city of Mosul. Once it was not only an important mart for wares
+carried up and down the river, and for vast caravans from east and west,
+but it became noted for its textiles from which was derived the name
+"muslin." At length on account of pestilence, misrule, and the sack of
+armies its population and industries have dwindled; though it is still
+the capital and commercial centre of a district that lies between the
+high table-lands surrounding Lake Van and the low plains of Bagdad, and
+that extends across the Mesopotamian valley to the mountain ridges
+bordering Western Persia. Within this extensive area are large stretches
+of rich pasture, where Abraham once fed his flocks, and where each year
+Kurdish nomads from the north drive their sheep when the winter snows
+cover their own hillsides. Arabs, Turks, Armenians, Jews, and Christians
+likewise mingle with the natives, so that the population is as mixed as
+can be found anywhere in the Orient.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 35. KONIEH PRAYER RUG]
+
+Thus it happens that the rugs marketed in the city of Mosul are made by
+different races and show great diversity of character. It would, indeed,
+be often difficult to distinguish them if the weave were disregarded;
+for though they are prone to yellow and russet hues, and the long wool
+is floccy as well as lustrous, there is no pattern that can be
+considered truly typical. Many of them borrow Caucasian designs, such as
+stars, latch-hooks, diagonal bands, and barber-pole stripes. Others have
+patterns adopted almost bodily from Kurdish pieces. But however much the
+nomadic rugs are copied, a Persian influence is always shown by the way
+in which the severer features are softened. In fact, a very large
+percentage of rugs that come from Mosul are made by the tribes that
+wander as far east as the great mountain divides along the borders of
+Western Persia, and adopt patterns and colour schemes current in
+Azerbijan and Ardelan. It accordingly happens that medallion patterns
+resembling those of Bijars, but with bolder and less graceful outlines,
+are seen. More frequently the field is covered with small figures common
+to Feraghans, as well as with the well-known pear designs; but the
+former are coarsely drawn, and the latter lack the gracefully rounded
+lines seen in Sarabends and are often as geometric as those of the Baku
+rugs. Somewhere in almost all these pieces appears evidence of some
+conventionalised floral form; but now and then a rare old piece is found
+which was woven in the plains of Mesopotamia, with field completely
+covered with a naturalistically drawn tulip that grows on the banks of
+the Tigris and Euphrates. Its bright flowers and leaves, supported by a
+delicate stalk, constitute one of the most beautiful designs seen in any
+rug.
+
+The borders are rarely wide, and generally consist of three stripes, one
+of which usually has some simple vine, and the others some well-known
+geometric pattern. It is, also, not unusual to find an outer edging
+surrounding the border. In a few of these pieces camel's hair is used
+even to the extent of occupying the whole field; and goat's hair or
+sheep's wool, dyed to a similar colour, is constantly employed. One of
+the most usual colours is some shade of yellow. Reddish hues also
+prevail. These rugs frequently have the same pleasing effect of slightly
+graduated changes so common in the ground colour of Kurdistans, but as a
+whole the colour scheme is lighter. On the other hand, they follow the
+shading adopted in Persian rugs, which in a measure eliminates the
+sudden transition between adjacent areas of strongly contrasting colour
+so noticeable in nomadic pieces. On account of the present remoteness of
+the Mosul district from important highways of travel, many excellent
+pieces, which with careful use should acquire the rich tones of those
+now old, are still woven there.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally yellow and brownish red,
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots
+to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, seven to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and frequently
+longer. The yarn is not drawn tightly against the warp. The rows of
+knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at back.
+_Warp_, almost always wool, rarely cotton; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, generally of
+wool, of coarse diameter and frequently dyed red or orange, but
+occasionally of cotton. As a rule, a thread of weft crosses twice
+between two rows of knots, but sometimes crosses only once; or two or
+three threads cross side by side, as in Karajes. _Pile_, wool and
+occasionally camel's hair, of medium length. _Border_, of three stripes
+with frequently an outer edging of solid colour. _Sides_ are generally a
+heavy double overcasting, but in a few pieces there is a two-cord weft
+selvage or double selvage. _Lower end_, a web. _Upper end_, a web and
+warp fringe; occasionally there is a heavy braided selvage, or the web
+is turned back and hemmed. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back
+is of coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to ten feet. _Usual width_, two
+fifths to three quarters length.
+
+Now and then are seen comparatively scarce rugs, such as the Teheran,
+Gulistan, Kara-Geuz, Bibikabad, Afshar, and Gozene, that were woven
+within the Iranian boundaries. Some of them are no longer produced, and
+others are woven in such small numbers that but few are exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 36. KIR-SHEHR PRAYER RUG]
+
+The Teherans were formerly made in the present capital of Persia. The
+typical pattern consists of the Herati design or some floral form
+occupying the central field, which is two or three times as long as
+wide. The weave resembles that of Irans, since the knot is Ghiordes,
+each of the two threads of warp that it encircles is equally prominent
+at the back, and both warp and weft are cotton. The borders are wide,
+and the sides are finished with a two-cord selvage.
+
+Gulistan is the Persian name for a flower garden, and the rugs known by
+that name were once made in a district not far from Kashan, where rose
+bushes bloomed profusely. The fields may be covered with
+conventionalised floral and leaf patterns, or again they may contain
+roses naturalistically drawn with extended petals, as if viewed from
+above. The most striking characteristic is the opulence of colour, such
+as red, blue, and yellow softened by shades of brown and green. Even the
+weft and the webs of the ends are red, blue, or brown. The sides have a
+two-cord selvage, warp and weft are usually of cotton, and one thread of
+warp to each knot is depressed at the back. These rugs, which formerly
+came in large sizes, are no longer made.
+
+Only a short distance to the northeast of Hamadan is the district of
+Kara-Geuz, which is occupied by a large tribe, who in the past have
+furnished some of the best of Persian cavalry. The people are
+industrious, and not only cultivate the land but engage in weaving. Some
+of their rugs closely resemble the Kurdish pieces, and others correspond
+with the Irans. In the technique of weave they often follow the
+Hamadans. On the outskirts of this district is the town of Bibikabad,
+where, also, rugs are woven for market.
+
+For a number of generations the country adjoining Lake Urumiah on the
+west and stretching into the Turkish domain has been partly occupied by
+a powerful race of brave and active people who are known as Afshars.
+They are regarded as a branch of the Yuruks of Asia Minor, and the rugs
+of both tribes have many points of similarity. The wool of the nap is
+generally the coarse product of the mountain sheep. The patterns
+incorporate some of the floral features of Persian rugs, though they
+display many Caucasian characteristics. These Afshars bear a close
+resemblance to the Kazaks, from which they may be distinguished by
+observing a fold as they are bent backwards, which will show the fibres
+of the yarn of a knot standing out at front as a unit, while in Kazaks
+they have a greater tendency to blend. Also at the back, each half of a
+knot is no longer than wide, nor is it drawn closely against the warp,
+while in Kazaks each half of a knot is often double its width and is
+drawn closer.
+
+In the country about Gozene, in the watershed of the Euphrates river,
+are made a few rugs for local use, though they occasionally reach
+Western markets. The pattern, which is very simple, usually consists of
+some small diaper figure of brown or grey colour, or of dull tones of
+maroon. Many of this class have a double foundation of warp; and
+frequently, at the back, the knots do not form regular lines parallel
+with the length, as is the case with other rugs. This is due to the fact
+that any thread of warp may be encircled by both the left half of some
+knots and the right half of others. Occasionally, also, a knot is tied
+about four threads of warp. In other rugs of this class which have a
+single foundation of warp the weave resembles that of Mosuls.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The most noticeable feature of Persian border stripes is their floral
+character, which is very frequently represented by a vine winding from
+side to side with pendent flowers marking each flexure. Some of these
+vines have been evolved from arabesques, and others from naturalistic
+tendrils, but all are graceful. In a few pieces the stripes contain rows
+of detached flowers, rosettes, or pears, expressed in rich yet
+unobtrusive colours, that are always in perfect harmony with those of
+the field. Rarely is the pattern geometric. Accordingly, with the
+exception of the Indian and some of the Chinese, they are the most
+elegant, pleasing, and artistic of all border stripes. Moreover, some of
+them follow almost the same patterns that were in use centuries ago.
+
+
+_Primary Stripes._—In Plate E, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 156), is represented a
+typical Herat stripe derived from some of the XV and XVI Century
+carpets. It shows close relationship to the pattern of conventional
+rosette and pair of attendant leaves so frequently seen on the fields of
+such rugs as the Feraghans and Sehnas. In this stripe the angular and
+serrated leaves are extended to form a vine.
+
+One of the best known Khorassan stripes, shown in Plate E, Fig. 2, bears
+a resemblance to the Herat stripe; and it is not unlikely that they had
+a common origin, since they were designed in adjoining and freely
+communicating districts. The enlargements of the vine at the centre of
+each flexure are doubtless leaves, but they occasionally resemble the
+heads of birds.
+
+[Illustration: Plate E. Primary Border-Stripes of Persian Rugs]
+
+The so-called turtle pattern, Plate E, Fig. 3, has probably been derived
+from the interlacing arabesques that appeared in rugs at least as early
+as the beginning of the XV Century, as is indicated on Page 79. The
+rosette and attendant leaves between adjacent "turtles" suggest the
+Herati pattern. This stripe is found principally in Feraghans, Irans,
+Sehnas, and Muskabads. One that is similar, but more mechanically drawn
+and with wider spreading arms, is typical of Gorevans and Serapis.
+
+A stripe found in Joshaghans, representing a row of floral bushes, is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 4. It is also seen in some of the old rugs of
+Northwestern Persia. Another Joshaghan stripe, which also suggests the
+Herati pattern, is represented in Fig. 5.
+
+A single row of pears (Plate E, Fig. 6) is a characteristic Luristan
+stripe.
+
+The dainty pattern of Plate E, Fig. 7, in which the vine has been
+abandoned and serrated leaves nearly surround a floral device, shows a
+not unusual Herez stripe.
+
+As a rule the drawing of Persian-Kurdish stripes is never crowded, and
+represents a simple vine with bright pendent flowers. A stripe commonly
+seen in this class is represented in Plate E, Fig. 8. It is also seen in
+the Bijars.
+
+On account of the geographic position of the Karadagh district, which is
+separated only by the Aras river from Caucasia, its stripes show a
+combination of floral and geometric design not usual in other Persian
+pieces. Plate E, Fig. 9, represents one of these stripes with a rosette,
+and the serrated leaf so common among the Shirvans. Plate E, Fig. 10,
+represents another stripe of the same class with eight-petalled
+star-shaped flowers pendent from an angular vine.
+
+A beautiful stripe, representing a vine and pendant flower, which is
+frequently seen in some of the Persian-Kurdish rugs, is shown in Plate
+E, Fig. 11.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 12, is illustrated a very dainty pattern of vine and
+roses that now and then is seen in old Feraghans; and in Fig. 13 are
+also represented vine and roses as they occasionally appear in old rugs
+of Northwestern Persia.
+
+The very mechanically drawn double vine shown in Plate E, Fig. 14, is
+sometimes seen in stripes of Hamadans. In fact, simplicity of border is
+a characteristic of this class.
+
+Mosul and Kurdish stripes show a similarity, but the former are often
+more mechanically drawn than the latter. In Plate E, Fig. 15, is a
+stripe from an old and beautiful Mosul with conventionalised vine and
+King Solomon's eight-pointed star.
+
+Undoubtedly the most typical of any class of Persian stripes is the
+well-known Sarabend pattern of formal vine with pendent pear on white
+ground. It is very rarely that a rug of this class is without this
+stripe (Plate E, Fig. 16). Its presence at once indicates that the piece
+is either a Sarabend or an Iran copy.
+
+In Plate E, Fig. 17, is the well-known pear pattern of a Meshed stripe.
+The graceful form, resembling in a measure the Indian drawing, is
+peculiar to these stripes.
+
+The Kirman stripe (Plate E, Fig. 18) invariably contains red roses
+naturalistically drawn, surrounded by a profusion of leaves and stems.
+This is one of the most beautiful of Persian border patterns.
+
+Somewhat similar, but far more formal, is the Kermanshah stripe, one of
+which appears in Plate E, Fig. 19, with mechanically drawn flowers,
+leaves, and vines.
+
+The formal pattern (Plate E, Fig. 20) of octagons surrounded by
+latch-hooks is now and then found in borders of Shiraz rugs, and
+indicates how great a concession their weavers at times make to nomadic
+influences.
+
+The main stripe of Sehnas is always narrow and contains some floral
+form, though frequently much conventionalised. One of these stripes is
+shown in Plate E, Fig. 21.
+
+Very few Persian rugs have such wealth of floral ornamentation in the
+borders as the Sarouks and Kashans. A stripe typical of the former is
+represented in Plate E, Fig. 22.
+
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—The ornamentation of a large
+proportion of secondary stripes of Persian rugs consists of running
+vines, which fall within two divisions, according to the absence or
+presence of pendants.
+
+Plate F, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 158), taken from an inner stripe of a
+Kermanshah, shows one of the simplest vines with budding tendrils at
+each flexure.
+
+In Plate F, Fig. 2, is a simple stripe seen in such rugs as Gorevans.
+Similar stripes are very common. As there is no pendant, the character
+of the vine depends upon the form it assumes in alternating flexures,
+one of which in this instance is an eight-petalled star.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE F. SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF PERSIAN RUGS]
+
+In many of the Karadaghs is seen the Caucasian stripe (Plate F, Fig.
+3) consisting of an angular vine, from each flexure of which spring
+small designs like three-leaf clover.
+
+Another type peculiar to some rugs of Northwestern Persia, as the Bijars
+and even Sehnas, is shown in Plate F, Fig. 4. Here one flexure is a
+serrated leaf, and the other is a small rosette with short curving
+tendrils.
+
+A simple vine of somewhat similar order appears in Plate F, Fig. 5. At
+each flexure is a flower of four petals, and from alternating flexures
+spring tendrils of colour different from that of the vine. Stripes of
+similar drawing appeared in Persian carpets as early as 1350 A. D. A
+further stage in the development of the same pattern is illustrated in
+Plate F, Fig. 6.
+
+One of the simplest forms of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F,
+Fig. 7. It appears in Asia Minor carpets woven during the XIII Century,
+and also in some of the earliest Iranian carpets. Now and then it is
+seen in modern Persian rugs.
+
+A very common form of a vine with pendant is shown in Plate F, Fig. 8.
+This pattern is seen in a large number of Persian rugs, such as Mosuls,
+Bijars, Kurdistans, and Hamadans. Each flexure of the vine is enlarged
+to almost the form of a leaf, and between them is a branching pendant.
+
+In another stripe (Plate F, Fig. 9), taken from a Feraghan, there is no
+particular enlargement to the vine, and the alternating pendants are
+buds and flowers of four petals.
+
+A more geometric form that appears in such rugs as Muskabads is shown in
+Plate F, Fig. 10. In this the vine represents serrated leaves, and
+suggests one of the Shirvan patterns.
+
+A very similar stripe (Plate F, Fig. 11), taken from a Sehna, should be
+compared with those of Figs. 8 and 10, as it serves to illustrate the
+evolution of vine patterns. In fact, if a very large number of stripes
+were arranged in proper order, they would show almost imperceptible
+gradations from one type to another.
+
+One of the simplest vines with pendant, adopted by the Kurdish tribes,
+is shown in Plate F, Fig. 12; and in Fig. 13 is another vine with
+pendent pear alternating with a rosette.
+
+Not all the patterns, however, are vines. In Plate F, Figs. 14 and 15,
+for instance, is represented the same secondary stripe as it appears at
+the sides and the ends of some moderately old Persian rugs. The former
+pattern bears a resemblance to the one in Fig. 5, and each illustrates a
+series of connecting links.
+
+A graceful pattern that is seen in Bijars, Hamadans, and other rugs of
+Northwestern Persia is represented in Plate F, Fig. 16. It was probably
+derived from an old form of leaf and tendril.
+
+The reciprocal trefoil (Plate F, Fig. 17) which is constantly used in a
+tertiary stripe, is probably a degenerate form of an ornate floral
+design. It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found not only in such Persian rugs as Sarabends,
+Bijars, Sarouks, and Kashans, but in many of the Indian and Beluchistan
+rugs, and in almost all of the Caucasian group. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+In many of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor is seen as a tertiary
+stripe the simple ribbon pattern (Plate F, Fig. 18). Its origin is lost
+in the dim past, and it is not improbable that once it had a symbolic
+meaning.
+
+A very interesting tertiary stripe, because of its well-authenticated
+age, contains the "Y" pattern shown in Plate F, Fig. 19. It is found in
+some Persian carpets that were woven as early as 1550.
+
+One of the simplest guard stripes, shown in Plate F, Fig. 20, is
+frequently found in modern Persian rugs, as well as in Iranian carpets
+woven six centuries ago.
+
+[Illustration: COLOUR PLATE VI. PERSIAN GARDEN CARPET
+
+This carpet and the one at the Naesby House, Sweden, which it resembles
+in pattern but not in colouring, are, so far as known, the only complete
+carpets of this type. The Naesby carpet has been assigned to the middle
+of the XVIII. Century; this is undoubtedly much older.
+
+A 16TH CENTURY PERSIAN ROYAL "GARDEN" CARPET (Reputed to have been made
+for Shah 'Abb[=a]s for Safavi Palace.) Date 1587-1628.
+
+31 ft. 0 in. x 12 ft. 3 in.
+
+[_Statement of the owner_]
+
+ORIGINALLY IMPORTED BY VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., LTD., LONDON.]
+
+The pattern represents a Persian garden divided into four sections by
+two intersecting streams, which are bordered by rows of cypress trees,
+alternating with bushes on which are birds. These sections are similarly
+divided by smaller streams, that meet at the four pavilions of each
+side, into plots containing trees and flowering bushes. Four peacocks
+rest above the central basin. The colours are harmonious, and show the
+mellowing influence of time.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF PERSIAN RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    l = linen
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+  |            |              KNOT          |           WARP               |
+  |            +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+  |  PERSIAN   |         |      | Number to |     |       |    | At back   |
+  |            |         |      | Inches    |     |       |    |           |
+  |            | G =     | S =  +-----+-----+  w =| c =   |    +---+---+---+
+  |            | Ghiordes| Sehna|  H  |  P  | wool| cotton| s/l| e | d | h |
+  |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+  |Bijar       |    G    |      | 6-10| 8-12|  w  |       |    |   |   | h |
+  |Feraghan    |   [G]   |   S  | 8-13| 7-18|     |   c   |    | e |   |   |
+  |Gorevan     |    G    |      | 6-8 | 6-10|     |   c   |    |[e]| d |   |
+  |Hamadan     |    G    |      | 6-9 | 8-12|     |   c   |    | e |   |   |
+  |Herat       |    G    |  [S] | 8-11| 6-12| [w] |   c   |    |   |[d]| h |
+  |Herez       |    G    |      | 5-10| 6-12|     |   c   |    |[e]| d |   |
+  |Iran        |    G    |      | 6-11| 7-11|     |   c   |    | e |   |   |
+  |Mod. Ispahan|    G    |      | 6-9 | 8-11|  w  |   c   |    | e |   |   |
+  |Joshaghan   |    G    |      | 7-11| 8-13| [w] |   c   |    | e |   | d |
+  |Kashan      |         |   S  |16-20|16-24|     |   c   |[l] |   |   | h |
+  |Karadagh    |    G    |      | 7-11| 7-11|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Karaje      |    G    |      | 6-11| 7-12|  w  |  [c]  |    | e |   |   |
+  |Kermanshah  |         |   S  |12-18|11-18|     |   c   |    |   |   | h |
+  |Khorassan   |         |   S  | 8-13|12-20|     |   c   |    |   |   | h |
+  |Kirman      |         |   S  |11-20|11-20|     |   c   |    |   |   | h |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+  |            |         WEFT           | SIDES |     LOWER END   |
+  |            +-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |  PERSIAN   |     |       |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            | w = | c =   |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            |wool | cotton| s/l|  P  | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |Bijar       | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   |   |
+  |            |     |       |    |     |   |   | [S] |   |   |   |
+  |Feraghan    |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   |   |
+  |Gorevan     |     |   c   |    | 1-2 |   | S |     |   |   | F |
+  |Hamadan     |[w]  |   c   |    |  1  | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Herat       | w   |  [c]  |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |            |     |       |    |[3-4]|   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |Herez       |[w]  |   c   |    |  2  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Iran        |     |   c   |    |2/[1]| O |   |  W  |   |   |   |
+  |Mod. Ispahan| w   |   c   |    | 1-2 | O |   |  W  |   |   |   |
+  |Joshaghan   | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Kashan      |     |   c   |[l] |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   |   |
+  |Karadagh    | w   |       |    |  2  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Karaje      | w   |  [c]  |    |  1  | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Kermanshah  |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |[L]| F |
+  |Khorassan   |[w]  |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |            |     |       |    |[6-8]|   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |Kirman      | w   |  [c]  |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+-------+
+
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |            |   UPPER END     |    NAP    |   WEAVE   | TEXTURE  |
+  |            +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |  PERSIAN   |     |   |   |   |l = long   |f = fine   |l = loose |
+  |            |     |   |   |   |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+  |            | W/S | K | T | F |s = short  |c = coarse |f = firm  |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |Bijar       |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      m    |     f    |
+  |            | [S] |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |Feraghan    |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      m    |     m    |
+  |Gorevan     |     |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     l    |
+  |Hamadan     |  W  |   | T |   |    m/s    |      m    |     f    |
+  |Herat       |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     f    |
+  |Herez       |     |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     l    |
+  |Iran        |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     l    |
+  |Mod. Ispahan|  W  |[K]|[T]| F |    m/s    |      m    |     f    |
+  |Joshaghan   |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      f    |     m    |
+  |Kashan      |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f    |     f    |
+  |Karadagh    |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/c   |    m/f   |
+  |Karaje      |  W  |   |   | F |    m/l    |      c    |     l    |
+  |Kermanshah  |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     f    |
+  |Khorassan   |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/f   |    m/f   |
+  |Kirman      |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f    |     f    |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+
+
+  +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+  |            |           KNOT             |            WARP              |
+  |            +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+  |  PERSIAN   |         |      | Number to |     |       |    | At back   |
+  |            |         |      | Inches    |     |       |    |           |
+  |            | G =     | S =  +-----------+ w = | c =   |    |---+---+---+
+  |            | Ghiordes| Sehna|  H  |  P  | wool| cotton| g/l| e | d | h |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+  |Persian     |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |  Kurdistan |    G    |      | 5-9 | 6-13|  w  |       |    | e | d |   |
+  |Western     |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |  Kurdistan |    G    |      | 4-7 | 6-9 |  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Mahal       |    G    |   S  | 7-12| 6-12|     |   c   |    | e | d |   |
+  |Meshed      |   [G]   |   S  | 8-15|12-17| [w] |   c   |    |   |   | h |
+  |Mosul       |    G    |      | 5-7 | 7-9 |  w  |  [c]  |    | e |   |   |
+  |Muskabad    |    G    |   S  | 6-11| 6-11|     |   c   |    |   | d |[h]|
+  |Niris       |    G    |      | 6-11| 7-15|  w  |       |    |   | d |[h]|
+  |Sarabend    |         |   S  | 8-13| 9-13|     |   c   |    | e |   | h |
+  |Sarouk      |         |   S  |12-18|12-20|     |   c   |[l] |   |[d]| h |
+  |Sehna       |    G    |   S  |11-20|12-24|     |   c   |[l] | e |   |   |
+  |Serapi      |   [G]   |   S  | 6-10| 7-12|     |   c   |    |   | d |[h]|
+  |Shiraz      |   [G]   |   S  | 7-12| 8-12|  w  |       |[g] | e |[d]|   |
+  |Suj-Bulak   |    G    |      | 7-10| 8-12|  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Tabriz      |    G    |      |12-20|10-22|     |   c   |[l] |   |   | h |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+  |            |          WEFT          | SIDES |     LOWER END   |
+  |            +-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |  PERSIAN   |     |       |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            | w = | c =   |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            |wool | cotton| s/l| No. | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |Persian     |     |       |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  Kurdistan | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Western     |     |       |    |     |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  Kurdistan | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |[K]|[L]|   |
+  |Mahal       |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Meshed      | w   |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Mosul       | w   |  [c]  |    |2/[1]| O |[S]|  W  |   |   |   |
+  |Muskabad    |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Niris       | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Sarabend    |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   | [W] |   |   | F |
+  |Sarouk      |     |   c   |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Sehna       |     |   c   |    |  1  | O |   | [W] |   |   | F |
+  |Serapi      |     |   c   |    |  2  |   | S |  W  |   | L |[F]|
+  |Shiraz      | w   |       |    |  2  | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Suj-Bulak   | w   |       |    |  2  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Tabriz      |[w]  |   c   |[l] |  2  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-----+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |            |   UPPER END     |    NAP    |   WEAVE   | TEXTURE  |
+  |            +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |  PERSIAN   |     |   |   |   |l = long   |f = fine   |l = loose |
+  |            |     |   |   |   |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+  |            | W/S | K | T | F |s = short  |c = coarse |f = firm  |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |Persian     |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |  Kurdistan |  W  |   |   | F |     l     |      c    |     f    |
+  |Western     |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |  Kurdistan |  W  |[K]| T | F |     l     |      c    |     f    |
+  |Mahal       | [W] |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |   m/f    |
+  |Meshed      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      m    |   m/f    |
+  |Mosul       |W/[S]|   |[T]| F |     m     |      c    |   m/f    |
+  |Muskabad    | [W] |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |   m/f    |
+  |Niris       |  W  | K |   | F |     m     |      m    |     l    |
+  |Sarabend    |  W  |   |   | F |    m/s    |     m/f   |     f    |
+  |Sarouk      |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f    |     f    |
+  |Sehna       |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      m    |     m    |
+  |Serapi      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |     f    |
+  |Shiraz      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      m    |     l    |
+  |Suj-Bulak   |  W  |   |[T]| F |     m     |     m/c   |    m/l   |
+  |Tabriz      |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f    |     f    |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+
+ALL rugs that are woven in the Turkish provinces of Asia are frequently
+grouped together and called "Turkish" rugs; but a more natural
+classification is to distinguish between those made to the east and
+those made to the west of a line drawn from the Gulf of Iskenderoon to
+Trebizond, deflecting slightly in its course so as to follow the ridges
+that divide the watershed of the western forks of the Euphrates river
+from the plateau of Anatolia. With the exception of the very few pieces
+that come from Syria or other southerly districts, those woven in the
+Turkish provinces east of this line show such a relationship to those of
+Persia that they are more properly classed with them; while on the other
+hand, with the exception of the rugs of the wandering Yuruks, those
+woven to the west of this line and in the neighbouring islands of the
+Mediterranean conform so closely to a common type that they fall
+naturally into a separate group. It is better, therefore, to treat them
+separately and to call them the Asia Minor Rugs.
+
+Though a certain glamour attaches to all that comes from Persia, the
+Indes, or Far Cathay, in no part of the Orient are rugs woven on more
+classic ground than are the Asia Minor pieces. They are still made in
+the shadow of the walls where Croesus lived and among villages where
+Homer trod. Their yarn is spun with crude distaff by the shepherd who
+still drives his flock along the same road where Artaxerxes marched,
+across the bridges that Roman legions built, and over the green slopes
+of Mt. Ida. In fact the names of some of them call to mind pictures of
+the Crusades, the journey of Paul, the march of Alexander's conquering
+army, and of cities founded before the beginning of history.
+
+When analysing the rugs of Asia Minor, it is necessary to make a
+distinction that has been previously noticed in the case of Persian
+rugs, though with them it is less important. From the time when there
+arose a large demand in the markets of Europe and America for the rugs
+of the East the natural supply decreased, and, as a consequence, the
+price of those that remained increased. To meet this deficiency, and
+because of the higher prices, there was established a system by which
+large numbers of women and children were constantly employed; although
+many worked in their own homes, using such material as was furnished by
+their employers and receiving fixed daily wages. In the western and
+southern parts of Asia Minor, which are connected by railroads with
+seaports, are a number of communities where this system is in vogue. One
+of these is at Demirdji in the province of Smyrna, where there are a
+small number of looms; others are in the districts of Ghiordes and
+Kulah, which together have about one thousand looms; and Oushak, the
+principal rug-weaving centre of Asia Minor, has as many more.[28] Almost
+all rugs produced at such places are now shipped to Smyrna, which itself
+has but very few looms, or to Constantinople, whence they are reshipped
+to Western markets. These products lack much of the oldtime artistic
+spirit and individuality of character, on account of the dependence of
+the weavers on their employers, who demand the largest output consistent
+with fair quality. Furthermore, the weavers are frequently required to
+reproduce Western patterns. The result is that most of these rugs
+possess little of the firmness of texture, the harmonious relations of
+designs, and the excellent colour of old fabrics. Since, then, they
+represent in a measure European influences, and are subject to further
+changes to meet the demands of a fluctuating foreign taste, it would be
+of little use to describe them, especially as all their original
+characteristics exist in the old pieces.
+
+The striking features of Asia Minor rugs woven over fifty years ago are
+the colour schemes, main patterns, and the separate designs, which may
+be either independent of the pattern or constitute part of it. The
+colour effect of Asia Minor rugs is as a rule brighter than that of the
+Central Asian, Indian, or Persian groups; for the reds, blues, and
+yellows are less subdued. Some of their tones never appear in Chinese
+rugs, and on the whole they most closely resemble those of the Caucasian
+pieces; yet it is not unusual to see such colours as mauve, lavender,
+and canary yellow, that rarely appear even among these. Moreover, in a
+few of them masses of strongly contrasting colours are placed beside
+one another without the customary shading of Persian rugs or the
+artificial device of Caucasian latch-hooks to soften the effect of harsh
+combinations.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF ASIA MINOR]
+
+The difference, nevertheless, between the Asia Minor rugs and those of
+other groups is less apparent in the colour schemes than in the main
+patterns, for in the Asia Minor rugs is evidence of an independent
+inspiration and development. There are lacking the rigid octagonal
+figures of the Central Asian groups; the frets and floral sprays
+distinctive of Chinese; the naturalistic floral treatment of the Indian;
+the delicate tracings, rhythm of movement, and wealth of foliage motives
+that characterise the Persian; as well as the severely geometric forms
+and conventionalised motives of the Caucasian. Instead of gracefully
+flowing lines we find strong rectangular ones; instead of flowers
+realistically balanced on interlacing, foliate stalks, they are arranged
+separately in formal rows. But if their patterns lack the fertility of
+invention or the refinement of Persian and Indian pieces, they excel
+them in the strength of their clear definition, accentuated by massing
+of colour. It is, however, in the prayer patterns, which appear in the
+majority of Asia Minor rugs, that the weavers attain their best results;
+for in such work they have the inspiration of a high religious as well
+as artistic spirit. In these patterns, which differ from those of any
+other group of rugs, is often manifest singular beauty and grace, as
+well as delicate sentiment derived from worship in Moslem chapels; for
+in many is represented the burning lamp that, projected against a
+background of sacred green, hangs from the column-supported arch, above
+which is spread a spandrel of blue typifying the vaulted heavens.
+
+Likewise many of the small designs that are found in other groups of
+rugs are rarely, if ever, seen in this one; as, for instance, animals,
+birds, fishes, and human beings are never employed, on account of the
+religious prejudice of the Sunnite Mohammedans, who prevail in the
+country. Nor, with very few exceptions, is the Herati design, so
+characteristic of Persian rugs, nor the pear design, so characteristic
+of both Persian and Indian rugs, ever seen. Furthermore, the reciprocal
+trefoil, that is used as a motive for a small border stripe in all
+Caucasian and many Persian rugs, is very rarely found in Asia. Minor
+pieces woven during the last two centuries, though it appears in some of
+an earlier era. But in its place are the water motive and ribbon, which
+are less frequently employed by the weavers of any other country. There
+are also many small floral motives that appear only in Asia Minor rugs,
+and that will be noticed in connection with the separate classes.
+
+These characteristics of colour, pattern, and design are not the result
+of a spontaneous growth unalloyed by foreign influences; for a natural
+art never existed in Asia Minor, which has never enjoyed a national
+existence; but they are the results of artistic movements that at
+different times have swept over that country. Thus, as an heirloom of
+dynasties that once flourished farther east, are the Cufic characters
+that appear in some of the early border patterns; and as a relic of the
+Mongol and Timurid invasions are the dragon and other designs found in
+the oldest pieces. In Oushaks, as well as others, are seen the evidences
+of Persian treatment; while the drawing and colour schemes of the prayer
+rugs forcibly suggest Saracenic, Grecian, and Christian ideas. In fact,
+the rugs of Asia Minor, while possessing co-ordination of colour and
+design, are in a measure composite. They never reach the high artistic
+development of Persian rugs, because the latter were produced under the
+fostering care of great kings whose royal magnificence could secure from
+years of patient labour suitable furnishings for palaces and mosques;
+yet they are none the less interesting subjects for speculation and
+study.
+
+
+BERGAMOS.—In the valley of the Caïcus and twenty miles from the Ægean
+Sea is the city of Pergamus, that gives its name to the Bergamo rugs. It
+is of unknown antiquity, and may have stood when Agamemnon was warring
+with the house of Priam before the walls of that other city of the same
+name. In turn, Persians, Macedonians, Thracians, Syrians, and Romans had
+taken possession of it before the Apostle Paul founded there one of the
+seven churches of Asia. Greek sculptors chiselled its monuments,
+philosophers taught beneath the shade of its trees, and scholars
+gathered there the library that rivalled that of Alexandria. Partly
+encircled by mountains and enclosed by the wall of this old city, that
+was wellnigh destroyed during the Turkish wars, is the modern city of
+some fifteen thousand inhabitants. It is to-day one of the flourishing
+cities of the Levant, yet only in the surrounding ruins is there any
+reminder of its former greatness and splendour. But in these crumbling
+relics of the past and in the excellence of its woven fabrics of more
+recent times are traces of the artistic spirit that once prevailed
+there.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 37. ANATOLIAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is still possible to obtain many good specimens of Bergamos
+representing the craftsmanship of fifty or more years ago, when aniline
+dyes and European patterns were unknown east of the Hellespont. Almost
+without exception they are sterling fabrics that glory in a wealth of
+colour accentuated by depth of pile and sheen of soft lustrous wool. An
+observer is at once impressed by the tones of deep blue and madder red
+that a few lines or patches of ivory white bring out more clearly, and
+forms a favourable estimate of the value of these pieces independently
+of the drawing, which seems subservient to the part of giving spirit and
+quality to the colour scheme. In fact, it is to the genius of the dyer
+who applies his knowledge to the tinting of carefully selected wool, and
+to the pains of the weaver in constructing the foundation of warp and
+weft rather than to his skill in arranging artistic designs, that these
+pieces command as high a price as old Kirmans of similar age.
+
+In two particulars Bergamos differ from most Asia Minor rugs: in shape
+they are nearly square, and prayer rugs are the exception rather than
+the rule. Nor do all the prayer rugs follow the same general pattern, as
+is usually the case with other classes. They may have low tent-shaped
+arches like those of Daghestans, high triangular arches with stepped
+sides and a panel above the spandrels as in the Kir-Shehrs, or they may
+have shapes unlike those of any other class. Moreover, the pieces not
+used as prayer rugs also have great diversity of pattern; but as a rule
+some large figure, as a medallion, occupies the centre of the field.
+Very frequently it is of hexagonal shape, with the sides at upper and
+lower ends of the rug serrated or fringed with latch-hooks. As is not
+the case with many of the Persian rugs, the field surrounding the
+medallion is almost always covered with small designs, arranged with
+careful precision so as to show a perfect balance with reference to the
+centre. Eight-pointed stars and other geometric figures are frequently
+used, but there is a leaning to floral designs, which, however, are
+often so conventionalised as almost to lose their identity. Most
+prominent of these is the Rhodian lily and the pomegranate; but the lily
+never shows such graceful drawing or such dainty colouring as in the
+Kulahs, and in some pieces even loses all resemblance to a floral form.
+The pomegranate, which suggests the Ladik, is more frequently seen in
+the main border stripe. Undulating vines do not find favour among the
+Bergamo weavers, and small isolated geometric designs are largely
+employed in the narrow border stripes, while larger, more complex
+figures often replace the floral in the main stripe.
+
+In no other class of rugs are so many and such painstaking devices to
+avert the spell of the evil eye. Should an unexpected visitor surprise
+the weaver while at work, he may be required to part with a bit of his
+frock, which is then attached to the wide web of the end; should a
+similar occurrence of ill omen follow, another bit of different material
+and colour may be sewn upon this; and as a crowning talisman, a button
+may be affixed to both. Small cowrie shells from the Ægean shores are
+often used for such purposes; and now and then may be seen a woollen
+tassel dangling from the centre or from one of the ends of the rug.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, white, and green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five and one half to nine; perpendicularly, seven to
+eleven. The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is
+concealed at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, dyed
+red. A thread of weft crosses from two to six times between every two
+rows of knots. _Pile_, wool; generally of medium length but frequently
+long. _Border_, from one to four stripes; most frequently of three.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four cords, coloured red or
+blue, with occasionally some green or yellow. _Both ends_, a web, that
+is sometimes six or seven inches wide, coloured red and crossed by broad
+longitudinal stripes, which are generally blue, but may be black, white,
+brown, or yellow. Some device to avert the evil eye is frequently
+attached to the webs. Beyond the web is a tasselled warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain. _Usual
+length_, three to seven feet. _Usual width_, three quarters to nine
+tenths length.
+
+
+GHIORDES.—Whether, as has been maintained, the town of Ghiordes, that
+lies a day's journey to the east of Pergamus, is on the site of the
+ancient Gordion where tradition says the father of Midas dedicated his
+chariot to Jupiter, and Alexander severed the bark which bound the pole
+to the yoke, it claims attention from the fact that the rugs woven there
+one and two centuries ago not only excelled similar products in all
+other parts of Asia Minor, but equalled the best fabrics woven in Persia
+during the same period. Indeed, a few connoisseurs would rank them still
+higher; yet with reference to technique of weave and delicacy of
+colour and drawing, very few should be classed with those woven in the
+previous century by the protégés of Tamasp and Shah Abbas.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 38. MUDJAR PRAYER RUG]
+
+So essentially do the modern rugs of the Ghiordes district differ from
+the old pieces in weave, colour, and pattern, and so great is their
+inferiority, that they have little interest; but fortunately it is still
+possible to purchase pieces from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty
+years of age, and others still older are in the hands of collectors or
+in museums. In determining their age the colours and drawing, as well as
+weave and pattern, are important indices. For instance, the reddish
+tones of the fields of pieces less than a century old have a pinkish or
+even magenta tinge, while in the oldest the red is of rich, deep colour.
+Similarly, in the case of blues, greens, yellows, and even the ivories
+that rarely occupy the field, a riper and richer colour marks the
+greater age. Likewise with the drawing, greater painstaking and higher
+artistic skill are apparent in the older rugs; though in some of the
+oldest the designs are less ornate than in those of a subsequent period.
+This is also true of the patterns as a whole; since the best types are
+found in rugs that are probably from one hundred and fifty to two
+hundred and fifty years old, whereas in the extremely old pieces there
+is an approach to archaic forms.
+
+The difference between the odjaliks and namazliks, which are the kinds
+most frequently seen, is most noticeable. The colours, to be sure, are
+much the same, though as a rule lighter and duller tones predominate in
+the odjaliks. Their borders show a greater tendency to use geometric
+figures, some of which are profusely fringed with latch-hooks suggestive
+of Caucasian influences. They also contain archaic designs believed to
+be associated with sun worship, as well as many floral forms common to
+the prayer rugs. It is, however, in the fields that the distinction is
+most noticeable; since the large masses of uniform colour that make the
+namazliks so effective are wanting, and instead are frequently seen
+hexagonal-shaped medallions that are fringed with large rounded
+latch-hooks and contain a lozenge or other geometric design in the
+centre. At both ends of the fields are sometimes narrow panels
+containing quasi-floral forms, and stiff conventions occupy the
+intervening corner spaces.
+
+In striking contrast to these odjaliks are the old Ghiordes prayer rugs,
+with the rich tones of solid colour in the fields and the delicate
+drawing of the borders. No doubt they were made with unusual care, since
+they were intended for religious purposes. The pattern represents an
+entrance into a mosque; and it is not improbable that some of the
+earliest rugs were copied directly from archways, many of which still
+exist in Mohammedan countries.[29] Near the base of all Ghiordes arches,
+at each side, is a shoulder, which in old pieces was supported by a
+single pilaster or a pair. Sometimes these were ornamented with scroll
+work or floral forms, but finally many of them degenerated into floral
+devices that bore slight resemblance to columns, and in other rugs they
+have entirely disappeared. In some very old pieces the shoulders and the
+mihrab were rounded, but as a rule the shoulders are flattened at a very
+obtuse angle; and the mihrab is either plain or has stepped sides that
+culminate in a blunted apex. To further suggest the sacred purposes of
+the rug a lamp is often suspended from the niche, though floral forms
+may take its place, and not infrequently these too are wanting. Almost
+without exception some reminder of the tree of life, such as the small
+floral sprig or the Rhodian lily, is projected from the inner side of
+the arch and from all sides of the border against the field. In the
+spandrel, also, is almost invariably some floral or leaf form; though
+these may be very much conventionalised or even supplanted by geometric
+figures. Above the spandrel is a panel, which may contain some floral
+form, scroll device, or verse from the Koran; and another panel, though
+generally with different design, is almost invariably placed beneath the
+field. A scroll resembling a large S (Plate O, Fig. 9, Page 291)
+frequently appears in these panels. Its resemblance to forms found in
+Armenian dragon carpets of earlier centuries is very noticeable.
+
+The border surrounding the field is as characteristic of this class as
+is the prayer arch. There are invariably a number of stripes, which
+generally consist of a wide central one, two secondary, and two or more
+small guard stripes. The drawing is distinctly floral, yet is widely
+different from the Persian. A design (Plate G, Fig. 1, opp. Page 192)
+frequently seen in the central stripe represents a large palmette or
+rosette partly surrounded by leaves, suggestive of the Herati
+design, and connected by tendrils with more delicate flowers or leaves.
+But the more usual design (Plate G, Fig. 3) consists of flowers and
+fruits that are arranged in quadrangular shape, so that the alternate
+units face in different directions as they extend around the border.
+Though it is far from naturalistic, its delicate lace-like drawing with
+clear definition and its tones in harmony with the central field,
+contribute largely to the beauty of the rug. The secondary stripes have
+generally repetitive leaf forms; and running through the guard stripes
+is a simple vine, ribbon, or wave design. Occasionally, however, the
+typical Ghiordes border is replaced by one borrowed from the near
+district of Kulah, and instead of the broad central stripe are several
+narrow parallel stripes studded by perpendicular rows of small floral
+figures (Plate G, Fig. 12). An unusual feature of these rugs is the
+linen nap which is sometimes used in the field instead of wool, for the
+reason that it retains its colour while wool darkens with age; and
+another is the silken fringe which is often seen at the corners of fine
+specimens. The nap is always short, and the rugs are closely woven.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is concealed and the weft is partly hidden at back.
+_Warp_, wool or cotton and in a few pieces raw silk. One of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is usually slightly depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool or cotton. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally
+some cotton, clipped very short so as to be harsh to the touch.
+_Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three
+cords, or only infrequently an added selvage of silk. _Both ends_, a
+narrow web and warp fringe. A few pieces have an added silk fringe at
+the corners. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of very fine grain, but
+slightly rough. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+KULAHS.—About fifty miles from Ghiordes, in a southeasterly direction,
+is the Turkish village of Kulah. Both places are surrounded by the same
+general character of hills and plains, and for the last several
+centuries the people of each have been subject to the same influences of
+race and religion. They have undoubtedly visited, intermarried, and
+become familiar with the arts and crafts of one another. It is not,
+therefore, surprising that some of their rugs should have similar
+technique of weave, and that a few resemble one another in general
+pattern and small designs. Moreover, such a close correspondence exists
+between many of the old rugs of both districts, that even the most
+experienced are sometimes at a loss to distinguish between them. In fact
+it is surprising that there is so marked a distinction between most of
+them. In the Kulahs the border designs are not so elaborately drawn, nor
+are the prayer arches so high. They have rarely the fringe that adorns
+the corners of some Ghiordes rugs, or more than one panel. The field
+usually contains floral figures, arranged in formal order; the spandrel
+is almost always extended in two narrow stripes, one at each side of the
+field; and the colours are always subdued. These and other
+characteristics of each class make it possible to distinguish between
+most of them.
+
+As is the case with Ghiordes rugs, sedjadehs are almost unknown; but it
+is not unusual to see odjaliks. These resemble prayer rugs in the
+following respects: the borders are almost identical; the central fields
+contain the same floral figures resting on a similarly coloured ground;
+both ends of the hexagonal-shaped field resemble a mihrab; and the space
+between the field and border is covered with designs peculiar to the
+spandrels of the prayer rugs.
+
+On account of their artistic drawing and soft colours the prayer rugs
+are favourite pieces with all collectors. It is true that the arch is
+flatter than that of any other rug of this group, and is defined either
+by plain sloping lines, or more frequently by stepped edges, so that it
+lacks the classic beauty of the Ghiordes type; but on the other hand the
+Rhodian lily and other floral forms characteristic of these pieces are
+delineated with a realism and graceful delicacy that are unequalled in
+any other Asia Minor rugs. Arranged on slender sprays along each side of
+the field, hanging as long clusters from the niche in place of a lamp,
+or placed on the panel in formal rows, they accentuate with their bright
+tones the subdued richness of the ground colours. Sometimes, however,
+these simple field designs are replaced by more formal drawings that
+represent a plat of land with a tomb shaded by a tall cypress and other
+trees with many leafy branches. Rugs with these designs are not uncommon
+in Germany, whither large quantities of Asia Minor prayer rugs were
+shipped many years ago, and where they are known as "Friedhofteppiche,"
+or "Grave Rugs,"
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 39. DAGHESTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+The most pleasing features are in the fields, but the most
+distinguishing features are in the borders, which are invariably of
+several stripes. Instead of the large central stripe with floral and
+repetitive designs common to most rugs is a series of parallel bands,
+from five to ten in number and about an inch in width, that contain rows
+of minute floral forms. These narrow bands are a distinguishing feature
+of the Kulahs, though they have occasionally been copied by the Ghiordes
+weavers. Nevertheless, they are sometimes replaced by the broad stripe
+containing rows of geometric-shaped designs, as in Plate G, Fig. 13
+(opp. Page 192), which also are peculiar to these rugs. Strange as it
+may seem, these designs have doubtless been derived from leaf forms by
+successive degradation, as will be seen by comparing Figs. 13-a, 13-b,
+13-c, and 13-d of Plate O (Page 291). There is still another border design
+that is so constantly found in the secondary stripe of these pieces and
+so rarely in any others that it might well be designated the "Kulah
+stripe" (Plate H, Fig. 10, opp. Page 194). The design consists of a
+repetitive figure suggestive of some Chinese device, but is in reality a
+degraded form of a vine, as will be seen by observing some of the very
+old border stripes. Between the inner secondary stripe and the field is
+usually a narrow stripe containing a continuous ribbon design, or a
+simple vine-like form, as in Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158). Often a
+part of each succeeding undulation of the vine has been omitted and the
+remaining parts have been compressed, so as to leave small detached
+figures like a row of "f's," as in Plate H, Fig. 2. It is not unusual to
+see both vine and detached figures in the same rug.
