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diff --git a/39700.txt b/39700.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b508472 --- /dev/null +++ b/39700.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9898 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 14, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 14, Slice 8 + "Isabnormal Lines" to "Italic" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 15, 2012 [EBook #39700] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 14 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek + letters. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME XIV, SLICE VIII + + ISABNORMAL LINES to ITALIC + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + ISABNORMAL LINES ISMAIL HADJI MAULVI-MOHAMMED + ISAEUS ISMAILIA + ISAIAH ISMAY, THOMAS HENRY + ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF ISMID, or ISNIKMID + ISANDHLWANA ISNARD, MAXIMIN + ISAR ISOBAR + ISATIN ISOCLINIC LINES + ISAURIA ISOCRATES + ISCHIA ISODYNAMIC LINES + ISCHL ISOGONIC LINES + ISEO, LAKE OF ISOLA DEL LIRI + ISERE (river in France) ISOMERISM + ISERE (department of France) ISOTHERM + ISERLOHN ISOXAZOLES + ISFAHAN ISRAEL + ISHIM ISRAELI, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON + ISHMAEL ISRAELS, JOSEF + ISHPEMING ISSACHAR + ISHTAR ISSEDONES + ISHTIB ISSERLEIN, ISRAEL + ISIDORE OF ALEXANDRIA ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL + ISIDORE OF SEVILLE ISSOIRE + ISINGLASS ISSOUDUN + ISIS ISSYK-KUL + ISKELIB ISTAHBANAT + ISLA, JOSE FRANCISCO DE ISTHMUS + ISLAM ISTRIA + ISLAMABAD ISYLLUS + ISLAND ITACOLUMITE + ISLAY ITAGAKI, TAISUKE + ISLES OF THE BLEST ITALIAN LANGUAGE + ISLINGTON ITALIAN LITERATURE + ISLIP ITALIAN WARS + ISLY ITALIC + ISMAIL + + + + +ISABNORMAL (or ISANOMALOUS) LINES, in physical geography, lines upon a +map or chart connecting places having an abnormal temperature. Each +place has, theoretically, a proper temperature due to its latitude, and +modified by its configuration. Its mean temperature for a particular +period is decided by observation and called its normal temperature. +Isabnormal lines may be used to denote the variations due to warm winds +or currents, great altitudes or depressions, or great land masses as +compared with sea. Or they may be used to indicate the abnormal result +of weather observations made in an area such as the British Isles for a +particular period. + + + + +ISAEUS (c. 420 B.C.-c. 350 B.C.), Attic orator, the chronological limits +of whose extant work fall between the years 390 and 353 B.C., is +described in the Plutarchic life as a Chalcidian; by Suidas, whom +Dionysius follows, as an Athenian. The accounts have been reconciled by +supposing that his family sprang from the settlement ([Greek: +klerouchia]) of Athenian citizens among whom the lands of the Chalcidian +_hippobotae_ (knights) had been divided about 509 B.C. In 411 B.C. +Euboea (except Oreos) revolted from Athens; and it would not have been +strange if residents of Athenian origin had then migrated from the +hostile island to Attica. Such a connexion with Euboea would explain the +non-Athenian name Diagoras which is borne by the father of Isaeus, while +the latter is said to have been "an Athenian by descent" ([Greek: +Athenaios to genos]). So far as we know, Isaeus took no part in the +public affairs of Athens. "I cannot tell," says Dionysius, "what were +the politics of Isaeus--or whether he had any politics at all." Those +words strikingly attest the profound change which was passing over the +life of the Greek cities. It would have been scarcely possible, fifty +years earlier, that an eminent Athenian with the powers of Isaeus should +have failed to leave on record some proof of his interest in the +political concerns of Athens or of Greece. But now, with the decline of +personal devotion to the state, the life of an active citizen had ceased +to have any necessary contact with political affairs. Already we are at +the beginning of that transition which is to lead from the old life of +Hellenic citizenship to that Hellenism whose children are citizens of +the world. + +Isaeus (who was born probably about 420 B.C.) is believed to have been +an early pupil of Isocrates, and he certainly was a student of Lysias. A +passage of Photius has been understood as meaning that personal +relations had existed between Isaeus and Plato, but this view appears +erroneous.[1] The profession of Isaeus was that of which Antiphon had +been the first representative at Athens--that of a [Greek: logographos], +who composed speeches which his clients were to deliver in the +law-courts. But, while Antiphon had written such speeches chiefly (as +Lysias frequently) for public causes, it was with private causes that +Isaeus was almost exclusively concerned. The fact marks the progressive +subdivision of labour in his calling, and the extent to which the +smaller interests of private life now absorbed the attention of the +citizen. + +The most interesting recorded event in the career of Isaeus is one which +belongs to its middle period--his connexion with Demosthenes. Born in +384 B.C., Demosthenes attained his civic majority in 366. At this time +he had already resolved to prosecute the fraudulent guardians who had +stripped him of his patrimony. In prospect of such a legal contest, he +could have found no better ally than Isaeus. That the young Demosthenes +actually resorted to his aid is beyond reasonable doubt. But the +pseudo-Plutarch embellishes the story after his fashion. He says that +Demosthenes, on coming of age, took Isaeus into his house, and studied +with him for four years--paying him the sum of 10,000 drachmas (about +L400), on condition that Isaeus should withdraw from a school of +rhetoric which he had opened, and devote himself wholly to his new +pupil. The real Plutarch gives us a more sober and a more probable +version. He simply states that Demosthenes "employed Isaeus as his +master in rhetoric, though Isocrates was then teaching, either (as some +say) because he could not pay Isocrates the prescribed fee of ten minae, +or because he preferred the style of Isaeus for his purpose, as being +_vigorous and astute_" ([Greek: drasterion kai panourgon]). It may be +observed that, except by the pseudo-Plutarch, a school of Isaeus is not +mentioned,--for a notice in Plutarch need mean no more than that he had +written a textbook, or that his speeches were read in schools;[2] nor is +any other pupil named. As to Demosthenes, his own speeches against +Aphobus and Onetor (363-362 B.C.) afford the best possible gauge of the +sense and the measure in which he was the disciple of Isaeus; the +intercourse between them can scarcely have been either very close or +very long. The date at which Isaeus died can only be conjectured from +his work; it may be placed about 350 B.C. + + Isaeus has a double claim on the student of Greek literature. He is + the first Greek writer who comes before us as a consummate master of + strict forensic controversy. He also holds a most important place in + the general development of practical oratory, and therefore in the + history of Attic prose. Antiphon marks the beginning of that + development, Demosthenes its consummation. Between them stand Lysias + and Isaeus. The open, even ostentatious, art of Antiphon had been + austere and rigid. The concealed art of Lysias had charmed and + persuaded by a versatile semblance of natural grace and simplicity. + Isaeus brings us to a final stage of transition, in which the gifts + distinctive of Lysias were to be fused into a perfect harmony with + that masterly art which receives its most powerful expression in + Demosthenes. Here, then, are the two cardinal points by which the + place of Isaeus must be determined. We must consider, first, his + relation to Lysias; secondly, his relation to Demosthenes. + + A comparison of Isaeus and Lysias must set out from the distinction + between choice of words ([Greek: lexis]) and mode of putting words + together ([Greek: synthesis]). In choice of words, _diction_, Lysias + and Isaeus are closely alike. Both are clear, pure, simple, concise; + both have the stamp of persuasive plainness ([Greek: apheleia]), and + both combine it with graphic power ([Greek: enargeia]). In mode of + putting words together, _composition_, there is, however a striking + difference. Lysias threw off the stiff restraints of the earlier + periodic style, with its wooden monotony; he is too fond indeed of + antithesis always to avoid a rigid effect; but, on the whole, his + style is easy, flexible and various; above all, its subtle art usually + succeeds in appearing natural. Now this is just what the art of Isaeus + does not achieve. With less love of antithesis than Lysias, and with a + diction almost equally pure and plain, he yet habitually conveys the + impression of conscious and confident art. Hence he is least effective + in adapting his style to those characters in which Lysias peculiarly + excelled--the ingenuous youth, the homely and peace-loving citizen. On + the other hand, his more open and vigorous art does not interfere with + his moral persuasiveness where there is scope for reasoned + remonstrance, for keen argument or for powerful denunciation. Passing + from the formal to the real side of his work, from diction and + composition to the treatment of subject-matter, we find the divergence + wider still. Lysias usually adheres to a simple four-fold + division--proem, narrative, proof, epilogue. Isaeus frequently + interweaves the narrative with the proof.[3] He shows the most + dexterous ingenuity in adapting his manifold tactics to the case in + hand, and often "out-generals" ([Greek: katastrategei]) his adversary + by some novel and daring disposition of his forces. Lysias, again, + usually contents himself with a merely rhetorical or sketchy proof; + Isaeus aims at strict logical demonstration, worked out through all + its steps. As Sir William Jones well remarks, Isaeus lays close siege + to the understandings of the jury.[4] + + Such is the general relation of Isaeus to Lysias. What, we must next + ask, is the relation of Isaeus to Demosthenes? The Greek critic who + had so carefully studied both authors states his own view in broad + terms when he declares that "the power of Demosthenes took its seeds + and its beginnings from Isaeus" (Dion. Halic. _Isaeus_, 20). A closer + examination will show that within certain limits the statement may be + allowed. Attic prose expression had been continuously developed as an + art; the true link between Isaeus and Demosthenes is technical, + depending on their continuity. Isaeus had made some original + contributions to the resources of the art; and Demosthenes had not + failed to profit by these. The _composition_ of Demosthenes resembles + that of Isaeus in blending terse and vigorous periods with passages of + more lax and fluent ease, as well as in that dramatic vivacity which + is given by rhetorical question and similar devices. In the versatile + disposition of subject-matter, the divisions of "narrative" and + "proof" being shifted and interwoven according to circumstances, + Demosthenes has clearly been instructed by the example of Isaeus. + Still more plainly and strikingly is this so in regard to the + elaboration of systematic, proof; here Demosthenes invites direct and + close comparison with Isaeus by his method of drawing out a chain of + arguments, or enforcing a proposition by strict legal argument. And, + more generally, Demosthenes is the pupil of Isaeus, though here the + pupil became even greater than the master, in that faculty of + grappling with an adversary's case point by point, in that aptitude + for close and strenuous conflict which is expressed by the words + [Greek: agon, enagonios].[5] + + The pseudo-Plutarch, in his life of Isaeus, mentions an _Art of + Rhetoric_ and sixty-four speeches, of which fifty were accounted + genuine. From a passage of Photius it appears that at least[6] the + fifty speeches of recognized authenticity were extant as late as A.D. + 850. Only eleven, with a large part of a twelfth, have come down to + us; but the titles of forty-two[7] others are known.[8] + + The titles of the lost speeches confirm the statement of Dionysius + that the speeches of Isaeus were exclusively forensic; and only three + titles indicate speeches made in public causes. The remainder, + concerned with private causes, may be classed under six heads:--(1) + [Greek: klerikoi]--cases of claim to an inheritance; (2) [Greek: + epiklerikoi]--cases of claim to the hand of an heiress; (3) [Greek: + diadikasiai]--cases of claim of property; (4) [Greek: + apostasiou]--cases of claim to the ownership of a slave; (5) [Greek: + eggyes]--action brought against a surety whose principal had made + default; (6) [Greek: antomosia] (as = [Greek: paragraphe])--a special + plea; (7) [Greek: ephesis]--appeal from one jurisdiction to another. + + Eleven of the twelve extant speeches belong to class (1), the [Greek: + klerikoi], or claims to an inheritance. This was probably the branch + of practice in which Isaeus had done his most important and most + characteristic work. And, according to the ancient custom, this class + of speeches would therefore stand first in the manuscript collections + of his writings. The case of Antiphon is parallel: his speeches in + cases of homicide ([Greek: phonikoi]) were those on which his + reputation mainly depended, and stood first in the manuscripts. Their + exclusive preservation, like that of the speeches made by Isaeus in + will-cases, is thus primarily an accident of manuscript tradition, but + partly also the result of the writer's special prestige. + + Six of the twelve extant speeches are directly concerned with claims + to an estate; five others are connected with legal proceedings arising + out of such a claim. They may be classified thus (the name given in + each case being that of the person whose estate is in dispute): + + I. _Trials of Claim to an Inheritance_ ([Greek: diadikasiai]). + 1. Or. i., Cleonymus. Date between 360 and 353 B.C. + 2. Or. iv., Nicostratus. Date uncertain. + 3. Or. vii., Apollodorus. 353 B.C. + 4. Or. viii., Ciron. 375 B.C. + 5. Or. ix., Astyphilus. 369 B.C. (c. 390, Schomann). + 6. Or. x., Aristarchus. 377-371 B.C. (386-384, Schomann). + + II. _Actions for False Witness_ ([Greek: dikai pseudomartyrion]). + 1. Or. ii., Menecles. 354 B.C. + 2. Or. iii., Pyrrhus. Date uncertain, but comparatively late. + 3. Or. vi., Philoctemon. 364-363 B.C. + + III. _Action to Compel the Discharge of a Suretyship_ ([Greek: eggyes + dike]). + Or. v., Dicaeogenes. 390 B.C. + + IV. _Indictment of a Guardian for Maltreatment of a Ward_ ([Greek: + eisaggelia kakoseos orphanou]). + Or. xi., Hagnias. 359 B.C. + + V. _Appeal from Arbitration to a Dicastery_ ([Greek: ephesis]). + Or. xii., For Euphiletus. (Incomplete.) Date uncertain. + + The speeches of Isaeus supply valuable illustrations to the early + history of testamentary law. They show us the faculty of adoption, + still, indeed, associated with the religious motive in which it + originated, as a mode of securing that the sacred rites of the family + shall continue to be discharged by one who can call himself the son of + the deceased. But practically the civil aspect of adoption is, for the + Athenian citizen, predominant over the religious; he adopts a son in + order to bestow property on a person to whom he wishes to bequeath it. + The Athenian system, as interpreted by Isaeus, is thus intermediate, + at least in spirit, between the purely religious standpoint of the + Hindu and the maturer form which Roman testamentary law had reached + before the time of Cicero.[9] As to the form of the speeches, it is + remarkable for its variety. There are three which, taken together, may + be considered as best representing the diversity and range of their + author's power. The fifth, with its simple but lively diction, its + graceful and persuasive narrative, recalls the qualities of Lysias. + The eleventh, with its sustained and impetuous power, has no slight + resemblance to the manner of Demosthenes. The eighth is, of all, the + most characteristic, alike in narrative and in argument. Isaeus is + here seen at his best. No reader who is interested in the social life + of ancient Greece need find Isaeus dull. If the glimpses of Greek + society which he gives us are seldom so gay and picturesque as those + which enliven the pages of Lysias, they are certainly not less + suggestive. Here, where the innermost relations and central interests + of the family are in question, we touch the springs of social life; we + are not merely presented with scenic details of dress and furniture, + but are enabled in no small degree to conceive the feelings of the + actors. + + The best manuscript of Isaeus is in the British Museum,--Crippsianus A + (= Burneianus 95, 13th century), which contains also Antiphon, + Andocides, Lycurgus and Dinarchus. The next best is Bekker's + Laurentianus B (Florence), of the 15th century. Besides these, he used + Marcianus L (Venice), saec. 14, Vratislaviensis Z saec. 14[10] and two + very inferior MSS. Ambrosianus A. 99, P (which he dismissed after Or. + i.), and Ambrosianus D. 42, Q (which contains only Or. i., ii.). + Schomann, in his edition of 1831, generally followed Bekker's text; he + had no fresh apparatus beyond a collation of a Paris MS. R in part of + Or. i.; but he had sifted the Aldine more carefully. Baiter and Sauppe + (1850) had a new collation of A, and also used a collation of + Burneianus 96, M, given by Dobson in vol. iv. of his edition (1828). + C. Scheibe (Teubner, 1860) made it his especial aim to complete the + work of his predecessors by restoring the correct Attic forms of + words; thus (e.g.) he gives [Greek: eggya] for [Greek: enegya], + [Greek: dedimen] for [Greek: dediamen], and the like,--following the + consent of the MSS., however, in such forms as the accusative of + proper names in [Greek: -en] rather than [Greek: -e], or (e.g.) the + future [Greek: phanesomai] rather than [Greek: phanoumai], &c., and on + such doubtful points as [Greek: phrateres] instead of [Greek: + phratores], or [Greek: Eilethyias] instead of [Greek: Eileithyias]. + + EDITIONS.