+
+Diversity prevails in the colours of field, spandrel, panel, and
+borders. In the field is generally a mellowed red, or a yellow tint that
+is described both as golden brown and apricot; blue also is occasionally
+seen, and white is very rare. But whatever the colour of the field, that
+of the spandrel is generally a light blue, indicative of the sky, and
+the overlying panel is frequently a dark blue. Green and brown often
+appear in the border, as well as a canary yellow peculiar to Asia Minor
+rugs. Moreover, a few of these pieces have a single small area of red or
+blue, that was doubtless inserted to avert the evil eye, since it shows
+no more relation to the surrounding colours than spilt ink might have;
+yet in spite of these contrasts and the fact that the nap lacks the
+lustre peculiar to many other classes, some of them are as beautiful as
+Ghiordes.
+
+Between these old fabrics and the modern, which factory-like are
+produced in large quantities to meet the demands of a Western market
+and taste, is the most noticeable difference, for the latter are
+inferior to the former in patterns, weave, and dyes. Furthermore, with
+the wool of many is mixed mohair, so that rapid deterioration follows
+slight usage.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, brownish yellow, and
+blue, with minor quantities of green, dark brown, and white. _Knot_,
+Ghiordes, Knots to inch horizontally five to ten; perpendicularly, seven
+to twelve. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is noticeably depressed at
+the back. _Weft_, in most rugs, of wool of medium diameter, sometimes
+dyed yellow. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. In other rugs, even very old, the weft consists of a coarse
+thread of jute crossing once between two rows of knots and alternating
+with a small thread of jute and another of wool crossing side by side
+once between the next two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or
+medium length. _Border_, six to nine stripes. _Sides_, a coloured mixed
+selvage of two, three, or four cords. _Both ends_, a coloured web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately coarse
+grain. _Usual length_, five to seven feet. _Usual width_, three fifths
+to three quarters length.
+
+
+OUSHAKS.—Fifty miles eastward from Kulah is the city of Oushak, famous
+during the XV and XVI Centuries for the carpets exported thence to
+Europe to adorn the halls of cathedrals and thrones of monarchs. But
+with the subsequent decadence in Asiatic art its glory ebbed, so that
+half a century ago it was but a small mud-housed city known for the
+excellence of its dyes and the wool which was taken there from the
+interior to be washed, spun, and then sold to the weavers of the
+surrounding country. Since then, however, its population has steadily
+grown, and the weaving industry has thrived, until now it is one of the
+most populous cities of Asia Minor, with looms more numerous than those
+of any other city. The weaving is done entirely by women and girls, most
+of whom are Mohammedans. Though they live principally in private houses,
+they are under the direction of large firms, who furnish the wool as
+well as the patterns, which are in accordance with European and American
+demands.
+
+Important distinctions exist between the different grades of these rugs.
+Some are known as "Turkish Kirmans," in which Persian designs are
+frequently introduced, others are of still finer workmanship, but the
+oldest and coarsest pieces were formerly known as "Yapraks." These are
+distinguishable by their strong colours of red, green, and blue, of
+which only two as a rule are seen in a single rug, and are massed to
+produce striking effects. Their foundation of warp and weft, which are
+dyed in the same colours, is loosely woven and often of an inferior
+grade of wool. Many of them are too large and heavy for domestic use,
+but are well adapted for salons and public halls.
+
+With such slight variations in pattern and none in colour, Oushaks would
+be of little interest were it not that their prototypes were striking
+pieces woven by artisans whom Sultan Solyman the Magnificent brought
+from the northwestern part of Persia, when he conquered it in the XVI
+Century. Some of them appear in the paintings of old masters, and when
+contrasted with the modern fabrics indicate how great is the decline in
+the craftsmanship of the weavers. Of the beautiful well-balanced designs
+once represented in the fields, only large stars and diamonds, defined
+by less pleasing lines and placed with less regularity, remain. All of
+the graceful arabesques and dainty floral motives that appeared as
+sub-patterns are omitted. As works of art, the modern products are
+little esteemed; but their durability, depth of pile, and wealth of
+colour make them excellent objects of utility.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and green.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally four to eight;
+perpendicularly, four to nine. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+longer than wide. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down.
+_Warp_, wool. Each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+wool of medium diameter and generally dyed red. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, usually of three stripes. _Sides_, generally a double
+overcasting, occasionally a selvage. _Both ends_, generally a web
+coloured red and a warp fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back
+is of moderately coarse grain. _Length_, carpet sizes. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+AK-HISSAR.—Almost seventy-five miles by rail from Smyrna and a short
+distance to the west of Ghiordes is the Turkish town of Ak-Hissar, the
+White Citadel. Even before the building of the railroad rugs were woven
+in this district; and in recent years the work-house system has been
+established, and large quantities, that bear some resemblance to the
+modern products of Kulah and Oushak, have been exported.
+
+
+DEMIRDJI.—Half a century ago the town of Demirdji was almost
+uninhabited; but as a result of the Occidental demand for Oriental rugs
+and the disappearance of old pieces, it has grown to be an important
+manufacturing centre. Many of its weavers learned their trade at the
+historic Ghiordes, which is about twenty-five miles distant; but the
+fabrics are more closely woven and the wool is more carefully selected
+than is the case with the modern Ghiordes.
+
+
+KUTAYAH.—On the main railroad that will eventually connect the Bosphorus
+with the Euphrates is the town of Kutayah. As it is on the edge of the
+Anatolian plateau, wool and goat's hair have been for a long period
+important articles in its trade. Both of them are now used in the local
+manufacture of rugs, which in a measure resemble the products of Oushak.
+
+
+SMYRNA.—The location of Smyrna on a magnificent harbour and its
+connection by rail with all the important rug districts of the interior,
+have made it the principal centre for the export trade in Asia Minor
+rugs. Many of the people are also largely engaged in the industry of
+weaving, but almost all weavers are now in the employ of large companies
+who furnish the materials and patterns. As a result, the Smyrna rugs are
+mere copies of well-known types of other Turkish pieces, or, as is
+generally the case, of stereotyped patterns that have been evolved to
+meet the requirements of European and American tastes. Many of the rugs,
+to be sure, are well woven and serviceable, but they lack individuality
+of character.
+
+
+MELEZ.—About seventy-five miles to the south of Smyrna and twenty from
+the Mediterranean Sea is the town of Melassa, or Melez. It is now little
+known, but was once the market place of an important rug-producing
+district, which included a large part of the classic province of Caria.
+Accordingly, the pieces that came from there were sometimes called
+Carian, but are more generally known as Melez.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 40. KABISTAN RUG]
+
+On their face they show a close relationship to the Anatolians, and
+also, though in a less degree, to many other Asia Minor rugs; yet as is
+to be expected of the products from one corner of the country, they have
+a distinct individuality in both pattern and colour. Occasionally an old
+piece is seen, in which the border is very narrow and the whole field is
+covered with parallel stripes on which are systematically arranged
+geometric and semi-floral forms; but as a rule the fields are not much
+wider, and often less wide, than each of the adjacent borders. Within
+this central space are frequently arranged prominent designs, which are
+widely different from the designs of any other rugs, and are suggestive
+of Chinese ornament, but were doubtless derived from floral or tree
+forms (Plate O, Fig. 12, Page 291). Moreover, projecting in regular
+order from the alternate sides of the narrow border stripe, next to the
+field, are sometimes seen thumb-like figures, that fit against one
+another like the cogs of a wheel (Plate H, Fig. 15, opp. Page 194). Each
+of these features, though not always present, is peculiar to this class.
+
+Of the several border stripes, the central is generally as wide as the
+remainder and not altogether dissimilar to that of the Ladiks. Very
+frequently it consists of a row of palmettes between which are
+conventionalised leaves and flowers on slender stems; but now and then
+the palmettes are replaced by eight-pointed stars or other geometric
+figures, and the intervening spaces filled with corresponding designs.
+The secondary stripes are of a pronounced Caucasian type; and almost
+invariably in a smaller tertiary stripe is represented a waving line or
+the reciprocal sawtooth.
+
+The prayer rugs are equally characteristic. In typical examples the
+lines defining the mihrab descend from the niche to meet the sides of
+the narrow field at an angle of forty-five degrees, and are then
+deflected towards its centre, to return again to its sides. The
+resulting drawing shows two equilateral triangles on each side of the
+field at the base of the mihrab, which in conjunction with the upper
+sides of the triangles has the appearance of an incomplete diamond. This
+effect, moreover, is frequently accentuated by a perpendicular row of
+diamonds extending from just below the niche to the base of the field.
+The sides of mihrab, field, and central designs are, as a rule, fringed
+with small geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and in the
+spacious spandrel are more realistic floral designs arranged on a
+trellis-like sub-pattern.
+
+This individuality of pattern is accompanied by a less marked yet
+noticeable individuality of colour scheme. As is the case with many
+Bergamos, the principal tone is a dark red, which generally appears in
+the central field, and is also used almost without exception in the
+broad end webs, the side selvages, and the threads of weft. Ivory white
+for the spandrel, some yellow and green for the borders, are common
+colours; but the one that rarely appears in any appreciable quantity in
+other rugs is a characteristic tone of lavender or mauve, which is
+present in almost every old Melez. Not always are these tones pleasing,
+as many of the rugs have been poorly dyed; but there are other pieces,
+now rapidly growing scarce, of which the colours are exceedingly rich
+and harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, with minor
+quantities of blue, yellow, white, and some mauve. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or
+slightly longer. The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the
+warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of small
+diameter, dyed blue or red. A thread of weft generally crosses four
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length
+and sometimes short. _Border_, wide, from three to seven stripes.
+_Sides_, a selvage of two to four cords, usually coloured red. _Lower
+end_, a red web and loose warp fringe. _Upper end_, a red web, a braided
+selvage, and loose warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately loose. _Weave_ at
+back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half to
+six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+ISBARTA.—In the town of Isbarta in the southern part of the province of
+Konieh are woven rugs which are sometimes known to the trade as
+"Spartas." Like many other pieces made to meet the Western demand, they
+lack spontaneous individuality, but are often of excellent quality and
+coloured in delicate tones, arranged harmoniously.
+
+
+RHODIAN.—Even at a very early period the people of the islands bordering
+the southwestern coast of Asia Minor produced textile fabrics that
+rivalled many of the best products of the mainland. None of them were
+more beautiful or more interesting than those which came from the Island
+of Rhodes, where were blended the vigorous Grecian and the more subtle
+Oriental arts. Here was the inspiration of the sea, cloudless skies,
+luxuriant vegetation. Here was felt the deep influence of the Mohammedan
+and Christian religions, as well as an early pagan mythology; and there
+is little doubt that the cathedral walls and picturesque church of the
+valiant knights of St. John made an impression on the weavers. It is not
+surprising, therefore, that the fabrics should be of deep, rich colour
+full of suggestion, and that the drawing of the long central panels
+should remind one of cathedral windows.
+
+Of the many beautiful rugs formerly woven in Rhodes only a few now
+remain, and these are generally in the hands of collectors. Some are
+odjaliks, some namazliks, some sedjadehs; but all, with the exception of
+a few crude and coarsely woven pieces, have colours and weave that
+bespeak a ripe age, amounting in many instances to one hundred years or
+more. On the field of odjaliks are represented as a rule the usual
+hexagonal figure with two sides at each end forming a triangle; and on
+the fields of the namazliks are prayer arches which, though
+characteristic, never equal the graceful drawing seen in Ghiordes rugs.
+It is the sedjadehs that awaken the greatest interest, as they have some
+striking peculiarities rarely seen in rugs of the mainland.
+
+Their field is divided into two or three panels that extend almost the
+full length of the field, and terminate at one end in flat and often
+serrated arches. The spandrels are small; and placed transversely above
+them is a low panel, that contains designs of mechanically drawn leaves,
+vandykes resembling those of Ladiks, and other figures common to Asia
+Minor rugs. In fact, these pieces at once suggest prayer rugs containing
+two or more prayer arches, but the pattern is generally regarded as a
+representation of cathedral windows. Both colouring and designs give
+force to this idea. In each of the principal panels is a different
+ground colour, as red, blue, or green, which is never gaudy, yet
+exceedingly rich on account of the depth of pile; and in the overlying
+figures there is often a strangely contrasting splendour of brighter
+colouring. Furthermore, one of the most usual of these designs, arranged
+like pole medallions, consists of large eight-pointed stars with
+effulgent rays of brilliant hues. As we look at some of the rare old
+pieces with this pattern, cathedral windows almost appear before us with
+bright sunshine streaming in golden rays through the stained glass and
+brightening the interior with its more sombre tones of "dim religious
+light." Sometimes the pole design is modified so as to suggest a tree
+of life extending from one end of the panel to the other. An equally
+common design represents six very mechanically drawn leaves assembled in
+the form of a medallion (Plate O, Fig. 15, Page 291). Each of these
+leaves has two straight edges meeting at right angles and containing at
+the corner a small rectangular spot; but the remaining sides that form
+the circumference of the medallion are deeply serrated, so as to produce
+much the same effect as the rays of effulgent stars. In the fields are
+also frequently seen latch-hooks, and occasionally checkerboards with
+different colours for separate squares.
+
+Between field and border is a close correspondence in both colours and
+small designs. The latter consist principally of geometric and
+semi-floral forms, as eight-pointed stars, the octagonal disc, and the
+geometric leaf that is typical of Kulah rugs. No other design is more
+prevalent than the last, which may be found in all parts of these rugs.
+Sometimes it is drawn most realistically so as to resemble the flower
+forms so common in spandrels of Kulahs; but again the outlines are most
+conventional with square-like projections at the edges and a bar of
+underlying field of contrasting colour crossing the face diagonally, as
+in the border stripe of Plate G, Fig. 13, (opp. Page 192), which shows
+the foliate origin of the latter.
+
+The name "Makri" is frequently applied to these rugs, since they were
+often bought in the city of that name, which is one of the harbours of
+Southwestern Asia Minor nearest to Rhodes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, also
+considerable yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, seven to nine. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows in places at
+back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back, occasionally one to each knot is slightly
+depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, coloured
+red. A thread of warp usually crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots, rarely only once, and sometimes as many as four times. _Pile_,
+wool, clipped long. _Border_, two to three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two, three, or four cords, usually coloured red or blue.
+_Lower end_, a web, either red or of several colours, and long warp
+fringe hanging loose or braided. _Upper end_, a web, either red or of
+several colours, beyond which is often a heavy braided selvage; also a
+long warp fringe hanging loose or braided. _Texture_, moderately loose.
+_Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Length_, four to seven
+feet. _Width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 41. KUBA RUG]
+
+
+BROUSSA.—At the base of Mt. Olympus and distant only twenty-five miles
+from the Sea of Marmora, with which it is connected by rail, is the city
+of Broussa. By reason of this location and its proximity to
+Constantinople, it is an important commercial centre; and on account of
+the excellence of the wool and silk obtained in the surrounding country,
+rugs are woven here for foreign markets. The fabrics are stoutly made
+and compare favourably with those of Smyrna.
+
+
+HEREKE.—In the town of Hereke, on the Sea of Marmora, is a Turkish
+factory, where large numbers of silk rugs are manufactured. Most of the
+silk is obtained in the immediate neighbourhood and from the country
+about Mt. Olympus. As the early weavers were brought from Kirman to
+instruct the artisans of the Sultan, and the patterns have been largely
+copied from old Persian and Asia Minor pieces, it is not surprising that
+many of the fabrics compare favourably with the silk rugs of Persia.
+
+
+KONIEHS.—At the base of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the salt desert of
+Central Asia Minor is the city of Konieh. Within its present walls is
+all that is left of the ancient Iconium that opened its gates to
+Xenophon, Cyrus, and Alexander, but drove forth the Apostle Paul.
+Finally it surrendered to Seljukian conquerors, who, realising the
+importance of its situation on one of the great highways between east
+and west and in an oasis of well-watered fields, orchards, and gardens
+which face a great barren plain, established there a Mussulman capital,
+that became noted for its opulence and culture. In later years it
+successfully resisted the assault of Frederic Barbarossa; but
+subsequently it declined, until now the only remaining vestiges of its
+former importance are several colleges, one hundred mosques, and the
+famous green tower surmounting the tomb of the whirling dervishes.
+
+In few other cities of Asia Minor were greater inducements offered to
+the rug weavers. Surrounding them lay hills and plains that produced
+sheep with soft, fine fleeces. On the oaks that grew not far to the
+north lived the kermes, from which were obtained the vermilion dyes
+famous even through Persia. The political and commercial importance of
+the city, as well as the religious fanaticism of the people, aided them.
+Accordingly a great many choice pieces were formerly woven there, but on
+account of the remoteness of the city from the markets that supplied
+Europe, few found their way into channels of trade.
+
+Large numbers were used solely for religious purposes, but other kinds
+are as frequently seen. All of them contain both geometric and floral
+forms. The geometric forms resemble designs prevalent in Eastern
+Anatolia and in Caucasia, such as latch-hooks, eight-pointed stars, and
+barber-pole stripes; and the floral forms consist of mechanically drawn
+palm leaves and the tree-of-life design.
+
+Probably in no other Asia Minor rug is such latitude in the drawing of
+the prayer arch. Sometimes it begins below the middle of the field and
+rises at a sharp angle to a point near the upper end; again it may be
+exceedingly flat; but generally it has the same pitch as the arches of
+Kulahs, and, like them, the sides, as a rule, are stepped or serrated.
+Furthermore, it is not unusual to see latch-hooks projecting from each
+step or serration into the spandrel, which is filled with small floral
+and geometric forms. From the niche is occasionally suspended a lamp;
+and arranged against the border, on each side of the field, is a row of
+conventionalised flowers, or small sprigs which resemble three
+triangular-shaped petals at the end of a straight stem. These floral or
+foliate designs are one of the most constant features of this class. The
+borders are more geometric than those of almost any other Asia Minor
+rugs, and even when vines are represented they are drawn with stiff
+formality.
+
+Whatever may be lacking in artistic drawing is frequently atoned for by
+the excellence of the colour scheme, which occasionally rivals that of
+the Ghiordes and Kulahs. Rich reds or blues are almost invariably found
+in the fields, where there is sufficient depth of nap to enhance their
+richness; and the borders are brightened by attractive tones of yellow,
+green, and white. Contrasted with these old pieces, the modern rugs of
+Konieh have little artistic merit, but are large pieces desirable solely
+for their durability.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally five to eight; perpendicularly, six to ten. The rows of
+knots are not very firmly pressed down. _Warp_, wool; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of medium diameter, dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between
+every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+two to five stripes, with frequently an outer edging. _Sides_, generally
+a selvage of two or three cords, but occasionally an overcasting. _Both
+ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, only moderately firm. _Weave_
+at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual length_, four and one half
+to six feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+LADIKS.—On the ruins of ancient Laodicea is the mud-walled town of the
+village of Ladik, once the centre of an important rug industry. Among
+the surrounding hills are still woven pieces which resemble in pattern,
+though they poorly imitate in weave and colour, the early prototypes
+that have been classed among the masterpieces of Asia Minor. Few of
+these old rugs remain, and they are often badly worn in spots; yet they
+display tones mellowed by the touch of more than a century, and rival
+the Ghiordes in beauty of design.
+
+As is the case with other classes of rugs woven in Turkish countries,
+the sedjadehs and odjaliks lack the interesting details of the
+namazliks, from which they widely differ. On the central fields of many
+of them are oblong hexagonal-shaped medallions, often three in number,
+that contain designs of stars or other geometric figures. Between the
+fields and the borders of the ends are generally spacious panels, on
+which are represented rows of vandykes. These figures are one of the
+most permanent characteristics of this class of rugs; and though their
+origin is uncertain, it is not improbable that they are derived from
+arrowheads, which were one of the emblems of the Chaldean deity Hoa, the
+reputed inventor of Cufic writing. The borders are also geometric,
+consisting, as a rule, of three stripes, of which the central contains
+an angular vine that in different pieces may be very simple or very
+ornate. One of the central stripes often adopted is represented in Plate
+G, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 192) and shows a vine with conventionalised leaf.
+Latch-hooks are common in the sedjadehs, and when floral forms are
+present the fact is generally disguised by the harsh, mechanical
+drawing.
+
+In contrast with these pieces, the namazliks with their interesting
+arches and dainty drawing are most pleasing. In a large number of them
+the central fields occupy about one half the space within the border,
+the spandrels extend for a considerable distance above the arch, and the
+panels are larger than in any other prayer rug. Occasionally arches
+resembling those of the Ghiordes or Kir-Shehrs are seen; but they are
+to be regarded merely as copies, since the typical arch differs widely
+from any other and gives to this class one of its greatest charms.
+Instead of rising to the apex in lines of many serrations, each side of
+the arch rises from the border and falls in one large serration, then
+rises again to form the niche. The arch is often fringed with
+latch-hooks, and extending above the apex of each serration and the
+niche are perpendicular devices that may, also, be a development of the
+latch-hook, since they have not been traced to any other satisfactory
+origin. But whatever their origin may be, their shape as well as that of
+the arch at once suggests Saracenic mosques. In the spandrel are
+constantly seen serrated leaves, rosettes, and designs peculiar to the
+Ladik. The large panel is equally typical, and consists of reciprocally
+drawn vandykes, from which rise perpendicular stems supporting leaves
+and pomegranates. These are generally five in number, and are so
+gracefully and naturalistically drawn that it seems surprising that the
+vandykes, from which they spring, are ornamented with a profusion of
+latch-hooks. The central fields are sometimes without ornament, but as a
+rule they contain some suggestions of the tree of life either in the
+central design or in the three-leaf sprigs arranged about the borders.
+The latter are as characteristic as any other part of the rug, and
+consist of four stripes separated by dotted lines. The main stripe most
+frequently contains a row of delicately drawn lilies alternating with
+rosettes, though occasionally a very formal vine with conventionalised
+leaf is substituted for it. In the stripes at each side are very angular
+vines with three-cleft leaves, and in the narrow innermost stripe is
+generally a ribbon pattern.
+
+All of the drawing has clear definition accentuated by rich and strongly
+contrasting colours. The fields of the namazliks, like those of the
+Ghiordes, are entirely occupied by masses of unshaded blue, red, or
+brown, that are relieved only by the colours of superimposed designs.
+But as is not the case with Ghiordes, there is often a strong contrast
+between the colours of centre and ends; yet the tones are always in
+perfect harmony. Other rugs may have more delicate drawing or more
+exquisite finish; but in the barbaric arrangement of strong colour and
+in the uniqueness of graceful designs, none exceed the old prayer
+Ladiks.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 42. CHICHI RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and blue, with minor
+quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally nine to twelve; perpendicularly, ten to thirteen. A half
+knot as it appears at back is longer than wide. The rows of knots are
+pressed down so that the warp is concealed at back. _Warp_, wool. One of
+the two threads encircled by a knot is generally depressed below the
+other at the back. _Weft_, wool of fine diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a red
+added selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow web and warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to seven feet. _Usual width_, three
+fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KIR-SHEHRS.—To the north of the great salt desert and in the southern
+part of the province of Angora is the town of Kir-Shehr. It stands
+between two mountain ranges, on which are raised sheep with fine
+fleeces, and is on the branch of the Kizil Irmak, whose waters are well
+suited for preparing wool for the dyes obtained in the surrounding
+country. On account of the excellence of wool, water, and natural dyes,
+as well as the remoteness of the town from main highways of travel, many
+of the old rugs were excellent pieces, free from the taint of Western
+influences, and possessing the charm of individuality. It was due,
+moreover, to the fact that its three or four thousand inhabitants, and
+the Turkomans who roamed the surrounding country, rarely felt the
+influence of larger cities that they were so untrammelled by
+conventionalities. Unhesitatingly they grouped together large spaces of
+red, yellow, and blue, as well as grass-coloured green, for which they
+had a particular fondness and employed to a greater extent than almost
+any other weavers; yet in the case of these old pieces the artistic
+sense is rarely shocked, since the individual colours are good and the
+tones are harmonious. Furthermore, the patterns show an unusual blending
+of floral and geometric forms.
+
+Most of the pieces come in moderate sizes; some are mats, others small
+sedjadehs, but the choicest are the prayer rugs. The serrated sides of
+the arch, which rise at a steep angle from the centres of each side of
+the rather narrow fields, are formed of several parallel lines of
+different colour. In a not unusual rug, for instance, eight narrow lines
+separating the spandrel of grass-green from the inner field of brick-red
+appeared in the following order: red, black, white, yellow, lavender,
+yellow, red, and blue. The inmost line is frequently fringed with
+tri-cleft floral forms, which, as in Koniehs, extend in a row along the
+sides of the field. From the niche is usually suspended the design of an
+inverted tree of life, and above it are projected latch-hooks or similar
+devices. It is not unusual to see two arches, and there are sometimes as
+many as four, placed one within the other. The spacious spandrel that is
+continued in narrow stripes along the borders to the bottom of the field
+is covered with geometric or conventionalised floral forms; and the
+horizontal panel, which may be placed at either end of the field,
+contains designs in harmony with the remaining parts.
+
+On the whole, the wide borders have some of the most characteristic
+features; for, as a rule, not only are one or two of the stripes of a
+peculiar cherry red and one a rich yellow, but three or four of the
+narrow stripes next to the field are similar in width and ornamentation
+to those of the Kulah. When contrasted with them the broad central
+stripe and the outer one seem lacking in harmony, for they are
+distinctly floral and suggestive of Persian influences.
+
+On account of the quality of their wool and weave, these rugs are soft
+and flexible. They resemble in some minor details others of the
+Anatolian plateau, yet they can be distinguished by the presence of
+grass-green colour and the shape of the prayer arch. The nap of these
+old pieces, like that of Kulahs and Ladiks, is of medium length; though
+in modern pieces it is often longer, and the weft and webs are coloured
+as are those of Bergamos.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and green, also some
+blue, brown, and white. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+five to nine; perpendicularly, five to ten. A half knot as it appears at
+back is as long as, or longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not
+firmly pressed down, so that in places the warp shows. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or occasionally one is slightly depressed. _Weft_, wool, of medium
+or coarse diameter and generally of different colours in the same rug. A
+thread of weft crosses from two to six times between two rows of knots,
+varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, from
+five to eight stripes. _Sides_, a weft selvage of two, three, or four
+cords of different colours. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+ANATOLIANS.—To all of Asia Minor was once applied the term "Anatolia,"
+which signifies the Land of the Rising Sun; so that any product of this
+country might well be called Anatolian, just as any product of Persia
+might be called Iranian. In fact, many of the less known classes, as the
+Nigde, Tuzla, Mudjar, and even the Kir-Shehr, Melez, and Konieh, are
+often called Anatolian. But as there is a special type of rugs known as
+Iranians, so is there a special type known as Anatolians. They are,
+however, a mixed lot, that come from parts of a wide stretch of
+territory, extending over the interior table-land to the home of the
+Kurds, and incorporating ideas received from many districts. It is,
+accordingly, difficult to define them as a type; but, as a rule, they
+are small pieces that are often used for mats and pillows, with
+moderately long nap of soft, floccy wool, with narrow borders, and a
+colour scheme that inclines to bright and sometimes garish colours.
+
+Doubtless the best of them come from the provinces of Angora and Konieh,
+lying within a radius of one hundred miles of Lake Tuz Gul. Here can be
+obtained the best of wool and dyes; and in some of the old pieces
+appears the artistic drawing of the more important rug centres farther
+to the west, but with a strange blending of geometric and floral forms.
+Eight-pointed stars as well as latch-hooks are seen everywhere, and a
+very old design with the shape of ram's horns is frequently used. In
+many of the prayer rugs the arches are of the Kir-Shehr order, though
+the panels may contain vandykes suggestive of Ladiks. There is the
+greatest latitude in the width of the borders, which occasionally are
+their most noticeable feature and again are most insignificant; but in
+either case they rarely contain more than three stripes, and not
+infrequently only one. Red, blue, green, and brown are the usual
+colours, but pink and canary yellow are sometimes used.
+
+Farther to the east, among the foot-hills of the Anti-Taurus mountains,
+is woven a coarser type by the Kurdish tribes. With the exception of
+wool and dyes they have little to their credit; for their usual
+unsymmetric shapes, crude geometric designs, long uneven nap, and
+braided fringe of warp at the ends are lacking in all elegance.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, green, brown,
+and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to twelve. A half knot, as it appears at back, is
+generally as long as wide, or longer. The rows of knots are not firmly
+pressed down, yet the warp is frequently concealed at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter and usually dyed, A
+thread of weft crosses two, three, and four times between two rows of
+knots frequently varying in the same piece. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, one to three stripes, and occasionally an edging.
+_Sides_, a weft selvage of two or three cords. _Both ends_, a web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, two and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, one half to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KARAMANS.—At the foot of Mt. Taurus and overlooking the plain that
+stretches northward into the heart of Asia Minor is the city of Karaman.
+Before its subjection in the XV Century by Bajazet II and the removal of
+the capital to Konieh, that lies sixty miles to the northwest, it was
+the seat of a Turkish government extending to the Mediterranean Sea; but
+to-day the only reminder of its early importance are several Saracenic
+mosques covered with rich arabesques. Of the rugs woven there during the
+early period almost nothing is known, but, on account of the former
+importance of the city, it is not improbable that they compared
+favourably with the rugs of other parts of the Turkish Empire. On the
+other hand, some of the modern products are among the poorest rugs of
+the East, and contain little artistic merit. A feature peculiar to many
+of them is the use of natural wool of reddish brown colour, obtained
+from sheep which live on the mountain ranges to the south of Karaman.
+The pile is long, the weave is never very firm, and at each end is a
+coloured web.
+
+
+SIVAS.—In the city of Sivas, at the eastern end of Anatolia, and in the
+villages of the surrounding plain, girls and women have woven rugs from
+time immemorial; but on account of the difficulties of transportation
+few of them reach this country. The carefully finished sides and ends,
+the formal character of the pattern, and the almost harsh effect of the
+strongly contrasting colours of many of them are unlike what are found
+in the nomadic rugs made farther to the east and west. In the weave is a
+hint of Persian influence; for not only are both warp and weft of
+cotton, but the warp is of small diameter and well spun, and one of the
+two threads to which a knot is tied is depressed below the other. The
+pattern, on the other hand, is distinctly Turkish. One of the best known
+types consists of a large hexagon that reaches to the sides and ends,
+and contains within it a medallion on which are designs similar to those
+seen in Bergamos. On the white field surrounding the medallion are often
+small rosettes and floral figures. The corners of the field may be
+fringed with running latch-hooks or a row of formal T's, and contain a
+rosette at their centre. The borders are rarely wide, and often consist
+of a single stripe that contains some conventionalised floral form.
+Although these rugs are well woven, their crude blending of floral and
+geometric figures, as well as their formality of drawing, which is
+accentuated by the shortness of the nap, are most suggestive of
+Occidental conventions.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 43. TCHERKESS RUG]
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and white; also dull
+blue, green, and light yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally seven to eleven; perpendicularly, nine to fifteen. A half
+knot, as it appears at back, is not as long as wide. The rows of knots
+are pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+cotton, well spun and of small diameter. One of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back and sometimes
+doubled under the other. _Weft_, cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of
+short to medium length. _Border_, narrow, one to three stripes. _Sides_,
+an added selvage of four or five cords attached in places, and with weft
+encircling inner cord of selvage. _Both ends_, narrow web and loose warp
+fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is only slightly coarse. _Usual
+length_, three and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual width_, two
+thirds to four fifths length.
+
+
+MUDJARS.—Near the river Kizil Irmak in Central Asia Minor is the city of
+Mudjar, which produces rugs that occasionally reach this country. They
+are often classed as Anatolians, but their colour scheme covers a wider
+range, including red, yellow, green, blue, mauve, and pink, all of which
+may be seen in the same piece. In fact no other rug of Asia Minor
+contains as a rule so many colours, which appear in the broad borders of
+old, well-woven pieces with glistening wool almost like mosaic work.
+Many of this class are namazliks with arches very similar to the arches
+in the rugs of Kir-Shehr, which is distant only twenty-five miles to the
+north; and in the panels above the spandrel are not infrequently designs
+of vandykes borrowed from the Ladiks. Some suggestion of the tree of
+life often appears in the field, and again rows of flowers may extend
+into it from the sides. Some of the best examples are very handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, yellow, blue, green,
+and ivory, also mauve and pink. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. _Warp_,
+wool. Each of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is frequently
+equally prominent at the back, but generally one is depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool, of medium to coarse diameter dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, broad, of three to four stripes.
+_Sides_, a three-cord selvage, frequently red. _Both ends_, coloured
+webs and fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_, moderately coarse. _Usual
+length_, four to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters
+length.
+
+
+NIGDES.—Near the base of the Anti-Taurus mountains in the eastern part
+of the province of Konieh is the city of Nigde, which is little known in
+this country as a rug-producing centre, though its fabrics reach Europe.
+Many of them are namazliks, that are distinguished by their high
+geometric arches. The borders often show the influence of the Kurdish
+tribes, and contain patterns common in the Mesopotamian valley; but
+their colour scheme of red, blue, and yellow more closely resembles the
+Anatolian. Most of them are of small size and are poorly woven.
+
+
+TUZLAS.—Another class of Asia Minor rugs rarely seen are the Tuzlas.
+They are generally regarded as Anatolians, but are made by people who
+live about Lake Tuz Gul in the province of Konieh. Some of them are well
+woven, and have soft woollen pile and attractive patterns. The prayer
+arch of the namazliks bears some resemblance to the arch of the
+Kir-Shehrs; the panel is relatively high; and not infrequently the
+borders have rosettes similar to those of Bergamos. The principal
+colours are red, blue, green, and ivory.
+
+
+KAISARIYEH.—One of the few Asia Minor centres for the manufacture of
+silk textiles is the city of Kaisariyeh, the ancient Cæsarea, near the
+eastern part of Anatolia. Formerly rugs of excellent quality were made
+there; but the modern products are, as a rule, inferior both in
+workmanship and material to those of Hereke. Frequently their dyes are
+aniline and the colours garish. Many of them are prayer rugs with
+arches resembling the Ghiordes pattern, but their borders are more
+conventional. Woollen rugs which are copies of other well-known Asia
+Minor pieces are also woven there.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VII—LADIK PRAYER RUG_
+
+_The rug here represented conforms in every particular to one of the
+best types of Ladik prayer rugs. It contains the beautiful border stripe
+of Rhodian lilies, the pomegranates and vandykes in the panel below the
+central field, and the queer designs of scrolls and serrated leaves so
+peculiar to these rugs. It is interesting to see how the pattern of the
+innermost stripe, which consists of a row of S-forms at the top and
+sides, is changed so as to resemble a ribbon at the bottom, to note the
+eight-pointed stars resting on octagons in the lower panel, so
+suggestive of nomads, and also the designs which have been placed near
+the two corners on the left, between the rosettes and Rhodian lilies of
+the main stripe, as if to divert the spell of the "evil-eye." Such
+irregularities, denoting the idiosyncrasies of the weaver, add to the
+charm of Oriental rugs._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+
+YURUKS.—Suggestive of gipsies, yet widely unlike them, are the tribes of
+Turkoman descent known as Yuruks. This term means "Wanderers;" and they
+are well named, since throughout the western part of Asia Minor they
+follow their sheep, cattle, and camels from the rich pastures among the
+mountain tops of the interior, where they live in summer, to the
+fertile, sunny plains bordering the seashore in winter. Even near Smyrna
+and the slopes of Mt. Olympus may be seen their black goat's-hair tents,
+where the unexpected guest is always welcome.
+
+In their rugs is the reflection of their untrammelled lives, unaffected
+by the refinements of cities; and as their lives are different from
+those of all other inhabitants of Asia Minor, so are these rugs entirely
+distinct, resembling more than anything else the work of the wild Kazaks
+of the Caucasus. In them will be recognised the same long nap, the same
+massing of colour, the same profusion of latch-hooks, and other simple
+designs. The colours, however, are less brilliant, bright reds and
+yellows being more sparingly used; but on the other hand the depth of
+floccy nap gives a subdued richness to the dark metallic madder, blue,
+green, and brown, such as is rarely seen in any Kazak. The patterns show
+the usual diversity of nomadic rugs. The fields may contain crude,
+unrelated figures, or diagonal stripes on which are small geometric
+designs. Again from the Kurdish tribes to the east may be adopted the
+pear designs as well as floral forms, but the drawing is always far from
+realistic.
+
+Most of the modern rugs have fine wool coloured with vegetable dyes, and
+stout warp and weft woven to give flexibility; but their patterns show a
+want of all artistic feeling. Now and then, however, comes to light a
+piece that has stood the wear of more than a century, showing the touch
+of a higher craftsmanship, and with colours softened by each succeeding
+year.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, red, and blue,
+with minor quantities of yellow, green, and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to seven; perpendicularly, six to nine.
+The rows of knots are not closely pressed down, yet the warp does not
+show at back. _Warp_, wool or goat's hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a half knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool of
+medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses two, three, or four times
+between every two rows of knots, varying in the same rug. _Pile_, wool,
+clipped long. _Border_, from four to six stripes, occasionally with an
+outer edging. _Sides_, generally a heavy double overcasting, but
+occasionally a double selvage of two or three cords. _Lower end_, a
+coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord, and
+warp loops; or the warp threads may be knotted and hang loose. _Upper
+end_, a coloured web through which generally runs a parti-coloured cord,
+a braided selvage, and a warp fringe; or the warp ends may be braided
+together at short intervals. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is of
+moderately coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual
+width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+ASIA MINOR BORDER STRIPES
+
+Regarded as a whole, the borders of Asia Minor rugs show but slight
+relationship to either the geometric patterns of the Caucasian, or the
+floral patterns of the Persian; for as a rule the geometric features
+either are subordinate or suggest an origin by degradation from floral
+designs, and the floral features generally are represented by an orderly
+arrangement of disjunct forms rather than by continuous vines with
+pendent flowers. Yet there is no doubt that some were copied by
+Caucasian weavers, and that many were derived from Persian patterns.
+They are frequently, however, more artistic than the former, more
+interesting than the latter, and rival both in beautiful colouring and
+delicate drawing.
+
+_Primary Stripes._—Several different stripes peculiar to Ghiordes prayer
+rugs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (opp. Page
+192). The first of these is probably the oldest. It is so strikingly
+suggestive of the Herati design of rosette and attendant leaves that
+there can be little doubt of its Persian origin. The seed-like processes
+of the alternate rosettes are noticeable. The second, which is found in
+many of the Ghiordes rugs, shows the same pattern more conventionalised,
+with the rosette resembling an open pod and with the leaves almost
+octagonal-shaped. The third is a still greater evolution of the same
+pattern in which leaves and rosettes of nearly equal shape and size are
+placed at three angles of a quadrangular space. The last, which is a
+very elaborate pattern somewhat similar to the first, is found in a few
+old rugs. Besides these, a number of parallel lines similar to those of
+Kulah rugs (Plate G, Fig. 12) are sometimes seen in the Ghiordes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE G. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA MINOR RUGS]
+
+One of the best known Ghiordes stripes found in odjaliks and sedjadehs
+is shown in Plate G, Fig. 6. It is a broad stripe with wide, vine-like
+bands covered with rows of small flecks or flowers. Between each flexure
+of the band are designs probably symbolic of early sun worship.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 7, is represented the most usual and beautiful stripe
+of the Ladik prayer rugs. The principal motives are Rhodian lilies, and
+rosettes identical with Persian forms, that are probably
+conventionalised roses. Another stripe, in which the lily is replaced by
+a conventionalised vine, is shown in Plate G, Fig. 8. Both these stripes
+are found only in Ladik rugs. Other stripes seen now and then in Ladik
+and Melez sedjadehs are illustrated in Plate G, Figs. 9, 10, and 11,
+each of which shows a conventionalised leaf.
+
+One of the most typical Kulah stripes is seen in Plate G, Fig. 12. It
+might in fact be regarded as a number of parallel stripes, but as will
+be evident by observing a large series of Kulahs it serves the function
+of a single broad stripe. Often the separate bands are replaced by a
+ground of uniform colour marked by parallel rows of minute flowers of
+regularly varying colour. Occasionally this stripe is copied by Ghiordes
+weavers.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 13, is a well-known stripe that appears both in Kulah
+and Rhodian rugs. As previously explained, its origin is probably
+floral, though the drawing is geometric. A formal stripe found in
+Bergamos, and consisting largely of diamonds and eight-pointed stars, is
+represented in Plate G, Fig. 14.
+
+Figs. 15 and 16 of Plate G illustrate the border stripes of Melez rugs.
+Each contains regularly spaced rosettes, separated by conventionalised
+leaf forms. A much more geometric Melez border, in which the rosettes
+are replaced by eight-pointed stars and the leaves by discs, is shown in
+Plate G, Fig. 17.
+
+A geometric stripe of uncertain origin that is found in some Koniehs is
+shown in Plate G, Fig. 18.
+
+In Plate G, Figs. 19 and 20, are represented two stripes characteristic
+of Kir-Shehrs. The former is a dainty pattern consisting of a row of
+bushes separated by the lily design. It is occasionally found in the
+Melez also.
+
+A typical Mudjar stripe in which the geometric patterns are subdivided
+into small and richly coloured mosaic work is seen in Plate G, Fig. 21.
+
+In Plate G, Fig. 22, is illustrated a Yuruk border stripe such as is
+frequently seen in modern pieces.
+
+_Secondary and Tertiary Stripes._—In Plate H, Figs. 1 and 2 (opp. Page
+194), are illustrated two secondary stripes frequently seen in Ghiordes
+and Kulah rugs. The first is most suggestive of a running vine, and the
+second has doubtless been derived from it.
+
+A more ornate pattern, which generally accompanies the broad band of
+perpendicular lines peculiar to Ghiordes and Kulah rugs, is shown in
+Plate H, Fig. 3. The arrangement of three leaves in angles of
+quadrangular spaces suggests relationship to the primary stripe of Plate
+G, Fig. 3 (opp. Page 192).
+
+Two other secondary stripes found in Ghiordes rugs are seen in Plate H,
+Figs. 4 and 5. The former, which is also found in Kulahs is a vine and
+flower subject to many modifications.
+
+A tertiary stripe containing a ribbon-like vine is very usual in
+Ghiordes and Kulah pieces. One of these, which is very graceful, is
+shown in Plate H, Fig. 6.
+
+Another angular vine with pendent flower, that appears as a secondary
+stripe of a large number of Ladik prayer rugs, is illustrated in Plate
+H, Fig. 7. This resembles a few Persian stripes, but the drawing of the
+pendent leaf is characteristic of Asia Minor.
+
+Figs. 8 and 9 of Plate H represent two tertiary stripes often seen in
+Ladiks and Kulahs. They illustrate the evolution of patterns; for in the
+same stripe of a rug will sometimes be seen the first of these and the
+simple ribbon pattern of Plate F, Fig. 18 (opp. Page 158), and also in
+the same stripe of another rug will sometimes be seen the second of
+these and a continuous row of "_ff_" designs, as in Plate H, Fig. 2.
+
+The most typical of all Kulah secondary stripes, though it is also seen
+in Rhodian rugs and occasionally in an old Ghiordes, is illustrated in
+Plate H, Fig. 10. A somewhat similar stripe is shown in Plate H, Fig.
+11. The design looks like a Chinese motive, but that it is evolved from
+a vine will be seen by comparing these stripes with those in Figs. 4 and
+12. All of them are Asia Minor border stripes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE H. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF ASIA
+MINOR RUGS]
+
+In Figs. 13 and 14 of Plate H are illustrated the swastika and S
+stripe, which are seen now and then in Asia Minor rugs, such as Kulahs,
+and also in Caucasian rugs.
+
+One of the most typical of Melez secondary stripes, representing
+processes like cogs projecting in a row from alternating sides of the
+stripe, is shown in Plate H, Fig. 15. The stripes shown in Figs. 16 and
+17 of Plate H, representing a row of small rosettes and a row of
+octagonal discs, are also occasionally seen in Melez rugs.
+
+The very angular vine shown in Plate H, Fig. 18, is sometimes seen in
+Koniehs.
+
+A very unusual secondary stripe (Plate H, Fig 19), found in a few
+Anatolians, represents a fret pattern, which was probably copied from
+some monument.
+
+The chain pattern (Plate H, Fig. 20) is occasionally seen as a tertiary
+stripe in the Ghiordes. It appeared in Asia Minor rugs of several
+centuries ago, and has been copied by the weavers of Caucasia. Sometimes
+the lines are angular, and again the S's are separated by small round or
+square dots.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF ASIA MINOR RUGS
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat's hair
+    s = silk
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    s = silk
+    j = jute
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+  |            |           KNOT             |            WARP              |
+  |            +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----------------+
+  | ASIA MINOR |         |      | Number to |     |       |    | At back   |
+  |            |         |      | Inches    |     |       |    |           |
+  |            | G =     | S =  +-----+-----+ w = | c =   |    |---+---+---+
+  |            | Ghiordes| Sehna|  H  |  P  | wool| cotton| g/s| e | d | h |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+  |Anatolian   |    G    |      | 5-9 | 6-12|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Bergamo     |    G    |      | 5-9 | 7-10|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Ghiordes    |    G    |      | 7-12| 8-16|  w  |  c    |[s] | e |[d]|   |
+  |Karaman     |    G    |      | 6-9 | 8-13|  w  |       |    |   | d |   |
+  |Kir-Shehr   |    G    |      | 5-9 | 5-10|  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Konieh      |    G    |      | 5-8 | 6-10|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Kulah       |    G    |      | 5-10| 7-12|  w  |       |    |[e]| d |   |
+  |Ladik       |    G    |      | 9-12|10-13|  w  |       |    |[e]| d |   |
+  |Meles       |    G    |      | 5-8 | 6-11|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Rhodian     |    G    |      | 5-8 | 7-9 |  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Sivas       |    G    |      | 7-11| 9-15|     |  c    |    |   | d |[h]|
+  |Youruk      |    G    |      | 5-7 | 6-9 |  w  |       |[g] | e |   |   |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+  |            |          WEFT            | SIDES |     LOWER END   |
+  |            +-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  | ASIA MINOR |     |       |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            | w = | c =   |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            |wool | cotton| s/j| No.   | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |Anatolian   |  w  |       |    |  2-4  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Bergamo     |  w  |       |    |  2-6  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Ghiordes    |  w  |   c   |[s] |   2   |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Karaman     |  w  |       |    |   2   | O | S | W/S |   | L |   |
+  |Kir-Shehr   |  w  |       |    |  2-6  |   | S |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Konieh      |  w  |       |    |   2   |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Kulah       |  w  |       |[j] | 2/[1] |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Ladik       |  w  |       |    |   2   |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Meles       |  w  |       |    |   4   |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Rhodian     |  w  |       |    |2/[1-4]|   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Sivas       |  w  |   c   |    |   2   |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Youruk      |  w  |       |    |  2-4  | O |[S]|  W  |[K]| L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------+----------------------+
+  |            |   UPPER END     |    NAP    |   WEAVE   | TEXTURE  |
+  |            |-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------|
+  | ASIA MINOR |     |   |   |   |l = long   |f = fine   |l = loose |
+  |            |     |   |   |   |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+  |            | W/S | K | T | F |s = short  |c = coarse |f = firm  |
+  |------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------|
+  |Anatolian   |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c   |    l      |
+  |Bergamo     |  W  |   |   | F |    m/l    |      f   |    m      |
+  |Ghiordes    |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f   |    m      |
+  |Karaman     | W/S |   | T | F |     l     |      c   |    l      |
+  |Kir-Shehr   |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c   |    l      |
+  |Konieh      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/c  |   m/f     |
+  |Kulah       |  W  |   |   | F |    m/s    |     m/c  |    l      |
+  |Ladik       |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      m   |   m/f     |
+  |Meles       |  W/S|   |   | F |   m/[s]   |     m/c  |    l      |
+  |Rhodian     |  W/S|   |   | F |     l     |     m/c  |   m/l     |
+  |Sivas       |  W  |   |   | F |    m/s    |     m/c  |    f      |
+  |Youruk      |  W  | K |[T]| F |     l     |      c   |    l      |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+----------+-----------+
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+ASIDE from the facts that the Caucasus is rugged, that during the Middle
+Ages it was ruled by the illustrious Tamara, and that till recently the
+physical charms of its women made them favourites in the slave markets
+of Constantinople, the character and history of that country are to-day
+almost as unknown to the average reader as they were when the bards of
+ancient Greece bound Prometheus to its rocks and hung the Golden Fleece
+from its oaken boughs. Yet it is a country of wonderful interest. Above
+its gorges, rivalling those of the Himalayas, rise mountains higher than
+the Alps. On the southwestern slope are combined the luxuriant
+vegetation of tropical lowlands with virgin forests of fir and pine, and
+in meadows and beside shaded brooks grow flowers of strange beauty.
+Beneath the ground is undeveloped wealth of ores and mineral oil. The
+river Phasis is the natural home of the pheasant; the crags are the
+resorts of ibex; and in secluded glens sharing solitude with bear, wolf,
+and boar are hidden the wild aurochs.
+
+Moreover, the philologist, ethnologist, and historian can here follow
+his favourite pursuit with as much zest as the Alpine climber, botanist,
+mineralogist, and sportsman; for within the confines of this region are
+spoken some seventy languages by as many distinct clans, each of remote
+origin. Some are the descendants of the early dwellers; some are the
+Aryan stock that found its way to Europe before the beginning of
+history; still others are but the offspring of the flotsam and jetsam
+which recurring waves of Asiatic conquerors, surging westward in ancient
+times, left stranded here. Nevertheless, for so many generations have
+the present inhabitants remained among their mountain strongholds,
+unabsorbed and unassimilating, that they have been regarded as a type
+sufficiently pure and characteristic to give its name to the great
+Caucasian race.
+
+Though enjoying greater isolation than surrounding countries, the
+Caucasus at different times and in different ways has felt their
+influences. During the Augustan age of Tamara's rule she attracted by
+her brilliancy, taste, and industry foreign courtiers and artisans.
+Hardly was she dead before Genghis Khan's horde of conquering Mongols
+poured over the land; and rival suitors, enraptured by her daughter's
+beauty, pressed their claims by invading it with their Mohammedan
+armies. For long succeeding years Persia struggled with Turkey for the
+mastery of the country, and was about to take it when Russia grasped the
+prize, but only after Shamyl with a few brave thousands had defeated
+vast armies.
+
+Each of these foreign guests or foes left some impression on the native
+art; so that Caucasian rugs show traces of Turkoman, Turkish, and
+Persian influences. It is rarely, excepting in a few small geometric
+figures, that there is any evidence of the Turkoman influence; but it is
+not unusual to see border stripes and field designs adopted from the
+Turkish rugs. Some of these stripes represent both geometric and floral
+patterns, either copied directly or derived with slight modifications
+from rugs woven three or four centuries ago in Asia Minor or Armenia.
+The Persian influence is apparent only in the floral forms. It doubtless
+inspired the stripe of dainty carnations so common in a large number of
+Caucasian pieces, the pear design inseparable from Baku rugs, as well as
+many other figures that first appeared in the rugs of Persia.
+
+Nevertheless, these rugs have their own distinct characteristics, which
+have a boldness and virility that are to be attributed in a measure to
+grand and rugged scenery as well as to centuries of struggle for
+independence, since in art the influence of environment is most
+apparent. They lack something of the sobriety, artistic drawing, and
+delicate colouring of those woven in vast deserts, amid the monuments of
+fallen empires, and in the gardens of the East; they contain on the
+other hand, both in line and colour, the forceful expression of
+untrammelled thought. The patterns are largely geometric; the tones of
+colour, in which clear red, blue, green, and yellow predominate, are
+strong. On the whole, they possess an individuality of character that is
+not surpassed by the rugs of any other group.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF CAUCASIA]
+
+
+DAGHESTANS.—In no part of Caucasia have better rugs been woven than in
+Daghestan, "the mountain country." Nor is it surprising that this
+province should produce distinctive types, when it is considered that it
+has a length of over two hundred miles; that its topography is
+diversified by glaciated mountains, barren steppes, and fertile valleys;
+and that it is occupied by numerous clans, many of whom differ in origin
+as well as religion. Some of the rugs come from the city of Derbend on
+the Caspian Sea; some come from Kuba in the southeastern corner; others,
+called Kabistans, are produced in the country about Kuba; a few are made
+by the Lesghians who live among the lofty mountains; and in other parts
+of the province are woven pieces which formerly were sent in large
+numbers to Europe and America, where they soon became known as
+Daghestans.
+
+Though their resemblance to the Kabistans is so great that it is often
+difficult to distinguish between them, the rugs which acquired the trade
+name of Daghestans are different from almost all other Caucasian pieces.
+This is largely because the province is bounded on three sides by a sea
+and a nearly impassable mountain range, which render communication with
+surrounding territory difficult, and create a natural isolation, where
+in the course of many generations a distinct type was developed.
+Moreover, these same physical conditions have impeded both the
+introduction of aniline dyes, so that even among modern pieces spurious
+colours are not frequently seen; and also the adoption of new designs,
+so that the patterns of two or three centuries ago are still largely
+used.
+
+It is among the oldest rugs of the Daghestan weave that are found many
+of the best examples of Caucasian textile art. The dark, rich reds and
+blues of the fields, which are brightened by the ivory, light blue,
+green, and yellow of the small designs, resemble the fine colouring of
+choice Persian carpets. But the patterns are totally dissimilar; for it
+is only in a few rare old pieces, in which are copied some designs such
+as the lotus, or the running vine with leaf and bud, that there is any
+likeness to the realism of Persian floral ornamentation.
+
+The drawing, however, is never crude, and on account of the short nap
+and strongly contrasting colours always appears with clear definition.
+With the exception of conventionalised pears, the three-leaf sprig,
+which is commonly seen in the field, and the narrow border stripes of
+carnations, almost all of the figures are geometric; and are so
+carefully drawn, so closely clustered, that they represent an appearance
+frequently compared to mosaic work. Even when the patterns represent
+large medallions or stars, they contain smaller concentric forms, or are
+divided and redivided into smaller stars, diamonds, or tessellated
+figures, so that the effect is the same. In some form or other the
+latch-hook is seen in almost all these pieces. Of small designs, the
+octagonal disc is almost invariably found; and animals, human beings,
+and the pear are not infrequently seen.
+
+As the population of the province is largely Mohammedan, namazliks as
+well as sedjadehs are made; but with the exception of the unobtrusive
+arch of the namazlik, which is represented in Plate C, Fig. 9 (Page 61),
+there is little difference between them. There is never any panel as in
+Asia Minor rugs; nor is there a noticeable spandrel, since the space
+above the arch contains designs similar to those on the rest of the
+field.
+
+As a rule, the borders consist of three or four stripes separated by
+coloured lines. Only in the secondary stripes are any floral forms
+employed; and these, with the exception of the carnation design, are
+rare. The reciprocal trefoil is most characteristic as an outer stripe;
+the serrated line is also employed; and it is not unusual to find next
+to the field a broad stripe of diagonal barber-pole bars, on which are
+small dotted lines.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to fifteen. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally
+longer. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that their
+alignment is even and the warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back;
+occasionally in old pieces one thread is slightly depressed below the
+other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short. _Border_,
+three to five stripes. _Sides_, a selvage of two, three, or four cords,
+or occasionally a weft-overcasting. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots
+or more, and loose warp fringe. Occasionally there is also a narrow
+braided selvage. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine
+grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_, one half to two
+thirds length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 44. BAKU RUG]
+
+
+KABISTANS.—Within recent years most of the rugs shipped from the
+southern part of Daghestan have become known in Western markets as
+Kabistans, though the distinction between them and the type that takes
+the name of the province is so slight that it is determinable only by
+the strictest analysis. In fact, Kabistans are merely a variety of
+Daghestans. Both have short nap and occasionally adopt the same colour
+scheme and patterns, so that many of each class are indistinguishable
+from one another.
+
+On the other hand, there are a few interesting points of difference
+between the best types, which are largely attributable to geographic
+environment. As the only easy access to this province from the south is
+by the shore of the Caspian, where the great mountain wall that forms an
+almost impassable barrier between Northern and Southern Caucasia
+descends to the plain, the district adjacent to this entrance on the
+line of travel would naturally feel and show a foreign influence, while
+the remote and more inaccessible parts of the province would be
+unaffected. Accordingly, the designs of Kabistans are more varied, and
+it is not surprising to find in them evidences of Persian influence not
+so apparent in the Daghestans. In some, for instance, are pear designs,
+like those occasionally seen in Shiraz pieces; and the rich tones, that
+are usually more subdued than those of the Daghestans, suggest the
+finest dyes of the Feraghans. There is also a slight difference in
+weave. Both display the two threads of warp encircled by each knot with
+equal prominence at the back; but in the Daghestans the alignment of the
+two halves of the knot, as they appear at the back, is more regular;
+while in the Kabistans one extends beyond the other in the direction of
+the length of the rug, as is the case with the Shirvans woven in the
+adjoining country to the south. Frequently the weft of Kabistans is of
+cotton; and the filling is not as wide as that of Daghestans, which is
+of wool. Moreover, the Kabistans may be either overcast or have a
+selvage at the sides, but the Daghestans have almost always a narrow
+selvage. Among the modern pieces there is a tendency for both classes to
+follow the side finish of the Shirvans.
+
+A well-known type of old Kabistans, that is also sometimes repeated in
+Daghestans, has a dark blue field on which are spaced in regular order
+white bracket-like designs, in which the perpendicular arms are usually
+connected (Plate O, Figs. 18-a and 18-b, Page 291). Their origin is
+unknown; but when their shape and their position in reference to the
+rosettes or effulgent stars that are placed near them are considered,
+the thought is at once suggested that in them is reproduced after a long
+process of slow change a conventionalised form of the Herati design.
+Other small harmonious designs are properly spaced throughout the
+fields, and in the main stripe of the border, on a cream-coloured
+ground, is frequently seen the beautiful pattern of Cufic origin
+represented in Plate J, Fig. 19 (opp. Page 228). Old pieces of this
+pattern, which are now growing rare, represent in weave, colour, and
+design the masterpieces of Caucasian textile art.
+
+Another pattern consists of diagonal stripes with small geometric
+figures, or of small floral forms arranged in rows, so that those of
+similar colour fall in diagonal lines. Again, the entire field may be
+covered with rectangular pears like those of Baku rugs. Oblong odjaliks
+are often seen with fields of dark colour, at each end of which are
+large geometric figures symmetrically balanced with reference to the
+centre. But they are so fringed with latch-hooks and so subdivided into
+smaller devices, which are accentuated by the shortness of the nap, that
+they have the effect of an assemblage of smaller designs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, also some red,
+ivory, green, and brown. Knot, Ghiordes. _Knots_ to inch horizontally
+seven to twelve; perpendicularly, eight to sixteen. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide and occasionally longer. The rows of
+knots are not firmly pressed down; their alignment is less even than in
+Daghestans, yet the warp may be seen at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_,
+wool or cotton, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots and occasionally three times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a weft-overcasting, or a two-cord weft selvage; occasionally a
+double overcasting or selvage. _Lower end_, a narrow web, not
+infrequently a fine braided selvage and warp loops. _Upper end_, a
+narrow web, occasionally a fine braided selvage and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual
+length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one half to three quarters
+length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 45. SHIRVAN RUG]
+
+
+KUBAS.—Not far from the southeast corner of the province of Daghestan,
+in a plain watered by streams that debouch from the Caucasus, is the
+small town of Kuba. It is on the site of an old Persian fort, about
+which in the course of time sprang up a town sufficiently important to
+be the residence of a Khan. For a long period previous to the treaty
+of Gulistan, in 1813, the influence of the Persians had been predominant
+in this part of the country; and it is not improbable that some of the
+oldest Kuba rugs now existing are the work of their weavers. Many, on
+the other hand, have few foreign characteristics either of weave or
+design, and show a relationship to the work of the Shemakha tribes, who
+inhabit an adjoining district in Shirvan.
+
+In some of this class the floral form receives more elaborate treatment
+than in any other Caucasian rug. One of the patterns of undoubted
+Iranian inspiration represents a large oval panel or medallion, with
+graceful outlines resting on a field of deep blue and sable brown,
+streaked with waving lines of gold. Within the medallion is a lavish
+display of large flowers _en masse_, and not detached from one another
+or arranged in set form, as is the case with most floral patterns. In
+each corner is a rose with spreading petals that equals the largest seen
+in nature, and with colour that suggests the beauty of a Duchess or
+Marechal Niel. Surrounding all is a narrow dainty border of some
+well-known Persian vine. The most recent copies of this pattern, that
+has been followed for at least a century and a half, are so crude as to
+resemble but slightly the oldest, which suggest the work of some early
+Kirman weaver and are unsurpassed in beauty and artistic elegance by any
+other Caucasian rug.
+
+Other patterns are more distinctly representative of the native art. The
+field of some is occupied by large, irregular, octagonal-shaped figures
+defined by serrated edges and subdivided by mosaic work, at the centre
+of which is some well-known design. One of the most pleasing patterns
+consists of a field on which with mathematical precision are placed
+large effulgent stars. At their centre is often a much smaller star
+enclosed by a diamond from which extend broad rays directed towards the
+eight principal points of the compass. When softened by time the
+different shades, such as light blue, ivory, and deep red of the
+enveloping rays, contrasted with other shades at the centre and with a
+dark blue of the ground, are exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The Kubas and Shemakhas have similar tones of colour, consisting
+principally of blues, reds, sable brown, and yellow, to which the soft,
+velvety character of the wool of the best examples gives a quality of
+richness that is distinctive. The finish of their sides and ends, which
+is usually similar to that of the Soumaks, is also identical, so that
+they are frequently mistaken for one another, and can only be
+distinguished by a difference of pattern and a slight difference of
+weave.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown,
+occasionally some green. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally
+six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are
+pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, fine
+wool; the two threads encircled by a knot are equally prominent at back.
+_Weft_, wool of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, one to three stripes. _Sides_, a blue double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a narrow blue web of "herring-bone" weave, a
+knotted selvage or several rows of knots, and short warp fringe.
+_Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+DERBENDS.—Near the great walls built by Alexander on the Caspian Sea,
+where mountains rise abruptly so as to leave only a narrow pass, is one
+of the oldest cities of Caucasia. It was known by the Romans as Albana,
+and was renamed by the Persians of the VI Century "Derbend," which in
+their language signifies a gateway. No other city of Caucasia has been
+visited by more foreign foes. Tartar tribes passed that way when
+entering Europe; Mongolians captured it as late as the XIII Century;
+Russians and Persians in turn held it. Moreover, the sea has offered an
+easy approach to the Turkoman tribes dwelling to the east. It is
+therefore somewhat surprising that there is so little evidence of
+artistic foreign influence in the weavings; but this is due, perhaps, to
+the fact that pieces with an authentic age of over two centuries no
+longer exist, and such old rugs as remain are very scarce; whilst the
+modern pieces are derived largely from the mountainous districts that
+find a market in the city.
+
+Occasionally, however, there comes to light a very old piece that
+reaches the standard of the finest Kabistan. The field of such a one may
+be filled with elaborately drawn pears like those seen in many of the
+Niris rugs. Again, it may be covered with a checkered or lattice-work
+pattern that contains within the diamonds geometric or semi-floral
+mosaic designs. Surrounding this field are three or four stripes, of
+which the outer has a reciprocal pattern. The nap is of fine wool of
+moderate length. At the back of these older rugs is sometimes
+displayed finely spun reddish dyed threads of woollen weft pressed
+closely together between lines of knots carefully tied to brownish
+threads of woollen warp; but not infrequently cotton is used for both
+warp and weft. Such designs and technique suggest the rugs woven much
+farther to the south.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 46. SOUMAK RUG]
+
+In contrast with these beautiful but rare pieces, the modern products
+are sad commentaries on the retrogression in weaving; for those that are
+ordinarily found in the market are like poor imitations of inferior
+Daghestans. They are of slightly larger size, and have longer nap,
+looser weave, and cruder colours. Moreover, they show evidences of
+Turkoman influences; for not infrequently the warp is of brown goat's
+hair, and at each end is a reddish brown web like what may be seen in
+the rugs of Yomud tribes living on the eastern shores of the Caspian.
+Still other nomadic characters, resembling the workmanship of Kazak
+tribes, appear in the large star-like or diamond-shaped figures which,
+fringed with latch-hooks and coloured with bright tones of red, blue, or
+green, are often placed in simple array on a field of strongly
+contrasting colour. There is nothing, however, offensive in the colour
+scheme, excepting when aniline dyes are used. With wear the nap of many
+of them acquires the soft and pleasing effect of Beluchistans.
+Furthermore, they are both flexible and durable, though entirely lacking
+in artistic qualities.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to twelve.
+Each half knot is about as long as wide, and occasionally longer. The
+rows of knots are generally pressed down, so that the warp is concealed
+at back. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton. The separate
+threads are not strung closely together. Each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, generally
+wool, but often cotton. In some pieces a thread of weft of medium
+diameter crosses twice between every two rows of knots; not infrequently
+it crosses both twice and three times in the same piece; rarely a thread
+of coarse diameter crosses only once. _Pile_, wool of medium length.
+_Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two or three
+cords, or occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_ have a web,
+frequently a knotted selvage, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+loose. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to seven
+feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+LESGHIANS.—On the northern flank of the high mountain ranges that extend
+eastward from Kazbek into the province of Daghestan, live the numerous
+tribes classed as Lesghians. Their different dialects and languages
+would indicate unrelated origins; but their common religion, mode of
+life, and struggle for liberty have established between all of them
+strong bonds of sympathy. They are nominally Christians, but essentially
+Mohammedans. Most of them live in almost inaccessible spots, beneath the
+snow covered, glaciated ridges, and beside fierce flowing torrents,
+where on occasions they have converted their homes into almost
+impregnable fortresses. These are the people who united with the
+Circassians in the long-continued struggle against the Russian Empire,
+and followed Shamyl to repeated victory among the mountain defiles.
+
+It might naturally be expected that the rugs of such people would
+partake of a character totally distinct from those woven in the sunny
+atmosphere of Kirman, amid the sacred influences of Meshed, or among the
+peaceful hills of Ghiordes. Such, in fact, is the case, since both
+patterns and colouring display extreme simplicity, as well as strength
+and beauty. Large numbers of these rugs are of moderate size and
+slightly oblong; and are flexible yet stout. Both warp and weft are of
+fine brown wool; and as is rarely the case with any other Caucasian rugs
+excepting the Shushas, one of the two threads of warp encircled by a
+knot is often almost doubled beneath the other. The knotted fringe of
+the ends suggests the work of tribes living further westward, but the
+selvage of the sides shows relationship to the Daghestans.
+
+The patterns of some of these rugs are not unlike those of rugs woven
+south of the Caucasus; and not infrequently the fields contain unrelated
+designs such as the lozenge fringed with hooks, the octagonal disc,
+eight-pointed stars, and S forms. The borders usually consist of two or
+three stripes, on which is some geometric pattern. The colours are few
+and characteristic. Blue and yellow are generally present, and
+frequently red and brown. On the whole, these pieces have an interesting
+individuality unlike that of any other rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, blue, yellow, red, brown, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, six to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp is almost hidden at back. _Warp_, brown wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed below the other
+at back, or doubled under the other. _Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, usually three stripes. _Sides_, an
+added selvage, which is generally wool but occasionally cotton, of two,
+three, or four cords. Both ends, a web, two or three rows of knots, and
+a warp fringe. In some pieces there is also a braided selvage.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain. _Usual
+length_, five to eight feet. _Usual width_, one half to two thirds
+length.
+
+
+CHICHIS.—On the lower slope of the Caucasus, extending down into the
+valley of the Terek are the homes of the Tchechens, the weavers of
+pieces so often spoken of as Chichis. Beyond them to the north are great
+stretches of Russian steppes, and to the south is the land of the hardy
+Lesghians. Nevertheless, their rugs show little relationship to the work
+of the latter or of any other tribes to the north of the mountain chain;
+but resemble more closely the work of the Shirvans in the valley of the
+Kur, so that not infrequently they are mistaken for them. Indeed, their
+general character is remote from anything barbaric, and is more in
+keeping with the pleasing effect of the Persian sense of harmony. All
+floral forms are conventionalised, but the geometric designs have a
+delicacy of drawing, a refinement of detail, from which every jarring
+note is eliminated.
+
+Like almost all weavers, the Tchechens adopt different patterns. On the
+field of some of the rugs is a plentiful array of small devices
+surrounding two or three large geometric figures; or again the field may
+be covered with pear designs arranged in regular order; but most of the
+rugs now seen follow a common type. In this the field resembles a floor
+inlaid with beautiful mosaic work, formed of carefully cut stones of
+various hues, studiously arranged in the form of small diamonds,
+eight-pointed stars, or rosettes. Not infrequently the rosettes are
+outlined by a fret device surrounding a central star. They are
+invariably arranged in lines parallel to the ends of the rugs, and this
+horizontal effect is sometimes accentuated by inserting between each row
+narrow bands composed of conventionalised leaves. The colours of these
+small designs are generally ivory, light blue, pale yellow, or red; and
+appear more pronounced by contrast with the underlying ground of light
+blue. Now and then the nomadic instinct of the Tchechen tribes, who lead
+their flocks regularly from the green pastures of the ridges to the
+valley of the Terek, crops out in unrelated devices such as combs and S
+forms, which they weave in the field. But they usually arrange them so
+as to harmonise with the main pattern, or else place them near the sides
+and ends, which are almost invariably fringed with either a serrated
+line or a row of reciprocal trefoils projecting from the border into the
+field. This feature of a reciprocal trefoil employed as a fringe to the
+edges of a field independently of the lines of a stripe, is seen in very
+few other classes.
+
+Often the borders, which contain a large number of stripes, are as wide
+as the central field, with which they harmonise both in colour and
+design. There is something chaste in the simplicity of the geometric
+figures of the secondary stripes and of the conventionalised floral
+drawing of the main stripe. The latter, as represented in the type
+generally seen (Plate I, Fig. 6, opp. Page 226), consists of a row of
+about eight rosettes, connected by an angular vine drawn with such
+breadth and regularity as to resemble a number of parallel bars diagonal
+to the sides. In fact, this pattern would be entirely geometric were it
+not for the three-cleft leaves, which spring from opposite sides of the
+rosettes. Of the secondary stripes, the outer almost invariably has the
+reciprocal trefoil, and one has frequently a continuous line of
+eight-pointed stars. The arch of the prayer rugs is similar to that of
+Daghestans.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally ivory, blue, and red,
+with minor quantities of green and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to ten; perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The
+rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp may be seen
+at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is
+equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter. A thread of
+weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+short or medium length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_,
+generally a double overcasting, but occasionally a double selvage of two
+or three cords. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of medium grain.
+_Usual length_, four and one half to six and one half feet. _Usual
+width_, five eighths to three quarters length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 47. KAZAK PRAYER RUG]
+
+
+TCHERKESS.—The narrow strip of fertile and beautiful country that
+reaches from the Kuban valley southward along the shore of the Black Sea
+for a distance of two hundred miles is occupied by a people known to
+the western world as Circassians. In their own land they are called
+"Tcherkesses," a Tartar term for "cutter of roads" or highwaymen; and
+they have been in the habit of speaking of themselves as "Adighies" or
+Nobles. In fact, there has been no prouder Caucasian race, even though
+their homes were often log huts and their daughters were sold in the
+markets of Constantinople. These are the people, who half a century ago
+finally yielded after a long, fierce struggle for independence; but a
+hundred thousand families, preferring exile to submission to the Czar,
+migrated to Armenia and Asia Minor, where they intermarried with other
+races, and are rapidly losing their identity.
+
+Very few of the Circassian or Tcherkess rugs have been woven by those
+who left their country. The best were made before the exodus; and on
+account of the hardships and poverty of the people, many that have come
+to the market within recent years are greatly inferior to the excellent
+pieces of former times and are often mistaken for the work of nomadic
+tribes. Not only so, but crude and foreign devices have crept into some
+of them. It is, therefore, to the older pieces that we must turn for a
+better understanding of this class.
+
+Something of the ruggedness of lives spent in struggles with men and
+nature found expression in the fabrics, which show firmness of texture,
+boldness of design, richness of colour. In fact they resemble the Kazaks
+so closely in their long nap, and finish of sides and ends that they are
+constantly mistaken for them; yet they may be distinguished from all
+classes by the large amount of brownish red or tawny colour of the field
+and their stereotyped patterns. These usually consist of diamond-shaped
+figures sometimes called "sun-bursts," that are often regarded as crude
+copies of the Russian coat of arms; but there is little doubt that they
+have been derived from the medallions of some old Armenian rugs of the
+XIV and XV Centuries, in which also appear the same tri-cleft leaves so
+common in both this class and the Soumaks. These patterns are
+sufficiently large to occupy the full breadth of the field; and there
+are seldom less than two and occasionally as many as four or five
+extending from one end to the other. The strong contrast between the
+blue and ivory of the figures and the red or tawny colour of the ground
+is softened by the depth of pile, which in turn adds warmth and
+richness. The borders are always of three stripes. The main one almost
+invariably has the tarantula design and is enclosed by guards with the
+serrated sawtooth design. Many of these old pieces are excellently
+woven and have a dignity of pattern and wealth of harmonious colour
+rarely seen in nomadic rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red and tawny yellow,
+with minor quantities of blue and white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. A half knot, as
+it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+wool; generally each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, occasionally one is depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool of medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses only
+twice between every two rows of knots, but in some pieces as many as
+four or six times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, three
+stripes. _Sides_, a two-cord double selvage. _Both ends_, as a rule have
+a web, a heavy braided selvage, and knotted warp fringe; occasionally
+either web or selvage may be omitted. _Texture_, very firm. Weave at
+back of medium grain. _Usual length_, five to ten feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to two thirds length.
+
+
+BAKUS.—No other rugs of Caucasia have greater individuality of colour
+and design than the Bakus. This, perhaps, is partly due to the fact that
+the district from which they come is dissimilar to any other. It
+consists largely of the peninsula of scanty vegetation, where the great
+mountain chain extends to the dreary Caspian, leaving at its base the
+narrow strip of land now famous for its immense accumulations of mineral
+oil. Hither, during the past, the followers of Zoroaster have come from
+all directions to worship in the temple of the Guebres, where day and
+night the priests watched the blue flame that rose perpetually from the
+ground, and once in long intervals spread over the waters like a sea of
+fire. This sacred spot has been owned in turn by Saracens, Persians,
+Turks, Russians, and the Princes of Shirvan; so that the influences of
+different religions and different races have been felt here.
+
+The most noticeable feature of many of these rugs is their dull colours,
+that give the impression of being partly bleached or having faded. There
+are subdued tones of light blue, tan, pale ocherous yellow, and black,
+as well as light, medium, and dark brown colours of natural wool; but in
+the rugs woven a century ago the colours were much richer. None of them
+are used in large masses excepting for the underground; nor are there
+striking contrasts, so that the effect is somewhat monotonous.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE VIII—SOUMAK RUG_
+
+_The shape, colouring, and particularly the pattern of this interesting
+Soumak, which was probably woven seventy-five or more years ago, not
+only are unusual but belong to a higher type than is often seen.
+Arranged in diagonal rows on a field of red are flowering bushes, that
+for the most part are blue and pink, but at one end are green, yellow,
+and brown. The accurate drawing of these bushes and of the reciprocal
+trefoils of the guard stripes, the care with which the stitches have
+been inserted, and the fine texture of the wool, as is shown even in the
+cream-white warp at the knotted ends, alike proclaim the excellent
+quality of this rare piece._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Theodore S. Hawley_]
+
+An equally important characteristic is the large number of pear designs,
+which are unlike those of any other rug. These designs (Plate O, Fig.
+6b, Page 291) are so rectangular that they have lost all resemblance to
+floral drawing; and to add to their formality, each is placed in the
+field with studied regularity and often surrounded by a delicate
+hexagonal shaped sub-pattern giving a diaper effect. Sometimes, also,
+they appear in the border between an array of other designs, to which
+they show no relation; but they never constitute the sole feature of the
+rug as they do in Sarabends.
+
+At the centre of the field is often a star-shaped design surrounded by a
+large diamond or other figure fringed with radiating lines. These lines
+suggest the effulgence of light; and it is not improbable that their
+origin lay in the mysticism of fire worship. In sedjadehs the corners
+are set off by quadrants of octagons, of which the diagonal sides are
+serrated and frequently fringed with radiating lines like the central
+medallions. Throughout both corners and fields often appear
+eight-pointed and effulgent stars, the three-cleft leaf, S designs,
+crude human and animal forms, and other small geometric devices like
+those seen in Daghestans and Shirvans. But more noticeable than any of
+these are the realistic but mechanically drawn birds, which are
+represented in larger numbers and more frequently than in any other rugs
+woven within the last century.
+
+The borders contain from three to five stripes, of which one at least is
+always geometric; and another, as a rule, has some suggestion of floral
+form. Often it is only the carnation in profile; but now and then it is
+a running vine with leaf or flower, adopted without modification from
+Persian rugs. This is not, however, surprising, when it is remembered
+that during the reign of Shah Abbas, Baku belonged to Persia, which for
+centuries had been the home of devout Parsees, some of whom undoubtedly
+made pilgrimages to the sacred temple.
+
+These rugs can at once be recognised by their short nap, and their
+characteristic colours and designs. They are always interesting on
+account of their marked individuality and the still unsolved symbols of
+Zoroastrian mysticism they may contain; but in spite of the careful
+delineation of the design and the delicate mosaic effect of the central
+medallions, very few, excepting the old pieces, are handsome.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally brown, tan, blue, yellow,
+and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to nine;
+perpendicularly, seven to eleven. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool; each of the
+two threads encircled by a knot is generally equally prominent at back,
+occasionally one is depressed slightly below the other. _Weft_, usually
+cotton, sometimes wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses
+twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, clipped short.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a weft overcasting or a narrow
+weft selvage. _Both ends_, a web, one row of knots or more, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly
+coarse grain. _Usual length_, six to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half
+to two thirds length.
+
+
+SHIRVANS.—Between the rugs of Shirvan and Daghestan is a relationship
+easily accounted for by the fact that they are adjoining provinces, and
+that almost the only approach to Daghestan for the Asiatic races among
+whom the art of weaving reached its highest development was through
+Shirvan. Both districts, therefore, received ideas from the same
+sources; but since Shirvan has been at times more completely under the
+sway of Persia, it has yielded more readily to the influence of the
+Persian weavers, as is observable in the flower and foliate forms which
+are used more frequently and are drawn more realistically in its rugs
+than in those of Daghestan. On the other hand, the technique of weave as
+well as finish of sides and ends in the Shirvans lacks something of the
+refinement observable in the Daghestans.
+
+The oldest existing Shirvans are absorbingly interesting. In them the
+foliate forms are more noticeable than in almost any other Caucasian
+rugs, though they may in a measure be disguised by formal treatment.
+Sometimes they appear as large figures covering a great part of the
+field and acting as sub-patterns for superimposed smaller devices; but
+they are most frequently found in the borders. Other old pieces contain
+lattice-work of hexagonal-shaped diaper patterns, within which may be
+designs abounding in latch-hooks and figures strongly suggestive of
+Chinese devices. Such patterns, however, are unusual; as the fields of
+most old Shirvans are covered with large medallions, stars, and diamonds
+similar to those of Daghestans, although the drawing inclines to greater
+simplicity of outline and detail; and they have greater diversity of
+colour, as tones of blue, red, green, and brown in a field of ivory are
+not unusual.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 48. KAZAK RUG]
+
+The patterns of the more modern rugs have become corrupted into a mere
+mechanical copying of conventional forms lacking all artistic spirit.
+Some of them resemble those found in both Daghestans and Kabistans, but
+generally the designs are drawn less clearly in Shirvans. This is partly
+because, as a rule, they are not so closely woven and the nap is not
+quite so short. Now and then the large medallions so common to Soumaks
+are seen; and not infrequently the field is covered with diagonal
+parallel stripes on which are small geometric devices.
+
+There is, however, one pattern peculiar to Shirvans that rarely, if
+ever, is adopted in any other class. It has somewhat the appearance of
+pole medallions and consists of a panel that occupies nearly the whole
+field and contains broad incisions at each side, which nearly divide it
+into three or four rectangular sections. Within each of them are
+octagonal figures, and an octagonal shape is given to both ends of the
+panel so as to leave small corners to the field. Each part often
+contains small designs such as latch-hooks, octagonal discs, S forms,
+eight-pointed stars, and combs, as well as crudely drawn dogs and other
+animal or human forms. With slight modifications this pattern is
+sometimes repeated in the prayer rugs (Plate C, Fig. 11, Page 61), but
+the section at one end is more completely an octagon, and the remainder
+is an oblong rectangle. A more usual pattern for prayer rugs has the
+same form of arch that is common in Daghestans.
+
+Whatever the fields of these rugs may lack in delicacy of drawing is
+amply compensated for by the diversity and beauty of some of their
+borders, which have a well balanced harmony of colours. They have seldom
+less than three, nor more than five stripes, of which the secondary are
+often as interesting as the primary. The best known is the one with
+serrated leaf and wine glass, represented in Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page
+226, which is found in such a large percentage of Shirvans that it is
+almost typical of them. If the figures of the field contain latch-hooks,
+they are very apt to be expressed in some form in the primary stripe.
+Such a one appears in Plate I, Fig. 2; and the beautiful Georgian
+pattern (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is also occasionally seen. A
+very much rarer stripe, which is shown in Plate J, Fig. 8, is only used
+when the field has a large central panel with a corresponding pattern.
+Now and then appears a stripe with no other ornamentation than a formal
+row of pear designs. Of the secondary stripes, the one with the designs
+of carnations (Plate K, Fig. 1, opp. Page 230) is very frequently seen,
+but its beauty depends largely upon the delicacy of its drawing and
+colour scheme. On the whole, the Shirvan dyer displays a wider scope in
+the selection of colours than his Daghestan neighbour, but the tones are
+not always so rich or harmonious.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and ivory.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve;
+perpendicularly, eight to twelve. The rows of knots are firmly pressed
+down, so that the transverse warp does not show at back. _Warp_, wool;
+each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, generally wool, occasionally cotton, of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three to five
+stripes. _Sides_, generally a weft selvage of two or three cords or a
+double selvage, occasionally a double overcasting. _Both ends_, a web,
+one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four to six feet.
+_Usual width_, one half to four fifths length.
+
+
+SOUMAKS.—Seventy miles to the northwest of Baku, and about the same
+distance to the south of Kuba, where the high ranges of the Caucasus
+begin to descend to the sea, is the city of Shemakha. It was almost
+destroyed by Nadir Shah, but recovered sufficiently within the last
+century to become the capital of Shirvan and a manufacturing centre of
+silks. It is the market place for many tribes from the mountains of
+Daghestan and the valley of the Kur, who take thither their rugs, from
+which its own weavers often borrow patterns. By a corruption of the name
+of the city, their fabrics are called Soumaks, though they are more
+popularly known as Kashmirs, because ends of yarn hang loosely at the
+back, as is the case with the beautiful shawls of the noted valley of
+India.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 49. KARABAGH PRAYER RUG]
+
+It is, of course, the finish at the back and the absence of pile that
+make them so different from all other rugs and place them in a class by
+themselves; but even apart from these characteristics, they are as
+distinct a type as any in Caucasia. On the fields of most of them are
+three or four diamond-shaped medallions, that occupy nearly the full
+width of the field and extend from one end to the other. Almost without
+exception they are slightly hexagonal, and are incised on the diagonal
+sides to represent crosses. These patterns are doubtless derived from
+very old Armenian rugs; and it is possible that once the crosses had
+a religious significance, as it is claimed that the earlier weavers of
+this type were a Christian sect; but the present weavers are mostly
+Mohammedans. At the centre of the medallions and in the triangular
+spaces at the sides are flattened octagons, which are generally
+ornamented with some star-shaped devices. Superimposed on these larger
+patterns and surrounding them on the field, are also many small designs,
+which as a rule are grouped with a regularity suggestive of the mosaic.
+Some are common to other Caucasian pieces; but a few are more frequently
+seen in this class than in any other, as for instance, the knot of
+destiny (Plate O, Fig. 17, Page 291), and the tri-cleft leaf, drawn like
+a bird's claw, which appeared in Armenian rugs at least five centuries
+ago. Sometimes the medallions and octagons are replaced by smaller and
+more ornate figures, but the geometric character is seldom entirely
+lost.
+
+There are also some old pieces with a totally different pattern, and
+with fine colours that are most pleasing in the rich harmony of tones.
+They may contain geometric, foliate, or floral designs. One recently
+examined had a field of rose red completely covered with diagonal rows
+of innumerable dainty figures, which were evidently the conventionalised
+forms of small flower bushes. Not a single other design appeared in the
+field, yet the richness of colour and chasteness of pattern made it
+exceedingly beautiful.
+
+The patterns of the border stripes, that number from two to five, are
+generally distinctive; though occasionally they follow well known
+Caucasian drawing. The outer one has so frequently the running
+latch-hook that it is almost typical. As a rule, it has the simple form
+shown in Plate K, Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230); but now and then the more
+elaborate drawing of the Georgian stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page
+228) is followed. Sometimes this is replaced by the reciprocal trefoil,
+which is used also for the inner stripe; and a running vine and rosette,
+such as the one in Plate K, Fig. 4, is not infrequently used for a
+secondary stripe. The primary stripes, on the other hand, although most
+dissimilar to those of other rugs, differ so widely among themselves,
+that no one is typical. Separating these primary and secondary parts of
+the border are frequently narrow lines with the barber-pole device.
+
+The old pieces are of fine texture and excellent wool, which even in the
+warp displays a silky character. The dyes are faultless, though the
+colours never acquire a lustre. Red and blue are largely employed, but
+they are partly replaced by brown in the more modern pieces; and in both
+old and modern is usually an orange yellow that rarely appears in other
+Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, brown, some
+yellow, and white. _Knot_, flat stitch. Knots to inch horizontally eight
+to fourteen; perpendicularly, six to sixteen. _Warp_, wool; each thread
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots
+in old rugs, and between every second and third row in modern rugs.
+_Border_, two to five stripes. _Sides_, generally a double selvage of
+several cords, occasionally an overcasting. _Both ends_, narrow web, one
+or more rows of knots and fringe; sometimes heavy added selvage. _No
+nap._ _Usual length_, five and one half to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+one half to three quarters length.
+
+
+SHEMAKHAS.—Flatly woven Soumaks are not the only rugs of the Shemakha
+tribes. Some of the same people, who dwell among the ranges of the
+Caucasus a short distance to the north, make rugs of pile that
+occasionally surpass in quality of material and beauty of colour scheme
+the best of Daghestans, and are sometimes spoken of by dealers as "Royal
+Daghestans;" yet they are seldom seen and little known. In fact, they
+are frequently mistaken for Persian fabrics on account of the subdued
+richness of their deep reds, blues, greens, yellows, and browns, and the
+patterns which are largely floral.
+
+Very often the principal border stripe is the well-known Georgian
+pattern, that occurs in so many Soumaks, even though the secondary
+stripe be some Persian pattern. These rugs also resemble the Soumaks in
+the coloured woollen selvage of the sides, and in the narrow coloured
+web of "herring-bone" weave and knotted fringe of the ends. In some, the
+field is divided by diagonal bars into large diamond-shaped figures
+containing conventionalised flowers; in others, it is merely a
+background over which are strewn more realistically drawn floral forms;
+and in all is expressed an artistic perception of design and colour not
+frequently found in Caucasian pieces.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and brown.
+_Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally seven to eleven;
+perpendicularly, seven to thirteen. The rows of knots are pressed down,
+so that the warp is almost hidden. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool,
+of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every
+two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, two to
+three stripes. _Sides_, a blue selvage of two or three cords. _Both
+ends_, a narrow blue web of "herring-bone" weave, a knotted selvage or
+several rows of knots, and short warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, four to
+eight feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+TIFLIS.—When it is considered that for centuries Tiflis has been the
+Georgian capital, where culture and art received more encouragement than
+in the provinces; that it was in constant communication with the
+rug-producing countries on all sides; and was on one of the great
+highways between Persia and Europe, it is surprising that what has been
+written hitherto about Caucasian rugs has contained almost no reference
+to a type peculiar to this city and district. This is undoubtedly due to
+the fact that within recent years hardly any rugs have been produced
+there, and that the old pieces are few and but little known.
+
+Nevertheless, now and then come to light beautiful old rugs which are
+dissimilar to those of all other classes. The wool of their moderately
+long nap has a silkiness that suggests a Shiraz or a Meshed; the colour
+scheme includes a very wide range of bright and positive tones, such as
+blue, green, rose, and ivory; the weave of delicate and fine threads is
+as close as that of old Bergamos. A glance at the ends and back helps to
+determine the type; for the warp is occasionally of cotton, which is a
+peculiarity not seen in many other Caucasian classes; the weft which
+crosses from three to five times is of very finely spun wool mostly dyed
+a brown or dull red, and strung with great exactness; and the knots are
+tied with care. There is also something distinctive in many of the
+patterns; for however interesting they may be, precision of drawing is
+often combined with discordance of detail. One part of the field, for
+instance, may consist of a well executed diaper pattern; another part
+may represent a number of stiff, perpendicular, parallel bars, occupying
+the full width of the field; and still another part may be entirely
+occupied by hexagonal-shaped pear designs. Adjoining these may be other
+pear designs of totally dissimilar shape as well as mystic symbols and
+other strange devices. Likewise, many different colours may be placed in
+close relation, yet the wool is so soft and the tones so delicate that
+the effect is not harsh. Some sort of tree-form is not unusual; but on
+the whole, the designs of both field and border are geometric.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue and red, with minor
+quantities of yellow, green, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, six to ten. A half knot, as it
+appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The rows of knots are
+firmly pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter,
+usually dyed red or brown. A thread of weft crosses from three to five
+times between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, soft wool of medium
+length. _Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting
+or narrow selvage. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, firm.
+_Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual length_, six to
+eleven feet. _Usual width_, three eighths to two thirds length.
+
+
+KUTAIS.—Among a large assortment of Caucasian rugs are occasionally seen
+a few pieces from Kutais, once famed as the home of Media, and now the
+capital of Imeritia. The gardens surrounding its homes, that line both
+banks of the river Rion, are fragrant with lilacs and roses; in the
+valley beyond the city, pink rhododendrons and yellow azaleas blossom
+beneath the oaks. Here is woodland scenery not found in other parts of
+Caucasia, and it might be expected that the weavings of the people would
+have a striking individuality of their own; but they are little known as
+a distinct class. In fact, they bear such a resemblance to the Kazaks
+that they are constantly mistaken for them; though as a rule they have a
+more oblong shape and somewhat shorter nap; they are less stoutly woven,
+less barbaric, and contain fewer crude, nomadic devices. Moreover, as
+this district was producing rugs before the Cossacks had settled
+permanently in Southern Caucasia, it is not improbable that some of its
+patterns were copied by them.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 50. GENGHA RUG]
+
+A peculiarity of this class is the drawing of the pear designs, which
+are found in a very large number of the rugs. The extension of the
+narrower end, instead of being a short, curved hook, is generally more
+developed, so that it may be as long as the major axis of the pear and
+frequently stands almost at right angles to it. Also attached to the
+sides of the pear are rectangular bead-like processes (Plate O, Fig. 6c,
+Page 291). In many of these rugs, the field is divided into a number
+of bands parallel with the sides; and through them run vines, from which
+the pears are suspended. Or the pears may be arranged in regular order
+on the field without the bands and vines. Sometimes the field is reduced
+to a very small space by a broad border consisting of a number of
+stripes, some of which are often of striking patterns. One of them is
+represented in Plate I, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 226), which suggests the
+grape vine common to the gardens of Kutais. Some form of the tree of
+life and floral forms are also seen in old pieces.
+
+A resemblance exists between the weave of Kutais and Tiflis rugs, as in
+each the weft usually crosses several times; it is generally coloured
+blue or red, and is formed of fine threads of yarn. The wool of the nap
+is of the same fine quality; but the warp of the Kutais rugs, which is
+almost invariably of wool, frequently consists of a brown and white
+thread twisted together; and the knots are tied less evenly, so that the
+alignment at the back is a little more irregular, yet less so than in
+Kazaks.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and white,
+with minor quantities of yellow, brown, and black. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally five to nine; perpendicularly, six to eleven.
+A half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as wide or longer. The
+rows of knots are slightly pressed down. The alignment is more even than
+in Kazaks. _Warp_, generally wool, occasionally cotton; each of the two
+threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_,
+wool, of fine or medium diameter. A thread of weft usually crosses three
+times, occasionally only once, and again four or five times. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length or long. _Border_, three to five stripes.
+_Sides_, either a double overcasting, or a double selvage of two or
+three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately
+firm. _Weave_ at back, generally of medium fine grain but occasionally
+coarse. _Usual length_, six to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to
+two thirds length.
+
+
+KAZAKS.—Of the warlike Cossack tribes, which were once stationed along
+the southeastern border of Russia to protect it from the depradations of
+Caucasians, a number settled permanently in Circassia, and a few crossed
+the mountains to the high plateau lying between Lake Gotcha and Mt.
+Ararat. Here they adopted more sedentary lives; but there still lingers
+the inherited spirit that generations ago won for them the name Kazaks,
+which denotes to the Tartars, from whom many have doubtless sprung, a
+Marauder. All of these tribes weave; but the rugs seen in this country
+come principally from the southern district, where may also be found the
+fabrics of other races such as Armenians, Tartars, and the native
+people. Nevertheless, the Kazak weavings are of a most distinct type, to
+which even the smaller Kazakjes conform. They have bright, rich colours,
+of which a liberal amount of green is almost invariably present, though
+sparingly used in other Caucasian rugs. Only the Tcherkess vie with them
+in the length of the nap; and no other class has such noticeable
+patterns of incongruous sizes and shapes. They have, in fact, the most
+nomadic, unconventional patterns of all this northern group; and in
+their barbaric characteristics, they bear much the same relation to
+other Caucasian rugs as those of Western Kurdish and Yuruk tribes bear
+to Persian and Asia Minor pieces.