--_Editio princeps_ (Aldus, Venice, 1513); in _Oratores + Attici_, by I. Bekker (1823-1828); W. S. Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter + and Hermann Sauppe (1850); separately, by G. F. Schomann, with + commentary (1831); C. Scheibe (1860) (Teubner series, new ed. by T. + Thalheim, 1903); H. Buermann (1883); W. Wyse (1904). English + translation by Sir William Jones, 1779. + + On Isaeus generally see Wyse's edition; R. C. Jebb, _Attic Orators_; + F. Blass, _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (2nd ed., 1887-1893); and L. + Moy, _Etude sur les plaidoyers d'Isee_ (1876). (R. C. J.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See further Jebb's _Attic Orators from Antiphon to Isaeus_, (ii. + 264). + + [2] Plut. _De glor. Athen._ p. 350 c, where he mentions [Greek: tous + Isokrateis kai Antiphontas kai Isaious] among [Greek: tous en tais + scholais ta meirakia prodidaskontas]. + + [3] Here he was probably influenced by the teaching of Isocrates. The + forensic speech of Isocrates known as the _Aegineticus_ (Or. xix.), + which belongs to the peculiar province of Isaeus, as dealing with a + claim to property ([Greek: epidikasia]), affords perhaps the earliest + example of narrative and proof thus interwoven. Earlier forensic + writers had kept the [Greek: diegesis] and [Greek: pisteis] distinct, + as Lysias does. + + [4] This is what Dionysius means when he says (_Isaeus_, 61) that + Isaeus differs from Lysias--[Greek: to me kat' enthymema ti legein + alla kat' epicheirema]. Here the "enthymeme" means a rhetorical + syllogism with one premiss suppressed (_curtum_, Juv. vi. 449); + "epicheireme," such a syllogism stated in full. Cf. R. Volkmann, + _Rhetorik der Griechen und Romer_, 1872, pp. 153 f. + + [5] Cleon's speech in Thuc. iii. 37, 38, works out this image with + remarkable force; within a short space we have [Greek: xyneseos + agon--ton toionde agonon--agonistes--agonizesthai--antagonizesthai-- + agonothetein]. See _Attic Orators_, vol. i. 39; ii. 304. + + [6] For the words of Photius (cod. 263), [Greek: touton de oi to + gnesion martyrethentes n' kataleipontai monon], might be so rendered + as to imply that, besides these fifty, others also were extant. See + _Att. Orat._ ii. 311, note 2. + + [7] Forty-four are given in Thalheim's ed. + + [8] The second of our speeches (the Meneclean) was discovered in the + Laurentian Library in 1785, and was edited in that year by Tyrwhitt. + In editions previous to that date, Oration i. is made to conclude + with a few lines which really belong to the end of Orat. ii. (S 47, + [Greek: all' epeide to pragma ... psethisasthe]), and this + arrangement is followed in the translation of Isaeus by Sir William + Jones, to whom our second oration, was, of course, then (1779) + unknown. In Oration i. all that follows the words [Greek: me + poiesantes] in S 22 was first published in 1815 by Mai, from a MS. in + the Ambrosian Library at Milan. + + [9] Cf. Maine's _Ancient Law_, ch. vi., and the _Tagore Law Lectures_ + (1870) by Herbert Cowell, lect. ix., "On the Rite of Adoption," pp. + 208 f. + + [10] The date of L and Z is given as the end of the 15th century in + the introduction to Wyse's edition. + + + + +ISAIAH. I. _Life and Period._--Isaiah is the name of the greatest, and +both in life and in death the most influential of the Old Testament +prophets. We do not forget Jeremiah, but Jeremiah's literary and +religious influence is secondary compared with that of Isaiah. +Unfortunately we are reduced to inference and conjecture with regard +both to his life and to the extent of his literary activity. In the +heading (i. 1) of what we may call the occasional prophecies of Isaiah +(i.e. those which were called forth by passing events), the author is +called "the son of Amoz" and Rabbinical legend identifies this Amoz with +a brother of Amaziah, king of Judah; but this is evidently based on a +mere etymological fancy. We know from his works that (unlike Jeremiah) +he was married (viii. 3), and that he had at least two sons, whose +names he regarded as, together with his own, symbolic by divine +appointment of certain decisive events or religious truths--Isaiah +(Yesha'-yahu), meaning "Salvation--Yahweh"; Shear-Yashub, "a remnant +shall return"; and Maher-shalal-hash-baz, "swift (swiftly cometh) spoil, +speedy (speedily cometh) prey" (vii. 3, viii. 3, 4, 18). He lived at +Jerusalem, perhaps in the "middle" or "lower city" (2 Kings xx. 4), +exercised at one time great influence at court (chap. xxxvii.), and +could venture to address a king unbidden (vii. 4), and utter the most +unpleasant truths, unassailed, in the plainest fashion. Presumably +therefore his social rank was far above that of Amos and Micah; +certainly the high degree of rhetorical skill displayed in his +discourses implies a long course of literary discipline, not improbably +in the school of some older prophet (Amos vii. 14 suggests that +"schools" or companies "of the prophets" existed in the southern +kingdom). We know but little of Isaiah's predecessors and models in the +prophetic art (it were fanaticism to exclude the element of human +preparation); but certainly even the acknowledged prophecies of Isaiah +(and much more the disputed ones) could no more have come into existence +suddenly and without warning than the masterpieces of Shakespeare. In +the more recent commentaries (e.g. Cheyne's _Prophecies of Isaiah_, ii. +218) lists are generally given of the points of contact both in +phraseology and in ideas between Isaiah and the prophets nearly +contemporary with him. For Isaiah cannot be studied by himself. + +The same heading already referred to gives us our only traditional +information as to the period during which Isaiah prophesied; it refers +to Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah as the contemporary kings. It is, +however, to say the least, doubtful whether any of the extant prophecies +are as early as the reign of Uzziah. Exegesis, the only safe basis of +criticism for the prophetic literature, is unfavourable to the view that +even chap. i. belongs to the reign of this king, and we must therefore +regard it as most probable that the heading in i. 1 is (like those of +the Psalms) the work of one or more of the Sopherim (or students and +editors of Scripture) in post-exilic times, apparently the same writer +(or company of writers) who prefixed the headings of Hosea and Micah, +and perhaps of some of the other books. Chronological study had already +begun in his time. But he would be a bold man who would profess to give +trustworthy dates either for the kings of Israel or for the prophetic +writers. (See BIBLE, _Old Testament_, Chronology; the article +"Chronology" in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_; and cf. H. P. Smith, _Old +Testament History_, Edin., 1903, p. 202, note 2.) + +II. _Chronological Arrangement, how far possible._--Let us now briefly +sketch the progress of Isaiah's prophesying on the basis of philological +exegesis, and a comparison of the sound results of the study of the +inscriptions. If our results are imperfect and liable to correction, +that is only to be expected in the present position of the historical +study of the Bible. Chap. vi., which describes a vision of Isaiah "in +the death-year of King Uzziah" (740 or 734 B.C.?) may possibly have +arisen out of notes put down in the reign of Jotham; but for several +reasons it is not an acceptable view that, in its present form, this +striking chapter is earlier than the reign of Ahaz. It seems, in short, +to have originally formed the preface to the small group of prophecies +which now follows it, viz. vii. i.-ix. 7. The portions which may +represent discourses of Jotham's reign are chap. ii. and chap. ix. 8-x. +4--stern denunciations which remind us somewhat of Amos. But the +allusions in the greater part of chaps. ii.-v. correspond to no period +so closely as the reign of Ahaz, and the same remark applies still more +self-evidently to vii. 1-ix. 7.[1] Chap. xvii. 1-11 ought undoubtedly to +be read in immediate connexion with chap. vii.; it presupposes the +alliance of Syria and northern Israel, whose destruction it predicts, +though opening a door of hope for a remnant of Israel. The fatal siege +of Samaria (724-722 B.C.) seems to have given occasion to chap. xxviii.; +but the following prophecies (chaps. xxix.-xxxiii.) point in the main +to Sennacherib's invasion, 701 B.C., which evidently stirred Isaiah's +deepest feelings and was the occasion of some of his greatest +prophecies. It is, however, the vengeance taken by Sargon upon Ashdod +(711) which seems to be preserved in chap. xx., and the striking little +prophecy in xxi. 1-10, sometimes referred of late to a supposed invasion +of Judah by Sargon, rather belongs to some one of the many prophetic +personages who wrote, but did not speak like the greater prophets, +during and after the Exile. It is also an opinion largely held that the +prophetic epilogue in xvi. 13, 14, was attached by Isaiah to an oracle +on archaic style by another prophet (Isaiah's hand has, however, been +traced by some in xvi. 4b, 5). In fact no progress can be expected in +the accurate study of the prophets until the editorial activity both of +the great prophets themselves and of their more reflective and studious +successors is fully recognized. + +Thus there were two great political events (the Syro-Israelitish +invasion under Ahaz, and the great Assyrian invasion of Sennacherib) +which called forth the spiritual and oratorical faculties of our +prophet, and quickened his faculty of insight into the future. The +Sennacherib prophecies must be taken in connexion with the historical +appendix, chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix. The beauty and incisiveness of the poetic +prophecy in xxxvii. 21-32 have, by some critics, been regarded as +evidence for its authenticity. This, however, is, on critical grounds, +most questionable. + +A special reference seems needed at this point to the oracle on Egypt, +chap. xix. The comparative feebleness of the style has led to the +conjecture that, even if the basis of the prophecy be Isaianic, yet in +its present form it must have undergone the manipulation of a scribe. +More probably, however, it belongs to the early Persian period. It +should be added that the Isaianic origin of the appendix in xix. 18-24 +is, if possible, even more doubtful, because of the precise, +circumstantial details of the prophecy which are not like Isaiah's work. +It is plausible to regard v. 18 as a fictitious prophecy in the +interests of Onias, the founder of the rival Egyptian temple to Yahweh +at Leontopolis in the name of Heliopolis (Josephus, _Ant._ xii. 9, 7). + +III. _Disintegration Theories._--We must now enter more fully into the +question whether the whole of the so-called Book of Isaiah was really +written by that prophet. The question relates, at any rate, to +xiii.-xiv. 23, xxi. 1-10, xxiv.-xxvii., xxxiv., xxxv. and xl.