+
+In marked contrast to the almost mosaic drawing of Chichis and many
+Daghestans, the Kazaks show a tribal fondness for large patterns.
+Sometimes the field is divided into three horizontal panels, which may
+be entirely plain except for a simple design fringing the edges; or as
+is more frequently the case, it may be occupied by large, slightly
+elongated octagons, within which are represented smaller figures.
+Occupying almost the entire field of other pieces are large patterns
+like medallions, perfectly balanced with reference to the centre and
+subdivided into small sections, each of which contains individual
+motives. A few of this class, also, have the "sunburst" pattern, so
+characteristic of the Tcherkess.
+
+At least half the pieces now seen are without any formal pattern, but
+contain a heterogeneous lot of geometric designs characteristic of
+nomadic weavings; but even these are generally arranged with the idea of
+symmetrical balance. For instance, at the centre may be a large
+geometric figure surrounded at equal distances by pairs of smaller and
+similar figures. Not infrequently the drawing of the upper and lower
+half, or of the right and left side, shows an almost perfect
+correspondence, notwithstanding the many separate designs. The most
+common of these are eight-pointed stars, lozenges fringed with
+latch-hooks, and what are known as the "tarantula" device. Of the
+innumerable small figures, the octagonal discs and S forms are the most
+common; crude animal and human figures are also seen.
+
+Excepting the addition of the arch, there is little distinction between
+namazliks and sedjadehs. It is small and less graceful than that of Asia
+Minor pieces, and follows stiff lines in harmony with the general
+pattern. It is, however, drawn in two different ways. Generally it has
+the shape of half an octagon, or of a wall-tent with apex flattened;
+but not infrequently it is square or slightly oblong. The narrow bands
+that form the arch are extended transversely from each side of the base
+to the borders; and occasionally they are continued down the sides of
+the field to form at the bottom a figure similar to the square-shaped
+arch. Now and then a comb, or small figure of diamond shape, on which to
+place the bit of sacred earth from Mecca, is outlined within the mihrab;
+and now and then crude palm-like figures, indicating where the hands are
+to be rested in the act of devotion, are represented at the sides.
+
+However many stripes the border may contain, rarely are there more than
+one of any consequence; since the guard stripes have generally only the
+reciprocal sawtooth or trefoil patterns, the barber-pole or dotted lines.
+The absence of important secondary stripes, however, brings out more
+prominently the drawing and colouring of the main one. The most common
+pattern is what is known as the "tarantula" represented in Plate I, Fig.
+8 (opp. Page 226). Very similar is the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7),
+which was undoubtedly derived from the double vine of some Persian rug,
+as the crab-like figure may be resolved into a rosette to which are
+attached four conventionalised leaves. Another pattern, which is also
+seen in Kutais rugs, is the crude but striking vine shown in Plate I,
+Fig. 15, which, when represented in bold, rich colours on an ivory
+field, makes a most effective and beautiful border stripe. Other border
+stripes frequently employed in these rugs appear in Plate I.
+
+Unfortunately, during recent years, many inferior rugs of other tribes
+have been sold as Kazaks, which in a measure they often resemble though
+they lack their spirit and character. The very modern Kazaks, also, are
+often of poor quality, but those made two generations or more ago were
+carefully and stoutly woven, with silky wool dyed with the best of
+vegetable colours. There is always something interestingly barbaric in
+their long, almost shaggy nap, their masses of rich red and green, their
+bold designs surrounded by smaller nomadic figures, all of which
+collectively find no counterpart in any other Caucasian rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, green, and yellow,
+also some blue, white, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are pressed down, so that the warp is hidden at back. _Warp_,
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of coarse diameter, usually dyed red or brown. A
+thread of weft generally crosses only twice between every two rows of
+knots, but occasionally three or four times. _Pile_, wool, clipped long.
+_Border_, three to five stripes. _Sides_, a double overcasting attached
+in figure-eight fashion to the sides, or a double selvage having from
+three to five cords. _Lower end_, a red or brown web and warp loops, or
+a braided selvage and fringe. _Upper end_, a red or brown web,
+occasionally a braided selvage or several rows of knots, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of very coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_, one third to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+KARABAGHS.—To the southeast of Lake Gotcha and north of the river Aras,
+that divides Caucasia from Persia, is the district of Karabagh, a name
+signifying "Black Vineyard." On account of its geographic position, it
+has been subject to the Shahs for long periods, during the many
+struggles between the two countries. It is, moreover, separated from the
+rug-producing district of Karadagh by the river only; and its southern
+border is less than eighty miles distant from the city of Tabriz, to
+which many of its rugs are taken. For these reasons it would be only
+natural to expect that the weavings of Karabagh would show more of the
+Persian influence than those of any other part of Caucasia. Such,
+indeed, is true, when applied to the oldest pieces; but it is not at all
+true in the case of a large percentage of the modern products.
+
+Within recent years large numbers of these coarsely made and wretchedly
+dyed rugs have reached the Western markets. Some of them resemble Kazaks
+in their geometric figures; but differ from them in their workmanship,
+since one of the two threads encircled by a knot is depressed; they are
+much more loosely woven; they are not so large; nor for the most part
+are they so heavy. Other pieces often lack the symbolic and other small
+designs that render nomadic rugs so interesting. Occasionally the
+central field is almost figureless, or there may be large expanses of
+white or some raw colour such as startling red, yellow, or blue, on
+which appear stiffly and crudely drawn nondescript devices.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 51. ROYAL BOKHARA RUG]
+
+It is a relief to turn from these poor pieces to those woven half a
+century ago, with less obtrusive colouring and more chaste patterns.
+Many of the old pieces are oblong sedjadehs, which have often a length
+almost twice the breadth; though the more modern pieces incline to
+smaller and nearly square sizes. There are also namazliks that do not
+always religiously follow the usual pattern; for now and then one is
+seen with an arch of several steps, rising from near the middle of the
+sides, and with a diamond for the sacred earth or pebble from Mecca, as
+is shown in Plate C, Fig. 12 (Page 61). The particular piece from which
+this was drawn was over fifty years old and was three fourths as wide as
+long. Scattered over the main field, which was yellowish brown, and the
+spandrels, which were white, were geometrically shaped flowers with long
+angular stems tinted with blue, green, and pinkish red.
+
+The borders show as great diversity as the fields, but one stripe
+usually contains a concession to the Persian and another to the
+Caucasian tradition. For instance, the primary stripe may be of Iranian
+character flanked by the running latch-hook; or it may be the well-known
+crab pattern, while the adjacent stripe may be a running vine of simple
+form.
+
+Many of these old pieces are very handsome and equal in artistic finish
+the best of Caucasian rugs; the drawing is carefully executed; the
+colours are rich; the weave is fair; but like the rare old rugs of
+Daghestan and Tiflis, are now seldom seen.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, yellow, and
+white. _Knot_, Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally six to ten;
+perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are only slightly
+pressed down, yet the warp is generally concealed at back. _Warp_, wool;
+one of the two threads encircled by a half knot is depressed below the
+other at back. _Weft_, wool, of medium or coarse diameter, sometimes
+dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, of short or medium length. _Border_, three stripes.
+_Sides_, generally a double selvage of two or three cords, in lengths of
+different colours; occasionally a double overcasting attached
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a web and warp loops, or a braided
+selvage, one row of knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Upper end_, a
+web, a web turned back and hemmed, or a braided selvage, one row of
+knots or more, and a warp fringe. _Texture_, loose. _Weave_ at back is
+of coarse grain. _Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one
+half to three quarters length.
+
+SHUSHAS.—About seventy miles to the southeast of Lake Gotcha is Shusha,
+capital of Karabagh. Nearly two centuries ago, it was built by Nadir
+Shah on an almost inaccessible mountain side to guard the northern
+boundary of Persia, which had been extended to the Caucasus. It has now
+about twelve thousand inhabitants, and is the market place for numerous
+tribes that are scattered over the dry plains as far as the Aras river.
+In this city and in the suburbs are woven rugs that are frequently
+imported to this country and sold under several names, yet are of a
+distinct type. They resemble the Karabaghs of the surrounding country
+but differ from them in their richer and more subdued colours as well as
+in the stoutness of weave. One thread of warp to each knot is doubled
+beneath the other, whereas in the rugs of the desert tribes it is only
+depressed.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark blue, red, and
+brown, with minor quantities of green and yellow. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, six to
+eleven. The rows of knots are only slightly pressed down, so that the
+warp shows at back. _Warp_, wool; one of the two threads encircled by a
+knot is much depressed below the other at back, and frequently doubled
+under the other. _Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, generally dyed red. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a double
+selvage of two or three cords, often attached to the sides in
+figure-eight fashion. _Lower end_, a narrow web and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web that is sometimes turned back and hemmed, and a warp fringe.
+_Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back is of slightly coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, four to nine feet. _Usual width_, one half to three
+quarters length.
+
+
+GENGHAS.—Over the land lying between lakes Gotcha, Van, and Urumiah, in
+Caucasia, Armenia, and Persia, tribes of mixed origin wander back and
+forth, but frequently gather at the yearly fair of Elizabethpol. During
+the period when the Persian rule extended over the country, it was the
+residence of a Khan and an important centre of trade. As it was then
+known as Ganja or Gengha, the weavings of these nomads, which were
+marketed there, acquired that name.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 52. PRINCESS BOKHARA RUG]
+
+Naturally they are a heterogeneous lot containing ideas incorporated
+from many sources; but they resemble the Kazaks more than anything
+else, and are frequently mistaken for them. Yet some of the distinctions
+are very marked: they have a more oblong shape; the nap is shorter; and
+they are less stoutly woven. In the Kazaks a thread of weft, as a rule,
+crosses only twice between two rows of knots, which are firmly pressed
+down; but in these rugs a thread of weft crosses from four to eight
+times between two rows of knots, which are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the narrow filling of weft is sometimes even four times as wide as
+a row of knots and presents a bead-like appearance. In the colour scheme
+of numerous pieces, which in many respects resembles that of Karabaghs,
+is often a preponderance of ivory white. There is no characteristic
+pattern. The field may be covered with diagonal stripes as in some
+Shirvans; it may consist largely of lozenges fringed with latch-hooks
+and tarantula devices; again, it may have some large central figure
+surrounded by a motley lot of emblematic as well as apparently
+meaningless devices, or crudely drawn human, animal, or floral forms.
+The borders, likewise, include a wide scope of patterns. It is,
+therefore, largely by the character of the weave, quality of material,
+and finish of sides and ends, that these pieces can be distinguished
+from other nomadic products.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally blue, red, and white,
+with minor quantities of green, yellow, and brown. _Knot_, Ghiordes.
+Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly, six to nine. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is longer than wide. The rows of knots
+are not firmly pressed down, so that the warp shows at the back. _Warp_,
+generally wool, occasionally goat's hair; each of the two threads
+encircled by a knot is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter and usually dyed red. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots, but generally three and frequently as
+many as six or eight times. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_,
+three or four stripes. _Sides_, a double selvage of two, three, or four
+cords. _Lower end_, a web, usually coloured red, and warp loops. _Upper
+end_, a web to which a braided selvage is often added, and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, very loose. _Weave_ at back is of coarse grain.
+_Usual length_, five to nine feet. _Usual width_, two fifths to two
+thirds length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+Disregarding a very few floral secondary stripes that have been derived
+from Persian rugs, the Caucasian borders are characterised by geometric
+patterns, which distinguish them from other groups. But were it possible
+to trace them to their origin, it would doubtless be found that a very
+large number that are now strictly geometric have degenerated from leaf
+and flower patterns. Of the remainder, some are symbolic and others are
+crude copies of familiar objects. The more artistic and realistically
+drawn floral patterns appear in the less conspicuous secondary stripes;
+but on the other hand the primary stripes contain a number of unusually
+interesting patterns, which have been copied for centuries.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES.—The cup and serrated leaf pattern (Plate I, Fig. 1,
+opp. Page 226) appears so frequently in Shirvans as to be almost
+typical. It is also occasionally seen in Daghestans and Kabistans; but
+probably originated in Southern Caucasia or Armenia, since it is found
+similarly drawn in rugs woven in that district about 1500 A. D. It is a
+pattern that scarcely varies with time or locality except in the number
+of serrations to the leaf and in the shape of the cup.
+
+Serrated leaf patterns, represented in Figs. 2 and 3, Plate I, are
+sometimes seen in Kazak and other nomadic rugs. It is not improbable
+that they have a common origin with the Shirvan cup and leaf pattern.
+
+In the stripe represented in Plate I, Fig. 4, is a series of wine cup
+rosettes that are occasionally seen in the old rugs from the Shirvan
+district. In fact, the wine cup design is a favourite there.
+
+Another stripe, in which a somewhat similar cup appears, is shown in
+Plate I, Fig. 5. This is an old nomadic pattern not frequently seen.
+
+Fig. 6 of Plate I, represents the well-known Chichi border stripe,
+composed of rosettes separated by diagonally drawn ribbon-like bars. To
+the rosettes are attached tri-cleft leaves. This stripe suggests at once
+some Persian vine and flower.
+
+What is known as the crab pattern (Plate I, Fig. 7), is seen in Kazaks
+and other Caucasian nomadic rugs, as well as in a few very modern Asia
+Minor pieces. Though its resemblance to a crab is noticeable, it is
+really a rosette to which are attached four crudely drawn leaves, that
+frequently contain smaller designs at their centres.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Slightly resembling the last is the so-called tarantula pattern (Plate
+I, Fig. 8), that was possibly derived from the stripe with an
+eight-pointed star (Plate K, Fig. 12, opp. Page 230); but it seems more
+probable that the inspiration is Iranian and that it is intended for
+rosette and double vine. This stripe is found in Kazaks, Genghas,
+Tcherkess, and other nomadic rugs.
+
+Somewhat like the last is the stripe of Plate I, Fig. 9, that is now and
+then seen in old Tiflis and other rugs of Southern Caucasia. It suggests
+a geometric rosette and double vine.
+
+Occasionally the dainty clover-leaf design, represented in Plate I, Fig.
+10, is used by the nomadic weavers. It is almost the only reciprocal
+pattern found in a Caucasian primary stripe.
+
+The repetitive urn-shaped pattern of Plate I, Fig. 11 is once in a while
+seen in old rugs of the Daghestan country.
+
+On account of the resemblance between the stripes shown in Plate I,
+Figs. 12 and 13, they have probably a common origin. Both are found in
+rugs of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts, and the former is
+occasionally seen in rugs of Asia Minor. Sometimes smaller adventitious
+devices are placed at the sides of the stripes between the rosettes.
+
+Resembling the last is the pattern shown in Plate I, Fig. 14, which is
+commonly seen in Shirvan rugs and kilims. It is purely geometric and
+resembles one used in Western Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century, from
+which it may have been derived.
+
+Though greatly conventionalised, the pattern represented in Plate I,
+Fig. 15 is a vine and leaf derived from much more ornate forms, which
+may be seen in a XVI Century Asia Minor piece that is in the British
+Museum. It is now seldom copied, but was once a popular pattern for the
+Kazak and Kutais weavers.
+
+Some form of the latch-hook appears in a large number of Caucasian
+stripes, but mostly in nomadic pieces. Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 of
+Plate I, represent patterns found mostly in old Kazaks and kindred rugs.
+The last one is also occasionally used as a secondary stripe. The
+patterns shown in Plate I, Figs. 21 and 22 are from stripes sometimes
+seen in the Daghestan and Shirvan districts.
+
+A much more interesting stripe because of its well authenticated
+antiquity, is the one shown in Plate J, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 228). It is
+found in rugs made in Southern Caucasia two centuries ago, and according
+to Dr. Martin has been used since the XII Century. Probably as the
+result of copying, the design appears reversed in many old rugs.[30]
+These stripes are seen in comparatively recent pieces, but principally
+in those of the Daghestan and Shirvan districts. Though the latch-hook
+is suggested by the small triangular parts, it is more probable that
+originally they were intended for leaves. In a few stripes the design is
+elongated, and in place of a single crossbar there are several, forming
+a figure that slightly resembles a poinsetta, which is the term
+occasionally applied to it by weavers.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 2, which is found in Kazak and other
+nomadic rugs, is interesting as representing a vine of which the pendant
+flower is replaced by a T formed by latch-hooks.
+
+In Figs. 3 and 4 of Plate J, are patterns of stripes found in rugs of
+the Shirvan and Daghestan districts. As they are several centuries old,
+they may be derived from Armenian patterns, to which they show kinship.
+Both patterns are at times reversed as the result of copying.[31] A
+stripe also used in the same districts and probably of similar origin is
+seen in Plate J, Fig. 5.
+
+Differing from any of these because of their utilitarian origin, are the
+separate designs, which arranged in perpendicular rows, form the "churn"
+stripe of Plate J, Fig. 6. Each of them represents crude machines for
+churning milk, which were formerly used by the nomadic tribes of
+Southern Caucasia and Armenia, who constructed them out of logs with a
+length of about five feet, and placed the sharpened base in the ground.
+Then hanging a goat's skin filled with milk over each of the sides, and
+seating themselves in the middle, they turned first one then the other.
+As might be expected, these stripes belong entirely to nomadic rugs.
+
+Figs. 7 and 8 of Plate J, represent stripes sometimes seen in Shirvans.
+The latter is undoubtedly derived from the prayer patterns that are
+often used in these rugs.
+
+What is known as the Georgian stripe is shown in Plate J, Fig. 9. It is
+found in Daghestans, Kabistans, Shirvans, Soumaks, Shemakhas, and Kubas.
+Though a primary stripe, it is rarely placed at the centre of the
+border, but at the outer or the inner side, or at both sides with a less
+ornate stripe between. As a rule it accompanies only the more artistic
+rugs.
+
+Generally the primary stripes of Soumaks are different from those of
+other rugs. A few appear in Figs. 10, 11 and 12 of Plate J. The last is
+interesting on account of the leaf-like forms of the octagonal designs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE J. PRIMARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+The stripes seen in Plate J, Figs. 13, 14 and 15 are found only in
+nomadic rugs. The last is interesting principally on account of the
+swastikas.
+
+And old form now and then seen in the Daghestan-Shirvan classes appear
+in Plate J, Fig. 16. It is an archaic pattern copied from a most
+interesting Daghestan prayer rug.
+
+The stripe shown in Plate J, Fig. 17 is sometimes adopted in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia, such as the Kutais and Kazak.
+
+Another very old pattern found in the borders of the Daghestan-Shirvan
+classes is shown in Plate J, Fig. 18. Though it suggests the narrow
+tertiary stripes known as "barber-poles," it differs from them by being
+very much wider, and by containing bars of many different colours, as
+red, yellow, cream, blue, green, and brown, which generally contain
+short, oblong dashes.
+
+A very interesting stripe, found almost exclusively in rugs from the
+districts of Daghestan and Shirvan, is the Cufic pattern of Plate J,
+Fig. 19. It is particularly characteristic of old Daghestans and
+Kabistans, but must have been introduced through Shirvan from Armenia,
+as it can be traced through a gradation of changes to stripes of Cufic
+characters used in Asia Minor rugs of the XV Century.
+
+Plate J, Fig. 20 represents a "bracket-chain" pattern that probably
+originated in Asia Minor, but is occasionally found in the rugs of
+Caucasia.
+
+In Plate J, Fig. 21 is a stripe representing scorpions, that is very
+rarely seen in Shirvans; and in Fig. 22 is a stripe representing birds,
+sometimes seen in Bakus.
+
+
+SECONDARY AND TERTIARY STRIPES.—As the pattern shown in Plate K, Fig. 1
+(opp. Page 230) shows in profile flowers representing carnations, it has
+been called the "carnation pattern." It is very common in Shirvans,
+Kabistans, and Daghestans.
+
+Less frequently seen are the rectangular vine with a design like a
+three-leaf clover, shown in Plate K, Fig. 2, and the very graceful vine
+with leaf and flower shown in Fig. 3, both of which are indiscriminately
+used in place of the carnation pattern in rugs with the same primary
+stripe. The latter is the most dainty and graceful Caucasian floral
+stripe. It is found in pieces of the Kabistan and Daghestan classes made
+over a century and a half ago, and is probably of Iranian extraction.
+
+Another floral pattern from the same district is seen in Plate K, Fig.
+4. It often accompanies the Georgian stripe of Daghestans and Soumaks,
+with which its stiff drawing harmonises.
+
+Likewise, the stripe shown in Fig. 5 is found now and then in the same
+classes of rugs. Similar rosettes are sometimes represented in Persian
+stripes that show the influence of nomadic weavers.
+
+Simple forms of the running vine which are seen mostly in the rugs of
+Southern Caucasia are represented in Plate K, Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
+All are old patterns. The third appears in an Asia Minor carpet woven
+about 1250 A. D. The fourth is found in some of the oldest remaining
+rugs from Southern Caucasia, that date back two and a half centuries;
+and a pattern similar to the last is seen in some Persian carpets made
+about 1650 A. D.
+
+Plate K, Figs. 11 and 12 represent stripes sometimes seen in Chichis and
+a few other Caucasian rugs.
+
+A very simple pattern, but one that at times is very attractive on
+account of its delicate colouring, is shown in Plate K, Fig. 13, and
+another is shown in Fig. 14. Both are used principally in rugs of
+Southern Caucasia.
+
+The stripe represented in Plate K, Fig, 15, is found in very old rugs of
+the Daghestan and Derbend types; and there is a tradition among some of
+the native weavers that the designs originally represented boat hooks
+used by the sailors of the Caspian Sea. It is not unreasonable to
+suppose that the early weavers imitated objects of utility before those
+of mere ornament; but even if there is any basis for the tradition, it
+is equally probable that these designs are derived from the lily or
+other floral forms, and were introduced from Persia.
+
+Somewhat similar to the last is the reciprocal trefoil, which generally
+appears with more simple drawing than is shown in Plate F, Fig. 17 (opp.
+Page 158). It is more widely used for a border stripe than any other
+pattern, as it is found in almost all Caucasian, in a large number of
+Persian, in Indian, and Beluchistan rugs. It was commonly used in
+Persian rugs as early as the year 1500.
+
+The dainty Chain pattern of Plate K, Fig. 16 has a well authenticated
+antiquity, as it is found in Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century, from
+which it was probably derived. Without doubt it was a favourite pattern
+three centuries ago, as it appears in some of the early paintings in
+which Oriental carpets are represented.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE K. SECONDARY AND TERTIARY BORDER-STRIPES OF
+CAUCASIAN RUGS]
+
+Not infrequently the right-angled corners are rounded so as to give it a
+more graceful form.
+
+As the purely geometric pattern of Plate K, Fig. 17 is entirely lacking
+in ornamental features, it is used principally to separate more
+important stripes. Occasionally it is found in such rugs as the Chichis
+and Shirvans.
+
+Another very simple pattern that is sometimes used as an inside stripe
+is seen in Plate K, Fig. 18. This is evidently an archaic form and is
+found principally in pieces of the Shirvan district.
+
+The reciprocal sawtooth and the running latch-hook patterns (Plate K,
+Figs. 19 and 20) belong to the less important stripes of not only
+Caucasian but a number of Persian rugs. The former pattern appears
+constantly on the monuments of ancient Susa, and doubtless had once some
+symbolic meaning. The latter is seen in the corners of the Dragon and
+Phoenix carpet (Plate 20, opp. Page 88) which was woven about 1350
+A. D.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CAUCASIAN RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat's hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcast
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+  |            |          KNOT              |             WARP             |
+  |            +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+  |  CAUCASIAN |         |      | Number to |     |       |    | At back   |
+  |            |         |      | Inches    |     |       |    |           |
+  |            | G =     | S =  |-----------|  w =| c =   |    |---+---+---+
+  |            | Ghiordes| Sehna|  H  |  P  | wool| cotton| g  | e | d | h |
+  |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+  |Baku        |    G    |      | 6-9 | 7-11|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Chichi      |    G    |      | 7-10| 8-12|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Daghestan   |    G    |      | 7-10| 8-15|  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Derbend     |    G    |      | 5-9 | 6-12|  w  |   [c] |    | e |   |   |
+  |Gengha      |    G    |      | 6-8 | 6-9 |  w  |       |[g] | e |   |   |
+  |            |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |Kabistan    |    G    |      | 7-12| 8-16|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Karabagh    |    G    |      | 6-10| 7-10|  w  |       |    |   | d |   |
+  |Kasak       |    G    |      | 6-9 | 7-10|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Kuba        |    G    |      | 6-9 | 7-13|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Kutais      |    G    |      | 5-9 | 7-12|  w  |   [c] |    | e |   |   |
+  |Lesghian    |    G    |      | 6-9 | 6-11|  w  |       |    |[e]| d |[h]|
+  |Shemakha    |    G    |      | 7-11| 7-13|  w  |       |    |   | d |   |
+  |Shirvan     |    G    |      | 7-12| 8-12|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Shousha     |    G    |      | 7-12| 6-11|  w  |       |    |   | d | h |
+  |Soumak      |         |      | 8-14| 6-16|  w  |       |    | e |   |   |
+  |Tcherkess   |    G    |      | 6-9 | 7-10|  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Tiflis      |    G    |      | 6-10| 6-10|  w  |   [c] |    | e |   |   |
+  -------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+---------------------+-------+-----------------+
+  |            |        WEFT         | SIDES |     LOWER END   |
+  |            +-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |  CAUCASIAN |     |       |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            | w = | c =   |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            |wool | cotton|  No.  | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |Baku        | w   |       |  2    | O | S |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Chichi      | w   |       |   2   | O |[S]|  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Daghestan   | w   |       |   2   |[O]| S |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Derbend     | w   |  [c]  | 2/[1] |[O]| S |  W  |[K]|   | F |
+  |Gengha      | w   |       |  2-4  |   | S |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |            |     |       | [6-8] |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |Kabistan    | w   |   c   |[2]/[3]| O | S |W/[S]|   | L |   |
+  |Karabagh    | w   |       |   2   |[O]| S |W/[S]|[K]| L | F |
+  |Kasak       | w   |       |2/[3-4]| O | S |W/[S]|   | L | F |
+  |Kuba        | w   |       |   2   |   | S |  W  |[K]|   | F |
+  |Kutais      | w   |       |3/[1-5]| O | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Lesghian    | w   |       |   2   |   | S |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Shemakha    | w   |       |   2   |   | S | W/S |   |   | F |
+  |Shirvan     | w   |  [c]  |   2   |[O]| S |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Shousha     | w   |       |   2   |   | S |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Soumak      | w   |       |   2   |[O]| S | W/S | K |   | F |
+  |Tcherkess   | w   |       |2/[4-6]|   | S | W/S | K |   | F |
+  |Tiflis      | w   |       |  3-5  | O | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |            |   UPPER END     |    NAP    |   WEAVE   | TEXTURE  |
+  |            +-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |  CAUCASIAN |     |   |   |   |l = long   |f = fine   |l = loose |
+  |            |     |   |   |   |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+  |            | W/S | K | T | F |s = short  |c = coarse |f = firm  |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |Baku        |  W  | K |   | F |     s     |      m    |  m/f     |
+  |Chichi      |  W  | K |   | F |    m/s    |      m    |   m      |
+  |Daghestan   |  W  | K |   | F |     s     |      f    |  m/f     |
+  |Derbend     |  W  |[K]|   | F |     m     |      m    |  m/l     |
+  |Gengha      |W/[S]|   |   | F |     m     |      c    |   l      |
+  |            |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |Kabistan    |W/[S]|   |   | F |     m     |      m    |  m/f     |
+  |Karabagh    |W/[S]|[K]| T | F |     m     |      c    |   l      |
+  |Kasak       |W/[S]|[K]|   | F |     l     |      c    |   f      |
+  |Kuba        |W/[S]|[K]|   | F |     m     |      m    |  m/l     |
+  |Kutais      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/c   |  m/f     |
+  |Lesghian    |  W  | K |   | F |     m     |      c    |   f      |
+  |Shemakha    | W/S |   |   | F |     m     |     m/f   |  m/f     |
+  |Shirvan     |  W  | K |   | F |    m/s    |     m/c   |  m/l     |
+  |Shousha     |  W  |   |[T]| F |     m     |     m/c   |  m/f     |
+  |Soumak      | W/S | K |   | F |           |      m    |   m      |
+  |Tcherkess   | W/S | K |   | F |     m     |      m    |   f      |
+  |Tiflis      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/f   |   f      |
+  +------------+-----+---+-------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+THE land that extends eastward about fourteen hundred miles from the
+Caspian Sea to the western boundary of the Chinese Empire, and northward
+for a similar distance from the Arabian Sea through Beluchistan and
+Afghanistan to the steppes of Western Siberia, is one of the least
+civilised parts of the eastern continent. Here until within a few recent
+years, the people lived the same untrammelled lives that their ancestors
+pursued for past centuries; and the encroachments of the Russian Empire
+on the north and the English on the southeast, have as yet made little
+impression on their uncultured natures. To these circumstances it is
+largely due that the rugs termed Central Asiatic, which come from this
+district, still possess to a large degree the originality of design,
+virility of character, and beauty of colour that are so rapidly
+disappearing from the woven products of countries more subject to the
+influence of Western civilisation.
+
+These rugs may conveniently be divided into three natural sub-groups,
+which include:
+
+1. The Turkoman, consisting of what are known in this country as Royal
+and Princess Bokharas, the Tekkes, Yomuds, Khivas, and Beshires, all of
+which are made in Turkestan;[32] and the Afghan, of which part are made
+in Turkestan and part in Afghanistan.
+
+2. The Turko-Chinese, consisting of the Samarkands, which re made in
+Western Turkestan, and the Kasghars and Yarkands made in Eastern
+Turkestan.
+
+3. The Beluchistans or Beluches, made principally in Beluchistan.
+
+No other rugs adhere more strictly to uniformity of colour and design
+than the Turkoman. And, when it is considered that their prevailing
+tones and their simple, geometric designs are such as would readily be
+adopted by people with primitive ideas of ornamentation, it seems
+probable that they have been copied with only slight modification for a
+great many centuries, even though more gorgeous and elaborate carpets
+were woven during the short period when Samarkand was capital of the
+East. This is probably true, notwithstanding no other country in the
+world has been subject to more conquests than Turkestan or overrun by so
+many different races. For here, as we learn by the aid of philology,
+dwelt the Aryans even before the light of history had come to dispel the
+mists of antiquity. Two or three thousand years later it was overrun by
+Cyrus and added to the dominion of the Medes and Persians. In the V
+Century A. D., Tartar tribes conquered it; and in the following century
+Turks and Persians divided it between them. Still later it was again
+overrun by the Arabs, who, sword in hand, converted the vanquished to
+the creed of Islam. When a few more centuries had rolled away the Mongol
+hordes of Genghis Khan swept over it; and once again it suffered
+desolation under the iron hand of Tamerlane, "Scourge of Asia." But in
+spite of these waves of conquest and the minor struggles with Persians,
+Greeks, and Romans, that left their impress on the country, each of the
+several classes of Turkoman rugs, including even those made two
+centuries ago, show a remarkable conformity to definite types, however
+much may be their modification in small detail. Their nap is invariably
+short; in all of them some shade of dark red is the predominating
+colour; and in most of them some form of an octagon appears. They are,
+moreover, the best woven and the most beautiful of the Central Asiatic
+rugs.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF TURKESTAN]
+
+Though the Turko-Chinese rugs are made in places subject to the
+influence of Turkomans and far removed from the culture of Chinese, they
+are unlike the rugs of the former and resemble those of the latter. Not
+improbably this is because Tamerlane had gathered at Samarkand noted
+artists and artisans from China, whose influence continued long after
+his death. And as traditional patterns have been transmitted for
+centuries, there is little doubt that some of the modern rugs, even
+though falling far short of the standard of their early prototypes, more
+closely resemble them than they do any other rugs of Asia. In these
+pieces Turkoman simplicity of geometric figures is replaced by an
+elaboration of conventional floral forms and by designs associated with
+early philosophies; sobriety of colour yields to the bright and even
+gaudy tones not infrequent in modern textile fabrics.
+
+The Beluchistans, which are regarded as a sub-group of the Central
+Asiatic rugs, show a closer relationship to the Turkoman rugs than to
+any others. A few of them have octagonal patterns suggestive of
+Bokharas, and all have the long webs at the ends and the heavy goat's
+hair selvage at the sides peculiar to Afghans and Tekkes. On the other
+hand, many of the patterns both of field and border resemble Persian
+workmanship; so that placing these rugs in the same group with the
+Turkoman and Turko-Chinese rugs, which are not made in an adjoining
+territory, is slightly arbitrary.
+
+
+ROYAL BOKHARAS.—The best known district in Turkestan is the Khanate of
+Bokhara, which extends from the offshoots of the lofty Pamir mountains
+in the east to the desolate sandy plains beyond the Amu Daria, or Oxus
+river, on the west. Situated in its northern half and near the centre of
+a fertile valley is its capital, Bokhara, "The Noble." Though noted for
+its cruelty, it was once the intellectual centre of Asia, and still
+possesses nearly a hundred schools and innumerable mosques. These and
+its bazaars are almost all that remain of the splendour of those days
+when the great caravans that came from China, India, Persia, and Russia
+made it one of the great marts of the East.
+
+On account of its commercial importance, the wild tribes of the Kirghiz
+steppes, the Turkomans from Kizil Kum,[33] the Afghans who dwell north
+of the Paropamisus range, and the fierce Tekkes and Yomuds from the
+west, came and bartered their rugs for other necessities. Many of these
+rugs were taken in caravans, that often numbered several thousand
+camels, and sold in the Russian market places of Astrakan, Orenburg, or
+Nijni Novgorod. Since they came from the same place, the term Bokhara
+was often applied to each of the different classes. Thus we hear of
+Royal Bokharas, Princess Bokharas, Tekke Bokharas, Yomud Bokharas, and
+Khiva Bokharas.
+
+Of these five classes the Royal Bokharas, as a rule, not only are the
+best woven, but are made of the finest material; even the warp of many
+of them is of soft, silky white wool. The old rugs were made in the city
+and suburbs of Bokhara, where now only a few pieces are made. Both old
+and new are found only as sedjadehs. They have two well-known patterns,
+one of which consists of an octagon surrounding a quartered hexagon. Of
+these quarters, which are either plain or contain a small triangle of
+contrasting colour, a pair that are opposite are always white or cream
+coloured, and the other pair are of some shade of red. Small triangular
+figures are invariably seen above and below the hexagons, as well as
+small diamond, oval, or spear-shaped figures at each end of the major
+axis. In the other pattern the contour of the octagon is rounder; and
+the hexagon is replaced by an eight-pointed star, at the centre of which
+is a diamond containing a rectangle or occasionally a Greek cross.
+Projecting into the four corners from the star are small designs, that
+careful observation of a large number in many different kinds of rugs
+shows to be leaf forms. Between the diagonally placed octagons of both
+these types are stars or diamond-shaped figures, that are usually of the
+same design regardless of the shape of the octagon. In large rugs the
+centres of the octagons are generally joined by straight lines of dark
+blue colour.
+
+It is uncertain why the term Royal has been applied to this class of
+Bokharas, but it is eminently befitting the old well-woven, velvet-like
+pieces. A few have small patches of pink or ruby coloured silk; and all
+have a prevailing tone of red diversified by deep blues and touches of
+lighter red and ivory, that convey an idea of opulence and dignity
+worthy of a king.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue, pink or orange, and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, sixteen to
+twenty-four. The rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp
+is concealed at back and the weft is almost hidden. _Warp_, fine white
+wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally prominent
+at back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, fine wool, or occasionally
+silk, clipped short. _Border_, three stripes divided by smaller coloured
+lines. _Sides_, a blue double overcasting. _Both ends_, a narrow web and
+short warp fringe. _Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back is of fine grain.
+_Usual length_, four to ten feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four
+fifths length.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 53. TURKOMAN RUG WITH KATCHLI PATTERN]
+
+
+PRINCESS BOKHARAS.—The rugs known as Princess Bokharas are woven by the
+Mohammedan tribes who dwell in parts of the Khanate of Bokhara. They are
+nearly square and the field is divided into four equal sections by
+perpendicular and horizontal bands. Because of this pattern they are
+called "Katchlis," a word derived from the Armenian language signifying
+"like a cross." The bands generally have designs that are co-ordinate
+with those in part of the border; but not infrequently the designs of
+the horizontal band differ from those of the perpendicular one, and in a
+few rare instances consist of an octagonal figure. It is generally
+believed that the well-known Y-shaped motive characteristic of the field
+and the border is intended to represent the tree of life, but some
+native weavers suggest a different interpretation. To them the whole rug
+symbolises a mosque; the perpendicular arm of the cross is the entrance;
+the Y-shaped designs are benches; and the broad diagonal lines with
+serrated edges in the borders are groves of trees surrounding the
+mosque. A very large percentage of these pieces are namazliks. One of
+their peculiarities is the position of their unobtrusive tent-shaped
+prayer arch, which is in a panel entirely within their upper border.
+
+Compared with Royal Bokharas their nap is rarely of as fine quality, the
+warp is usually of brown instead of cream white wool, and the weave is
+coarser. Also, the tones of colour are more sombre, and of browner
+shades; but in rare old pieces the rich mahogany and bronze hues of the
+ground, on which are represented small designs in shades of cream and
+dark blue, are exceedingly rich and pleasing. Unfortunately, within
+recent years large numbers of this class have been made solely for
+commercial purposes, and lack the finer qualities of their prototypes.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red or brown, with
+minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally eight to twelve; perpendicularly, fourteen to eighteen. The
+rows of knots are firmly pressed down, so that the warp is concealed at
+back and the weft partly hidden. _Warp_, brown wool or goat's hair; each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back. _Weft_, wool, of fine diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool of short or medium length;
+occasionally some goat's hair is used. _Border_, three stripes,
+separated by narrow lines. _Sides_, a double overcasting or a double
+goat's hair selvage of three cords. _Both ends_, a web and warp fringe.
+_Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is of moderately fine grain. _Usual
+length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to
+four fifths length.
+
+
+TEKKES.—A little over two centuries ago there lived on the peninsula of
+Mangishlar, on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea, an almost unknown
+tribe called the "Tekke," a term which is said to denote a mountain
+goat, and was applied on account of the headlong pace at which the men
+rode over rough mountain sides. About the beginning of the XVIII Century
+they packed their _khibitkas_,[34] and after moving southward to escape
+from the attacks of a more powerful tribe, they met the Yomuds in the
+southwestern corner of Turkestan and robbed them of their lands. Further
+eastward they snatched the fertile oasis of Ak-kal from some Kurds,
+whose ancestors a Shah of Persia had located there in earlier times to
+protect his kingdom from fierce northern tribes. By irrigating and
+cultivating the soil, they prospered and increased rapidly in
+population, until, about 1830, they numbered one hundred thousand. One
+fourth of them then moved eastward; and after settling on the banks of
+the Tajand, not far from the Persian town of Saraks, they attacked the
+inhabitants of Merv and captured the city. Growing thus to be a powerful
+people, they occupied much of the country between Persia and the Amu
+Daria.
+
+Ever restless, they were constantly looking for weaker foes on whom to
+fall; and when a leader would announce an intended raid, hundreds or
+even thousands would meet at the appointed rendezvous prepared to
+blindly follow him. Sometimes it was through the passes that looked down
+into the fertile valleys of Northern Persia. Stealthily creeping through
+them they would fall unexpectedly upon an unprotected village and dash
+away with young women and children. If pursued, they would stab their
+captives, and if necessary, ride more than one hundred miles a day in
+flight. At other times, they would attack caravans crossing the deserts
+and carry away both camels and wares.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 54. TURKOMAN PRAYER RUG, WHICH ACCORDING TO A.
+BOGOLUBOW HAS THE TYPICAL PINDÉ PATTERN]
+
+Their raids, however, were not viewed with complacence by the Russians,
+who had been steadily advancing on the land lying between the Caspian
+and the Amu Daria, and whose armies the Tekkes harassed. At length in
+January, 1881, came the final death struggle in the memorable attack on
+the fortress of Geok Teppe, where thirty-three thousand tribesmen and
+seven thousand women and children had taken refuge. With the fall of
+that stronghold and the terrible punishment that followed, the power of
+the Tekkes was completely crushed; and a people whose ancestors for
+countless centuries had roamed the desert, recognising no master,
+yielded finally to the advance of civilisation.
+
+These were the people whose wives and daughters wove the rugs generally
+known as Tekke Bokharas, of which large numbers with excellent weave and
+sterling dyes can still be found. As few of them were designed for
+mosques or palaces, it is very unusual to find pieces over one hundred
+years old, and even these are rare. Indeed, any that are now forty years
+old should possess great interest, as they were woven at a time when the
+Tekkes were still a fierce race. Very many have the Katchli pattern. The
+prayer arch, which is similar to that of Princess Bokharas, is in a
+panel exterior to the field and within the border. Not infrequently
+there are three arches in the same horizontal panel, which, as a rule,
+is above the field, but occasionally below it. In a great many of these
+rugs the three-leaf clover is found in some part of the field; and in
+the band of pile that extends beyond the border at one end are usually
+small conventionalised bushes with white and yellow flowers. The pattern
+shown in Plate L, Fig. 4 (opp. Page 250), appears almost invariably in
+the outer stripe.
+
+There are other types, into one of which it would seem as if the very
+spirit of the desert had crept. Their dark ground colours are brightened
+by lighter tones that give an effect of strange yet not inharmonious
+beauty. A few would seem to speak of the early Zoroastrian faith, for in
+their fields are designs like stars with effulgent rays that suggest the
+burning altars of fire worshippers.
+
+The shape or some peculiarity of the rug indicates the purpose for which
+it was intended. For instance, the rugs which were made for doors of the
+khibitkas have at the upper end a selvage with the web turned back and
+hemmed, and at each corner a heavy braided cord of about two feet in
+length, by which they were suspended. Other pieces have webs at both
+ends. Many beautiful pieces are made for use on horses or camels. Those
+intended for camels are of oblong shape with a field usually containing
+large octagons, between which are smaller octagons similar to those in
+Royal Bokharas.
+
+Tekkes may be distinguished from the Princess Bokharas, which they
+resemble, by their goat's hair selvage at the sides, by one thread of
+warp to each knot being slightly depressed at the back, and by their
+coarser character. There is, however, a great similarity in the colours,
+though in the Tekkes tones of deep plum and rich red are not uncommon.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, brown, or plum,
+with minor quantities of dark blue and ivory. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, nine to fourteen.
+The rows of knots are slightly pressed down, but the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat's hair; one of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is depressed below the other at back. _Weft_, wool of fine or medium
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool, or occasionally goat's hair of short or medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes, separated by coloured lines. _Sides_, a
+three-cord double goat's hair selvage. _Lower end_, a wide coloured web
+and long warp fringe. _Upper end_, a braided selvage turned back and
+hemmed, or occasionally a wide coloured web and long warp fringe.
+_Texture_, firm. _Weave_ at back of moderately fine grain. _Length_,
+five to eight feet. _Usual width_, three fifths to four fifths length.
+
+
+KHIVAS.—On the west bank of the Amu Daria, and stretching for two
+hundred miles above its mouth, is the plain of the Khanate of Khiva.
+Most of the people live in khibitkas, and either follow a nomad's life
+or raise from the alluvial soil, that is watered by innumerable canals,
+crops of cotton, corn, and rice, as well as melons, peaches, and
+pomegranates. A large population, also, inhabits the city of Khiva,
+which before the building of the Siberian railway, was on one of the
+direct highways between east and west. Caravans of nearly two thousand
+camels regularly passed through it en route to Orenburg in spring and to
+Astrakan in fall, carrying wares from districts farther to the east as
+well as its own rugs and manufactured articles.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE IX—SAMARKAND RUG_
+
+_Although this rug is an excellent example of that class generally known
+as Samarkands, it was bought in Yarkand. Undoubtedly it was woven in
+some part of Turkestan that lies between these two cities; yet with the
+exception of the eight-pointed stars at the centre of the upper and
+lower medallions the pattern is characteristic of Chinese ornamentation.
+Surrounding the central medallion, on a ground of rich deep blue, are
+six conventionalised butterflies, and near them are four clusters of
+pomegranates. At each end of the field are designs that suggest the tree
+of life, which under different forms appears so persistently in the
+woven fabrics of the East. The delicate drawing of these motives is
+accentuated by the formal character of the four corners and by the broad
+border of well-known stripes. It is a piece in which beauty of line and
+colour is combined with unsolved symbolism._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Hulett C. Merritt_]
+
+On account of the constant intercourse between the Khiva and Bokhara
+tribes, their woven fabrics show a close relationship in patterns and
+colours; yet they contain important differences. Those made by the Khiva
+tribes are cruder, and reflect the effect of constant struggles against
+the rigours of the desert and the fierce Kirghiz from the steppes to the
+north. The wool is also coarser and longer, and the knots are much fewer
+to the inch. Occasionally geometric as well as animal designs suggestive
+of Caucasian influence occur. Moreover, the brownish threads of weft
+that separate each row of knots, are noticeable at the back, whereas
+in other Turkoman rugs the weft is hardly perceptible.
+
+Many of the old pieces were very handsome, as is shown by the following
+description of an antique goat's hair carpet from Khiva by Dr.
+Birdwood.[35] "The ground is of madder red, decorated with leaves and
+scrolls and lozenge-shaped forms in red, white, and orange, each lozenge
+being defined by a deep line of indigo blue. The ends terminate in a
+fringe. Professor Vambery says that these rich lustrous carpets are made
+entirely by the nomad women about Khiva, the head worker tracing out the
+design in the desert sand and handing out to her companions the dyed
+materials of different colours as required in the progress of weaving."
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red, with minor
+quantities of blue and ivory. _Knot_, Ghiordes or Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to ten; perpendicularly, eight to fourteen. The rows of
+knots are but slightly pressed down, so that the warp shows at back.
+_Warp_, wool or goat's hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot
+is equally prominent at the back. _Weft_, wool of medium or coarse
+diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of
+knots. _Pile_, wool of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes.
+_Sides_, a double selvage of two or three cords, which is generally of
+goat's hair. _Both ends_, a web, one or more rows of knots and a warp
+fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet.
+_Usual width_, three fifths to three quarters length.
+
+
+YOMUDS.—When, in 1718, the Yomuds were driven by the Tekkes from their
+homes in the well-watered region about Kizil Arvat, they moved to a less
+fertile country to the north and west. Though now numbering about one
+hundred thousand, they have few villages; and regardless of the dreary
+sand storms, the biting cold of winter, or the terrible heat of summer,
+they wander with their sheep and goats from place to place in search of
+more favoured spots. Sometimes their khibitkas are seen along the border
+of the Caspian Sea as far south as Astrabad in Khorassan, or among the
+sandy trackless wastes of Kara Kum, nearly as far north as the Aral Sea.
+
+Many of their rugs rival the Royal Bokharas in wealth of colour. The
+prevailing tone of the field is usually red or maroon, but is sometimes
+rose, plum, or dark brown; and the remaining shades correspond with the
+blue, green, brown, and white of Tekkes. Contrasted with these is the
+ivory ground of the border, which, as a rule, has a much brighter colour
+than the field. Furthermore, the pile of the old pieces has a lustre
+that is due to the excellence of the dyes and the thick soft wool.
+
+There are several distinct types, of which only one is well-known. Its
+pattern is clearly Turkoman, though the lesser designs show that there
+has been frequent intercourse with the weavers of Caucasia. Covering the
+field of these pieces are regularly placed diamond-shaped figures that
+suggest those of the Royal Bokharas, from which they may have been
+developed to the almost entire exclusion of the octagon; though the
+latter appears much less prominently in the centre of the diamonds. In
+the border occurs the running latch-hook, the barber-pole stripe, and a
+geometrically drawn vine. The webs of the ends, which are usually red
+and striped, are broad and have a fringe of goat's hair, sometimes
+braided into ropelike tassels, but more often hanging loose.
+
+The saddle bags are of irregular shape resembling a flat walled tent,
+and contain in both field and border much brighter colour than the rugs.
+Their field is checkered with diamond-shaped figures rich in ivory
+colour and separated from each other by diagonal barber-pole stripes;
+their border contains the running latch-hook.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat's hair; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at the back, or one is slightly depressed below the other.
+_Weft_, wool, of medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat's
+hair. A thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots.
+_Pile_, wool, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, either
+a two-cord selvage of red alternating with blue or brown, or a goat's
+hair double selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad,
+reddish brown web through which, as a rule, run coloured lines or
+several narrow stripes, and a long warp fringe. _Texture_, stout.
+_Weave_ at back is moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve
+feet. _Usual width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BESHIRES.—On the Amu Daria and not far from Afghanistan is a small
+district from which the rugs known as Beshires now and then find their
+way to this country. As it is not far from several routes of caravans,
+these rugs show a relationship to the products of other Turkoman tribes.
+Their colour scheme is principally the dark red and brownish tones found
+in Bokharas, Yomuds, and Khivas. The ends, too, have the web crossed by
+several lines, such as blue, green, and yellowish brown, that are usual
+in Afghans. The patterns sometimes contain a suggestion of the geometric
+figures of the Yomuds and some Caucasian pieces; and yet they have a
+striking character of their own. Not infrequently the field is covered
+with broad, irregular scrolls or foliate forms, unlike anything seen in
+any other class of rugs. Again the field may be occupied with a trellis
+pattern, which divides it into diamond-shaped figures. Within these are
+smaller diamonds surrounded by eight-pointed stars and quasi-floral
+forms. The borders, as a rule, are narrow and have simple designs that
+incline to the geometric; but a few are of fair width and are ornamented
+with rosettes and conventionalised leaves. In namazliks, which are
+rarely seen, the prayer arch lies within the field. Almost all of this
+class found in this country are old rugs; and on account of their rich,
+harmonious colours and unobtrusive yet distinctive patterns, are always
+pleasing and interesting.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and brown, with
+minor quantities of blue, yellow, and white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to
+inch horizontally seven to twelve; perpendicularly, seven to twelve. A
+half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or longer than, wide.
+The rows of knots are pressed down, so that the warp is almost hidden at
+back. _Warp_, generally goat's hair. Each of the two threads encircled
+by a knot is equally prominent at back, or occasionally one is slightly
+depressed. _Weft_, wool or goat's hair of medium or coarse diameter. A
+thread of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_,
+wool, of medium length. _Border_, generally three stripes, occasionally
+only one. _Sides_, a goat's hair selvage of two to four cords. _Both
+ends_, a wide web, crossed with several coloured stripes. _Texture_,
+stout. _Weave_, coarse. _Length_, four to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two fifths to two thirds length.
+
+
+AFGHANS.—One of the most distinctive classes of Turkoman rugs is known
+in this country both as Afghans and Khivas. Both of these names are
+unfortunately applied; for their only title to be called the latter is
+that many were formerly exported from the bazaars of Khiva, and that
+they slightly resemble the rugs of that city. Nor are they strictly
+Afghans, since they come from the territory of mountain ridges and
+fertile valleys that stretches from the Hindu Koosh Mountains northward
+across the eastern part of the Khanate Bokhara, and are made by the
+tribesmen of both countries. In fact, they differ considerably from the
+rugs of Central and Southern Afghanistan, and bear no resemblance to
+those of floral pattern woven about Herat.
+
+Within the territory where these rugs are made the Aryan and Teutonic
+races have met and blended; and across it have passed the armies of the
+greatest conquerors of Asia. Here still exist some of the most untamed
+races of the East, feeding their flocks on lofty table-lands, or
+cultivating patches of valleys, through which flow icy streams to form
+the Amu Daria. Here the rights of hospitality are held sacred, but
+wrongs are revenged without recourse to any tribunal.
+
+When the antecedents, customs, and surroundings of the people are taken
+into consideration, it is not strange that their rugs should be strong
+and firm in texture, bold in design, positive and striking in colour.
+Most of them are large and almost square in shape, though mats are not
+uncommon. The traditional pattern consists of perpendicular rows,
+usually three in number, of large octagons, that are almost in contact.
+Between these rows are much smaller diamond-shaped designs, which
+consist in some pieces of a cluster of eight-pointed stars, and in
+others of a geometric figure that is occasionally fringed with hooks and
+contains within its centre an eight-pointed star.
+
+With a few exceptions the octagons, which closely resemble those of
+Royal Bokharas, are symmetrical, and all their details are drawn as
+regularly as if the rugs were factory woven. They are invariably divided
+into quarters which usually are marked with a small figure like a
+three-leaf clover. The field contains but few adventitious designs and
+they are rarely animal, as the Afghans are Sunni Mohammedans. One of the
+most common of these designs, which appears also in the Tekkes and
+Yomuds, is probably intended to represent part of the headstall of camel
+trappings. The pattern of the border conforms to that of the field, but
+frequently has crudely drawn floral forms and a conventionalised vine.
+The sides have an added selvage of brown goat's hair; and the ends
+are finished with reddish brown webs, from which hang loose fringes of
+dark wool or goat's hair.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 55. TURKOMAN RUG OF THE SALOR TRIBES]
+
+As characteristic as the large bold octagons are the colours, which
+however subdued are invariably of rich hues. Those of the field consist
+of dark red, maroon, or reddish brown. The quarters of the octagon are
+of a deep blue alternating with a red that is lighter than the field. In
+some pieces this red is blood colour, or nearly crimson, standing out in
+bold relief against the adjacent blue and a field of maroon. Lines of
+green, orange, yellow, and white often appear in the body of the rug;
+lines of dark blue and a checkered pattern in red and blue are frequent
+in the red webs of the ends.
+
+Though these rugs are, as a rule, heavier and coarser in texture than
+most other Turkoman rugs, the old pieces have a soft plushy nap of fine
+wool and goat's fleece, as well as richness of tone, that is very
+attractive. They are exceedingly durable and moderate in price.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally dark red and mahogany
+brown, with minor quantities of blue, green, yellow, and white. _Knot_,
+generally Sehna, occasionally Ghiordes. Knots to inch horizontally five
+to eight; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of knots are pressed
+down, so that the warp is largely concealed at back. _Warp_, coarse wool
+or goat's hair; each thread encircled by a knot is equally prominent at
+back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_, wool, of
+medium diameter, or occasionally wool mixed with goat's hair. A thread
+of weft crosses twice between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, of
+medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a goat's hair double
+selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad web of reddish
+brown colour through which run several narrow lines or several narrow
+stripes, and a long fringe. _Texture_, stout. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, five to twelve feet. _Usual width_,
+two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+SAMARKANDS.—A little over one hundred miles east of Bokhara, and on the
+southern border of the desert of Red Sands, the river Zarafshan,
+"Strewer of Gold," has turned a plain of yellow loam into an oasis.
+Forty-three large canals bring its waters to fields of cotton; to
+vineyards; to orchards of apple, pear, peach, and pomegranate; and to
+gardens of fragrant flowers. Here is Samarkand, "The Mirror of the
+World." Few cities as old remain after passing through so many
+vicissitudes of fortune. Alexander forced his way through its gates, the
+Chinese Empire annexed it, and finally Tamerlane seized and made it the
+magnificent capital of one third of the known world. His tomb and other
+remaining monuments attest the grandeur of that time when there was
+fostered here the art, the luxury, and the splendour of the East.
+
+The rugs known as Samarkands are woven in a district somewhat eastward
+from the city and are often called "Malgarans." They are not to be
+compared with the magnificent carpets that adorned the palaces and
+mosques of the capital of Tamerlane; yet they possess a special
+interest, as in them are combined features derived from both Eastern and
+Western Asia. Either because this city, known as Samo-Kien, was once
+part of the Chinese Empire, or as is more probable, because it is on one
+of the great highways of caravan travel between China and Western Asia,
+the Chinese element is particularly noticeable. It appears in the
+colours that are in strong contrast; in the general pattern that shows
+little affinity for those of Persian or West Asian rugs; and even in the
+weave, in which silk is occasionally mixed with the wool of both warp
+and pile.
+
+The ground colour of the field is usually some shade of red or madder,
+with blue and yellow appearing conspicuously in the principal designs
+and border stripes. Or again, the field may be blue, soft brown, gray,
+or tan, with which the colours of the designs and borders, that may
+contain red, yellow, and blue, invariably appear in strong contrast.
+
+Few rugs have a more noticeable pattern, which consists principally of
+rounded medallions. If there be but one, it is in the centre; and if
+there be many, one is at each corner. They are usually ornamented with
+Chinese scrolls or some geometric design, as an eight-pointed star; but
+dragons, birds, or fishes are not uncommon. Occasionally, also, flowers
+of Persian design, with eight rounded petals, appear in the medallion,
+and others of larger size cover the field; or they may even exclude the
+medallion and constitute the principal motive. Some simple design in
+fretwork gives finish to the corners of the field, which is further
+covered with Chinese butterflies, scrolls, or archaic flower forms. The
+borders are equally distinctive, and unlike those of Chinese rugs are
+relatively wide and consist of several stripes surrounded by an edging
+of uniform colour. One of the stripes has generally a stiffly undulating
+vine; another a continuous swastika design; and a third is marked with
+frets, the barber-pole design, or a design which by some is regarded as
+the sacred Chinese mountain rising from the waves. In most pieces warp
+and weft are loosely woven, and the pile is of a medium grade of wool;
+but in very old pieces the wool is fine and lustrous.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and yellow.
+_Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch horizontally six to eight; perpendicularly,
+five to eight. Each half knot, as it appears at back, is as long as, or
+longer than, wide. The rows of knots are not firmly pressed down, so
+that the warp shows at back. _Warp_, generally cotton, occasionally
+wool; one of the two threads encircled by a knot is doubled under the
+other. _Weft_, generally cotton, occasionally wool, of coarse diameter
+and frequently dyed. A thread of weft crosses twice, between every two
+rows of knots, and occasionally three times. _Pile_, wool, of medium
+length. _Border_, three stripes with a pink edging. _Sides_, a red or
+pink overcasting. _Lower end_, web and warp loops. _Upper end_, web and
+warp fringe. _Texture_, moderately firm. _Weave_ at back, rather coarse.
+_Length_, six to fourteen feet. _Usual width_, one half to three fifths
+length.
+
+
+KASHGARS AND YARKANDS.—Among the foothill plains at the western end of
+the Chinese Empire, are the mud-walled cities of Kashgar and Yarkand,
+that were ancient even in the days when Marco Polo visited there.
+Situated in populous and fertile districts, each has been a city of
+political and industrial importance; but on account of the great divides
+that separate them from Western Turkestan, Persia, and India, their
+commerce has been principally with Thibet and China. Thus it has
+happened that only within recent years have any of their textile fabrics
+reached Europe and America, where they are still almost unknown. Yet
+even in the remote past, these cities gained a reputation for the
+culture of silk and the weaving of carpets. Moreover, at different
+periods they were centres of luxury, so that it may safely be assumed
+that many of their woven products were of a high order of excellence.
+
+These rugs, to be sure, come from a district lying within the Chinese
+Empire; but it is so remote from the centres where the well-known
+Chinese rugs have been and are woven, and is so much nearer to West
+Turkestan and Afghanistan, that it seems best to place them in the
+Central Asiatic group.
+
+As a rule, such pieces as reach this country show crude workmanship
+entirely lacking in graceful floral patterns or artistic drawing.
+Octagonal forms, animals, and even mythical creatures are often
+distributed over the fields so as to give them a decidedly Chinese
+character. The narrow border stripes ornamented with the swastika and
+fret forms are often similar to some of the Samarkand stripes. The
+colours, which lack the subdued richness of Persian pieces, are often
+light; but they occasionally consist largely of tones of dark blue and
+red which show Turkoman influences. Most of these rugs are interesting
+on account of their quaintness and individuality; but few compare in
+quality of material, weave, or artistic finish with other classes of
+this group.
+
+
+BELUCHES OR BELUCHISTANS.—"When creating the world, the Almighty made
+Beluchistan out of the refuse" are the words of an old proverb, that
+refers to a land which formerly produced some of the most interesting
+rugs of the East. In fact, the thought is not surprising when the
+desolate character of the country is considered; for a sandy, waterless
+waste stretches over the greater part, and only in a corner to the
+northeast and in narrow strips, where streams from mountain sides water
+small valleys, is any cultivation. Across this sparsely settled land and
+farther westward into the southeastern part of Persia, untamed tribes of
+Beluches and Brahoes wander with their sheep, goats, and large numbers
+of camels. Their rugs, woven on crudely made looms, bear little
+resemblance to the more artistic floral pieces of the Indian weavers to
+the east or to those of Kirman to the west. Nor are they closely related
+to the Turkoman rugs with which they are usually grouped. In fact, they
+possess an individuality that once recognised is never forgotten; an
+individuality due to the isolated condition of a country that is
+protected from its nearest neighbours by barriers of deserts and
+mountain ridges, and is possessed by a still unconquered people. To
+these circumstances, also, it is due that the rugs are rarely coloured
+with aniline dyes, though many modern pieces have been chemically washed
+by dealers.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 56. YOMUD RUG]
+
+One of the most distinguishing features of Beluchistans are their tones
+of colour, that rarely depart from traditional usage. They are
+principally a red of the shade of madder, a blue with purple cast, and a
+dark brown that has sometimes a slight olive tinge, particularly when
+appearing in the webs. Frequently, too, dull tones of green are seen.
+Contrasting with these more subdued ground colours is almost invariably
+some ivory which appears as small detached figures in part of the
+border, or as outlines of principal designs. The patterns also show
+individuality and diversity. Most frequently they are geometric and
+represent some ill defined octagons suggesting Turkoman rugs. Or they
+may consist of a field covered with diagonal bands, with large lozenges,
+or medallions, all of which are decorated profusely with latch-hooks.
+Still others have some crudely drawn flower design, as the Mina Khani,
+that tells of Persian influences.
+
+A fair proportion have the prayer pattern, consisting of a large
+rectangular shaped mihrab, which is as high as, and frequently higher
+than, wide. The borders, as a rule, consist of three or four stripes.
+The main stripe is geometric and in the guard stripes are running
+latch-hooks or the reciprocal trefoil, though occasionally they are
+replaced by some conventionalised vine or ribbon pattern.
+
+Proportionally to their length few other rugs have such long webs at the
+end, though they are sometimes entirely worn away while the body of the
+rug is still serviceable. They are usually coloured in harmony with the
+colours of the field, and are marked with embroidered lines or simple
+designs. No other rugs have a surface with more lustrous sheen, due to
+the soft, fine wool of the pile, which in old pieces is short and
+closely woven, giving a play of colours, and velvety appearance
+unsurpassed by any other nomadic rugs. Many of the choicest pieces of
+Beluchistan weave now on the market are the small saddle bags, that are
+of rich yet subdued colours, and possess the character and sheen of very
+old rugs.
+
+_Type Characteristics._ _Colours_, principally red, blue, and brown,
+with minor quantities of white. _Knot_, Sehna. Knots to inch
+horizontally six to nine; perpendicularly, seven to ten. The rows of
+knots are usually pressed down, so that the warp does not show at back.
+_Warp_, wool; each of the two threads encircled by a knot is equally
+prominent at back, or one is slightly depressed below the other. _Weft_,
+of coarse, wiry wool, of medium diameter. A thread of weft crosses twice
+between every two rows of knots. _Pile_, wool, and occasionally camel's
+hair, of medium length. _Border_, three stripes. _Sides_, a heavy goat's
+hair selvage of three or four cords. _Both ends_, a broad embroidered
+web with warp fringe. _Texture_, slightly loose. _Weave_ at back is
+moderately coarse. _Usual length_, four and one half to six feet. _Usual
+width_, two thirds to three quarters length.
+
+
+BORDER STRIPES
+
+The border stripes of the Central Asiatic group are even more geometric
+than the Caucasian; for it is rarely that any floral forms are seen in
+them, though they may appear in the pile that extends beyond the borders
+of the ends. Even the vines are so angular as almost to lose their
+identity. Octagonal figures, stars, frets, and latch-hooks are common.
+In fact, the group as a whole, shows the influence of the Caucasian and
+Chinese groups more than the Persian.
+
+
+PRIMARY STRIPES
+
+The stripe shown in Plate L, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 250) is one of many found
+in the rugs known as Royal Bokharas. The eight-pointed stars, as well as
+the small tent-like designs, which may have been derived from the
+headstalls of horses, are almost always found in it.
+
+A well-known stripe of Princess Bokharas corresponding with the pattern
+of the field, appears in Plate L, Fig. 2. It represents a continuous
+series of designs shaped like a Y, that were doubtless derived from
+forms of trees. More frequently the stripe (Fig. 3) of broad, serrated
+diagonal lines, that originally may have been intended to represent
+foliage, is seen.
+
+Another stripe found in Princess Bokharas and also in Tekkes and Khivas
+is shown in Plate L, Fig. 4. It forcibly suggests the Chinese fret.
+Sometimes it is used as a primary but more frequently as a secondary
+stripe.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 5, is a stripe frequently seen in Tekkes, which is
+interesting on account of the eight-pointed stars and latch-hooks
+similar to those of Caucasian rugs. Without doubt this is only one of
+the many instances illustrating the migration of designs.
+
+Plate L, Fig. 6 represents a stripe peculiar to Yomuds. The running vine
+is most mechanically drawn and fringed with latch-hooks, which are a
+constant feature of this class.
+
+Another Yomud stripe with vine in which serrations take the place of
+latch-hooks is shown in Plate L, Fig. 7. Pendent from the vine are other
+hooks shaped like frets.
+
+Very similar to an old Caucasian stripe is the one represented in Plate
+L, Fig. 8; but in this stripe the small designs are drawn so that the
+proportion of length to width is greater; and it is probable that they
+were copied from a wreath of leaves. This stripe is very commonly seen
+in Beluchistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE L. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CENTRAL
+ASIATIC RUGS]
+
+Plate L, Fig. 9 represents a mechanically drawn vine found in Beshires.
+
+Well-known Afghan stripes are shown in Plate L, Figs. 10 and 11.
+
+In Plate L, Figs. 12 and 13 are two of the most typical and interesting
+stripes of Samarkands and Yarkands. The first is supposed to represent
+the sacred mountain of Chinese lore rising out of the waves. The second
+is a vine with leaves and flowers, which suggest Persian influences.
+
+A stripe with simple archaic pattern peculiar to Yarkands is seen in
+Plate L, Fig. 14.
+
+
+SECONDARY STRIPES
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 15 (opp. Page 250), is a well-known form of a secondary
+stripe found in Royal Bokharas.
+
+A stripe seen in both Princess Bokharas and Tekkes is shown in Plate L,
+Fig. 16. It bears a slight resemblance to some conventionalised vines
+found in other groups.
+
+Stripes of running latch-hooks (Plate K, Fig. 20, opp. Page 230) are
+frequently found in Yomuds, and occasionally in Beluchistans.
+
+In Beluchistans the reciprocal trefoils, so well-known in Caucasian and
+Persian rugs, are very frequently used.
+
+The pattern of a double vine, illustrated in Plate L, Fig. 17, is a
+Beshire stripe that suggests a Persian influence.
+
+In Plate L, Fig. 18, is the narrow pear stripe that appears in a very
+large number of Afghans and in some Khivas.
+
+Two well-known stripes that belong to Samarkands are shown in Plate L,
+Figs. 19 and 20. The pattern of the conventionalised vine speaks of
+Persian origin, and the swastikas suggest Chinese origin.
+
+In Tekkes, Yomuds, Afghans, and Beluchistans the small barber-pole
+stripes are constantly employed.
+
+
+TECHNICALITIES IN THE WEAVE OF CENTRAL ASIATIC RUGS
+
+
+  Legend:
+
+  KNOT—
+    H = Horizontally
+    P = Perpendicularly
+  WARP—
+    g = goat's hair
+    e = each equally prominent
+    d = 1 to the knot depressed
+    h = 1 to the knot doubled under
+  WEFT—
+    g = goat's hair
+    No. = No. times crossing bet. two round knots
+  SIDES—
+    O = overcasting
+    S = selvage
+  LOWER END
+    W = web
+    S = Selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    L = warp loops
+    F = fringe
+  UPPER END
+    W = web
+    S = selvage
+    K = Rows knots
+    T = turned back and hemmed
+    F = fringe
+
+  +------------+----------------------------+------------------------------+
+  |            |           KNOT             |            WARP              |
+  |            +---------+------+-----------+-----+-------+----+-----------+
+  |  CENTRAL   |         |      | Number to |     |       |    | At back   |
+  |  ASIATIC   |         |      | Inches    |     |       |    |           |
+  |            | G =     | S =  +-----+-----+  w =| c =   |    +---+---+---+
+  |            | Ghiordes| Sehna|  H  |  P  | wool| cotton| g  | e | d | h |
+  |------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+  |Afghan      |    G    |  S   | 5-8 | 7-10|  w  |       |[g] | e | d |   |
+  |Beluchistan |         |  S   | 6-9 | 7-10|  w  |       |[g] | e | d |   |
+  |Beshire     |         |  S   | 6-9 | 8-11| [w] |  [c]  | g  | e |[d]|   |
+  |Princess    |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |         |  S   | 8-12|16-24|  w  |       |    | e |[d]|   |
+  |Royal       |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |         |  S   | 8-12|14-18|  w  |       |[g] | e |   |   |
+  |Tekke       |         |      |     |     |     |       |    |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |         |  S   | 7-12| 9-14|  w  |       |[g] |   | d |   |
+  |Khiva       |    G    |  S   | 6-10| 8-14|  w  |       |[g] | e |   |   |
+  |Samarkand   |         |  S   | 6-8 | 5-8 | [w] |   c   |    |   |   | h |
+  |Yomud       |   [G]   |  S   | 7-12| 9-17|  w  |       | g  | e |[d]|   |
+  +------------+---------+------+-----+-----+-----+-------+----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+--------------------------+-------+-----------------+
+  |            |          WEFT            | SIDES |     LOWER END   |
+  |            +-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |  CENTRAL   |     |       |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  ASIATIC   | w = | c =   |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |            |wool | cotton| g  | No.   | O | S | W/S | K | L | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+  |Afghan      |  w  |       |    |  2    |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Beluchistan |  w  |       |    |  2    |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Beshire     | [w] |   [c] | g  |2/[1]  |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Princess    |     |       |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |  w  |       |    |  2    | O |   |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Royal       |     |       |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |  w  |       |    |  2    | O |[S]|  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Tekke       |     |       |    |       |   |   |     |   |   |   |
+  |  Bokhara   |  w  |       |    |  2    |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  |Khiva       |  w  |       |    |  2    |   | S |  W  | K |   | F |
+  |Samarkand   | [w] |    c  |    |  2    | O |   |  W  |   | L |   |
+  |Yomud       |  w  |       |    |  2    |   | S |  W  |   |   | F |
+  +------------+-----+-------+----+-------+---+---+-----+---+---+---+
+
+  +------------+-----------------+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |            |   UPPER END     |    NAP    |   WEAVE   | TEXTURE  |
+  |            |-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |  CENTRAL   |     |   |   |   |l = long   |f = fine   |l = loose |
+  |  ASIATIC   |     |   |   |   |m = medium |m = medium |m = medium|
+  |            | W/S | K | T | F |s = short  |c = coarse |f = firm  |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+  |Afghan      |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/c   |    f     |
+  |Beluchistan |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |   m/l    |
+  |Beshire     |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |    f     |
+  |Princess    |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |  Bokhara   |  W  |   |   | F |     s     |      f    |    f     |
+  |Royal       |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |  Bokhara   |  W  |   |   | F |    m/s    |     m/s   |    f     |
+  |Tekke       |     |   |   |   |           |           |          |
+  |  Bokhara   |  W  |   |[T]| F |    m/s    |     m/f   |    f     |
+  |Khiva       |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      m    |    f     |
+  |Samarkand   |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |      c    |    m     |
+  |Yomud       |  W  |   |   | F |     m     |     m/c   |    f     |
+  +------------+-----+---+---+---+-----------+-----------+----------+
+
+  [] indicates the less frequent condition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+INDIAN RUGS
+
+
+THROUGHOUT parts of India are woven rugs known as _Dari_, which are
+unlike the rugs of any other country. They are pileless cotton fabrics,
+that may represent an indigenous craft old as the Aryan migrations.
+Their designs are of the simplest order; usually no more than plain
+stripes of blue, red, and black, or only blue and white modified
+occasionally by simple geometric figures. Furthermore, their workmanship
+is poor, so that they possess little artistic merit. Some pieces of
+large size are exported, but they awaken but little interest compared
+with other kinds of rugs.
+
+The weaving of pile carpets in India, on the other hand, does not appear
+to have been the result of spontaneous growth or to have flourished
+without artificial encouragement. It was probably introduced by the
+Saracens, but carpets of elaborate design and workmanship were not made
+till the reign of Shah Akbar, who imported Persian weavers. Under his
+patronage and the encouragement of his royal successors, the manufacture
+of pieces that rivalled those of Persia continued for a hundred years,
+but after the death of Shah Jahan, in 1658, the industry began to
+decline. Nevertheless, for nearly a hundred years longer excellent
+fabrics were produced as the result of the system that was maintained in
+all the provinces by lesser potentates. This system, which was also in
+vogue in parts of Persia, is described by Dr. George Birdwood as
+follows: "The princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, who are the
+chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together in their own
+houses and palaces all who gain a reputation for special skill in their
+manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and daily rations and are
+so little hurried in their work that they have plenty of time to execute
+private orders also. Their salaries are continued even when through age
+or accident they are past work; and on their death they pass to their
+sons, should they have become skilled in their father's art. Upon the
+completion of any extraordinary work, it is submitted to the patron; and
+some honour is at once conferred on the artist and his salary increased.
+It is under such conditions that the best art work of the East has
+always been produced."
+
+After the overthrow of the Mogul dominion by Nadir Shah, in 1731, the
+production of carpets rapidly diminished and the quality deteriorated.
+This was due to several causes. With the conquests of the East Indian
+Company, that began in the middle of the XVIII Century, and the
+extension of trade into every district, large quantities of antique
+carpets became the property of the Company or of those in its employ.
+Many of them, including sumptuous pieces that had adorned the palaces of
+the descendants of Tamerlane, found their way to England. Thus were
+removed many of the masterpieces that had been an inspiration to the
+weavers. Moreover, with the overthrow of native princes their patronage
+ceased; and later, when looms were established in jails for the
+employment of convicts, undesirable competition reduced the wages of
+free labour. Still more pernicious was the introduction of aniline dyes,
+and the elimination of individual taste by supplying patterns, that were
+often of European origin, to be mechanically copied. Thus it followed
+that, in spite of the efforts of Mr. Robinson and of others, for nearly
+half a century, to resuscitate the art and restore it to its former
+condition, weaving in India, to-day, rests purely on a commercial basis;
+and the workmanship is almost as mechanical as the manufacture of
+machine-made carpets in Europe or America.
+
+Yet to the cloud hanging over the weaving of India is a brighter lining.
+European companies have established factories where natives are employed
+making rugs that in quality equal the products of Smyrna and Sultanabad.
+Some of them, indeed, are even more firmly woven than the Persian
+products from which they are copied. In many of the towns, also, are
+looms where the weavers, who are mostly boys, enjoy more independence.
+Moreover, the companies, realising that the future of their business
+depends on the quality of the fabrics, are largely discarding aniline
+dyes. It is now possible, therefore, to obtain Indian rugs of excellent
+workmanship and colours at very moderate prices; but individuality,
+representative of native character and temperament, is entirely lacking;
+and in its place is simply a reproduction of Persian or European
+patterns.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 57. BESHIRE PRAYER RUG]
+
+Any arrangement of these rugs in sub-groups must be arbitrary, as
+similar conditions of early foreign influence, royal patronage, and the
+jail and factory systems, have prevailed throughout India. Yet since the
+northern part has been more directly under the influence of the courts
+and more intimately connected with Herat, which seems to have left a
+strong impress on the weavings of all the surrounding country, it is
+convenient to make a distinction between the rugs of Northern and
+Southern India.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Northern India at present are
+Srinagar, Amritsar, Lahore, Multan, Allahabad, Agra, Mirzapur, Sindh,
+Jubbulpur, and Jaipur.
+
+
+SRINAGAR.—From the extreme northern part of India come the rugs of
+Kashmir, which are often named after the capital of the province,
+Srinagar, the "City of the Sun." To a large extent, they resemble the
+far more famous shawls that were woven in the central valley, where
+winds the Jhelum, that some believe first suggested the pear design. The
+pieces woven before the British occupation of India were of excellent
+quality and contained delicate colour schemes, that were exceedingly
+pleasing; but the products of the last half century show deterioration.
+The colours are harsher, the mechanical drawing of the patterns show
+European influence, and the borders resemble too closely the central
+field to have distinct characters. Yet many of them are now dyed with
+vegetable colours, and are stoutly woven with the soft and silky wool
+for which this district is renowned.
+
+
+AMRITSAR.—On account of famine and several other causes, a large number
+of the people of Kashmir migrated about the year 1840. Some of them
+settled at Amritsar, where they followed their former craft of making
+shawls, until a change of fashion, that occurred about the year 1870,
+deprived many of their occupation. These turned to rug weaving and thus
+gave an impetus to that industry.
+
+Amritsar is now the most populous and wealthy city of the Punjab; and as
+some twenty thousand men and boys are employed at the looms, it is one
+of the leading rug-producing centres of India. Yet before the exhibition
+of Indian rugs at the World's Fair in Chicago, in 1893, there had not
+been any demand in this country for its rugs. For a long period it has
+been the home of weavers who found in the surrounding mountains and
+valleys the best of wool, but before the revival of the industry their
+patterns and workmanship were of an inferior character. Under the
+factory system, conducted by American and English firms, has been a
+marked improvement. Both dyes and wool are excellent, and the technique
+of weave equals what is found in the best of Persian products, To the
+square inch are frequently two hundred Sehna knots; and since when tying
+a knot one thread of warp is doubled under the other, as in Bijars, and
+the threads of weft are pressed down very firmly, the texture is
+unusually close. The nap is short; the sides are overcast; and as a
+rule, the lower end has a cotton web and the upper end a web and fringe.
+The moderate prices for rugs of such excellent dyes and workmanship are
+possible only on account of the wage of the weaver, which does not
+exceed one eighth what he would receive in this country.
+
+There is nothing, however, in the pattern to distinguish these rugs from
+others; for in the drawing the greatest latitude is exercised. It may be
+a copy of a European carpet, or some Indian or Iranian antique. Of
+recent years, many well-known modern Persian patterns have been
+followed, so that not infrequently these pieces are mistaken for the
+products of Kermanshah or Sultanabad.
+
+
+LAHORE.—About the year 1580, the imperial carpet factory of Shah Akbar
+was established at Lahore, the capital of the Punjab; where during the
+reign of the Mogul princes were produced many of the best examples of
+Indian weaving. It was here that, in 1634, was woven the well-known
+carpet now in the possession of the Girdler's Company of London. Some of
+the pieces that still remain show wonderful delicacy of drawing and
+brilliancy of colouring. At a much later period, under the British rule,
+the jail system of weaving was inaugurated, and rugs were made with both
+woollen and cotton foundation. Within more recent years the factory
+system followed; and on account of the nearness of Amritsar to the
+capital, some foreign firms have weaving establishments in both cities.
+It is not surprising, then, that there should be a resemblance in their
+products, which is seen in the finish of sides and ends and in the
+character of weaving, which usually shows one thread of warp to each
+knot doubled under the other; but as a rule the rugs of Lahore come in
+lighter shades and are woven with fewer knots to the square inch. In the
+guards of the border often appear geometric figures; but the patterns in
+other respects largely follow well-known Persian drawing, though leaf
+and flower are more artistically portrayed and the designs are less
+crowded.
+
+
+MULTANS.—One of the most ancient cities of the Punjab is Multan, which
+during the vicissitudes of centuries was more than once captured by
+early Mohammedan conquerors and also by Tamerlane. Its woven fabrics are
+of three types: the _Dari_, which are made almost exclusively in the
+jails; rugs of cotton pile, that have been made only within the last
+sixty years; and rugs of woollen pile, that have been produced for an
+unknown period. As the looms on which they are made are unlike those of
+other districts, and the weavers are but little affected by external
+influences, it is not surprising that the pile carpets not only display
+uniqueness of pattern rarely seen in other Indian pieces but also
+possess peculiarities of weaving as well as of material. Usually they
+are of moderate size, but some have a breadth of twelve feet. There are
+seldom more than one hundred knots to the square inch and occasionally
+only nine, so that the texture is coarse. Not infrequently a single knot
+encircles four threads of warp, and between two rows of knots is a
+single thread of weft. Almost all of the weavers are Mohammedans, who
+have a tradition that they originally came from Persia; yet their
+products contain few of the Iranian characteristics, since the field is
+usually occupied by geometric designs or crudely drawn floral patterns.
+As is seldom the case with weavers who dwell in cities, these dye their
+own wool, using both vegetable and aniline dyes. The principal colours
+are bold and strongly contrasting tones of red, yellow, and blue. Some
+of the cotton rugs, however, have a single colour of bluish shade. On
+the whole, the Multan rugs possess great individuality but little
+artistic merit.
+
+
+AGRA.—Almost within sight of the minarets of the Taj Mahal are prison
+walls where convicts of Agra ploddingly weave. In 1891, Dr. John Hurst
+"saw a long row of prisoners for life, who were chained to each other by
+the feet, engaged in weaving a rug for Queen Victoria, and another for
+the ex-Empress Eugenie." Most of these pieces are of cotton foundation.
+Each thread of warp is equally prominent at the back, and the texture is
+looser than in Amritsars. The nap is short, and the fibres of the knots
+blend well together. Not infrequently the fields are monotones of
+delicate shades of blue, green, or fawn colour. As a rule, the rugs are
+very large and heavy; and it would seem that this has always been the
+case, as Mr. Robinson suggested that the reason for establishing looms
+at this place was the early demand for carpets too large to be imported
+on elephants.
+
+
+ALLAHABAD.—Situated like Benares on the banks of the Ganges, and next to
+it the most sacred city of India to the faithful Brahman, is Allahabad,
+capital of the northwestern provinces. Its geographic and political
+importance, as well as the fact that each year half a million or more
+devotees visit it, have been important factors in the growth of its
+industries, one of which is the weaving of rugs. Yet the numbers
+produced have never been great. As a rule they are of large size, and
+are loosely woven with each thread of warp equally distinct at the back.
+Few of them equal the best examples of the Amritsar looms.
+
+
+MIRZAPUR.—When it is considered that Mirzapur is the centre of a very
+populous cotton-producing district in the valley of the Ganges, to the
+west of Benares, and is the seat of important manufactures, it is not
+surprising that it is noted for its carpets. Those made half a century
+ago were well woven and dyed with fast colours, but largely on account
+of the employment of convicts, the texture of those made since then is
+coarse and loose, the patterns are poor, the colours crude. To a limited
+extent a higher grade of wool has been imported as a substitute for the
+harsh local product, but the result has not been satisfactory. These
+rugs accordingly find small favour among those who appreciate artistic
+qualities, and give little satisfaction where durability is the chief
+requisite. It should be noted, however, that within recent years efforts
+have been made to raise their standard.
+
+
+JUBBULPUR.—Two hundred miles to the southwest of Allahabad is Jubbulpur,
+capital of a district of over half a million people. A century ago many
+beautiful rugs were woven there; but since the establishment of a School
+of Industry, in 1850, the character of weaving has retrograded rather
+than advanced. In 1880, Dr. Birdwood wrote of its rugs as follows: "The
+foundation, as now scamped is quite insufficient to carry the heavy pile
+which is a feature of this work; and is moreover so short in the staple
+as to be incapable of bearing the tension even of the process of
+manufacture. Jubbulpur carpets often reach this country (England) which
+will not bear sweeping, or even unpacking. I know of two which were
+shaken to pieces in the attempt to shake the dust out of them when first
+unpacked. The designs once had some local character, but have lost it
+during the last four or five years." Within recent years few have been
+exported.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 58. BESHIRE RUG]
+
+
+SINDH.—Formerly good rugs were woven at Sindh, one hundred miles above
+the mouth of the Indus; but after the introduction of aniline dyes their
+colours, as well as patterns, deteriorated. In the poorest pieces the
+foundation was of cotton and hemp, and cow hair was frequently used for
+pile. Very few of them have been imported into this country.
+
+
+JAIPUR.—In the palace of the Maharajah at Jaipur, the great commercial
+centre of Rajputana, are some of the most beautiful carpets that remain
+in India. Native appreciation is also apparent in the present
+workmanship of the district weavers. There is nothing crass or inelegant
+in the patterns which follow the pleasing drawing of Persian rugs. The
+vine, leaf, and flower, trees, and animals are faithfully portrayed. The
+texture of weave is excellent.
+
+The principal rug-producing centres of Southern India are Madras,
+Marsulipatam, Ellore, Vellore, and Bangalore. Rugs are also woven in
+Hyderabad, Warangal, and Ayyampet in the Tanjore district.
+
+
+MADRAS.—Only within a comparatively recent period have rugs been made at
+Madras, the early stronghold of the British in South India. Over half a
+century ago, native products, woven in the interior towns of the Dekkan,
+were shipped by way of Coconada to that city and were sometimes known as
+Madras rugs. Two of these pieces, which were sent by Mr. Vincent
+Robinson to the South Kensington Museum, differ widely in harmony of
+colours, beauty of design, and delicacy of workmanship from the present
+products of Madras. Yet the latter have much to commend them. Some are
+made in the jail, others in the School of Fine Arts, and others in the
+Anjuman Industrial School. All are made of good wool, coloured with
+vegetable dyes. Great diversity appears in the patterns, as some are
+copied from antique carpets represented in the "Vienna Carpet Book,"
+others are copied from rugs of Northern India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
+As a rule, the fields are well covered with repetitive designs, that
+give them the appearance of factory-made carpets.
+
+
+MARSULIPATAM.—Two hundred and fifty miles north of Madras on the
+Coromandel coast is the city of Marsulipatam, one of the earliest of the
+British settlements in India, from which the East India Company shipped
+rugs over two centuries ago. At that time they were among the finest
+produced in that country, but the demands of agents for articles that
+could be produced as cheaply as possible resulted in the use of inferior
+materials and in poorer workmanship. Most of the dyes are aniline. The
+patterns, that once were executed with marvelous beauty of detail, gave
+way to crude drawing until "these glorious carpets of Marsulipatam have
+sunk to a mockery and travesty of their former selves."[36] Few of them
+are any longer imported into this country.
+
+
+ELLORE.—Not far from the delta of the Godavari river is the town of
+Ellore, where a few centuries ago some Persians settled, and where their
+descendants, faithful to early tradition, have followed the craft of
+weaving. Here in former times were produced some of the best rugs in
+Southern India; and even as late as 1883, Mr. E. B. Havell wrote that he
+had seen pieces woven to meet special orders which were equal in point
+of interest and material to the old specimens in the hands of
+connoisseurs of London or in native palaces. This is one of the few
+districts in Southern India where the industry exists outside of jails.
+In the town and surrounding country are about four hundred looms
+operated by some three thousand people, who are Mohammedans.
+
+In the better class of rugs, in which vegetable dyes are still used, and
+the yarn is often a native product of wool obtained from sheep of the
+uplands and spun by shepherds, something of the old style of
+craftsmanship remains. On the other hand, a very large percentage of the
+rugs which are intended solely for export trade are of an inferior
+order, since many of their colours are obtained from aniline, their
+weaving is inferior, and their patterns are ordinary. Mr. Henry T.
+Harris, in his report on the Madras Industrial and Art Exhibition, 1903,
+said: "The exhibits of carpets sent from Ellore were poor in conception,
+weave, and colour.... The patterns in use were poor and often
+modifications of cheap Wilton, Kidderminster, and German power loom
+designs. Some of the old patterns are still with the weavers, but
+unfortunately there is no trade demand for this fine class of goods, the
+old dyes are being forgotten and have given place to cheap anilines
+unskilfully applied."
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 59. AFGHAN RUG]
+
+In length, the rugs are from a few feet to twenty-four feet. The warp is
+of cotton, and the weft is sometimes of jute or hemp. The pile is of an
+inferior quality, as it consists largely of the wool taken from a sheep
+after death, known as "dead" wool, or as "Chunam" or "limed" wool, since
+it is necessary to treat it with lime. Unfortunately vegetable dyes do
+not produce in it the same results as in "live" wool; and since the
+scarcity of wool in Southern India frequently necessitates its use,
+aniline dyes are for this reason alone often employed. The number of
+knots to the square inch is relatively small. The patterns show great
+diversity, as Persian features predominate in the older rugs; but both
+geometric and floral designs are employed in the modern.
+
+
+VELLORE.—Almost a hundred miles to the west of Madras is the town of
+Vellore, where native weavers once produced fine woollen carpets on
+their own looms. A few specimens of these old pieces are preserved in
+the jail to serve as patterns for the convicts, who now weave the only
+rugs of the district. There are some fifty looms; and as the largest is
+about thirty feet wide, almost any size of rug may be obtained. The
+product rests on a commercial basis and depends on the market demands,
+restricted by the material available and the limitations of the weavers.
+According to the order, the rugs may be coloured with vegetable or
+aniline dyes; they may have warp and weft of cotton, jute or hemp; and
+they may have from six to sixteen knots to the inch measured
+horizontally and perpendicularly. In the patterns, which are as
+promiscuous as those of Ellore and often similar, the Herati design with
+a corresponding border is not infrequently used. Recently an effort has
+been made to exclude all but vegetable dyes and improve the
+craftsmanship.
+
+
+BANGALORE.—The principal weaving industry in the Mysore state is centred
+about Bangalore, a city of about two hundred thousand inhabitants. Its
+founder, Hyder Ali, is said to have established looms and to have
+imported the first weavers. In 1908, the nine jail looms, of which the
+largest had a length of nearly thirty feet, were constantly occupied in
+making rugs to order. The number of knots to the square inch varied
+greatly according to the quality required; and the dyes were almost
+entirely aniline. In the city are employed a much larger number of
+weavers, who clean and spin the wool produced in the district, as well
+as dye it by secret processes, that they guard most carefully. The
+closeness of texture; the colouring by aniline or vegetable dyes; and
+the use of cotton, jute, or hemp, for warp and weft, are regulated by
+the requirements of the trade, which is conducted largely by two or
+three English firms.
+
+
+HYDERABAD.—Splendid craftsmanship was once displayed in the rugs made in
+the cities of Hyderabad and Warangal, in the district of Hyderabad. The
+weave was exceedingly fine, and the colours were brilliant but
+harmonious. Now few rugs are produced in these cities, and they have
+poor patterns and wretched colours.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CHINESE RUGS
+
+
+THE existence of Chinese rugs of age and merit was almost unknown to the
+Western world until the close of the last century, when a few pieces
+reached Europe, where they aroused the just admiration of art
+connoisseurs. About the beginning of this century a larger number, which
+were obtained during the Boxer revolution by reason of the spoliation of
+homes, temples, and palaces, that never before had been entered by
+foreigners, were exported to this country. In New York City, between the
+years 1908 and 1910, some of them were sold at public auctions for
+prices that stimulated collectors in China to search for more. But they
+have proved to be scarce when compared with other Oriental rugs, so
+that, as yet, the general public are only slightly familiar with them.
+
+Moreover, little is known about their antecedents, for written records
+are exceedingly meagre. It has been suggested that many were made in
+Eastern Turkestan along the highways that extend to Persia and India.
+But it is more probable that they were woven in Eastern China, where
+other branches of art reached a remarkable development under the
+patronage of wealthy mandarins and the imperial court. Even if they are
+not the product of an indigenous growth, the knowledge of weaving may
+easily have been acquired from Western Asia; since it was not unusual
+several centuries ago to import weavers from one country to another to
+instruct native craftsmen. Furthermore, the features which at a glance
+differentiate these rugs from all others, proclaim their Chinese
+character. The diaper patterns that cover the fields of some of them,
+and the foliate and floral forms that appear in most of them, not only
+are unlike those of any other groups, but have well-known Chinese
+elements. A more distinctive feature are the colours, which are
+relatively few. Many of them, as tan, yellow, and blue, are of shades
+unlike what are seen in other rugs. Even more distinctive than these are
+the reds, which never have the primary colours found in other groups but
+resemble the tints of ripe apricot, peach, pomegranate, and persimmon.
+Similar tones are seen in old Chinese porcelain. The geometric and
+floral ornamentation also shows relationship to what is found in the
+products of other branches of Chinese art. More characteristic still are
+the small designs which are so related to the philosophic and religious
+thought of the people and to the industrial and social life that their
+Chinese origin is unmistakable.
+
+Though it be granted that nearly all were woven in Eastern China, it is
+not possible satisfactorily to assign them to different classes based on
+locality; yet without doubt important distinctions, observable also in
+the early paintings and porcelains and resulting largely from
+differences of race and character of country, exist between those woven
+in Northern China, where the highest appreciation of art existed, and
+those woven in Southern China. It is probable, however, that such marked
+local distinctions as are found in other groups never existed in Chinese
+rugs. Such distinctions as do exist relate more to stages in development
+of the textile art, so that the natural classification is based on the
+successive periods when they were woven.
+
+The absence of written and traditional history regarding the weaving of
+these periods is by no means an insuperable obstacle to such
+classification. By a careful examination of large numbers of rugs, it is
+possible to arrange them with reasonable accuracy in series that
+represent progressive forms of ornamentation and design from the archaic
+to the modern. A most important aid to this arrangement is the
+interdependence so conspicuous in the several arts of China; for designs
+of innumerable articles with well-established ages, especially of the
+ceramic art, have been copied by the weavers.