-lxvi. The +father of the controversy may be said to be the Jewish rabbi, Aben Ezra, +who died A.D. 1167. We need not, however, spend much time on the +well-worn but inconclusive arguments of the older critics. The existence +of a tradition in the last three centuries before Christ as to the +authorship of any book is (to those acquainted with the habits of +thought of that age) of but little critical moment; the _Sopherim_, i.e. +students of Scripture, in those times were simply anxious for the +authority of the Scriptures, not for the ascertainment of their precise +historical origin. It was of the utmost importance to declare that +(especially) Isaiah xl.-lxvi. was a prophetic work of the highest order; +this was reason sufficient (apart from any presumed phraseological +affinities in xl.-lxvi.) for ascribing them to the royal prophet Isaiah. +When the view had once obtained currency, it would naturally become a +tradition. The question of the Isaianic or non-Isaianic origin of the +disputed prophecies (especially xl.-lxvi.) must be decided on grounds of +exegesis alone. It matters little, therefore, when the older critics +appeal to Ezra i. 2 (interpreted by Josephus, _Ant._ xi. 1, 1-2), to the +Septuagint version of the book (produced between 260 and 130 B.C.), in +which the disputed prophecies are already found, and to the Greek +translation of the Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach, which distinctly +refers to Isaiah as the comforter of those that mourned in Zion (Eccles. +xlviii. 24, 25). + +The fault of the controversialists on both sides has been that each +party has only seen "one side of the shield." It will be admitted by +philological students that the exegetical data supplied by (at any rate) +Isa. xl.-lxvi. are conflicting, and therefore susceptible of no simple +solution. This remark applies, it is true, chiefly to the portion which +begins at lii. 13. The earlier part of Isa. xl.-lxvi. admits of a +perfectly consistent interpretation from first to last. There is +nothing in it to indicate that the author's standing-point is earlier +than the Babylonian captivity. His object is (as most scholars, +probably, believe) to warn, stimulate or console the captive Jews, some +full believers, some semi-believers, some unbelievers or idolaters. The +development of the prophet's message is full of contrasts and surprises: +the vanity of the idol-gods and the omnipotence of Israel's helper, the +sinfulness and infirmity of Israel and her high spiritual destiny, and +the selection (so offensive to patriotic Jews, xlv. 9, 10) of the +heathen Cyrus as the instrument of Yahweh's purposes, as in fact his +Messiah or Anointed One (xlv. 1), are brought successively before us. +Hence the semi-dramatic character of the style. Already in the opening +passage mysterious voices are heard crying, "Comfort ye, comfort ye my +people"; the plural indicates that there were other prophets among the +exiles besides the author of Isa. xl.-xlviii. Then the Jews and the +Asiatic nations in general are introduced trembling at the imminent +downfall of the Babylonian empire. The former are reasoned with and +exhorted to believe; the latter are contemptuously silenced by an +exhibition of the futility of their religion. Then another mysterious +form appears on the scene, bearing the honourable title of "Servant of +Yahweh," through whom God's gracious purposes for Israel and the world +are to be realized. The cycle of poetic passages on the character and +work of this "Servant," or commissioned agent of the Most High, may have +formed originally a separate collation which was somewhat later inserted +in the Prophecy of Restoration (i.e. chaps. xl.-xlviii., and its +appendix chaps. xlix.-lv.). + +The new section which begins at chap. xlix. is written in much the same +delightfully flowing style. We are still among the exiles at the close +of the captivity, or, as others think, amidst a poor community in +Jerusalem, whose members have now been dispersed among the Gentiles. The +latter view is not so strange as it may at first appear, for the new +book has this peculiarity, that Babylon and Cyrus are not mentioned in +it at all. [True, there was not so much said about Babylon as we should +have expected even in the first book; the paucity of references to the +local characteristics of Babylonia is in fact one of the negative +arguments urged by older scholars in favour of the Isaianic origin of +the prophecy.] Israel himself, with all his inconsistent qualities, +becomes the absorbing subject of the prophet's meditations. The section +opens with a soliloquy of the "Servant of Yahweh," which leads on to a +glorious comforting discourse, "Can a woman forget her sucking child," +&c. (xlix. 1, comp. li. 12, 13). Then his tone rises, Jerusalem can and +must be redeemed; he even seems to see the great divine act in process +of accomplishment. Is it possible, one cannot help asking, that the +abrupt description of the strange fortunes of the "Servant"--by this +time entirely personalized--was written to follow chap. lii. 1-12? + +The whole difficulty seems to arise from the long prevalent assumption +that chaps. xl.-lxvi. form a whole in themselves. Natural as the feeling +against disintegration may be, the difficulties in the way of admitting +the unity of chaps. xl.-lxvi. are insurmountable. Even if, by a bold +assumption, we grant the unity of authorship, it is plain upon the face +of it that the chapters in question cannot have been composed at the +same time or under the same circumstances; literary and artistic unity +is wholly wanting. But once admit (as it is only reasonable to do) the +extension of Jewish editorial activity to the prophetic books and all +becomes clear. The record before us gives no information as to its +origin. It is without a heading, and by its abrupt transitions, and +honestly preserved variations of style, invites us to such a theory as +we are now indicating. It is only the inveterate habit of reading Isa. +xlix.-lxvi. as a part of a work relating to the close of the Exile that +prevents us from seeing how inconsistent are the tone and details with +this presupposition. + + The present article in its original form introduced here a survey of + the portions of Isa. xl.-lxvi. which were plainly of Palestinian + origin. It is needless to reproduce this here, because the information + is now readily accessible elsewhere; in 1881 there was an originality + in this survey, which gave promise of a still more radical treatment + such as that of Bernhard Duhm, a fascinating commentary published in + 1892. See also Cheyne, _Jewish Quarterly Review_, July and October + 1891; _Introd. to Book of Isaiah_ (1895), which also point forward, + like Stade's _Geschichte_ in Germany, to a bolder criticism of Isaiah. + +IV. _Non-Isaianic Elements in Chaps. i.-xxxix._--We have said nothing +hitherto, except by way of allusion, of the disputed prophecies +scattered up and down the first half of the book of Isaiah. There is +only one of these prophecies which may, with any degree of apparent +plausibility, be referred to the age of Isaiah, and that is chaps. +xxiv.-xxvii. The grounds are (1) that according to xxv. 6 the author +dwells on Mount Zion; (2) that Moab is referred to as an enemy (xxv. +10); and (3) that at the close of the prophecy, Assyria and Egypt are +apparently mentioned as the principal foes of Israel (xxvii. 12, 13). A +careful and thorough exegesis will show the hollowness of this +justification. The tone and spirit of the prophecy as a whole point to +the same late apocalyptic period to which chap. xxxiv. and the book of +Joel; and also the last chapter (especially) of the book of Zechariah, +may unhesitatingly be referred. + +A word or two may perhaps be expected on Isa. xiii., xiv. and xxxiv., +xxxv. These two oracles agree in the elaborateness of their description +of the fearful fate of the enemies of Yahweh (Babylon and Edom are +merely representatives of a class), and also in their view of the +deliverance and restoration of Israel as an epoch for the whole human +race. There is also an unrelieved sternness, which pains us by its +contrast with Isa. xl.-lxvi. (except those passages of this portion +which are probably not homogeneous with the bulk of the prophecy). They +have also affinities with Jer. l. li., a prophecy (as most now agree) of +post-exilic origin. + +There is only one passage which seems in some degree to make up for the +aesthetic drawbacks of the greater part of these late compositions. It +is the ode on the fall of the king of Babylon in chap. xiv. 4-21, which +is as brilliant with the glow of lyric enthusiasm as the stern prophecy +which precedes it is, from the same point of view, dull and uninspiring. +It is in fact worthy to be put by the side of the finest passages of +chaps. xl.-lxvi.--of those passages which irresistibly rise in the +memory when we think of "Isaiah." + +V. _Prophetic Contrasts in Isaiah._--From a religious point of view +there is a wide difference, not only between the acknowledged and the +disputed prophecies of the book of Isaiah, but also between those of the +latter which occur in chaps. i.-xxxix., on the one hand, and the greater +and more striking part of chaps. xl.-lxvi. on the other. We may say, +upon the whole, with Duhm, that Isaiah represents a synthesis of Amos +and Hosea, though not without important additions of his own. And if we +cannot without much hesitation admit that Isaiah was really the first +preacher of a personal Messiah whose record has come down to us, yet his +editors certainly had good reason for thinking him capable of such a +lofty height of prophecy. It is not because Isaiah could not have +conceived of a personal Messiah, but because the Messiah-passages are +not plainly Isaiah's either in style or in thought. If Isaiah had had +those bright visions, they would have affected him more. + +Perhaps the most characteristic religious peculiarities of the various +disputed prophecies are--(1) the emphasis laid on the uniqueness, +eternity, creatorship and predictive power of Yahweh (xl. 18, 25, xli. +4, xliv. 6, xlviii. 12, xlv. 5, 6, 18, 22, xlvi. 9, xlii. 5, xlv. 18, +xli. 26, xliii. 9, xliv. 7, xlv. 21, xlviii. 14); (2) the conception of +the "Servant of Yahweh"; (3) the ironical descriptions of idolatry +(Isaiah in the acknowledged prophecies only refers incidentally to +idolatry) xl. 19, 20, xli. 7, xliv. 9-17, xlvi. 6; (4) the personality +of the Spirit of Yahweh (mentioned no less than seven times, see +especially xl. 3, xlviii. 16, lxiii. 10, 14); (5) the influence of the +angelic powers (xxiv. 21); (6) the resurrection of the body (xxvi. 19); +(7) the everlasting punishment of the wicked (lxvi. 24); (8) vicarious +atonement (chap. liii.). + +We cannot here do more than chronicle the attempts of a Jewish scholar, +the late Dr Kohut, in the _Z.D.M.G._ for 1876 to prove a Zoroastrian +influence on chaps. xl.-lxvi. The idea is not in itself inadmissible, +at least for post-exilic portions, for Zoroastrian ideas were in the +intellectual atmosphere of Jewish writers in the Persian age. + +There is an equally striking difference among the disputed prophecies +themselves, and one of no small moment as a subsidiary indication of +their origin. We have already spoken of the difference of tone between +parts of the latter half of the book; and, when we compare the disputed +prophecies of the former half with the Prophecy of Israel's Restoration, +how inferior (with all reverence be it said) do they appear! Truly "in +many parts and many manners did God speak" in this composite book of +Isaiah! To the Prophecy of Restoration we may fitly apply the words, too +gracious and too subtly chosen to be translated, of Renan, "ce second +Isaie, dont l'ame lumineuse semble comme impregnee, six cent ans +d'avance, de toutes les rosees, de tous les parfums de l'avenir" +(_L'Antechrist_, p. 464); though, indeed, the common verdict of +sympathetic readers sums up the sentence in a single phrase--"the +Evangelical Prophet." The freedom and the inexhaustibleness of the +undeserved grace of