+
+Technical peculiarities in weaving are also an aid in determining the
+period to which rugs belong. An important distinction, for instance,
+often exists in the manner in which the material is spun. If pieces of
+yarn be taken from old rugs and carefully examined, as they are
+untwisted, the simpler, cruder methods of spinning practised in former
+days are often apparent. In some of the oldest fabrics that remain the
+wool was very loosely spun. Irregularities in the size of yarn are also
+more noticeable in old than in modern pieces.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 60. BELUCHISTAN PRAYER RUG]
+
+More important often in determining the relative age of a rug than
+either design or technical peculiarities of weaving, is the shade of
+colour; for however excellent were the original dyes and whatever care
+was exercised in their application, they slowly changed under the
+mellowing influence of time to tones that are obtained by no human
+process. Furthermore, as is the case with porcelains, certain colours
+were peculiar to certain periods. For instance, golden browns are seen
+mostly in pieces woven before the middle of the XVIII Century, and azure
+blue in pieces woven before the XIX Century. Yellow with a lemon or
+citron cast is found principally in pieces woven since the beginning of
+the XVIII Century; and green is rarely found in pieces woven before the
+middle of the XVIII Century. Aniline dyes were not introduced into China
+much before the year 1870. The time when a rug was woven may safely be
+regarded as not more remote than the period when the ornamentation and
+designs it contains were generally adopted; yet it may be much more
+recent, as the oldest designs were copied even after the adoption of
+newer ones. It is necessary, then, in determining the age of a rug to
+consider not only the evidence of the spinning, the weaving and designs,
+but also the evidence of colour.
+
+Though Chinese rugs have features that distinguish them from other
+groups and divide them into separate classes; they also have many
+features in common. All are woven with the Sehna knot. In all but the
+earliest rugs the warp and weft are of cotton; each thread of warp is
+equally prominent at the back; and the weft, which is coarser than the
+warp, crosses twice between two rows of knots. The nap of both old and
+modern rugs is almost always wool or silk, and rarely, if ever, jute or
+cotton. The sides are finished by carrying the weft around the outer
+threads of warp, but never so as to form a wide selvage. The lower end,
+as a rule, has a very narrow web and warp loops; and the upper end has a
+narrow web and fringe. Compared with other groups they are generally
+more loosely woven. These and other features of resemblance and of
+distinction will be more fully noticed in considering the rugs of
+different periods.
+
+In rugs of this group are constantly seen symbols intimately associated
+with the religious and philosophic thought of China. One of them is the
+Sacred Mountain rising out of the waves of eternity, which is an old
+Chinese emblem, though more frequently found in rugs of Samarkand and
+Yarkand. Others are the cloud-band and the Joo-e. There are also
+mythical creatures, as the dragon, emblem of imperial power; the Ky-lin,
+partly deer, partly unicorn; the Fung-Kwang or phoenix; and the
+lion-dog. Still other symbolic and decorative designs are the figure
+Shou and the stork, emblems of longevity; the bat and butterfly,
+denoting happiness; the conch, wheel of law, and the two fishes, which
+are Buddhist emblems; and the lyre and chess board, which are symbols of
+the literati.
+
+It is not improbable that rugs were woven during the Sung dynasty
+(960-1280 A. D.), when for nearly three centuries prosperity prevailed,
+literature and art flourished, and the court at Hang Chow was maintained
+with imperial splendour; but as far as is known, none of them exist. Nor
+do any remain that may have been woven during the Yuan dynasty
+(1280-1370) distinguished by the reign of the illustrious Mongol prince,
+Kublai Khan; though designs appearing in later rugs were used in kindred
+arts of these and preceding periods.
+
+
+MING RUGS.—The oldest Chinese rugs that remain were probably woven near
+the end of the Ming period, or during the first half of the XVII
+Century. It may reasonably be assumed that they were superior in quality
+to those of any former period, since during this time Persia and India
+were producing their greatest woven masterpieces; and other branches of
+Chinese art were marked by an advance over the work that had preceded.
+Yet, on the whole, it was a period of ebb in the splendid
+accomplishments of intellectual and artistic effort that marked the Tang
+and Sung dynasties.
+
+Such pieces as exist are distinguished by careful workmanship, archaic
+designs, and sobriety of colour. Most of the rugs were woven with warp
+and weft of cotton. Some, intended principally for wealthy mandarins or
+the imperial court, had pile of silk attached to warp and weft of
+cotton; and others were made entirely of silk. Fewer in number, but
+constituting the most sumptuous products of the Chinese weavers' art,
+were the rugs of silk woven on a web of metal threads.
+
+The field of many of these early rugs contained all-over patterns.
+Sometimes the repeat designs are of octagonal shape and are arranged in
+horizontal and perpendicular lines, so as to leave small diamond-shaped
+spaces between diagonally placed octagons. Within these designs are
+often the emblems of happiness or longevity, floral motives, and
+sometimes archaic dragons. In another well-known pattern the field is
+completely covered with a swastika-fret and marked at regular intervals
+with diagonal rows of bats, emblematic of happiness. Occasionally a
+field of plain colour contains an irregular arrangement of objects used
+for sacrificial or sacred purposes. Again, it may be covered with an
+all-over pattern of small archaically drawn dragons resembling some of
+the earliest designs in Chinese decorative art, or of most
+conventionalised floral forms on mechanically drawn stems.
+
+The essential feature, however, of a large number of these rugs, and one
+that probably antedates the all-over pattern, is a central medallion
+surrounded by a field that is either plain, that is marked with a
+subdued diaper pattern, or contains what is known as the "tiger skin"
+pattern, consisting of waving lines repeated throughout the field. The
+medallions may be either octagonal or, as is more frequently the case,
+rounded; but the defining lines are angular and generally represent
+frets. Sometimes they contain archaic dragons, which are so
+conventionalised in a few pieces that it is apparent that from them
+originated many of the Chinese scrolls. In other pieces, the shape of
+the central medallions and the designs which cover them suggest most
+forcibly that they were copied from old mirror backs. The corners of the
+fields may contain simple scrolls, but more frequently they correspond
+closely in drawing with the central medallions.
+
+The borders are equally typical. They are invariably narrow, and
+generally consist of a single stripe which is figured and surrounded
+with a coloured edging. Probably over three quarters of the rugs of this
+period have a stripe with a pattern of swastika-frets. Two of these
+stripes, which are very old patterns, are illustrated in Plate N, Figs.
+1 and 2 (opp. Page 274). Occasionally some form of the key pattern
+appears in the inner stripe, but almost all Chinese rugs that have two
+border stripes with figures belong to a later period. Many of the oldest
+borders are without figured stripes, and consist merely of one or more
+stripes of plain colour.
+
+The few colours used in the rugs of this period have deep, rich tones.
+Undyed dark brown or blackish wool was occasionally used in the outer
+edging that surrounded the field or in the narrow border stripes; but
+more frequently the same colour effect was obtained by the use of
+corrosive dyes that in time have often eaten the wool almost to the
+foundation of warp and weft. Wools dyed with corrosive browns are also
+used in the fields and enhance the effect of designs of contrasting
+colours, which stand out in bold relief. Other colours, as soft dull
+yellow and shades of blue, are also seen in the borders. The field is
+usually richer. In some pieces it is a deep red; in others it is a soft
+yellow, golden brown or yellowish tan, that shows the effect of time on
+what were originally several shades of apricot. Dark and light blues,
+sky blue, and robin's egg blue, as well as jade green and bottle green,
+are also found in these old pieces. In the metal and silk rugs the glint
+of silver even though tarnished, adds lustre to colours that have grown
+deeper and richer with age.
+
+
+KANG-HI.—During the first years of the Tsing dynasty, that continued
+from 1644 to its recent overthrow, the country was so occupied by wars
+waged between the conquering Manchoos and the still resisting followers
+of the Ming dynasty that art was nearly at a standstill. But during the
+reign of the illustrious Kang-hi, 1662-1722, art revived and enjoyed one
+of the most splendid periods of its history. There is, however, a
+noticeable difference between the rugs that belong to the early and to
+the late part of this reign; so that it is convenient to divide them
+into the early Kang-hi pieces, that were woven during the last part of
+the XVII Century, and the late Kang-hi pieces, almost all of which were
+woven at the beginning of the XVIII Century. This division is also
+convenient; as many rugs cannot be definitely assigned to the reign of a
+particular emperor, and, accordingly, the broader distinction of
+assigning them to different centuries is frequently adopted.
+
+In weaving, as in making porcelain, many of the products of the late
+Ming were still copied during the early Kang-hi period, but there was a
+freer use of colour and a more decorative ornamentation. Many of the
+figures are still geometric. Frets are conspicuous in the fields of
+large numbers of these pieces. The dragon also is a favourite motive;
+but in the scrolls that represent the legs and bifurcated tail, and in
+the conventionalised head, the resemblance to the mythical monster is
+almost lost. Sometimes two or more of these constitute a medallion in
+the centre of the field, in which others are grouped with regularity;
+while similar forms occupy the corners. Some of the rugs in which the
+fields are covered with sundry objects, as scrolls, vases, altar pieces,
+and sacred plants, also belong to this period. The borders of these and
+late Kang-hi pieces have frequently an outer edging of brown and a
+single border stripe with swastika-fret. In a few pieces, the stripe has
+a well-balanced scroll which has been developed from designs of
+conventionalised dragons and frets that appear in the central
+medallion and in the corners of the field. Occasionally, however, there
+is an inner stripe with the key meander. The colour scheme of the late
+Ming, including the golden browns and deep blues, is largely employed in
+rugs of this period.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 61. TURKOMAN SADDLE-BAGS]
+
+The same influences that resulted during the late Kang-hi period in the
+remarkable development of decorative art as applied to porcelains,
+produced a corresponding effect in the rugs woven at the same time.
+Manchurian ideas and taste gave renewed spirit to earlier Chinese style.
+The fields were not infrequently covered with sub-patterns of fret work,
+on which medallions appeared more prominently. The geometric figures
+were largely supplanted by foliate forms. Even when the central
+medallions and corner figures are of frets or stiffly conventionalised
+dragons, the fields are often covered with delicate scroll or foliate
+sub-patterns that support floral forms resembling the lotus or the
+peony. The drawing of some of these has a Western character, and there
+is little doubt that at this time the art of Persia had a strong
+influence on the weaving of China. In other pieces of this class, the
+foliate and floral forms no longer appear as sub-patterns but become the
+prominent feature in the decoration of the field; and the
+conventionalised flowers are arranged with precision in diagonal or
+perpendicular lines. To this period also belong rugs of a distinct type,
+in which the field represents a blending of pictorial and symbolic
+ideas, as, for instance, a homeward flight of swallows; or a grove where
+butterflies flit among the leaves, and deer with sacred fungus,
+emblematic of longevity, wander.
+
+The employment of border stripes of uniform colour was still continued,
+but there was a tendency to employ more elaborate designs in many of the
+figured stripes. It is not unusual to see single or double vines with
+conventionalised flowers; and though the drawing is mechanical, the
+relationship to Persian art is apparent. Yet in most of these pieces the
+swastika-fret is used. A noticeable difference also exists in the colour
+scheme of many of the late Kang-hi rugs, which frequently display
+brighter colours. Much of the yellow, for instance, contains more red,
+giving it a golden hue known as the "imperial yellow."
+
+
+YUNG-CHING.—During the short reign of Yung-ching (1722-1736), though
+many of the old patterns were followed, the tendency to adopt more
+ornate forms begun during the first part of the XVIII Century continued.
+Manchurian ideas were now a strong factor in Chinese art, so that the
+use of colours and ornamentation followed broader lines. To this period
+are assigned most of those rugs in which designs are defined by lines of
+contrasting colour that has been so treated that the lines are depressed
+and throw the designs into bold relief. It is very difficult, however,
+to definitely determine that any particular rug belongs to this period;
+since the transition in colour scheme and patterns was gradual; and the
+effect of time on dyes, one of the most reliable factors in determining
+age, depends somewhat on their exposure to the elements and to use. But
+broadly speaking, figures of leaf and flower were more frequently
+adopted than in preceding periods and designs became less
+conventionalised and more artistic. Lemon and citron shades of yellow,
+also, became more prominent during this period.
+
+
+KEEN-LUNG.—The long reign of Keen-lung, lasting from 1736 to 1795, was
+one of the most prolific for Chinese art. To this period may safely be
+assigned most of the existing rugs made before the XIX Century, as well
+as many of the finest porcelains. The rugs partake of a more
+cosmopolitan character than those which had preceded; for not only are
+many of the designs and colours strictly Chinese, but others are of a
+Persian character, and others still suggest Mohammedan influences
+observable in the products of Turkestan and India. Moreover, many of the
+designs show a delicate shading that is not observable in the rugs made
+during the early part of the century. As a whole they are the most
+ornate of Chinese rugs. Woven after the inspiration of Persian
+masterpieces had left its strongest impress on Chinese weavers, and
+decoration in kindred arts had assumed a luxurious style, they represent
+in the drawing of leaf and flower, of birds, butterflies, and emblems of
+early philosophy and faith, and in the colours that blend with rare
+harmony, the most elaborate and voluptuous expression of native
+craftsmanship.
+
+In the best examples the geometric, and many of the stiff conventional
+forms which continued through the XVII and the early part of the XVIII
+Century, disappeared. In their place was a greater refinement of design,
+a greater accuracy of drawing, which found expression in floral forms
+that reached their highest development at this time and became
+characteristic of it. Occasionally they are represented in profile as is
+usually the practice in Western Asia, but more often are represented as
+viewed from above. Some of them, as chrysanthemums, peonies,
+sunflowers, and orchids, are most dainty and naturalistic. The fields of
+many of these pieces are covered with such flowers carefully arranged in
+harmonious groupings of leaf, bud and flower, but never with the formal
+and exact balance of old Persian carpets. Not infrequently mingled with
+them in the same piece are more conventional designs that belong to an
+earlier period; sometimes there is a single central medallion; and
+occasionally there are a large number of them. As a rule these
+medallions are entirely floral, and in rugs made during the latter part
+of this period they display elaborate ornamentation that distinguishes
+them from earlier ones; but now and then they contain fabulous
+creatures, as the lion-dogs, by which in a few instances they are
+entirely replaced.
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE X—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_Perfect technique of weaving, accuracy of drawing, and subdued rich
+colouring are the characteristics of this unusual piece. The knots of
+the fine woollen yarn are tied with a precision not frequently seen in
+Chinese rugs, and the shortness of nap discloses the faithfulness with
+which an artist of no ordinary ability has represented plants and
+flowers. Their soft tones stand out in relief against a background now
+darkened and enriched by the mellowing influence of time. Moreover, the
+motives of the upper and the lower half of the field, even to the
+minutest detail, show an exact balance. Many old Chinese rugs are of
+uncertain age, but this piece has been attributed, not without reason,
+to the Kang-hi period._
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+There are also many other well-known types of Keen-lung rugs.
+Surrounding the central medallion of some pieces are grouped the Taoist
+symbols; emblems of the literati, as chess boards, scrolls, and the
+lyre; as well as tripods, flower vases, fans of state, fruits of
+abundance, emblems of honours, and symbols of longevity and happiness.
+To this class also belong many of the pieces which have neither
+medallions nor corner pieces, but have fields completely covered with a
+pattern of continuous foliate stems and conventional flowers, repeated
+with exact precision of drawing. Likewise, in a few pieces the field is
+completely covered with an all-over pattern of small hexagonal or other
+geometric figures containing a conventionalised flower, strongly
+suggesting Turkoman influences. Some of the "Grain of Rice" rugs, also,
+were woven during this period.
+
+The borders are as distinctive as the fields. Only in a few pieces is
+the swastika meander seen, but in its place is often the T pattern. The
+key patterns represented in Plate N, Figs. 7 and 8 (opp. Page 274), as
+well as the dotted line (Fig. 22), are also largely employed. Almost all
+of these rugs have two ornamented stripes, and occasionally three, to
+which is added an outer margin of plain colour. In a few pieces both
+stripes are geometric; but generally one is floral and one geometric, in
+which case the wider, that, with very few exceptions, is the floral, is
+the inner one. Very rarely the border contains two floral stripes; and
+now and then Buddhist emblems and other devices are introduced.
+
+The breadth of artistic conception expressed in designs is accompanied
+by a wider scope of colour, in the use of which these rugs may
+conveniently be grouped in three sub-classes. The first is the Blue and
+White, with ground of ivory or ashy white and designs that have shades
+of light or dark blue. The second comprises those in which the ground is
+some shade of yellow. Sometimes it has a tinge of lemon, orange, or
+apricot. Again it is what is known as dull, golden, mandarin, or
+imperial yellow. The overlying designs may contain a different shade of
+yellow from that of the field, an ivory white, a blue, or a red. The
+third subclass comprises those in which the ground colour is some shade
+of red; such as persimmon, terra cotta, crushed strawberry, apricot red,
+or a deep salmon pink, which is rare. The overlying designs may be a
+shade of blue, ivory white, yellow, gray, and even green. Colours of
+both field and border are sometimes the same but are more frequently
+complementary. As a whole, the elaborate designs, delicate shading, and
+rich colours rank these rugs among the most beautiful products of the
+Chinese loom.
+
+The rugs woven during the reigns of Kea-king (1796-1820) and Tao-Kwang
+(1821-1850), extending to the middle of last century, repeat with slight
+modification the patterns of the preceding period, though there is a
+tendency to use larger and coarser designs. The colours, too, are
+similar, yet they lack the deep richness that is matured only with the
+lapse of great time. Many of these rugs, as well as some woven still
+later, before the introduction of aniline dyes and factory processes,
+are beautiful; but as a rule the modern pieces lack the refinement of
+technique observable only in those produced before the beginning of the
+XIX Century.
+
+
+MEDALLIONS
+
+The study of medallions which occur in fields of Chinese rugs is not
+only interesting but is an important aid in determining their age; yet
+it should be remembered that approved patterns were often repeated even
+after the introduction of more elaborate styles. Many of the oldest
+medallions were copied from bronzes or mirror backs, and their drawing
+is geometric except as embellished by some conventionalised figures of
+the dragon. By a process of evolution these figures, in turn, were
+converted into scrolls, which in time were replaced by elaborate leaf
+and flower patterns.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 1 (opp. Page 272), is a "Shou" design of octagonal
+shape, copied from an old rug which was probably woven during the early
+part of the XVII Century.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE M. MEDALLIONS IN CHINESE RUGS]
+
+Figs. 2, 3 and 4 of Plate M, represent fret-covered medallions, which
+also are found in rugs of the same period. The first is probably the
+oldest pattern; and the last, to judge by the panel surrounding it, was
+apparently copied from a bronze mirror back.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 5, is a copy of a medallion similar to the one shown in
+Plate M, Fig. 2, but with the dragons replaced by frets.
+
+A medallion of greater interest is illustrated in Plate M, Fig. 6. It
+shows the evolution of scrolls from dragons, of which the heads alone
+betray their origin. Such medallions are found mostly in the earliest
+rugs.
+
+By comparing Fig. 7 of Plate M with the preceding, it is apparent that
+its scrolls had a similar origin, but in this one the dragon heads have
+entirely disappeared. The design is characteristic of the early Kang-hi
+rugs.
+
+In Plate M, Fig. 8, is represented a medallion that closely resembles
+some of the earliest period; but the more accurate drawing and clearer
+definition of lines shows that it is a later copy. It is found in late
+Kang-hi pieces.
+
+To this period, also, belongs the geometric pattern with swastikas
+represented in Plate M, Fig. 9.
+
+Another medallion with frets and dragon heads is shown in Plate M, Fig.
+10. The particular rug from which it was copied was probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period; but there is little doubt that similar medallions
+appeared in older rugs.
+
+In Figs. 11 and 12 of Plate M, are represented two medallions with
+foliate designs that were largely employed in the early Keen-lung
+period. A comparison of the first with Fig. 13 of Plate M, shows an
+interesting step in the evolution of the Chinese drawing.
+
+A very different medallion pattern of the same age is shown in Plate M,
+Fig. 14, in which an encircling border consists of cloud-bands.
+
+Also during the Keen-lung time first appeared medallions with accurately
+drawn flower designs. One of this period is shown in Plate M, Fig. 15.
+Wreath-like borders, such as are seen in this and the preceding one, are
+found in XVIII and XIX Century pieces.
+
+
+CHINESE BORDER STRIPES
+
+The knowledge that certain border stripes antedate others in definite
+sequence of time, is another aid in determining the age of Chinese
+rugs. As was seen to be the case with medallions, the earliest stripes
+were purely geometric. In others, still very old, appeared forms of
+conventionalised dragons, which again were replaced by simple scrolls
+and these by ornate floral forms. But it should be remembered that
+earlier designs were often copied in later rugs, so that the evidence of
+age is merely contributory.
+
+Stripes containing the swastika meander were used almost exclusively in
+the oldest rugs. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 of Plate N (opp. Page 274), represent
+three old forms, which rarely appear in any pieces woven since the
+Kang-hi time. The pattern of Plate N, Fig. 4, in which alternate
+swastikas are reversed, is also very old.
+
+The usual drawing of the swastika stripe is shown in Plate N, Fig. 5. It
+is found largely in Kang-hi rugs, and if used in more recent fabrics, is
+often accompanied by a stripe with some other pattern. As illustrated
+here, the facing of the swastika is reversed in the middle of the
+stripe.
+
+The shading of Plate N, Fig. 6, which is somewhat similar to Plate N,
+Fig. 4, is characteristic of the Keen-lung and subsequent periods.
+
+In Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, of Plate N, are Key and T patterns, which are
+found in rugs of the Kang-hi and subsequent periods, but rarely in
+earlier pieces. When employed in rugs woven later than the middle of the
+XVIII Century they are often shaded. These meander and key-patterns are
+of great antiquity; and though the drawing is exceedingly simple, it is
+supposed that the figures from which they were derived once symbolised
+clouds and thunder.
+
+A very interesting stripe derived from dragons is illustrated in Plate
+N, Fig. 11. The rectangular frets represent bodies of which
+conventionalised heads alone betray their origin. The graceful scroll in
+the middle was also probably derived from dragon forms. This stripe is
+seen in old Kang-hi rugs.
+
+The rectangular frets and floral forms are combined in an unusual stripe
+(Plate N, Fig. 12) that appeared in rugs which were probably woven about
+the Yung-ching period. It shows the influence of older traditions on
+which are ingrafted the later inspiration.
+
+Still more interesting is a stripe (Plate N, Fig. 13) seen in what are
+known as Buddhist rugs of the Keen-lung period. In different parts of
+the border appear the Buddhist emblems, the Joo-e, conch, wheel of law,
+and knot of destiny, separated by cloud-bands and foliate and floral
+motives.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE N. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY BORDER-STRIPES OF CHINESE
+RUGS]
+
+The tendency to use more ornate forms in the Keen-lung and later rugs is
+shown in Plate N, Figs. 14, 15, and 16, which illustrate three stripes
+that with slight modifications are found in large numbers of Chinese
+rugs of the last half of the XVIII and the XIX Centuries.
+
+The stripe illustrated in Plate N, Fig. 17, on which are represented
+halves of octagonal discs containing conventional flower forms, is found
+in some rugs woven as early as the first part of the XVIII Century, as
+well as in more subsequent pieces. The central fields of some rugs in
+which it is found have geometric Ming patterns, and others have floral
+conceits that suggest Persian influences.
+
+In Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, of Plate N, are represented simple stripes
+found in XVIII Century rugs. The last of these, which is found in
+Keen-lung porcelain, shows a marked resemblance to the reciprocal
+trefoil so common in Persian pieces.
+
+The simple dotted stripe (Plate N, Fig. 22) was rarely employed before
+the middle of the XVIII Century, but has been constantly used since
+then.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+KILIMS
+
+
+KILIMS have a special interest apart from their beauty and utility, as
+some of them undoubtedly resemble the early fabrics of the Egyptians and
+Babylonians from which were evolved the more durable pile carpets. The
+different links in this evolution can only be conjectured. Yet it is not
+unlikely that such pieces as the nomadic kilims, which occasionally have
+little tufts of wool attached for ornament or loose threads of weft
+hanging from one side, first suggested the greater durability and warmth
+that would be derived from a woven fabric completely covered with tufts
+of yarn.
+
+It is also certain that the most delicately woven kilims have likewise
+been evolved from cruder forms. In fact, the different steps in this
+evolution correspond to three separate styles of weaving still in vogue.
+The earliest products which were made subsequent to the primitive
+weaving of uncoloured warp and weft were doubtless similar to the simple
+fabrics now used to line the under side of saddle bags, and consisted of
+a warp and weft of uniformly coloured threads. A much more advanced
+style, induced by a desire for ornamentation, was the representation of
+patterns which required the use of different coloured threads of weft.
+As these threads were never carried beyond the edges of each pattern,
+their loose ends were at first allowed to hang at the back, giving an
+appearance somewhat similar to what is seen in Soumaks. The third and
+most finished style, representing much higher workmanship, was produced
+by deftly disposing of the ends of threads of weft so that they should
+be concealed and thus permit each surface of the kilim to be exactly the
+same.
+
+Each of these kinds of weaving is constantly seen in the East. The first
+not only is used as a lining for saddle bags, but is frequently
+substituted for them. It is also sometimes used as the only floor
+covering, or again is laid as a protection beneath valuable carpets. It
+often replaces the heavier felt for tents, and indeed is utilised for
+all purposes requiring a strong material like canvas. The second is
+found among nomadic weavers, especially those of Asia Minor; who
+naturally waste no unnecessary labour in weaving kilims with a delicate
+finish, which would be quickly marred by the rough usage that they
+receive. The third, which is the more elegant product, is invariably not
+only of excellent finish but of carefully drawn patterns. In this
+country, the last two are used principally for portières and couch
+coverings; but in the Orient they still serve, as they have from the
+remotest times, for floor coverings; and because of the custom of
+removing the shoes when entering a house, last for a great many years.
+
+Though these three styles represent the principal variations in kilim
+weaving, there are a few pieces with embroidered pattern; and
+embroidered stitches are sometimes added to represent some simple
+design, or as is frequently the case in Shirvans, to make more prominent
+the separate horizontal compartments.
+
+When weaving a kilim, the threads of warp are strung as in piled rugs,
+and number from six to eighteen to the inch according to the texture.
+There are generally about twenty threads of weft to the inch, measured
+at the front or back; but in pieces of the finest workmanship, there may
+be as many as fifty, and in the crudest only eight or nine. At the sides
+of the kilim, the threads of weft encircle the last thread of warp as at
+the sides of any pattern; but at the ends, the threads of warp are
+braided about a heavier added cord, or else are tied in knots, from
+which their loose ends are permitted to hang like tassels.
+
+The patterns are usually geometric; and even when an attempt is made to
+copy floral figures, the drawing inclines to the rectilinear. If a
+straight line representing the side of a figure is horizontal, or in the
+direction of the weft, it will often be several inches in length; but a
+straight perpendicular line never exceeds an inch in length. This is
+because the threads of weft are never carried from one pattern to
+another or to the adjoining field, but are turned back at its defining
+edges, so that an opening is left, which would impair the strength of
+the fabric if it were of much length. Accordingly, if it is desired to
+represent a pattern with perpendicular sides, it is necessary that the
+edges be slightly uneven. But here necessity is turned to advantage, as
+this unevenness or fringing softens lines that otherwise would be
+harsh. Defining the outlines of many figures is yarn of different
+colours, which either may be woven like other threads of weft, or when
+it serves the purpose of closing the space between adjacent threads of
+warp, may be attached by stitches. Borders find slight favour with kilim
+weavers, and in most pieces they are entirely wanting or only present at
+one end. Even when they completely surround the field, there is
+generally some difference in design or colour between the stripes of
+side and end. Prayer arches are found in some of the kilims, but their
+outlines rarely correspond closely with those of piled rugs.
+
+The colours, by which alone the patterns are distinguished, are largely
+responsible for the character of the kilim. Threads of weft of every hue
+that is seen in piled rugs are employed in these pieces; yet the
+colouring never appears the same, since there are lacking the lustre and
+deep wealth of tones due to the length of pile, in which appears an
+almost imperceptible gradation from the ends that are exposed to the
+light and have incurred the mellowing influence of the elements to the
+part which retains more of the original colours and seems darker,
+because it is more concealed. Indeed, on account of the lack of pile,
+the colours and patterns would seem harsh were it not for the
+irregularities of perpendicular and diagonal lines, the devices of
+latch-hooks, and other peculiarities that convey to the eye an
+impression of blending. Moreover when the designs are large, the effect
+of the colour is always severe; but when the field is covered with
+innumerable small figures, it is greatly softened.
+
+As kilims are much less durable than rugs that have a pile to protect
+the warp and weft, it is not surprising that few of great age remain.
+The oldest piece of which we have any knowledge is a fragment obtained
+by Dr. M. A. Stein, the archæological explorer, from the ruins near
+Khotan, in Eastern Turkestan, of an ancient settlement, which was buried
+by sand drifts about the fourth or fifth century _anno domini_. The
+weave is almost identical with that of modern kilims, and has about
+fourteen threads of warp and sixteen threads of weft to the inch. The
+pattern consists of narrow stripes of blue, green, brownish yellow, and
+red, containing very small geometric designs. With this one exception,
+so peculiarly preserved, there are probably very few over a century old.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 62. SRINAGAR RUG]
+
+Though kilims are now made in most of the districts where piled carpets
+are woven, very few classes are recognised. This is because it is
+difficult to distinguish between most of them, and such differences as
+exist are with few exceptions unimportant. The best known classes are
+the Sehna, Shirvan, Karaman, Kurdish, Turkish, and Merv.
+
+The Sehna kilims are usually of small size, and rarely exceed a breadth
+of four and a half feet and a length of seven. They are far superior to
+all others in the delicacy of colour, daintiness of design, quality of
+material, and character of workmanship. Their patterns, including
+border, are identical with those of the piled rugs; and the colours, to
+which at a short distance the small figures of the Herati design give
+the effect of blending, are the same. As is not the case with other
+kilims, the warp is of cotton or linen and there are generally from
+fourteen to sixteen threads to the inch. The weft is of wool, and to an
+inch there are often nearly fifty threads encircling a thread of warp as
+they cross and recross. The old pieces, like the rugs of which they are
+true copies, are rapidly becoming scarce. They resemble tapestries and
+are unfit for hard usage.
+
+A large percentage of the kilims now sold in this country are Shirvans.
+Their fields are divided into a number of parallel horizontal
+compartments or bands a foot or more in width separated by narrower
+bands. Not infrequently the principal figures of the wide bands are
+hexagons surrounding smaller geometric figures; and through the more
+narrow bands runs a waving line or a parti-coloured cord. Another
+peculiarity, occasionally seen, are the ray-like projections of uniform
+colour fringing the edges of the sides. As a rule, there are no borders,
+but at each end are two or more narrow bands that give the effect of a
+border. In some pieces webs of plain colour extend beyond the bands; and
+the ends are fringed with loose threads of warp. The colours are always
+pronounced, because of lack of shading, and consist mostly of red, blue,
+and ivory. Yellow and green are also used. These kilims are much heavier
+than the Sehnas, and also larger, as the average size is about five by
+nine feet; and some are even seven by twelve feet.
+
+From the district of Karaman in Southern Asia Minor, such a large number
+of kilims were formerly imported into Europe that the general name of
+Karamani was applied to all kilims. They are still made there by many of
+the tribes of Turkish or Turkoman origin, who wander over the Taurus
+mountains, and like all their fabrics are stoutly woven. Their average
+size is about four and a half by eight feet. In colours and patterns,
+they resemble many of the Kurdish kilims from the districts farther to
+the east.
+
+A distinction similar to what exists in the piled rugs of the Kurds, and
+dependent on the district in which they are made, is observable in their
+kilims, as those which come from the Persian border have carefully drawn
+designs, that are generally lacking in others woven in the mountainous
+watershed of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Many of these are coarsely
+woven, and from the back hang the loose ends of threads of weft, that in
+more artistic pieces, are removed. Moreover, in modern pieces the
+colours are often crude or even garish. Some of the kilims have large
+diamond-shaped figures containing small designs; others have horizontal
+bands in which are woven embroidered devices suggestive of the so-called
+Bagdad portières; in many are wide spaces without designs; but whatever
+the pattern, there is usually a parti-coloured cord running through the
+web at the end.
+
+In many parts of Asia Minor are made kilims that are usually classed as
+Turkish. They are of large size, and since they are used mostly for
+portières or curtains, are divided perpendicularly into equal halves,
+that at times are united by stitches. The tribes that make them also
+make large numbers of smaller prayer kilims with pointed arches
+suggesting the Ghiordes design. Some of them are beautifully woven, yet
+the finest workmanship is shown in pieces known as "Kis-kilims" or
+girl's kilims. These are made with the utmost care, since they are
+intended as a bride's gift to her husband; and a sentiment of romance,
+and the hope that her skill may weigh favourably in the estimation of
+her accomplishments, contribute to influence the weaver. Sometimes even
+a lock of hair is added as a charm, or coloured beads as a talisman.
+
+The Christians who live permanently about Oushak, and are, accordingly,
+not under the necessity of making such small pieces as can conveniently
+be carried by wandering tribes, weave some of the largest kilims. Most
+of them are at least six feet in width and many are much wider.
+
+The best known kilims from the Central Asiatic group are known as "Merv
+Kilims," since they are woven by Turkoman tribes who inhabit the desert
+near the old capital of Merv. The brilliant colours found in the
+products of more Western tribes are entirely wanting, and in their place
+are the few subdued, rich tones so characteristic of all Turkoman
+weavings. These pieces are stoutly woven, and since the pattern is
+represented by diagonal lines, there is no open work. The designs are
+largely of diamond-shape, and are arranged in parallel horizontal lines
+on a field that is usually surrounded by a border profusely ornamented
+with carefully drawn latch-hooks. A heavy embroidered selvage, from
+which hang loose threads of warp, often occurs at the ends. These kilims
+are noted for their durability, and are usually of large size.
+
+In the city of Dera Ghazi Khan, four miles from the Indus river, are
+woven kilims in which warp and weft are of wool, as is not the case with
+almost all the rugs of India. They are made by the women in their own
+homes and display an individuality which also is rare in Indian textile
+fabrics. In a monograph on "Carpet Weaving in the Punjab," Mr. C.
+Latimer says: "The Dera Ghazi Khan rug, which belongs really to the kind
+of fabrics known as kilims, is woven in stripes, with designs between
+them, and it is interesting to notice that the patterns employed were by
+local tradition originally copied from the robes of the Pharaohs of
+Egypt."
+
+Though all such Oriental weavings lack the precision of drawing and the
+delicacy of minutely varied colour so frequently found in piled rugs;
+though they never display high, artistic perception or poetic instinct,
+nevertheless some of the oldest pieces with designs suggestive of the
+workings of a primitive imagination untrammelled by the conventions of
+art, and with a chaste simplicity of colour that lends an atmosphere of
+dignity, possess a subtle charm that awakens an intense interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+HOW TO DISTINGUISH RUGS
+
+
+THE owner of an Oriental rug will find the pleasure to be derived from
+it will be greater if he knows where and by whom it was made. This is
+particularly true if it is one of those pieces of which the charm
+depends more on its individuality than on the masterly handling of line
+and colour. The study of classification, therefore, will well repay the
+effort; though unfortunately it is often discouraging, since it involves
+a consideration of the characteristics of a hundred different classes,
+almost all of which are found to have exceptions to the best known
+types. To add to the difficulty, the opinions of dealers in regard to
+the less known classes are very often erroneous; and detailed
+descriptions, even at the best, are unsatisfactory. Without a long
+personal experience in handling rugs, combined with careful study, it is
+impossible to become expert; but familiarity with one class makes it
+easier by comparison and a process of elimination to distinguish others.
+
+The beginner should first learn to identify each of the six groups. Of
+these the Chinese can readily be distinguished by their well-known
+patterns, which are found in no other part of the Orient except in the
+rugs known as Samarkands, Yarkands, and Kashgars; and the Indian may
+generally be recognised by the realism and formal arrangement of their
+floral patterns. Relatively few of either group are found in the United
+States; and as about ninety per cent of the rugs belong to the other
+four groups, they alone will be considered in detail. Leaving out of
+consideration, then, the Chinese and Indian rugs, it should be
+remembered:
+
+   (_a_) That, as a rule, rugs from Persia have floral patterns;
+   and rugs from Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Central Asia have
+   geometric.
+
+   (_b_) That figures with latch-hooks belong principally to rugs
+   of the Caucasian group and, to a limited extent, to the rugs
+   of the Asia Minor group.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 63. XVIII CENTURY CHINESE RUG]
+
+   (_c_) That fields covered with designs of octagonal or diamond
+   shape belong to rugs of the Central Asian group.
+
+   (_d_) That about two thirds of the Persian group have cotton
+   warp; and the remaining third, as well as the Asia Minor and
+   almost all the Caucasian and Central Asian group have woollen
+   warp.
+
+   (_e_) That about one third of the Persian group have one of
+   the two threads of warp encircled by a knot doubled under the
+   other so as to be hidden at the back; and that this is not the
+   case with the remaining two thirds nor with almost all classes
+   of other groups.
+
+   (_f_) That, with few exceptions, the Persian rugs have a side
+   finish of overcasting; and the other groups have both
+   overcasting and selvage.
+
+   (_g_) That the rugs from Persia and Central Asia have both
+   light and dark colours which, though rich, are subdued and
+   harmonious; that the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have
+   colours that are often gaudy and inharmonious; and that the
+   rugs of the Central Asian group have dark tones of red, blue,
+   and brown.
+
+   (_h_) That all of the rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia have the
+   Ghiordes knot; that the rugs of Central Asia, with rare
+   exceptions, have the Sehna knot; that the rugs of Persia with
+   woollen warp have the Ghiordes knot; and that those with
+   cotton warp have either the Ghiordes or the Sehna knot.
+
+   (_i_) That the few classes of rugs which have very long
+   end-webs belong to the Central Asian group. Of the classes
+   with moderately long end-webs, several belong to the Central
+   Asian and the Asia Minor groups, only two belong to the
+   Persian group, and none belongs to the Caucasian group.
+
+Excluding the Indian and Chinese rugs, it follows from the above
+statements that:
+
+
+  (1) A rug is from Persia or Central Asia,—
+        If it has a Sehna knot.
+
+  (2) A rug is probably Persian,—
+        If the patterns are distinctly floral;
+        If the warp is cotton;
+        If one of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot is doubled
+          under the other.
+
+  (3) A rug is probably from Asia Minor, Caucasia, or Central Asia,—
+        If the pattern is geometric;
+        If the sides are selvaged.
+
+  (4) A rug is probably from Asia Minor or Caucasia,—
+        If the colours are gaudy or inharmonious.
+
+  (5) A rug is probably from Caucasia,—
+        If the designs are largely fringed with latch-hooks.
+
+  (6) A rug is probably from Central Asia,—
+        If the field is covered with octagons or diamond-shaped designs,
+          and has dark tones of red, blue or brown;
+        If it has long webs at the ends.
+
+
+Of these four groups the Persian has the largest number of classes, some
+of which can only with difficulty be distinguished from one another.
+They may, however, conveniently be divided into the following sub-groups,
+depending on the technical peculiarities of the weaving and the material
+of the warp, so that the task of learning the class of a particular rug
+will be greatly facilitated by first determining to which of these
+sub-groups it belongs, and then eliminating the others from
+consideration.
+
+                                                      { Kashan
+                                                      { Kermanshah
+                                                      { Khorassan
+                                  { Sehna Knot (A)    { Kirman
+         { One thread of          {                   { Meshed
+         { warp to each knot      {                   { Mir Sarabend
+         { doubled under and      {                   { Sarouk.
+         { hidden at back.        {
+         {                        {                   { Gorevan
+         {                        {                   { Herat
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (B) { Herez
+         {                                            { Serapi
+         {                                            { Tabriz
+         {
+         {                                            { Feraghan
+  Cotton { Each thread of         { Sehna Knot (C)    { Mahal
+   Warp  { warp equally prominent {                   { Muskabad
+         { at back or             {                   { Royal Sarabend
+         { one slightly depressed {
+         {                        {                   { Gulistan
+         {                        { Ghiordes Knot (D) { Iran
+         {                                            { Joshaghan
+         {                                            { Luristan
+         {                                            { Sultanabad
+         {
+         {                        { Sehna Knot (E)      Sehna
+         { Quincunx effect        {
+         { of weft at back.       { Ghiordes Knot (F) { Hamadan
+                                                      { Ispahan (modern)
+
+
+It should be remembered, when studying the foregoing table, that all
+classes of rugs are subject to occasional variations in the
+technicalities of their weave, as for instance, the Herats may have
+woollen warp and Sehna knots; the Tabriz very often have linen warp;
+some of the Feraghans, Mahals, Muskabads, and Sehnas have the Ghiordes
+knot and some of the Sultanabads have the Sehna knot; the Joshaghans may
+have woollen warp; and in modern Ispahans the weft sometimes crosses
+twice between two rows of knots.
+
+
+           { One thread of warp to each knot doubled    (G) { Bijar.
+           { under at back                                  { Niris[37]
+           {
+           {                                                { Karadagh.
+  Woolen   {                                                { Suj-Bulak
+  Warp,    { Each of the two threads of warp to a knot      { Kurdistan.
+  Ghiordes { equally prominent at back, or one slightly (H) { Afshar.
+  Knot.    { depressed                                      { Mosul.
+           {                                                { Shiraz.[38]
+           {
+           { Quincunx effect of weft at back            (I) { Karaje.[39]
+
+
+
+With reference to size, these rugs may conveniently be divided as
+follows:
+
+
+                                                   { Gorevan.
+                                                   { Mahal.
+  Rugs invariably of carpet size                   { Muskabad.
+                                                   { Serapi.
+                                                   { Sultanabad
+
+                                                   { Bijar.
+                                                   { Herat.
+                                                   { Kermanshah.
+  Rugs frequently, but not always, of carpet size  { Khorassan.
+                                                   { Meshed.
+                                                   { Sarabend.
+                                                   { Tabriz.
+
+                                                   { Hamadan.
+  Rugs frequently seen as runners                  { Karaje.
+                                                   { Kurdistan.
+                                                   { Mosul.
+
+
+Of the sub-groups represented on Page 284, "A" includes those that have
+the closest and finest woven texture. In this respect the Kashans,
+Sarouks, and Kirmans are, in the order named, superior to the others;
+and the Kermanshahs are the coarsest and the least evenly woven. In
+sub-group "B" the Tabriz are the best woven and have the shortest nap.
+The Gorevans and Serapis have several concentric medallions, in which
+are designs of archaically drawn leaves, and have generally the
+so-called turtle border. The Herats have the typical Herati border. Of
+the classes of sub-group "C," the Royal Sarabends are the closest woven.
+The Feraghans are slightly coarser and the Mahals and Muskabads are much
+coarser and have longer nap. The Luristans, Joshaghans, and Gulistans
+are the best woven of sub-group "D." At the back of Luristans each half
+knot is distinct from the other like a separate bead; and in a few
+Joshaghans each half knot is almost as distinct. Both Irans and
+Sultanabads are coarsely woven. Comparing sub-groups "E" and "F," the
+weave of Sehnas presents a file-like appearance at the back; and in
+Hamadans the weft is of much coarser diameter than in the other two
+classes. The Bijars of sub-group "G" are much stouter than the Niris and
+have one of the two threads of weft to each knot more completely doubled
+under the other. The webs at the ends of the Niris are very much longer
+than those of Bijars. Sub-group "H" contains the Kurdistans, Suj-Bulaks
+and Mosuls, all of which are woven in territory where for generations
+the Kurds have held sway, and show Kurdish characteristics. The Western
+Kurdistans may easily be distinguished by their brown colours, nomadic
+character, and coarse warp and weft. The Persian Kurdistans are very
+stoutly and firmly woven, and usually have one of the two threads of
+warp encircled by a knot depressed below the other. The Mosuls have each
+of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot equally prominent at the
+back; and a characteristic feature is the coloured, crudely spun yarn of
+weft, which on account of the size of its diameter stands up as high as
+the yarn of the knots at the back. In a typical Suj-Bulak the alignment
+of knots at the back appears uneven or serrated. The Karadaghs have
+Caucasian characteristics; the Afshars have coarse, wiry wool for the
+weft, and threads of warp strung so that each half knot is distinct.
+
+Although the technicalities of weaving are the most reliable evidence
+for determining the class to which a rug belongs, the patterns are
+important guides. It will be well, therefore, to remember that:
+
+A Persian rug is probably a Shiraz, Karadagh, Karaje, Mosul, Kurdistan,
+or Afshar, if the pattern is partly geometric.
+
+If the field has concentric medallions, the rug may be a Kermanshah,
+Sarouk, Kashan, Sehna, Gorevan, Herez, Tabriz, Mahal, Muskabad, or
+Sultanabad.
+
+If the field is covered with pear designs, the rug may be a Sarabend,
+Burujird, Khorassan, Shiraz, Niris, Iran, Joshaghan, or Luristan.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 64. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+If the field is covered with small Herati designs, the rug may be a
+Feraghan, Sehna, or an Iran.
+
+If the field is covered with small designs of the Guli Hinnai plant, the
+rug may be a Feraghan.
+
+If the field is covered with the Mina Khani pattern, the rug may be a
+Persian Kurdistan.
+
+A Persian rug is usually a Shiraz, Niris, Mosul, or Kurdistan if the nap
+is long.
+
+It is almost invariably either a Shiraz or a Niris if the webs of the
+ends are long, and the overcasting of the sides has a barber-pole design
+or has short lengths of different colours. The Niris resembles the
+Shiraz; but one thread of warp to each knot is more depressed, the ends
+generally have longer webs, and the field is more frequently covered
+with large pear designs. It is a Shiraz if short tassels or tufts
+project at regular intervals from the ends; and it is probably a Niris
+if it has a long end-web of different coloured stripes.
+
+It is probably a Karadagh, Gorevan, Serapi, Herez, or Tabriz if the
+sides are finished with a selvage.
+
+Many of these classes have features by which they can be distinguished
+at once from all others. For instance:
+
+The Sarabend has a field completely covered with pear designs of
+moderate size facing in opposite directions in alternate lines; borders
+of several stripes, of which one or two are ivory white with an angular
+vine from which are suspended mechanically drawn pear designs, and one
+or two narrow stripes with reciprocal trefoils. Only two other classes
+are similar: the Iran copies, which are always woven more coarsely and
+have the Ghiordes knot, and the Burujirds, which are rarely seen.
+
+Most Feraghans have fields that are completely covered with small Herati
+or Guli Hinnai designs, and have the turtle pattern in the border. The
+only other rugs that are similar are the Iran copies, which have the
+Ghiordes knot and are more coarsely woven.
+
+Almost all Hamadans may be distinguished at once by the broad band of
+camel's hair surrounding the border, and the coarse weft crossing only
+once between two rows of knots so as to give a quincunx effect at the
+back.
+
+Gorevans are invariably of carpet size. They have fields almost covered
+with central medallions on which are archaically drawn leaves, and a
+broad central border stripe with a large conventionalised turtle
+pattern. They have usually the same colour tones, which once seen are
+not forgotten. The Serapis are similar to Gorevans but are usually older
+and of better colours.
+
+The Kermanshahs have tones of ivory, pink, and light green, that are
+softer and lighter than those of almost any other rug. The fields have
+concentric medallions with dainty floral forms that are rarely seen in
+other classes except the Sarouks and Kashans; and the borders, that
+correspond in drawing and colouring with the field, have an outer edging
+that is almost invariably of pink, but sometimes dark blue. The drawing
+and colours, which are not easily described but quickly learned, at once
+distinguish these pieces from all others.
+
+Some Mesheds resemble Kermanshahs, but the nap is more silky, uneven,
+and lustrous. The texture at the back is finer.
+
+The rugs of Tabriz, which are usually made in carpet sizes, may be
+distinguished by their linen nap hanging in a short fringe at the ends.
+They are not likely to be confused with any classes but the Mesheds,
+Khorassans, and Kermanshahs; but the nap is shorter, and harsher to the
+touch; the knot is Ghiordes, and the drawing more formal.
+
+Almost the only Persian rug that has small, geometric, adventitious
+designs and latch-hooks is the Shiraz. It is the only one that has small
+tufts of wool projecting from the sides; and with the exception of the
+Niris is the only one that, as a rule, has a barber-pole overcasting and
+a long web at the ends. It is also one of the most loosely woven.
+
+The Sarouk and Kashan may be distinguished from all others by their
+short velvety nap; dark rich colours; fields of graceful foliated stalks
+and floral forms resting on concentric medallions; and the fine, firm,
+texture of the weave. A carefully drawn design of the running latch-hook
+appears in the borders; and the weft is usually some shade of blue. The
+Kashans are almost the same as Sarouks but have closer weave and finer
+texture. They very rarely come in large sizes.
+
+Muskabads and Mahals are invariably made in large carpet sizes. Their
+texture is firm; they are very coarsely woven; and there is great
+irregularity in the size of the knots as shown at the back. Of the two,
+the Mahals are the better grade.
+
+A large rug with woollen warp and with one thread of warp to each knot
+doubled under the other is almost always a Bijar.
+
+Sehnas are always very thin rugs and of small or moderate size. With few
+exceptions the field is covered with Herati or pear designs. They can
+be identified by the quincunx appearance of the fine cotton weft at the
+back and the file-like feeling of the weave.
+
+The only Persian rug that has a side selvage and also shows evidence of
+Caucasian influence in the geometric drawing of the patterns is the
+Karadagh.
+
+The Gozenes may be distinguished from other classes by their dull
+colours. In many of them each thread of warp is encircled by the right
+half of some knots and the left half of others.
+
+
+The Asia Minor rugs have so many features in common that they cannot
+conveniently be divided into sub-groups. For instance: almost all have a
+coloured weft, a coloured web with fringe at the ends, and a selvage at
+the sides; all, excepting the Ghiordes and a few modern pieces, have
+woollen warp and weft; and all have the Ghiordes knot. To be sure, a
+distinction may be made in the length of the nap, since as a rule the
+Bergamo, Rhodian, Karaman, Yuruk, and some of the Anatolians have a long
+nap; and the remainder usually have a short nap; and also in the
+weaving, as in the Bergamo, Ghiordes, Karaman, Kulah, and Ladik, one
+thread of warp to each knot is generally depressed, and in the remaining
+classes all threads of warp are equally prominent; furthermore,
+Anatolians, Bergamos, Karamans, Rhodians, and Koniehs, have rarely more
+than three stripes to the border; and Kir-Shehrs, Kulahs, Ladiks, and
+Ghiordes have seldom less than five; but these features are not always
+constant and pronounced. The patterns, therefore, and those smaller
+designs which frequently are peculiar to a single class are of
+considerable assistance in distinguishing one from the other. The arch
+of the namazliks is also an invaluable feature for identification since
+its shape is different in each class as will be seen by reference to
+Plates C and D (Pages 61 and 63).
+
+Leaving out of consideration modern pieces, made to meet the demands of
+exporting companies, the Bergamo and Rhodian have certain points of
+resemblance. As a rule, they are almost square, and have long nap, long
+webs with coloured bands at the ends, a side selvage, and coloured weft.
+The Rhodian may generally be distinguished by their brighter colours and
+their panels, suggesting windows, placed parallel to the length of the
+rug. The Bergamos, which are more frequently seen, have rich, deep blue
+and red colouring, and more devices to avert the evil eye than any other
+Oriental rug.
+
+Two panels, one above the arch and the other below the field, are
+almost invariably seen in the Ghiordes prayer rugs and occasionally in
+the Kulahs, but rarely in any other classes. The typical pattern of the
+central border stripe of Ghiordes prayer rugs, consisting of most
+conventionalised leaf and rosette, is not seen in any other rugs; nor is
+the pattern of the broad border stripe of the odjaliks and sedjadehs,
+consisting of an undulating band covered with small flecks and fringed
+with latch-hooks.
+
+The most characteristic features in the pattern of Kulahs are the
+numerous narrow fleck-covered bands that occupy the centre of the
+border, and the secondary stripe with design like a Chinese device
+represented in Plate H, Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194).
+
+The pomegranates at the end of the field, and the Rhodian lilies in the
+main stripe of the border, distinguish Ladik prayer rugs from all
+others. Figures of vandykes, which are seen in some Anatolians and
+Mudjars, are also a constant feature of Ladiks.
+
+A characteristic feature of Koniehs is the row of sprigs with three
+triangular-shaped petals that project from the border against the field.
+
+As a rule, the Kir-Shehrs contain in the field a larger amount of
+grass-green colour than any other rug.
+
+The narrow border stripe of thumb-like processes that fit one another
+like cogs and the mauve or heliotrope colour are important aids in
+distinguishing Melez rugs.
+
+On account of their long pile and their patterns of latch-hooks and
+other geometric figures, the Yuruks alone of all this group resemble the
+Caucasian rugs. They may also be distinguished from other Asia Minor
+rugs by the facts that the weft is of coarse, wiry wool, and the threads
+of warp are not strung closely together, so that at the back each half
+knot appears very distinct from the other.
+
+
+A similarity prevails in the technique of most Caucasian rugs, as all
+have the Ghiordes knot, and almost all have warp and weft of wool, sides
+that are selvaged, and ends with a web and loose fringe. Moreover,
+classes that are in a measure geographically related show resemblances,
+as for instance: the Chichi, Daghestan, Kabistan, and Shirvan, which
+have short nap; the Tcherkess, Kazak, and Genghas which have medium to
+long nap; and the Soumak, Shemakha, and Kuba, which have a similar
+selvage at sides and ends. The only classes in which one thread of warp
+to each knot is depressed or doubled under the other are the Karabagh,
+Shemakha, and Shusha, from the southeastern part of Caucasia, and the
+Lesghian from the northern part.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE O. No. 1, Shah Abbas design. No. 2, Mina Khani
+design. No. 3, Guli Hinnai design. No. 4, Herati design. Nos. 5-a, b, c,
+d, e, f, Swastikas. Nos. 6-a, b. c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, Pear
+designs. No. 7, Cloud-bands. No. 8, Pitcher. No. 9, Motives of Asia
+Minor and Armenian rugs. No. 10, Octagonal disc. No. 11, Combs. No. 12,
+Motives of Melez rugs. Nos. 13-a, b, c, d, 14, 15, conventionalised
+leaf-forms in Asia Minor rugs. Nos. 16-a, b, c, The lotus. No. 17, Knot
+of destiny. Nos. 18-a, b, Motives of Daghestans and Kabistans.]
+
+The Soumak with its flat stitch and with ends of yarn hanging loose at
+the back is unlike all other rugs. At the sides is a carefully woven
+selvage, and next to the nap at the end is a narrow selvage of fine spun
+threads. The rugs of Shemakha, woven by some of the same tribes who
+dwell nearer the mountains, have similar selvages at the sides of blue
+or bluish green, similar ends of a narrow web of "herring-bone" weave
+and one or more rows of knots, and a medium long nap of rich blues,
+reds, yellows, browns, and greens. The Kuba rugs are almost identical
+with them, except that each thread of warp is equally prominent at the
+back, whereas in the Shemakhas one thread to each knot is depressed. When
+once these selvages, the narrow end-webs of "herring-bone" weave, and
+the particular tones of colour characteristic of these rugs have been
+carefully observed, they are not forgotten. The well-known Georgian
+stripe (Plate J, Fig. 9, opp. Page 228) is rarely found in any but these
+three classes.
+
+The Baku rug may be distinguished by its geometric-shaped pear designs,
+and stiffly drawn birds. If modern, the tones are dull.
+
+Long, shaggy nap, strong colours, of which red and green are almost
+invariably present, and large designs surrounded by numerous small
+nomadic figures are the general features of a Kazak. The Tcherkess has a
+striking resemblance to it, so that they are constantly mistaken for one
+another; but the Tcherkess is generally better woven and the pattern
+usually consists of what is known as the "Sunburst" resting on a field
+of dull red or a tawny shade. The border is almost invariably of three
+stripes, of which the central has the tarantula design, and the two
+guards have a reciprocal sawtooth design.
+
+The field of the typical Chichi has an all-over pattern of small
+geometric design; and its main border stripe has rosettes separated by
+diagonal ribbon-like bars, as shown in Plate I, Fig. 6 (opp. Page 226).
+
+Rugs from the Karabagh district may frequently be recognised by the
+Persian influence in the drawing of their patterns.
+
+Genghas may readily be distinguished from other classes of this group by
+the fact that the weft crosses more than twice and frequently many
+times, between every two rows of knots, which are not appressed, so that
+the weft, as it encircles the warp, appears at the back like a narrow
+beaded surface.
+
+Daghestans, Kabistans, and Shirvans have so many different patterns that
+it is not always easy to distinguish the classes; but it will be some
+assistance to remember that the border design of wine cup and serrated
+leaf (Plate I, Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found in about one half of the
+Shirvans, and that the bracket design (Plate J, Fig. 19, opp. Page 228)
+is peculiar to Daghestans and Kabistans.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 65. CHINESE RUG OF THE KEEN-LUNG PERIOD]
+
+The small Central Asiatic group is not only unlike other groups, but may
+naturally be divided into three sub-groups, which are also distinct from
+one another and contain well-defined classes, viz.:
+
+   (_a_) Afghan, Royal Bokhara, Princess Bokhara, Tekke, Khiva,
+           Yomud, and Beshire.
+
+   (_b_) Samarkand, Kashgar, and Yarkand.
+
+   (_c_) Beluchistan.
+
+In the first sub-group the prevailing colours are dark reds and browns
+with minor quantities of blue, green, and ivory. The Afghans are almost
+always of large size, and may be recognised at once by the broad web of
+the ends and the large octagonal shaped figures placed in contact in
+perpendicular rows. The Royal Bokharas are smaller, the end webs are not
+so wide, the octagons are never in contact and are separated diagonally
+by diamond-shaped figures. The Princess Bokharas and many Tekkes have
+the Katchli pattern. The Yomuds resemble the other classes of this
+sub-group in colour; but in the fields, diamond designs have entirely
+replaced the octagons.
+
+The rugs of sub-group "b" almost always have cotton warp; whereas the
+rugs of sub-groups "a" and "c" invariably have woollen or goat's hair
+warp.
+
+The Samarkands are somewhat similar in colours and patterns to Chinese
+rugs, but may be distinguished by the fact that they almost invariably
+have three border stripes, whereas the Chinese usually have only one or
+two. The Kashgar and Yarkand also show Chinese influence.
+
+The Beluchistans with brown, blue, green, and claret colours may be
+identified at once by their long embroidered webs at each end.
+
+In the determination of the class to which a rug belongs, the pattern
+first of all attracts attention; and if it be one peculiar to a single
+class, it is an important guide. But in the great majority of cases,
+this will not be sufficient. It is, therefore, desirable to observe if
+the designs be floral or geometric, if the colours be subdued or
+obtrusive, if the knot be Sehna or Ghiordes, if the warp be cotton or
+wool. The variations in finish of sides and ends are also an index of
+the class. The pattern and these few technical details are the only
+characteristics by which most dealers attempt to determine the different
+kinds of rugs. But in the case of half of them, such evidence is far
+from conclusive. The back should be even more carefully examined than
+the front; because here are shown those subtle, but nevertheless
+positive distinctions, relating to the manner of tying the knot and the
+treatment of warp and weft, which are the most permanent tribal
+characteristics of Oriental weaving. It should be noticed, then, if each
+thread of warp encircled by the yarn that forms the knot lies in the
+same plane parallel with the surface and is equally prominent; or if one
+to each knot be depressed below the other, or if it be doubled under the
+other so as to be concealed. It should also be noticed if the weft be
+coloured or uncoloured, of fine or of coarse diameter; and if a thread
+of weft crosses only once or two or more times from side to side between
+every two rows of knots. Furthermore, the knots themselves should be
+carefully scrutinised to see if each row of them is firmly pressed down
+upon the weft, if each knot has a length equal or exceeding its width,
+if the yarn of which they are formed is drawn tight against the warp,
+and if it is loosely or closely spun. Only by consideration of all these
+different points, and sometimes even more, such as the nature of the
+colours, the character of wool, and the manner in which it is spun, is
+it possible to determine doubtful cases of identification.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+PURCHASING RUGS
+
+
+AS those who have expert knowledge of the value of Oriental rugs are
+exceedingly few, compared with those who admire and wish to own them,
+the object of this chapter is to make suggestions regarding a proper
+selection, when purchasing, and to point out some of the pitfalls that
+beset the inexperienced.
+
+In estimating the value of any rug, three distinct qualities are to be
+considered: rarity, artistic beauty, and utility.
+
+Rarity may depend on the age of a rug, the locality where it was woven,
+or its type. In determining the age, which as a rule is greatly
+exaggerated, a number of facts should be considered. One is the
+condition resulting from wear; though at times this is misleading, since
+of two pieces, one may have been handled with almost religious
+solicitude and the other exposed to the elements and to hard usage.
+Moreover, an artificial appearance of natural wear is sometimes
+counterfeited. Another is the pattern, since, as has been shown in the
+case of antique carpets, the character of drawing changed with
+succeeding periods. Even when the patterns of old carpets are copied in
+modern pieces, a distinction is usually discernible to a careful
+observer. The colours, too, play an important part in determining age;
+for not only are some characteristic of different periods, as particular
+shades of yellow and green of Chinese rugs and the blue of Persian; but
+the mellowing influences of time, acting through the agencies of
+exposure and wear, cause effects that cannot be produced by any
+artificial process.
+
+Occasionally the time when a rug is made is recorded in Arabic numbers
+woven above a word denoting "year." If they are indistinct on account of
+the length of the nap, they may be more clearly read in reverse order at
+the back. In the following lines, each of them is represented below the
+one in our own notation, to which it corresponds.
+
+0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
+
+[Illustration: Arabic numerical symbols]
+
+These numbers represent not the Christian but the Mohammedan year,
+which, dating from the time of the Hegira, began about the middle of
+July 622, or a little before the actual flight from Medina. It should
+also be remembered that the lunar and not the solar year is considered
+in Moslem chronology; which, according to our reckoning, gains about one
+year in every thirty-three and seven tenths years. To calculate, then,
+the year of our time corresponding with the year expressed in the rug,
+from the number should be subtracted one thirty-three and seven tenths
+part of itself, and then should be added six hundred and twenty-two.
+Thus, if the year 1247 was woven in the rug, our corresponding year
+would be A. D. 1247 less 37 (or 1210) plus 622, or 1832. When such dates
+appear in old rugs, they are generally to be depended on, but in modern
+ones they are more likely to be antedated to give the effect of greater
+age.
+
+With reference to the time when woven, rugs may conveniently be divided
+into three broad classes; Antique rugs or carpets made over two
+centuries ago; old rugs made fifty or more years ago; and modern rugs
+made since the introduction of aniline dyes, or within the last fifty
+years.
+
+The number of antique carpets that exist is undetermined, as it is
+impossible to estimate how many remain in Oriental mosques and palaces.
+Nor has any complete catalogue been made of those that are owned in
+Europe and America. They consist principally of the products of Persia,
+Asia Minor, Armenia, and China. Many belong to the museums and the
+remainder to sovereigns and wealthy collectors. Like rare porcelains and
+old paintings, their value increases with each passing year; and the
+prices received for them range according to the fancy and caprice of the
+purchaser. They are the most valued and the most costly of all rugs.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 66. KURDISH PRAYER KILIM]
+
+The number of rugs over fifty years of age, but not belonging to the
+previous class, is very large. A few are sufficiently prized to be
+placed in art museums, some belong to collectors, large numbers
+embellish the halls and drawing rooms of people of refinement, and
+others are yearly brought from the Orient; but dealers and the public
+already realise that their numbers are limited. Even now they are
+searched for in the remotest corners of every rug-producing country; and
+in a few years the last, now cherished as family heirlooms, will have
+been exchanged for western gold. Almost all are well woven, though some
+are too much worn to be trodden longer under foot. None are treated with
+aniline dyes, but the colours mellowed by time are exceptionally good
+and frequently contain rare tones characteristic of the first class.
+Moreover, large numbers contain emblems of a symbolism still shrouded in
+mysteries that increase their fascination. On the whole, this is the
+choicest stock from which to choose elegant carpetings for luxurious
+homes. When it is considered that rugs of this class are beginning to
+disappear from the market, the prices at which they may be purchased are
+moderate compared with the prices of more modern pieces.
+
+The great majority of existing Oriental rugs have been woven within the
+last fifty years. A few of them, including many of the newest, have
+colours that compare favourably with those of older pieces; but a large
+number show the effect of aniline dyes. Some woven by nomads or dwellers
+in remote villages, without thought of sale, have designs and
+workmanship such as have characterised the fabrics of these people for
+past generations; but others, which are the products of the work-house
+system, though well woven as a rule, lack the charm of spontaneous
+individuality. Age alone has little influence in determining the value
+of these modern rugs, since they have not yet become rare; yet even in
+them the wear of time affects their other qualities. Other things being
+equal, they cost less than the old and the antique rugs.
+
+The locality where a rug was woven is also to be considered in
+determining its rarity and therefore its value. Of the countless carpets
+that once existed in Egypt, of the very early rugs of Caucasia and
+Turkestan, not a piece remains; but if one were to be found it would be
+almost priceless. The antique carpets of Syria, or of Kirman, Shiraz,
+and Tabriz, woven over three centuries ago, are more valuable than
+others of equally good workmanship, of which relatively large numbers
+remain. So, too, of the rugs classed as old, but falling short of the
+venerable age of the real antiques, those which are now difficult to be
+obtained on account of their scarcity, are more valuable than those
+which are being produced in larger numbers. Rugs such as the Joshaghan,
+Tiflis, and many others of sixty or more years of age, are no longer
+woven. Modern products from the same districts may adopt the old names,
+but they are not the same. Accordingly, it will be only a short time
+when they too will disappear from the market. Good examples of such
+pieces should therefore receive more careful consideration on the part
+of purchasers and collectors, as their value is increasing with each
+passing year.
+
+Furthermore, the rarity of an old rug is often independent of its age or
+the locality where it was made, and is due to its peculiar type. For
+instance, the Ming Rugs of China with silver threads and the so-called
+Garden Carpets of Iran represent types rather than localities. Likewise
+the Hunting Carpets of Persia, the Holbein Carpets of Asia Minor, and
+the Dragon Carpets of Armenia, represent, as far as we know, the textile
+craft of no well-defined district of limited area, as is the case of
+modern rugs, but rather rare types. Such pieces are valuable, not alone
+on account of their age, but also because they represent these rare
+types.
+
+A rug is also valued for its artistic beauty. The innumerable rugs which
+centuries ago were in daily use soon disappeared, and only those
+intended for palaces or temples have been preserved. It is but natural,
+then, that the antique carpets representing the highest art of their
+time should be not only rare but also beautiful. Yet even in them is
+often a distinction that affects their value. Fortunately, very many of
+the larger number of rugs of less age, but classed as old, likewise
+possess artistic beauty. This chiefly depends on the drawing and the
+colouring.
+
+It will be noticed that almost without exception careful drawing
+accompanies workmanship of a high class. This is partly due to the facts
+that the more excellent the weave the easier it is to clearly define
+patterns; and that on shortness of nap, which as a rule is found in
+closely woven rugs, depends accuracy of delineation. The charm of rugs
+often depends, also, on the graceful flow of lines, the careful balance
+of different parts of patterns, and the proper co-ordination between
+border and field. Careful attention should accordingly be given to the
+drawing when selecting a rug.
+
+The artistic beauty of Oriental rugs depends still more on the
+colouring, since, as has been elsewhere expressed, drawing, which is
+intellectual, finds its highest development in the Occident, and
+colouring, which is sensuous, finds its highest development in the
+Orient. It at once suggests sumptuous luxury. In all of the antique
+carpets that remain and in very many rugs over fifty years of age, all
+the colours employed in a single piece are in tones of perfect harmony,
+and are so placed with reference to one another that the effect is most
+agreeable. But in some of the modern pieces, such as are produced in
+parts of Asia Minor and Caucasia, are colours which, like discordant
+notes of music, grate harshly on the senses. The most pleasing effect is
+when colours of border and field are complementary, yet so in harmony as
+to accentuate the qualities of each.
+
+There are also colours which, independent of their association, are in
+themselves good or bad. The best are found in the antique carpets woven
+when the art of the dyer was an honourable profession. The colours are
+also very good in still later pieces; but for a century now some of the
+finest have not been used, and even the secret of producing them has
+been lost. Here and there dyers and weavers cling to early traditions,
+so that among modern rugs are many examples of good colouring; but the
+most recent pieces, excepting when softened by artificial processes,
+often display harsh and garish colours. This distinction is in a measure
+due to the fact that old colours were largely produced by vegetable dyes
+and the modern are too often produced by aniline. Not infrequently both
+vegetable and aniline colours are used in the same piece, and sometimes
+the quantity of aniline colour is so small that it is scarcely
+objectionable; but as a rule it is best never to purchase a rug that is
+so tainted.
+
+One objection to the use of aniline dyes is that by removing some of the
+natural oil of the wool they are apt to make it brittle, so that it is
+less able to stand wear. Another is that in time some of the dyes, which
+have been applied collectively to produce a single colour, will fade or
+even disappear, so that the final colour may be a most undesirable shade
+not in harmony with those that surround it. If the fibres are brittle
+and become harsher to the touch when wet with water, it is an indication
+that aniline dyes have been used. Another test is the application of
+weak vegetable acids, which will make the colour spread if produced by
+aniline dyes, but are not likely to affect it if produced by vegetable
+dyes. Many native weavers can distinguish by placing the wool in their
+mouths, when they experience a sweet or bitter taste, according as
+vegetable or aniline dyes have been used. It is a mistake, however, to
+assume that the dyes are aniline because the wool has a brighter colour
+at the surface of the nap than at the foundation; or because the colour
+spreads when wet with water; since in time even some of the vegetable
+colours will fade; and when fresh they will run during the first washing
+in water, but afterwards they are little affected either by water or
+weak acids.
+
+Even when the same colours and the same kind of dyes were used, there is
+a marked distinction in the appearance of old and of recently woven
+rugs, which is due to wear as well as exposure to sun and weather. The
+effect of time, imperceptible at first, is shown in rich tones of
+remarkable softness and beauty, that add greatly to the value of a rug.
+It accordingly happens that artificial processes are adopted to create
+as far as possible the same results without the lapse of time. Some of
+these are as novel as were the efforts of the distinguished viceroy of
+King-te Chin, in the reign of Kang-hi, to produce antique
+porcelains.[40] Henry Savage Landor says[41] that "to manufacture
+'Antique Carpets' is one of the most lucrative branches of modern
+Persian carpet making. The new carpets are spread in the bazar in the
+middle of the street, where it is most crowded, and trampled upon for
+days or weeks, according to the days required, foot passengers and their
+donkeys, mules and camels making a point of treading on them in order to
+'add to age' in the manufacturer's goods. When sufficiently worn down
+the carpet is removed, brushed, and ordinarily sold for double or treble
+the actual price, owing to its antiquity."
+
+[Illustration: _COLOUR PLATE XI—CHINESE RUG_
+
+_This large Chinese carpet represents some of the best workmanship of
+the Keen-lung period. In it are shown the graceful drawing of leaf,
+fruit, flower, and butterfly, and the dainty colouring of blue, yellow,
+brown, and apricot on a field of ivory that are so characteristic of
+this time. The usual balance of designs throughout the field is
+maintained with precision; but, as is not always the case, different
+motives occupy corresponding positions. Thus a cluster of leaves and
+fruit may be balanced with a cluster of leaves and flowers. The
+conventional drawing of the corners and the somewhat formal panel that
+surrounds the central medallion give to the pattern strength of
+character while they detract nothing from its beauty._
+
+
+  _Loaned by Mr. Nathan Bentz_]
+
+Whatever may be their character, the methods employed to give softened
+effects to the colours are known as "washing." Most of those in vogue in
+the Orient, such as washing with lime water, do little real injury. In
+this country to artificially mellow the colours has become a regular
+business of firms, who guard the secret of their different methods. Some
+use ammonia, borax, and soap, which also do very little injury to the
+rug. Others use chloride of lime, boracic acid, vinegar, or oxalic acid,
+that remove some of the natural oils of the wool and accordingly impair
+its qualities for wear. In fact, pieces are occasionally injured to the
+extent that the wool has become brittle and may readily be plucked out.
+Nevertheless, it does not necessarily follow that all rugs washed with
+an acid solution have been seriously injured; but the colours never have
+the same richness as those which have been softened by natural processes
+operating for a long period of years. To be sure, rugs that have been
+washed are often more attractive than they were in their raw colours;
+but the older, more beautiful rugs with genuine tones mellowed by time
+are always to be preferred. Over ninety per cent of the Kermanshahs,
+Sarouks, Kashans, Tabriz, Muskabads, Mahals, and Gorevans, and a large
+percentage of all other modern rugs sold in this country, have been
+treated by some artificial process to soften their colours or give them
+the appearance of age. It is generally necessary, when selecting a large
+rug for a floor covering, to accept a washed piece; but when a smaller
+rug or a runner will meet the requirements, it is preferable to choose
+the older unwashed piece, which, as a rule, is more beautiful and costs
+but little more. In the case of most pieces, the tones of colour are
+sufficient to enable one who is experienced to distinguish between those
+that are artificially aged and those that are not. In the case of
+others, a simple test is to rub them thoroughly with a wet rag; when, if
+acid or chloride of lime has been used, it can generally be detected by
+the odour.
+
+The artistic beauty of a rug also depends somewhat on the fineness of
+the nap; as the soft, floccy fibres of some wools acquire a velvety
+appearance, or give to the colours a sheen and a lustre compared with
+which other rugs look harsh and coarse. For instance, the rugs of Shiraz
+and Meshed, the Beluchistans, and many Bokharas are noted for the lustre
+of their colours; but on the other hand many of the rugs of Asia Minor
+and Caucasia have colours that are without lustre, and the rugs of India
+which are made of dead or "Chunam" wool, seem lifeless.
+
+When selecting any rug, then, the purchaser should carefully observe if
+the patterns are well drawn and their different parts show a proper
+balance. He should observe if the colour tones are harmonious with one
+another, if each colour in itself is good, and if they have been
+softened by natural processes acting for a long time. And he should
+notice if the wool is coarse, dead, and lustreless, or if it has a sheen
+and glint in the light of day; for these are the qualities that make up
+the artistic beauty of a rug.
+
+The utility to be derived from rugs that properly belong to museums and
+collectors receives small consideration, though even with them the more
+perfect their condition the more valuable they are. But in case of the
+great majority of rugs, which are intended for use as well as for
+ornament, their utility is an important consideration to the purchaser.
+Rugs that have warp and weft of strong yarn and a close firm texture,
+will wear better than others. Also, such rugs as Bijars, in which one
+thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the other, will be found to
+wear better than such rugs as Mosuls which have each thread of warp
+equally prominent at the back. For durability, long nap is also to be
+preferred to short, since it protects the foundations of the knots from
+wearing and becoming loose.
+
+Before purchasing an old rug, it should be spread on the floor to see if
+it lies flat and if its shape is regular. It should be examined by
+daylight and not by electric light, which gives a false impression of
+colour and sheen. It should be held up with the back turned to the
+purchaser, and carefully examined for weak spots through which the light
+may pass; since, when so held, many pieces which seem in good condition
+when lying on the floor, resemble a sieve. The foundation threads should
+also be carefully inspected, as sometimes they rot and will tear with
+slight tension. Moreover, as the selvage or overcasting of the sides and
+the webs of the ends are intended primarily not for ornament but for
+protection, it should be noted if they are in good condition. Sometimes
+the webs of the ends are entirely gone, so that continual fraying of the
+nap is prevented with difficulty. Sometimes the selvage or overcasting
+of the sides is broken and some of the threads of warp are injured. Or
+the sides may be well protected by a stout overcasting; but on
+examination it will be seen that it is not the original finishing, and
+that some of the border has disappeared. Again, it may have been
+overcast too tightly, so that the sides curl and turn under, and thus
+expose the border to injury when trodden on. Careful examination will
+often reveal surprises. In many old rugs the field is full of rents,
+that have been sewn together; in others entire pieces have been removed,
+so that they are no longer of their original length; or parts of the
+border are gone, or even the whole of it has been replaced by the
+border of another rug; yet all so deftly done that the changes are
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+Nevertheless, old pieces, if otherwise meritorious, are not to be
+discarded on account of a few imperfections, since what can be
+accomplished in the hands of a careful repairer is remarkable. Broken
+threads of warp and weft can be mended; missing knots can be replaced
+with others of similar yarn; crooked pieces can be straightened by
+loosening here and stretching there; borders that curl can be flattened
+by removing the yarn and overcasting again more carefully. In fact, if
+the nap be not so worn that the foundation of warp and weft is exposed,
+it is far better to choose an old rug with some rents than a new one
+with garish aniline dyes. Nor should a piece be slighted, because the
+brownish black areas of wool dyed with iron pyrites are worn low; since
+often the most beautiful effects are obtained by a surface of brighter
+colours standing out in relief, on account of the worn blackish nap that
+surrounds it. Now and then a bargain can be had by buying a rug which,
+because of some imperfection that is not serious, has been passed by;
+and now and then a piece reeking with dirt has proved, when properly
+cleansed, to be a gem.
+
+The foundation, consisting of the warp and weft, receives but little
+consideration from purchasers; yet it is one of the most important
+indices of the quality of a rug, and its strength is one of the most
+necessary conditions for utility. The warp is best observed at the ends.
+In most Chinese and Indian rugs and in some of the Persian, it is of
+cotton; in others it is of wool or goat's hair. In the Chinese rugs the
+diameter of the threads of warp is much smaller than the diameter of the
+threads of the weft, and has little strength, but in almost all other
+rugs it is at least as large and as stout. The weft may readily be
+observed at the back. In very many of the best rugs, it consists of fine
+spun wool; but in many modern ones, it is of coarse wool or cotton. The
+number of knots to the square inch does not of itself demonstrate the
+quality of texture, since a rug may have only a few knots of coarse
+diameter and be firmly woven, or it may have many knots of fine diameter
+and be loosely woven; but in the same class the better rug has generally
+more knots than a poorer one. When selecting a rug, then, the back
+should be most carefully observed; for here may be seen if the yarn that
+forms the knots is well spun, if the knots themselves are drawn tight
+and well pressed down, and if the threads of weft are carefully
+inserted and have a texture that indicates fine workmanship. Almost
+invariably it will be found that if the back of a rug shows good
+material, and has an appearance of firmness and skilful, painstaking
+weaving, the front will correspond with good colours and careful
+drawing.
+
+The value of antique carpets, which depends to some extent on their
+size, and to a much greater extent on their rarity and character, is
+constantly increasing; for the reason that their number is limited and
+each year they are more highly appreciated. It is, therefore, impossible
+to affix even approximate prices; but the sums paid at the Yerkes sale
+in 1910, when some thirty pieces were sold at auction for an average of
+about $9,400, will serve as a guide. The following are some of the
+pieces sold and the prices realised:
+
+
+  Carpet, size 7 feet 4 inches by 5 feet 4 inches, attributed
+    to Western Persia, at end of XVI Century, and purchased by
+    the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.                          $5,600
+
+  Persian carpet, XVI Century, described on page 86                 5,600
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        4,700
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 6 inches by 4 feet
+    7 inches                                                        3,500
+
+  Polish silk carpet, XVI Century, size 6 feet 11 inches by 4 feet
+    10 inches                                                      12,300
+
+  Silk carpet, XVI Century, size 7 feet 2½ inches by 6 feet
+    5 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque        35,500
+
+  Moorish carpet, XVI Century, size 10 feet 11 inches by 5 feet
+    10 inches, stated to have belonged to the Ardebil Mosque and
+    purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, N. Y.             15,200
+
+  Hispano Moresque Mosque carpet, size 34 feet 5 inches by 16 feet
+    8 inches, flat stitch                                           8,600
+
+  Carpet attributed to Western Iran, size 16 feet 4 inches
+    by 11 feet 2 inches, and purchased by the Metropolitan Museum
+    of Art, N. Y.                                                  19,600
+
+  Carpet similar to the Mosque carpet of Ardebil, XVI Century,
+    size 23 feet 11 inches by 13 feet 5 inches                     27,000
+
+
+The value of rugs over fifty years of age but not sufficiently old to
+belong to the antique class also depends as much on the technique of
+weave, drawing, colouring, and rarity as on the size; yet even this must
+be taken into consideration. In proportion to their size the most
+expensive of these rugs are the Kirmans, Sehnas, and Niris from Persia;
+the Ghiordes and Ladiks from Asia Minor; the Daghestans and Kabistans
+from Caucasia; and the Royal Bokharas and Yomuds from Central Asia.
+Considering both utility and attractiveness the least expensive are
+probably the Sarabends and Mosuls from the Persian group, the Yuruks
+from Asia Minor, Kazaks and Tcherkess from Caucasia, and Afghans and
+Beluchistans from Central Asia. As is the case with antique carpets, the
+prices of all old rugs in good condition are steadily advancing.
+
+There is likewise a tendency for the prices of modern rugs to increase
+with each year, since on account of the gradual opening of Oriental
+countries to the markets of the world, and the greater demand for rugs,
+the wages of weavers are increasing. Some of them, as the Tabriz,
+Gorevans, Kermanshahs, Muskabads, Mahals, Sarouks, and Kashans, are now
+made almost exclusively under the direction of the work-house system,
+and are sold at prices that fluctuate but slightly. But in a short time
+the prices of all of them will doubtless be higher.
+
+When a rug of carpet size is required, the Kermanshahs are generally
+preferred on account of their soft colouring and refined patterns, that
+harmonise with the furnishings of most reception rooms. Less expensive
+and more showy are the Gorevans, which are suitable for halls or dining
+rooms. In the Afghans, which are splendid rugs for a den, are combined
+durability with a moderate price. Within recent years some of the Indian
+rugs, as the Amritsars and Lahores, have been growing in favour, as they
+not only have good colours, artistic patterns, and exceedingly good
+texture, but are reasonable in price. Of smaller rugs required both for
+ornament and use, the Shiraz, Feraghan, Mosul, Bergamo, Tcherkess,
+Bokhara, and Beluchistan are desirable.
+
+As is the case with other works of art, so much deception can be
+practised in the sale of rugs that a purchaser cannot use too much
+circumspection. Sometimes through ignorance or with intention, a dealer
+will declare that the wool of a rug which has been coloured with aniline
+dyes has been coloured with vegetable dyes only; that a rug washed with
+acid has matured naturally; that a new rug which has been artificially
+worn almost to the knot is an antique; or that a particular rug belongs
+to the class desired, as where a Shirvan is offered for a Shiraz or a
+Bijar for a Bergamo, which ordinarily are worth much more. It is,
+accordingly, discreet to buy only of such firms as have a reputation
+which is above reproach; and if for any reason it is difficult to learn
+the standing of a firm, the purchaser would do well to make an effort to
+test its reliability by inquiring about the qualities of some class of
+rugs with which he is familiar before purchasing others; and if there
+appears to be any intention to deceive, he should at once look
+elsewhere. In any event, he should take a guarantee that the rug
+purchased is as represented. Firms that have gained an honourable
+reputation by honest dealing deserve the patronage of the public, and
+will always be found ready to make restitution if any mistake has been
+made.
+
+At times, the best rugs may be bought at auctions and at the fairest
+prices. Auctions such as the Yerkes, where estates are being closed or
+where firms are dissolved, occasionally occur, when every opportunity is
+given the purchaser to thoroughly examine in advance pieces which are
+sold without reservation to the highest bidder. On such occasions, rare
+pieces are sometimes bought at very moderate prices. But as a rule,
+unless the purchaser is a good judge and has previously carefully
+examined a coveted piece in broad daylight, it is better not to buy at
+auctions. During the sale it is impossible to properly examine a rug.
+The glare of electric light thrown upon it gives a too favourable
+impression of its beauty. The competitive bids of other real or
+fictitious purchasers and the words of the auctioneer too often lead
+beyond the dictates of good judgment. At such times one would do well to
+remember the old words _caveat emptor_.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The Yerkes sale.
+
+[2] Stewart Dix, in "Arts of Old Japan."
+
+[3] The influence of the physical aspects of a country on its art as
+expressed in architecture is nowhere more clearly shown than in Egypt,
+and there is little doubt that, likewise, the character of the native
+rugs was influenced by the spirit of the sluggish Nile and the boundless
+desert wastes. But as Egypt long ago ceased to be a rug-producing
+country, and none of its ancient rugs remain, it will only be briefly
+referred to in this work, though symbolic designs which had their origin
+there during the Caliphate or even earlier were adopted by foreign
+weavers and occasionally appear with modified form in modern rugs.
+
+[4] It is said that he carried Persian weavers as captives to Asia Minor
+and Constantinople.
+
+[5] This is a product of flowers of the genus _Delphinum_ that grows in
+the Himalayas. It is also obtained as a powder from Afghanistan.
+
+[6] In a few rare instances a knot is tied to four threads of warp.
+
+[7] Most Sehna knots are right-hand knots, but the Sehna knots of a
+large proportion of Khorassan rugs are left-hand knots.
+
+[8] As far as the writer is aware, no one has hitherto called attention
+to the many precise distinctions there are in weaving, and to the fact
+that each class of rugs follows a distinct type of its own. For this
+reason this branch of the subject is treated more fully than would
+otherwise be necessary.
+
+[9] A few of the weavers about Gozene in Asia Minor make rugs with a
+double foundation, in which a single thread of coarse weft crosses twice
+between parallel rows of threads of warp. Only rarely is this method
+followed in other districts.
+
+[10] Sir George Birdwood has made the statement that "A deep and
+complicate symbolism, originating in Babylonia and possibly in India,
+pervades every denomination of Oriental carpet. Thus the carpet itself
+prefigures space and eternity, and the general pattern or filling, as it
+is technically termed, the fleeting, finite universe of animated beauty.
+Every colour has its significance; and the design, whether mythological
+or natural, human, bestial, or floral, has its hidden meaning. Even the
+representatives of men hunting wild beasts have their special
+indications. So have the natural flowers of Persia their symbolism,
+wherever they are introduced, generally following that of their colours.
+The very irregularities either in drawing or colouring, to be observed
+in almost every Oriental carpet, and invariably in Turkoman carpets, are
+seldom accidental, the usual deliberate intention being to avert the
+evil eye and insure good luck."
+
+[11] The equivalent of 106 feet square.
+
+[12] See his work, "The Holy Carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil."
+
+[13] Ismael reigned, 1502-1524; Tamasp reigned, 1524-1576.
+
+[14] 1586-1628.
+
+[15] These will be considered in a later chapter.
+
+[16] This group includes both antique and modern rugs.
+
+[17] Robert Kerr Porter, a well-known traveller, stated that the floor
+of the audience hall of the governor at Tabriz, whom he visited in 1818,
+"was entirely overspread with Herat carpets, those of that manufacture
+being the richest that can be made."
+
+[18] By "Type Characteristics" is meant the characteristics of such
+types of the class as are most frequently seen. There are exceptions to
+these types.
+
+[19] As this is the case with most rugs, only the exceptions to this
+feature will be noticed in the type characteristics of other classes.
+
+[20] Ibn Batutah.
+
+[21] Of modern Ispahans.
+
+[22] "Burlington Magazine," December, 1909.
+
+[23] In "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[24] Sidney Churchill in the Imperial Vienna Book says that "the dyes of
+Sultanabad have perhaps the most extensive colour scheme in Persia."
+
+[25] "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[26] Mrs. Elizabeth Bishop in "Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan."
+
+[27] Encyclopedia Britannica.
+
+[28] It is also to be noted that within the last few years large numbers
+of pieces bearing resemblance to old Oriental rugs have been woven about
+Constantinople.
+
+[29] One of the most interesting is at Sivas, where are the remains of a
+most beautiful Seljuk gateway, with architectural lines that might well
+have been taken for a weaver's model. As in many prayer rugs, the
+engaged columns support a high arch over which a panel rests above a
+figured spandrel. The outlines of each of these parts suggest most
+forcibly the drawing of the prayer rug, and the resemblance is carried
+even further; for corresponding with the border stripes is the chiselled
+masonry that once rested above the panel and still extends to the foot
+of the entrance at each side of the arch.
+
+[30] One of these is represented in Dr. Bode's "Knupfteppiche," where it
+appears as a secondary stripe.
+
+[31] An intermediate pattern suggested by each is found in an old Asia
+Minor piece owned by Dr. Bode.
+
+[32] A. Bogolubow, in his excellent work "Tapis de l'Asie Centrale,"
+divides the Transcaspian Turkomans into two principal groups, the Salors
+and Yomuds, each of which includes sub-groups. These are again
+divisible into many tribes, almost all of whom weave. As their rugs,
+though resembling one another, show different characteristics, they
+might properly be separated into numerous classes; but since only a few
+of them are known in this country, they alone will be described.
+
+[33] "Desert of Red Sands."
+
+[34] A tent in which an average of five people live.
+
+[35] In "Industrial Arts of India."
+
+[36] Dr. Birdwood.
+
+[37] Sometimes Sehna knot.
+
+[38] Sometimes one thread of warp to each knot is doubled under the
+other.
+
+[39] Rarely Iran, Feraghan, Mosul, and Kurdistan.
+
+[40] It is stated that in the short space of a few weeks he created
+valuable antique porcelains to present to his noble friends by placing
+recent copies of old specimens in a vessel containing very greasy soup,
+where they were duly boiled for a month, and after that placing them in
+the "foulest drain of the neighbourhood," where they remained until
+seasoned.
+
+[41] In "Across Coveted Lands, 1903."
+
+[42] All references of an unimportant character are indicated by the
+page number only.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX[42]
+
+
+  A
+
+  Abbas, Shah, 88, 89, 169, 211;
+    pattern named after, 105;
+    sent artisans to India, 111;
+    rug industry declined after death of, 112.
+
+  Abraham, 23, 31.
+
+  Acacia used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Accadians, 23.
+
+  Adighies, 209.
+
+  Afghan rugs, 293, 304, 305;
+    geometric designs of, 62;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 56, 57, 235.
+    Rugs described, 243, 244, 245;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Afghan tribes, 90.
+
+  Afghanistan, 41, 103, 233, 243, 244;
+    camel's wool of, 82.
+
+  Afshar rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Aga Mohammed Khan pillaged Kirman, 113.
+
+  Agamemnon, 166.
+
+  Agra, 255, 257.
+
+  Agra rugs described, 257.
+
+  Akbar, Shah, 28;
+    received assistance from Shah Abbas, 29;
+    established rug weaving at Lahore, 94;
+    imported Persian weavers, 253;
+    carpet factory of, 256.
+
+  Ak-Hissar, 175.
+
+  Ak-Hissar rugs, 101.
+    Rugs described, 175, 176.
+
+  Ak-kal, oasis of, 238.
+
+  Albana, 204.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 169, 181, 246;
+    destroyed Shiraz, 115;
+    built walls at Derbend, 204.
+
+  Alhambra, 25.
+
+  Ali Riza, Imam, 110.
+
+  Allahabad, 258.
+
+  Allahabad rugs described, 258.
+
+  Altai Mts., 29;
+    original home of the Turks, 26.
+
+  Altman, Benjamin, 85.
+
+  Alum, used as a mordant, 40, 41.
+
+  Amritsar, 255, 258.
+
+  Amritsar rugs, 101, 257, 305.
+    Rugs described, 255.
+
+  Amu Daria. _See_ Oxus river.
+
+  Anatolia, 163, 182;
+    the "Land of the Rising Sun," 187.
+
+  Anatolian rugs, 101, 176, 190, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63.
+    Rugs described, 187, 188, 189;
+    border stripes, 195.
+
+  Angora, 27, 185, 187;
+    goat's wool, 32.
+
+  Anilines. _See_ Dyes.
+
+  Animal carpets, 86, 87.
+
+  Anjuman Industrial Art School, 259.
+
+  Anoschar, 76.
+
+  Anti-Taurus Mts., 140, 187, 190.
+
+  Arabia, 24, 29, 32.
+
+  Arabic features in rugs, 85;
+    notation, 296;
+    symbolism in Western Kurdistan rugs, 141.
+
+  Arabs, in Persia, 103;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Ararat, Mt., 103, 219.
+
+  Aras river, 151, 157, 224.
+
+  Ardebil, Persian capital under Ismael, 28;
+    mosque of, 82, 127.
+
+  Ardebil carpet, 15;
+    described, 83, 84.
+
+  Ardelan district, 100, 129, 133, 153.
+
+  Armenia, 209;
+    origin of some Caucasian border stripes of, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Armenian rugs, 91, 170, 209, 220;
+    designs derived from, 64, 65, 67, 209, 214, 215.
+    Rugs described, 91.
+
+  Armenians in Persia, 103;
+    in Mosul, 103.
+
+  Artaxerxes, 103.
+
+  Aryan races, in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 103;
+    in Caucasia, 197;
+    in Turkestan, 234;
+    floral ornamentation employed by, 62.
+
+  Asburg used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Astrabad, 241.
+
+  Astrakan, market for Bokharas, 235;
+    for caravans from Khiva, 240.
+
+  Auctions, 306.
+
+  Ayyampet, 259.
+
+  Azerbijan province, 26, 145, 147, 148, 149, 153.
+
+
+  B
+
+  Baber, Shah, 28.
+
+  Babylon, 23, 24, 74, 102, 103.
+
+  Bagdad, 81, 138, 152;
+    carpets covering the floors of, 25;
+    captured by Tartars, 27,
+    by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Bajazet, defeated by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Karaman subject to, 188.
+
+  Bakshis rugs described, 148.
+
+  Baku, 210, 214.
+
+  Baku rugs, 101, 292;
+    pear design in, 70, 129, 153, 198, 202.
+    Rugs described, 210, 211, 212;
+    border stripes, 229.
+
+  Bangalore, 259, 261.
+
+  Bangalore rugs, 101, 259.
+    Rugs described, 261.
+
+  Barbarossa, Frederic, 181.
+
+  Bardini, Stefano, 85.
+
+  Bastard teak used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Bedouins, 103.
+
+  Belshazzar, 24.
+
+  Beluches, in Kirman, 113;
+    untamed tribes of, 248.
+
+  Beluchistan, 233.
+
+  Beluchistan rugs, 205, 234, 239, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 56, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    geometric designs in, 62;
+    S design in, 64;
+    zigzag line in, 66;
+    reciprocal trefoil in, 160, 230.
+    Rugs described, 248, 249;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Beni-Hassan, tombs of, 74.
+
+  Bergamo rugs, 101, 289, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prevailing colour tone of, 178.
+    Rugs described, 166, 167, 168;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Berlin gallery, 92.
+
+  Beshire rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    zigzag line in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 243;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Bibikabad, town of, 154.
+
+  Bibikabad rugs described, 155.
+
+  Bijar, 129, 136.
+
+  Bijar rugs, 100, 153, 256, 286, 288, 302, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    compared with Persian-Kurdistans and Mosuls, 143.
+    Rugs described, 136, 137;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Birbul's blue used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Bird figures in rugs. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Birdwood, Sir George, cited, 62, 70, 94, 122, 138;
+    quoted, 59, 241, 253, 258, 259, 260.
+
+  Birjand, 108.
+
+  Bishop, Mrs. I. B., quoted, 138.
+
+  Bode, Dr. Wm., cited, 79, 227, 228.
+
+  Bogolubow, A., cited, 233.
+
+  Böhler, J., cited, 79.
+
+  Bokhara, 100, 110, 245;
+    captured by Genghis Khan, 26;
+    the "Noble," 236.
+
+  Bokhara rugs, 100, 243, 305;
+    goat's hair in, 32;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 52, 53.
+
+  Bokhara, Princess, rugs, 101, 233, 235, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 237, 238;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Bokhara, Royal, rugs, 101, 103, 233, 241, 242, 243, 244, 293, 304;
+    compared with Princess, 237;
+    the arch compared with that of Tekkes, 239.
+    Rugs described, 235, 236;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Border stripes, defined, 59;
+    Persian, described, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160;
+    Asia Minor, described, 192, 193, 194, 195;
+    Caucasian, described, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231;
+    Central Asiatic, described, 250, 251;
+    Chinese, described, 273, 274, 275.
+
+  Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 94.
+
+  Brahoes, 248.
+
+  British Museum, 82.
+
+  Broussa, 181.
+    Rugs described, 181.
+
+  Buckthorns used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Buddhism, influence on Asiatic art, 16;
+    on symbolism, 58;
+    the lotus an emblem of, 69.
+
+  Buddhist emblems, 271, 274.
+
+  Burujird, 131.
+
+  Burujird rugs described, 131.
+
+  Butea fondosa used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Butti lac used as a dye, 39.
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cæsarea. _See_ Kaisariyeh.
+
+  Caïcus valley, 166.
+
+  Cairo, Caliphs in, 25;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Caliphate, 20, 76.
+
+  Caliphs, 24, 25, 77, 90, 91, 115;
+    prayer rugs in time of, 85;
+    Ispahan under, 111;
+    Kirman rugs in palaces of, 113;
+    Tabriz rugs known in days of, 145.
+
+  Caliph Hisham, carpet of, 76.
+
+  Camel's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Carduchis, 140.
+
+  Caria. _See_ Melez.
+
+  Chaldees, 23;
+    symbolism derived from, 66.
+
+  Chardin cited, 113.
+
+  Charles Martel, 25.
+
+  Chehel Sutoon, enormous carpet of, 112.
+
+  Che-Hwang-te, 26.
+
+  Chichi rugs, 100, 290, 292;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Kazaks contrasted with, 220.
+    Rugs described, 207, 208;
+    border stripes, 226, 231.
+
+  Chinese fret, 67, 165;
+    influence, 293;
+    medallions, 272, 273.
+
+  Chosroes I, "Spring of Chosroes" carpet made for, 76.
+
+  Chunam wool, 261, 301.
+
+  Churchill, Sidney, A. T., quoted, 131.
+
+  Cinnabar used as a dye, 40, 41.
+
+  Circassians. _See_ Tcherkess.
+
+  Clark, Sir Purdon, cited, 112.
+
+  Clotilde Clam-Gallas, Countess, cited, 80.
+
+  Coccus cacti used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus ilicus used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Coccus lacca used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochineal used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cochran, Wm. Alexander Smith, 86.
+
+  Coconada, 259.
+
+  Colour, the artistic value of, 18;
+    the symbolism of, 59, 72.
+
+  Cone design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Constantinople, 27, 98, 99, 118, 181, 197, 209;
+    Persian weavers taken to, 28;
+    silk carpets sent to Sultan of, 87.
+
+  Conventions in art, 16.
+
+  Cordova, 25.
+
+  Cossacks, 218, 219.
+
+  Cotton, used in weaving 30;
+    mercerized, 30.
+
+  Cow's hair used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Crocus used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Croesus, 163.
+
+  Crown jewel design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Ctesiphon, 76, 102, 103.
+
+  Cufic lettering, in Altman carpet, 85;
+    in borders of Asia Minor and Caucasian rugs, 92, 166, 202, 229;
+    reputed inventor of, 183.
+
+  Cupressus sempervirens used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Curcuma used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Cyrus, 24, 115, 181; Turkestan overrun by, 234.
+
+
+  D
+
+  Daghestan, 198, 206, 214.
+
+  Daghestan rugs, 205, 212, 213, 216, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    effulgent stars in, 91;
+    Cufic borders of, 92;
+    Bergamo prayer arch compared with that of, 167;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    designs in, 211;
+    colour scheme of Shirvans compared with that of, 214;
+    mosaic drawing of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 198, 199, 200;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230.
+
+  Daghestan, Royal, 216.
+
+  Damascus, 17;
+    antique carpets of, 95;
+    Mecca rugs sold in, 118.
+
+  Dari, 211, 257.
+
+  Darius, 215.
+
+  Dekkan, rugs woven in interior of, 259.
+
+  Delhi, 28, 110.
+
+  Demirdji, 164, 176.
+
+  Demirdji rugs described, 176.
+
+  Deodorus, 74.
+
+  Dera Ghazi Khan, 280; Kilims, 281.
+
+  Derbend, 199, 204.
+
+  Derbend rugs described, 204, 205;
+    border stripes, 230.
+
+  Designs, geometric, 62, 64, 185;
+    floral, 62, 64, 68, 185;
+    almond, 70;
+    animal, 89, 83, 91, 112, 114, 126, 137, 165, 200, 211, 213, 225, 248;
+    antilope, 72;
+    arabesques, 71, 79, 81, 83, 94, 104, 156, 175;
+    barber-pole, 117, 118, 119, 153, 182, 200, 215, 229, 242, 246, 251;
+    bat, 71, 266;
+    birds, 71, 87, 91, 119, 114, 137, 165, 229, 246, 270, 292;
+    bird of paradise, 71;
+    butterfly, 71, 246, 266, 269, 270;
+    camel, 72;
+    chessboard, 271;
+    chrysanthemum, 271;
+    cloud-band, 67, 90, 106, 265, 274;
+    cocos, 114;
+    comb, 67, 208, 213, 221;
+    conch, 274;
+    cone, 70;
+    crab, 71;
+    cross, 67, 92, 236, 237;
+    crown jewel, 70, 112;
+    daisy, 64, 69;
+    diamond, 91, 141, 145, 177, 200, 203, 212, 223;
+    djinni, 72;
+    dog, 72, 213;
+    dragon, 71, 246, 266, 268, 273, 274;
+    dragon and phoenix, 92;
+    duck, 71, 81, 87;
+    eagle, 71;
+    Euphrates flower, 69, 189;
+    fish, 165, 246;
+    fung-kwang, 266;
+    fungus, 269;
+    gazelle, 95;
+    goat, 72;
+    Joo-e, 265, 274;
+    key-pattern, 27, 267, 274;
+    knot of destiny, 274;
+    ky-lin, 265;
+    lamp, 165, 170, 182;
+    latch-hook, 67, 74, 117, 145, 155, 167, 169, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186,
+      187, 189, 200, 202, 203, 212, 215, 220, 223, 225, 227, 228, 231,
+      242, 249, 250, 251, 278, 282, 288;
+    lily, 167, 170, 172, 184, 193, 230;
+    lion, 72, 95;
+    lion-dog, 266;
+    lotus, 64, 68, 69, 89, 199;
+    lozenge, 62, 91, 123, 141, 206, 220, 225, 249;
+    lyre, 271;
+    mango, 70;
+    medallion, 60, 86, 87, 104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 121, 123, 126, 134,
+      138, 139, 145, 149, 169, 183, 189, 200, 212, 214, 215, 220, 267,
+      269, 271, 272, 273;
+    moon, 65, 69;
+    octagonal disc, 66, 92, 180, 200, 206, 213, 220, 275; palm, 70;
+    palmette, 70, 71, 89, 90, 94, 106, 121, 177;
+    peacock, 71;
+    pear, 70, 106, 109, 110, 116, 129, 142, 145, 153, 165, 191, 200, 201,
+      207, 218, 219;
+    peony, 104, 270;
+    phoenix, 72;
+    pole-medallion, 117, 152, 179;
+    pomegranate, 69, 167;
+    reciprocal sawtooth, 78, 121, 130, 209, 221, 231;
+    reciprocal trefoil, 121, 130, 160, 165, 208, 215, 221, 249;
+    river loop, 70;
+    rose, 62, 69, 139, 193;
+    rosette, 70, 94, 104, 121, 188, 193, 201, 207, 208, 221, 226, 230,
+      290, 292;
+    running latch-hook, 67, 242;
+    sacred mountain, 265;
+    scorpion, 71;
+    S design, 64, 91, 92, 170, 195, 206, 208, 211, 213, 220;
+    serpent, 71;
+    serrated leaf and wine cup, 64;
+    shield of David, 66;
+    Shou, 266, 272;
+    star, 62, 65, 71, 93, 112, 183, 200, 203;
+    effulgent star, 201, 211;
+    eight-pointed star, 177, 179, 180, 182, 187, 193, 206, 207, 208, 210,
+      213, 220, 236, 244, 246, 250;
+    stork, 71, 266;
+    sun, 65, 66, 69;
+    sunburst, 209, 220, 292;
+    sunflower, 69, 271;
+    swastika, 64, 65, 194, 229, 246, 248, 271, 273;
+    tarantula, 71, 209, 220, 221;
+    tiger, 95;
+    tree, 137;
+    tree of life, 60, 68, 182, 186, 189, 219, 237;
+    tri-cleft leaf, 78, 91, 184, 199, 208, 211, 215, 226;
+    turtle, 71;
+    vandyke, 179, 183, 184, 187, 189, 290;
+    wheel of law, 266;
+    zigzag line, 66, 67.
+
+  Diaper pattern, 102, 263.
+
+  Diarbekr, 141.
+
+  Die Persische NadelmalereiSusandschird,76.
+
+  Distaff, 36.
+
+  Dix, Stewart, quoted, 16.
+
+  Djinni. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Djushaghan. _See_ Joshaghan.
+
+  Domenico di Bartolo, painting of, 92.
+
+  Dragon and Phoenix carpet, 65, 231.
+
+  Dragon carpets, 91, 298.
+
+  Dravidians, 28.
+
+  Dyeing, 37; process of, 42, 43.
+
+  Dyes, 30;
+    of Sultanabad, 131;
+    of Oushak, 174;
+    of Amritsar rugs, 256;
+    Aniline dyes introduced into India, 254, into China, 265;
+    objection to, 299;
+    how to distinguish, 299, 300.
+
+
+  E
+
+  East India Company, 254.
+
+  Ecbatana, 103, 122.
+
+  Elburz Mts., 103.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, Spanish rugs sent to, 25.
+
+  Elizabeth, Queen, 29.
+
+  Elizabethpol, 224.
+
+  Ellore, 259, 260.
+
+  Ellore rugs described, 260.
+
+  El Mirz li alla, Caliph, 77.
+
+  Elwund Mt., 120, 122, 129.
+
+  Encyclopedia Britannica quoted, 140.
+
+  Ends, finish of, 57.
+
+  Esther, Queen, 122.
+
+  Evil eye, superstition of, 59, 168.
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fairs, Oriental, 99.
+
+  Farsistan, wool of, 31;
+    antique carpets from Shiraz, capital of, 115.
+
+  Fatimid Caliphs, 90.
+
+  Feraghan district, 125, 129, 131.
+
+  Feraghan rugs, 100, 132, 133, 142, 147, 153, 156, 285, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 55;
+    small designs in, 60;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    Guli Hinnai pattern of, 105;
+    pattern of Herat rugs compared with that of, 106.
+    Rugs described, 120, 121, 122;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Filling, 52.
+
+  Firdousi, 110.
+
+  Fish pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flame design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Flax used in weaving, 30, 33.
+
+  Floral design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Friedhofteppiche, 172.
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gall nuts used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Ganges river, 17, 258.
+
+  Ganja. _See_ Gengha.
+
+  Gehrous district, 136.
+
+  Gengha, 224.
+
+  Gengha rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54.
+    Rugs described, 224, 225;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Genghis Khan, 26, 78, 198, 234.
+
+  Geok Teppe, 238.
+
+  Geometric pattern. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Georgian pattern, 213, 215, 228, 230, 292.
+
+  Ghiordes, 164, 168, 175, 176, 206.
+
+  Ghiordes rugs, 65, 101, 183, 184, 191, 289, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    Karabaghs compared with, 225.
+    Rugs described, 168, 169, 170, 171;
+    border stripes, 192, 193, 194, 195.
+
+  Gibbon cited, 25.
+
+  Gilan, cloud-band in antique carpets of, 67.
+
+  Girdler's Company, India carpet presented to, 94, 256.
+
+  Goat's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Gobi desert, 21, 26, 29.
+
+  Goodyear, Prof., cited, 69.
+
+  Gorevan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 287, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    turtle border of, 79;
+    patterns of Muskabads resembling those of, 131;
+    relation of Bakshis rugs to, 148;
+    relation of Herez rugs to, 149.
+    Rugs described, 146, 147, 148;
+    border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Gotcha lake, 224.
+
+  Gozene, 156.
+
+  Gozene rugs, 100, 154, 289;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54.
+    Rugs described, 54.
+
+  "Grain of rice" pattern in Chinese rugs, 271.
+
+  Granada, 25.
+
+  Guebres, in Kirman, 113;
+    temple at Baku of, 210.
+
+  Guli Hinnai pattern, 104, 120, 121;
+   illustrated, 291.
+
+  Gulistan rugs, 100, 154, 286.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Gulistan treaty, 203.
+
+  Gyze, Georg, 92.
+
+
+  H
+
+  Hafiz, 115.
+
+  Hair, of cow, 30, 33; of horse, 33.
+
+  Hamadan, 122, 129, 136, 143, 155.
+
+  Hamadan rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52, 53, 54, 55;
+    similarity of some Irans to, 125;
+    similarity of Karajes to, 144;
+    similarity of weave of Kara-Geuz rugs to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 122, 123, 124;
+    border stripes, 157, 159, 160.
+
+  Hang Chow, 266.
+
+  Harris, Henry T., quoted, 40, 260.
+
+  Havell, E. B., cited, 260.
+
+  Hegira, 296.
+
+  Hemp used in weaving, 30, 33, 261, 263.
+
+  Herat, 105, 110, 244, 285;
+    captured by Nadir Shah, 29;
+    so-called Ispahans probably made at, 89, 112.
+
+  Herat rugs, 69, 89, 100;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    cloud-band in antique rugs of, 67;
+    ground colour of, 95;
+    influence on Indian weaving of, 255.
+    Rugs described, 105, 106;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Herati pattern, 89, 94, 104, 106, 108, 109, 112, 120, 121, 129, 132,
+    134, 142, 152,153, 157, 165, 170, 201;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Hereke, 181.
+
+  Hereke rugs described, 181.
+
+  Herez, 149.
+
+  Herez rugs, 101, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+      Rugs described, 149, 150;
+    border stripes, 157.
+
+  Herodotus, 74.
+
+  Herring bone weave, described, 47;
+    in Shemakhas, 216, 217, 292.
+
+  Himalayas, 41.
+
+  Hindu Koosh Mts., 244.
+
+  Hoa, 183.
+
+  Holbein, Hans, 92, 93.
+
+  Holbein rugs, 298;
+    octagonal disc in, 66.
+    Rugs described, 92, 93.
+
+  Homer, 69, 74, 110, 163.
+
+  Hulaku Khan, conquered Persia, 26;
+    Mongolian capital established in Persia by, 78.
+
+  Hunting carpets, 298;
+    symbolism in, 72.
+    Carpets described, 82.
+
+  Hurst, Dr. John, quoted, 257.
+
+  Hyderabad, 259, 262.
+
+  Hyderabad rugs described, 262.
+
+  Hyder Ali, 261.
+
+
+  I
+
+  Ibn Batutah, Meshed visited by, 110.
+
+  Iconium, 181.
+
+  Imari ware, 17.
+
+  Imeritia, 218.
+
+  India Museum, 122.
+
+  Indigo used as a dye, 38, 40.
+
+  Indigofera used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Indus river, 17, 24, 29.
+
+  Irak-Ajemi, 124, 127, 129.
+
+  Iran rugs, 100;
+      similarity in some rugs of the Kara-Geuz district to, 155.
+    Rugs described, 124, 125;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Irtish river, 26.
+
+  Isbarta, 178.
+
+  Iskenderoon gulf, 163.
+
+  Ismael, Shah, established capital at Ardebil, 82;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made during reign of, 84;
+    carpets made at Herat during reign of, 89;
+    Ardebil Mosque carpet made by order of, 127.
+
+  Ispahan, sacked by Tamerlane, 27;
+    Shah Abbas transferred his court to, 29;
+    probability that some of the so-called Ispahans were made at, 89;
+    description of city, 111.
+
+  Ispahan blue, 42.
+
+
+
+  Ispahan rugs, lotus design in, 69;
+      made at Ispahan, 89;
+      sombre tones of, 90;
+      red fields of, 95;
+      blues and reds of the antique, 127;
+      palmettes of the antique, 145.
+    Modern rugs described, 111, 112, 113.
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jahan, Shah, 28; builder of Taj Mahal, 94;
+    Indian rug-weaving declined after death of, 253.
+
+  Jail system of India, 254.
+
+  Jaipur, 255, 259.
+
+  Jaipur rugs described, 259.
+
+  Japan, 17.
+
+  Jhelum river, suggested as origin of pear design, 70;
+    Srinagar on the, 255.
+
+  Joshaghan district, 132.
+
+  Joshaghan rugs, 100, 286, 298;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50.
+    Rugs described, 132, 133;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Jubbulpur, 255, 258.
+
+  Jubbulpur rugs described, 258, 259.
+
+  Jute, used in weaving, 30, 33;
+    in Kulahs, 174;
+    in Vellore rugs, 261;
+    in Bangalore rugs, 262.
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kaaba, 117.
+
+  Kabistan, 199.
+
+  Kabistan rugs, 101, 204, 290, 292, 293, 304;
+      technicalities in weave of, 54;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      effulgent stars of, 91;
+      Cufic borders of, 92;
+      patterns of some Shirvans similar to those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 200, 201, 202;
+      border stripes, 226, 228, 229.
+
+  Kain, 108.
+
+  Kaisariyeh, 190.
+
+  Kaisariyeh rugs described, 190, 191.
+
+  Kaiser Friedrich Museum, 79, 92.
+
+  Kang-hi rugs, 78, 101.
+    Rugs described, 268, 269;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Karabacek, Dr., quoted, 74.
+
+  Karabagh district, 222, 224.
+
+  Karabagh rugs, 101, 290, 292;
+      technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+      illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+      Karadaghs compared with, 151;
+      Shushas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 222, 223.
+
+  Karadagh district, 151.
+
+  Karadagh rugs, 100, 286, 289.
+    Rugs described; border stripes, 157, 158.
+
+  Kara-Geuz district, 155.
+
+  Kara-Geuz rugs, 100, 154.
+    Rugs described, 155.
+
+  Karaje rugs, 100, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 143, 144.
+
+  Kara Kum desert, 241.
+
+  Karaman, 188.
+
+  Karaman rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 188.
+    Kilims, 278, 279.
+
+  Kashan, 115, 127, 155.
+
+  Kashan rugs, 100, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 35, 51, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    pattern of Sarouks like that of, 134;
+    correspondence of some rugs of Tabriz with, 145.
+    Rugs described, 127, 128, 129;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Kashgar rugs, 101, 234, 282, 292.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248.
+
+  Kashmir, 70, 255;
+    goat's wool of, 32, 114.
+
+  Katchli, derivation of, 237;
+    pattern used in Tekkes, 239, 293.
+
+  Kazak rugs, 101, 290, 292, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141;
+    Afshars compared with, 155;
+    Yuruks compared with, 191;
+    Tcherkess compared with, 209;
+    Kutais compared with, 222;
+    Genghas compared with, 224.
+    Rugs described, 219, 220, 221, 222;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229.
+
+  Kazakje, 220.
+
+  Kea-king dynasty, 272.
+    Rugs described, 272.
+
+  Keen-lung dynasty. Rugs described, 270, 271, 272;
+    border stripes, 274, 275;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Kenares defined, 97.
+
+  Kerim, Khan, 115;
+    royal patronage of weaving at Shiraz under, 116.
+
+  Kermanshah, 83, 129, 138.
+
+  Kermanshah rugs, 134, 137, 147, 160, 285, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 52;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146;
+    Amritsars mistaken for, 256.
+    Rugs described, 138, 139, 140;
+    border stripes, 38.
+
+  Kermes used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Key pattern, 27.
+
+  Khali defined, 97.
+
+  Khibitkas, defined, 238;
+    rugs made for doors of, 239.
+
+  Khiva, 110, 240, 241, 244.
+
+  Khiva rugs, 100, 233, 235, 242, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61.
+    Rugs described, 240, 241;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Khorassan, 107, 115, 127;
+    wool of, 31;
+    Herats made in, 106;
+    Kurdistans in, 141;
+    Yomuds in, 241.
+
+  Khorassan rugs, 60, 100, 117, 288;
+    left-hand knots in, 48;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    resemblance of Mesheds to, 110.
+    Rugs described, 107, 108, 109, 110;
+    border stripes, 156.
+
+  Khotan, 278.
+
+  Kidderminster, 260.
+
+  Kilims, earliest rugs similar to, 75;
+    pattern in Shirvan, 227.
+    Kilims described, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281.
+
+  King-te Chin, 300.
+
+  Kirghiz, steppes, 235;
+    tribes, 240.
+
+  Kirman, 113, 115, 203, 206, 248;
+    wool of, 31;
+    carpets made during Caliphate at, 90;
+    early weavers taken to Asia Minor from, 181.
+
+  Kirman rugs, 100, 285, 297, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 50, 51, 53;
+    resemblance of Kermanshahs to, 138;
+    flowers in Tabriz rugs compared with those of, 145;
+    some old Bergamos as valuable as, 167.
+    Rugs described, 113, 114, 115;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Kirmans, Turkish, 174.
+
+  Kir-Shehr, 185.
+
+  Kir-Shehr rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    prayer arches of Bergamos compared with those of, 167;
+    prayer arches of Ladiks compared with those of, 183;
+    often called Anatolian, 187;
+    prayer arches of Mudjars compared with those of, 189;
+    prayer arches of Tuzlas compared with those of, 190.
+    Rugs described, 185, 186;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Kis-kilims, 280.
+
+  Kizil Arvat, 241.
+
+  Kizil Irmak river, 185, 189.
+
+  Kizil Kum, "desert of red sands," 235.
+
+  Knights of St. John, 28, 179.
+
+  Knots, Ghiordes, 48;
+    Sehna, 48;
+    right-hand, 48;
+    left-hand, 48;
+    peculiarities of, 48;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Konieh, 188, 190.
+
+  Konieh rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    resemblance in pattern of Kir-Shehrs to that of, 186;
+    prayer arches of Anatolians compared with those of, 187.
+    Rugs described, 181, 182, 183;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Koran, 72.
+
+  Kuba, 199, 202.
+
+  Kuba rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+    Rugs described, 202, 203, 204;
+    border stripes, 228.
+
+  Kublai Khan, 266.
+
+  Kulah, 164, 171, 174.
+
+  Kulah rugs, 101, 289, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 64;
+    lily pattern in, 167;
+    Ghiordes rugs adopting border of, 171;
+    geometric leaf of, 180;
+    prayer arch of Koniehs compared with those of, 186.
+    Rugs described, 171, 172, 173, 174;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Kur valley, 207, 214.
+
+  Kurdistan, Persian, rugs, 100, 286, 287;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    Mina Khani pattern characteristic of, 105;
+    Western Kurdistans compared with, 141.
+    Rugs described, 142, 143;
+    border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+  Kurdistan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 53, 57;
+    Karajes compared with, 143;
+    ground colour of some Mosuls similar to that of, 154;
+    some Kara-Geuz rugs similar to, 155.
+
+  Kurdistan, Western, rugs, 100, 286;
+      described, 140, 141, 142.
+    Kilims, 280.
+
+  Kurds, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 145, 187, 191;
+    located at Ak-kal by Shah of Persia, 238.
+
+  Kutais, 218.
+
+  Kutais rugs, technicalities in weave of, 53.
+    Rugs described, 218, 219;
+      border stripes, 227, 229.
+
+  Kutayah, 176.
+
+  Kutayah rugs described, 176.
+
+
+  L
+
+  Lacquer, 17.
+
+  Ladik rugs, 101, 167, 289, 290, 304;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    pomegranate design in, 70;
+    border stripe of Melez rugs similar to that of, 177;
+    vandykes of Rhodian rugs resembling those of, 179;
+    nap of, 186;
+    Kir-Shehr panels compared with those of, 187;
+    vandykes in Mudjars borrowed from, 189.
+    Rugs described, 183, 184;
+    border stripes, 193, 194.
+
+  Lahore, 255, 256;
+    royal factory at, 94.
+
+  Lahore rugs, 101, 305.
+    Rugs described, 256, 257.
+
+  Landor, Henry Savage, quoted, 300.
+
+  Laristan border stripe, 157.
+
+  Latch-hooks. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Latimer, C., quoted, 281.
+
+  Lattice-work pattern, 119, 121, 133, 134, 137, 204.
+
+  Lemons used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Lesghian rugs, 101, 199, 290.
+    Rugs described, 206, 207.
+
+  Lesghian tribes, 206, 207.
+
+  Limes used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Linen, in Sehnas, 135;
+    in Tabriz, 146;
+    in Ghiordes, 171;
+    in Sarouks, 127;
+    in Kashans, 128.
+
+  Loom, described, 44;
+    illustrated, 45.
+
+  Lotus. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Luristan rugs, 286;
+    technicalities in weave of, 55.
+
+
+  M
+
+  Madder used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Madras, 259.
+
+  Madras rugs described, 259, 260.
+
+  Mahal rugs, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    similar to Muskabads, 131, 132.
+
+  Maharajah, 259.
+
+  Makimonos, 180.
+
+  Makri rugs, 180.
+
+  Maksoud, 84, 127, 128.
+
+  Malek Shah made Ispahan the capital of Persia, 26.
+
+  Malgaran, 246.
+
+  Manchoos, 268.
+
+  Mangishlar peninsula, 238.
+
+  Marco Polo, referred to Armenian carpets, 91;
+    referred to Kirman weavings, 113;
+    visited Kashgar, 247.
+
+  Marsulipatam, 259, 260.
+
+  Marsulipatam rugs described, 260.
+
+  Martin, Dr. F. R., quoted and cited, 74, 77, 79, 81, 82, 89, 90, 116,
+    227.
+
+  Maya ruins, swastika on, 65.
+
+  Mecca, 77, 98;
+    pilgrimages to, 99;
+    bit of earth from, 221, 223.
+
+  Mecca rugs, 117, 118.
+
+  Medallions. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Medes, 23, 24, 66, 234.
+
+  Medina, 77, 296.
+
+  Melez rugs, 101, 290;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    sometimes called Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 176, 177, 178;
+    border stripes, 193, 195.
+
+  Mersherski, 88.
+
+  Merv Kilims, 280, 281.
+
+  Meshed, pilgrimages to, 99, 108.
+
+  Meshed rugs, 100, 147, 217, 288, 301.
+    Rugs described, 110, 111;
+    border stripes, 158.
+
+  Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; rugs exhibited in, 78, 79, 80,
+    82, 85, 86, 91, 93.
+
+  Michelangelo, 16.
+
+  Mina Khan, 105.
+
+  Mina Khani pattern, 105, 142, 152, 249;
+    illustrated, 291.
+
+  Ming dynasty, 78, 81, 266, 268;
+    coat of arms of, 92.
+
+  Ming rugs, 101, 298.
+    Rugs described, 266.
+
+  Mirabad, 130.
+
+  Mirror backs in Chinese rugs, 267, 272, 273.
+
+  Mir-Sarabend. _See_ Sarabend.
+
+  Mirzapur, 255, 258.
+
+  Mirzapur rugs described, 258.
+
+  Mohair, 174.
+
+  Mohammed, 24;
+    epithet applied to Guli Hinnaiby, 104.
+
+  Mohammedans, 98, 103, 113, 237, 257;
+    dominant in Southwestern Asia, 25;
+    invaded India, 28;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110;
+    prejudice against depicting animals by Sunnite, 165;
+    Caucasia invaded by, 198;
+    influence on weaving by, 58, 270.
+
+  Mongols, captured Bagdad, 26;
+    gained foothold in India, 28;
+    in Persia, 62;
+    in Caucasia, 198;
+    overran Turkestan, 234.
+
+  Mordants, 40.
+
+  Mordecai, 122.
+
+  Moslems, 70;
+    preserved art treasures, 76;
+    green sacred to, 85.
+
+  Mosul district, 152.
+
+  Mosul rugs, 101, 286, 287, 302, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52;
+    Western Kurdistans confused with, 141;
+    Persian Kurdistan and Bijar rugs compared with, 143;
+    resemblance of weave of some Gozene rugs with that of, 156.
+    Rugs described, 152, 153, 154;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Mt. Ararat, 103, 219.
+
+  Mt. Ida, 163.
+
+  Mt. Kazbek, 206.
+
+  Mt. Olympus, 181, 191.
+
+  Mudjar, 189.
+
+  Mudjar rugs, 101, 290;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 63;
+    frequently classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 189, 190;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Multan, 255.
+
+  Multan rugs described, 257.
+
+  Mumford, John Kimberly, cited, v, 67.
+
+  Musée des Arts Decoratifs, 79.
+
+  Muskabad district, 131.
+
+  Muskabad rugs, 100, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 131, 132;
+      border stripes, 157, 159.
+
+
+  N
+
+  Nadir Shah, Afghans defeated by, 29;
+    influence of, 103;
+    art decadence following capture of Herat by, 106;
+    destruction of Herat by, 110;
+    weavers removed to Northern Persia by, 113, 132;
+    Shemakha almost destroyed by, 214;
+    Shusha built by, 224;
+    overthrow of Mogul dominion by, 254.
+
+  Namads, 115, 122.
+
+  Namazlik, 98, 150.
+
+  Netsukés, 17.
+
+  Nigde, 190.
+
+  Nigde rugs, 101;
+   classed as Anatolians, 187.
+   Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Nijni Novgorod, 235.
+
+  Nimrod, 23.
+
+  Nineveh, 23, 102;
+    drawings on walls of, 74;
+    Mosul near ruins of, 152.
+
+  Niris lake, wool obtained near, 31.
+
+  Niris rugs, 100, 204, 286, 287, 304.
+    Rugs described, 119, 120.
+
+  Nizami manuscript determining age of Hunting Carpets, 82.
+
+  Nomadic influence, 106;
+    characteristics in rugs, 134; rugs, 58, 153.
+
+
+  O
+
+  Oak gall, used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Odjalik, 97.
+
+  Omar Khayyam, 108, 110.
+
+  Onosma echioides used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Orenburg, 235, 240.
+
+  Oriental art, 16.
+
+  Ottoman Turks, 27, 28.
+
+  Oushak, city and district, 164, 176.
+
+  Oushak rugs, type of modern, 94;
+    evidences of Persian treatment in, 166.
+    Rugs described, 174, 175.
+
+  Outer edging in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Hamadans, 123;
+    in Sarouks, 126;
+    in Bijars, 137;
+    in Kermanshahs, 139;
+    in Mosuls, 153.
+
+  Overcasting of sides; weft overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double overcasting described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Oxus river (Amu Daria), 23, 24, 235, 238, 240, 243, 244.
+
+
+  P
+
+  Palais de Commerce at Lyons, 80.
+
+  Palm design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pamir plateau, sheep of, 31;
+    mountains of, 235.
+
+  Paropamisus Mts., 235.
+
+  Parsees, 103;
+    symbolism derived from fire worship of, 58, 71;
+    at Baku, 211.
+
+  Parthians, 24.
+
+  Patna rugs, 101.
+
+  Paul, St., 166, 181.
+
+  Pear design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pergamus, 166, 168.
+
+  Persepolis, 103.
+
+  Phasis river, 197.
+
+  Pile of rugs, 47.
+
+  Pliny, 74.
+
+  Polish silk carpets, reciprocal trefoils in, 65;
+    Chinese cloud-bands in, 67;
+    lotus in, 69.
+    Carpets described, 88;
+    bright hues of, 90.
+
+  Polonaise carpets. _See_ Polish silk.
+
+  Pomegranate. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Pomegranate rind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Porter, Sir Robert Kerr, quoted, 106, 138.
+
+  Prayer arches, 60, 62;
+    illustrated, 61, 63.
+
+  Prayer rugs. _See_ Namazlik.
+
+  Priam, 166.
+
+  Prometheus, 197.
+
+  Punjab, 255, 256, 257.
+
+
+  R
+
+  Ratanjot used as a dye, 16.
+
+  Rembrandt, 16.
+
+  Rhodes, Isle of, 28, 178.
+
+  Rhodian rugs, 101, 289.
+    Rugs described, 178, 179, 180;
+    border stripes, 193.
+
+  Rion river, 218.
+
+  River loop. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Robinson, Vincent, cited, 80, 81, 86, 88, 254, 258, 259.
+
+  Rubens, 16.
+
+  Rubia cordifolia used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Rubia tinctorum used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Runners, 97.
+
+  Ruskin, John, quoted, 18.
+
+
+  S
+
+  Saadi, 115.
+
+  Saddle-bags, 117, 135, 249.
+
+  Safavid dynasty, 29, 81, 83, 84, 85, 89, 103.
+
+  Saffron used as a dye, 39.
+
+  Salors, 233.
+
+  Samarkand, capital of Tamerlane, 27;
+    the "Mirror of the World," 245.
+
+  Samarkand rugs, 101, 233, 265, 282, 293;
+      technicalities in weave of, 50;
+      swastika in, 65.
+    Rugs described, 245, 246, 247;
+      border stripes, 251.
+
+  Samo-Kien, 246.
+
+  Sarabend rugs, 285, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    pear design of, 70, 116, 119, 144, 153;
+    turtle border in, 71;
+    pile of, 133.
+    Rugs described, 129, 130;
+    border stripes, 158, 160.
+    Mir-Sarabends, 130.
+    Royal Sarabends, 130.
+
+  Saracenic art, 21;
+    influence, 58, 80, 88, 166.
+
+  Saracens, carpet weaving introduced into India by, 94;
+    Persia under dominion of, 103;
+    Baku in possession of, 210.
+
+  Saraks, town of, 136, 238.
+
+  Sarawan district, 129, 131.
+
+  Sarouk, 125.
+
+  Sarouk rugs, 134, 285, 286, 288, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 52, 53, 55;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    animal carpet with weave similar to that of, 86;
+    corners of Khorassans compared with those of, 109;
+    patterns of Bijars compared with those of, 137.
+    Tabriz rugs compared with, 145, 146.
+    Rugs described, 125, 126, 127;
+    border stripes, 160.
+
+  Sassanides, Kingdom of, 24;
+    elaborate carpets made during rule of, 74;
+    capture of capital of, 75.
+
+  Savalans, 131.
+
+  Sedjadeh, 97.
+
+  Sehna, 48, 129, 133.
+
+  Sehna rugs, 100, 286, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51, 54;
+    medallions of, 60;
+    turtle border in, 71.
+    Herati design in Persian Kurdistans borrowed from, 142.
+    Rugs described, 133, 134, 135;
+    border stripes, 157, 158, 159.
+
+  Sehna kilims, 278.
+
+  Seljukian Turks, effect on art, 26;
+    powerful in Asia Minor, 27;
+    overthrow by Genghis Khan, 78;
+    invasion of Southern Persia by, 90;
+    monuments in Armenia of, 91;
+    dominion in Persia of, 103;
+    Konieh surrendered to, 181.
+
+  Selvage, weft selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    double selvage described, 55, 56;
+    illustrated, 49;
+    mixed selvage described, 56.
+
+  Serapi rugs, 285;
+      turtle border in, 71.
+    Rugs described, 148, 149;
+      border stripes, 157.
+
+  Shah Abbas pattern, 198, 206.
+
+  Shemakha, city of, 214.
+
+  Shemakha rugs, 101, 290, 292.
+   Rugs described, 216, 217;
+      border-stripes, 228.
+
+  Shield of David. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Shiites, 58;
+    animal designs permitted by, 72;
+    Meshed sacred to, 110.
+
+  Shiraz, wool of, 31;
+    city of, 115.
+
+  Shiraz rugs, 100, 286, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    latch-hooks in, 67;
+    resemblance of Niris rugs to, 119;
+    pear design of Kabistans similar to those of, 201;
+    wool of Tiflis rugs suggests that of, 217.
+    Rugs described, 115, 116, 117, 118;
+    border stripes, 158;
+    saddle-bags, 117.
+
+  Shirvan district conquered by Solyman the Magnificent, 28.
+
+  Shirvan rugs, 101, 290, 292, 293, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    design of Shiraz rugs similar to that of, 117;
+    weave of Kabistans compared with that of, 201;
+    pattern of Chichis resembling that of, 207;
+    geometric design of Bakus seen in, 211;
+    some patterns of Genghas similar to those of, 225.
+    Rugs described, 212, 213, 214;
+    border stripes, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231.
+    Kilims, 278.
+
+  Shusha, 224.
+
+  Shusha rugs, 101, 290.
+    Rugs described, 224.
+
+  Sides, finish of, 55; illustrated, 49.
+
+  Silk, used for weaving, 33;
+    indigenous to Asia, 33;
+    cultivated at Kashgar and Yarkand, 247;
+    used in Kirmans, 114;
+    in Yezd rugs, 115;
+    in Hamadans, 122;
+    in Kashans, 128;
+    in Sehnas, 134, 135;
+    in Ghiordes, 178;
+    in Hereke rugs, 181;
+    in Kaisariyeh rugs, 190;
+    in Royal Bokharas, 236.
+
+  Silk carpets, sent to Sultan of Constantinople, 87;
+    made at Kashan, 128.
+
+  Sindh, 255, 259.
+
+  Sindh rugs described, 259.
+
+  Sirab, village of, 148.
+
+  Sivas, Seljukian gate at, 170;
+    city of, 188.
+
+  Sivas rugs described, 188, 189.
+
+  Smyrna, 164, 175, 176;
+    Yuruks at, 191.
+
+  Smyrna rugs, 101;
+    Broussa rugs compared with those of, 181;
+    Indian rugs compared with those of, 254.
+    Rugs described, 176.
+
+  Solyman, King, the ring of, 66;
+    pomegranates cultivated in days of, 69;
+    his emblem of an eight-pointed star, 158.
+
+  Solyman the Magnificent, Iran threatened by, 28;
+    weavers taken to Asia Minor by, 94, 175.
+
+  Soumak rugs, 290, 292;
+    weave of, 47;
+    designs of cross in, 67;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91, 209;
+    Kubas and Shemakhas compared with, 203;
+    patterns of Shirvans compared with those of, 213.
+    Rugs described, 214, 215, 216;
+    border stripes, 228, 230.
+
+  Sousa, reciprocal sawtooth on monuments of, 231.
+
+  South Kensington Museum, 15, 83, 259.
+
+  Spanish rugs sent to Queen Eleanor, 25.
+
+  Sparta rugs. _See_ Isbarta.
+
+  Spindle, 34, 35.
+
+  Spinning, 34, 35.
+
+  Spring of Chosroes carpet described, 76.
+
+  Srinagar, 70, 255.
+
+  Srinagar rugs described, 255.
+
+  Stebbing, Edward, cited, 82;
+    quoted, 83, 84.
+
+  St. Sophia, 19, 28.
+
+  Star design. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Stein, Dr. M. A., cited, 278.
+
+  Strabo, 74.
+
+  Stripes. _See_ Border.
+
+  Suj-Bulak, town of, 150.
+
+  Suj-Bulak rugs, 286.
+    Rugs described, 150, 151.
+
+  Sulphate of iron used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sulphate of tin used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Sultanabad, 129, 131, 132.
+
+  Sultanabad rugs, 286;
+      Indian rugs compared with those of, 254, 256.
+    Rugs described, 131.
+
+  Sumach used as a dye, 38.
+
+  Sumerians, 23.
+
+  Sung dynasty, 266.
+
+  Sunnites opposed to depicting animal figures, 58, 72, 91, 99, 165, 254.
+
+  Swastika. Illustrated, 291. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Symbols in colours and designs, 18, 19, 20, 58, 59, 72.
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tabriz, 136, 145, 148, 151, 227;
+    captured by Solyman the Magnificent, 28, 94;
+    dyers from, 40;
+    an important art centre, 89;
+    a mart for rugs, 99;
+    Herat carpets in hall of governor at, 106.
+
+  Tabriz rugs, 286, 287, 288, 297, 301, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53, 55;
+    Chinese cloud-band in, 67;
+    medallions of Herez rugs similar to those of, 149.
+    Rugs described, 145, 146.
+
+  Taj Mahal, 94, 257.
+
+  Tak-i-Bostan, rock-carved sculptures of, 83.
+
+  Tamara, Queen, 197, 198.
+
+  Tamarind used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Tamasp, Shah, 28, 82, 169;
+    Ardebil carpet finished during reign of, 84;
+    silk rugs made during reign of, 87;
+    Herat an important art centre during time of, 89;
+    Tabriz carpets woven during reign of, 145.
+
+  Tamerlane, 172, 254;
+    Mongols united by, 27;
+    Ispahan sacked by, 111;
+    artists gathered at Samarkand by, 234;
+    Samarkand made capital by, 246;
+    Multan captured by, 257.
+
+  Tang dynasty, 266.
+
+  Tanjore district, 259.
+
+  Taoist symbols, 271.
+
+  Tao-Kwang, 272. Rugs described, 272.
+
+  "Tapis de l'Asie Centrale" quoted, 233.
+
+  Tartars, 26, 220;
+    Turkestan conquered by, 234.
+
+  Tartary, 31, 32.
+
+  Tchechen. _See_ Chichi.
+
+  Tcherkess (Circassian) rugs, 290, 292, 304, 305;
+    technicalities in weave of, 54;
+    tri-cleft leaf in, 91;
+    long nap of Western Kurdistans similar to that of, 141;
+    sunburst pattern of Kazaks similar to that of, 220.
+    Rugs described, 208, 209, 210;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tcherkess tribes, 209.
+
+  Teheran, 138;
+    caravans to Meshed from, 110.
+
+  Teheran rugs described, 154, 155.
+
+  Tekke, derivation of name, 238.
+
+  Tekke rugs, 101, 233, 293;
+    illustration of prayer arch of, 61;
+    S design in, 65;
+    selvage at sides of Beluchistans similar to that of, 235;
+    similarity in colours of Yomuds and those of, 242;
+    designs in Afghans and Yomuds similar to those of, 244.
+    Rugs described, 238, 239, 240;
+    border stripes, 250, 251.
+
+  Terek valley, 207, 208.
+
+  Terminalia citrina used as a dye, 40.
+
+  Tiflis, overrun by Seljukian Turks, 26;
+    mart for rugs, 99;
+    caravans from Tabriz to, 145;
+    capital of Georgia, 217.
+
+  Tiflis rugs, 298;
+    technicalities in weave of, 53;
+    resemblance between weave of Kutais and that of, 219.
+    Rugs described, 217, 218;
+    border stripes, 227.
+
+  Tiger skin pattern, 267.
+
+  Timurids, invasion of, 103, 136;
+    designs due to, 80, 166.
+
+  Titian, 16.
+
+  Toledo, 17.
+
+  Toon, 108.
+
+  Trebizond, 145, 163.
+
+  Turanian races, geometric designs among, 62.
+
+  Turkish Kilims, 280.
+
+  Turmeric used as a dye, 41.
+
+  Turtle border, 121, 132, 157;
+    probable origin of, 71, 79.
+
+  Tuz Gul, lake, 187, 190.
+
+  Tuzla rugs sometimes classed as Anatolians, 187.
+    Rugs described, 190.
+
+  Type characteristics, not invariable, v;
+    term defined, 107.
+
+
+  U
+
+  Urumiah lake, 150, 155, 224.
+
+  Uzbeck Tartars, care of sheep by, 31.
+
+
+  V
+
+  Valonia used as a mordant, 40.
+
+  Value of antique carpets, 15, 16, 304.
+
+  Vambery, Prof., cited, 241.
+
+  Van lake, 141, 152, 224.
+
+  Vandykes. _See_ Designs.
+
+  Vellore, 259, 261.
+
+  Vellore rugs described, 261.
+
+  Victoria and Albert Museum, 93.
+
+  Vienna publication of Oriental carpets, 80, 259.
+
+
+  W
+
+  Warangal, 259, 262.
+
+  Warangal rugs described, 262.
+
+  Warp, arrangement on loom, 46;
+    characteristics of, 51, 52;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  Washing, materials for weaving, 33, 34, 36;
+    artificial, 300, 301.
+
+  Weaving described, 46, 47;
+    illustrated, 49.
+
+  "Wedding of the Foundling," 92.
+
+  Weft, arrangement of, 47;
+    technical characteristics of, 52, 53, 54, 55.
+
+  Whirling Dervishes, at Konieh, 181.
+
+  Williams, C. F., 78, 79, 93.
+
+  Whistler cited, 17.
+
+  Wise men of the East, 127.
+
+  Wool, of the camel, 30, 32, 124, 153, 249;
+    of the goat, 30, 31, 142, 241, 245, 249;
+    of sheep, 30, 31;
+    of the yak, 30, 33;
+    spinning, 33;
+    washing, 33, 36.
+
+
+  X
+
+  Xenophon, 99, 140, 181.
+
+  Xerxes, 115.
+
+
+  Y
+
+  Yak's hair. _See_ Wool.
+
+  Yaprak, 175.
+
+  Yarkand, 247.
+
+  Yarkand rugs, 234, 265, 282, 293.
+    Rugs described, 247, 248;
+    border stripes, 251.
+
+  Yarn, 35.
+
+  Yerkes sale, 15, 82, 86, 304, 306.
+
+  Yezd, 110, 115, 222.
+
+  Yezd rugs described, 115.
+
+  Yomud rugs, 205, 233, 235, 293, 304;
+    colour scheme of Beshires similar to that of, 243.
+    Rugs described, 241, 242;
+    border stripes, 250, 251;
+    saddle-bags, 242.
+
+  Yomud tribes, 235;
+    robbed of their land by Tekkes, 231, 241.
+
+  Yuan dynasty, 266.
+
+  Yung-ching, 269.
+
+  Yung-ching rugs described, 269, 270;
+    border stripes, 274;
+    medallions, 273.
+
+  Yuruk rugs, 289, 290, 304;
+    technicalities in weave of, 51.
+    Rugs described, 191, 192;
+    border stripes, 194.
+
+  Yuruk tribes, 155, 163, 191, 220.
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zabalpur rugs, 101.
+
+  Zagros Mts., 21, 103, 140.
+
+  Zarafshan river, 245.
+
+  Zoroaster, 18, 58, 210.
+
+  Zoroastrians, 69.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Oriental Rugs, by Walter A. Hawley
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