God is a subject to which this gifted son constantly +returns with "a monotony which is never monotonous." The defect of the +disputed prophecies in the former part of the book (a defect, as long as +we regard them in isolation, and not as supplemented by those which come +after) is that they emphasize too much for the Christian sentiment the +stern, destructive side of the series of divine interpositions in the +latter days. + +VI. _The Cyrus Inscriptions._--Perhaps one of the most important +contributions to the study of II. Isaiah has been the discovery of two +cuneiform texts relative to the fall of Babylon and the religious policy +of Cyrus. The results are not favourable to a mechanical view of +prophecy as involving absolute accuracy of statement. Cyrus appears in +the unassailably authentic cylinder inscription "as a complete religious +indifferentist, willing to go through any amount of ceremonies to soothe +the prejudices of a susceptible population." He preserves a strange and +significant silence with regard to Ahura-mazda, the supreme God of +Zoroastrianism, and in fact can hardly have been a Zoroastrian believer +at all. On the historical and religious bearings of these two +inscriptions the reader may be referred to the article "Cyrus" in the +_Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and the essay on "II. Isaiah and the +Inscriptions" in Cheyne's _Prophecies of Isaiah_, vol. ii. It may, with +all reverence, be added that our estimate of prophecy must be brought +into harmony with facts, not facts with our preconceived theory of +inspiration. + + AUTHORITIES.--Lowth, _Isaiah: a new translation, with a preliminary + dissertation and notes_ (1778); Gesenius, _Der Proph. Jes._ (1821); + Hitzig, _Der Proph. Jes._ (1833); Delitzsch, _Der Pr. Jes._ (4th ed., + 1889); Dillmann-Kittel, _Isaiah_ (1898); Duhm (1892; 2nd ed., 1902); + Marti (1900); Cheyne, _The Prophecies of Isaiah_ (2 vols., 1880-1881); + _Introd. to Book of Isaiah_ (1898); "The Book of the Prophet Isaiah," + in Paul Haupt's _Polychrome Bible_ (1898); S. R. Driver, _Isaiah, his + life and times_ (1888); J. Skinner, "The Book of Isaiah," in + _Cambridge Bible_ (2 vols., 1896, 1898); G. A. Smith, in _Expositor's + Bible_ (2 vols., 1888, 1890); Condamin (Rom. Cath.) (1905); G. H. Box + (1908); Article on Isaiah in _Ency. Bib._ by Cheyne; in Hastings' + _Dict. of the Bible_ by Prof. G. A. Smith. R. H. Kennett's Schweich + Lecture (1909), _The Composition of the Book of Isaiah in the Light of + Archaeology and History_, an interesting attempt at a synthesis of + results, is a brightly written but scholarly sketch of the growth of + the book of Isaiah, which went on till the great success of the Jews + under Judas Maccabaeus. The outbursts of triumph (e.g. Isa. ix. 2-7) + are assigned to this period. The most original statement is perhaps + the view that the words of Isaiah were preserved orally by his + disciples, and did not see the light (in a revised form) till a + considerable time after the crystallization of the reforms of Josiah + into laws. (T. K. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the question of the Isaianic origin of the prophecy, ix. 1-6, + and the companion passage, xi. 1-8, see Cheyne _Introd. to the Book + of Isaiah_, 1895, pp. 44, 45 and 62-66. Cf., however, J. Skinner + "Isaiah i.-xxxix." in _Cambridge Bible_. + + + + +ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF, an apocryphal book of the Old Testament. The +_Ascension of Isaiah_ is a composite work of very great interest. In its +present form it is probably not older than the latter half of the 2nd +century of our era. Its various constituents, however, and of these +there were three--the _Martyrdom of Isaiah_, the _Testament of Hezekiah_ +and the _Vision of Isaiah_--circulated independently as early as the 1st +century. The first of these was of Jewish origin, and is of less +interest than the other two, which were the work of Christian writers. +The _Vision of Isaiah_ is important for the knowledge it affords us of +1st-century beliefs in certain circles as to the doctrines of the +Trinity, the Incarnation, the Resurrection, the Seven Heavens, &c. The +long lost _Testament of Hezekiah_, which is, in the opinion of R. H. +Charles, to be identified with iii. 13b-iv. 18, of our present work, is +unquestionably of great value owing to the insight it gives us into the +history of the Christian Church at the close of the 1st century. Its +descriptions of the worldliness and lawlessness which prevailed among +the elders and pastors, i.e. the bishops and priests, of the wide-spread +covetousness and vainglory as well as the growing heresies among +Christians generally, agree with similar accounts in 2 Peter, 2 Timothy +and Clement of Rome. + + _Various Titles._--Origen in his commentary on Matt. xiii. 57 + (Lommatzsch iii. 4, 9) calls it _Apocryph of Isaiah_--[Greek: + Apokryphon Hesaiou], Epiphanius (_Haer._ xl. 2) terms it the + _Ascension of Isaiah_--[Greek: to anabatikon Hesaiou], and similarly + Jerome--_Ascensio Isaiae_. It was also known as the _Vision of Isaiah_ + and finally as the _Testament of Hezekiah_ (see Charles, _The + Ascension of Isaiah_, pp. xii.-xv.). + + _The Greek Original and the Versions._--The book was written in Greek, + though not improbably the middle portion, the _Testament of Hezekiah_, + was originally composed in Semitic. The Greek in its original form, + which we may denote by G, is lost. It has, however, been in part + preserved to us in two of its recensions, G^1 and G^2. From G^1 the + Ethiopic Version and the first Latin Version (consisting of ii. + 14-iii. 13, vii. 1-19) were translated, and of this recension the + actual Greek has survived in a multitude of phrases in the _Greek + Legend_. G^2 denotes the Greek text from which the Slavonic and the + second Latin Version (consisting of vi.-xi.) were translated. Of this + recension ii. 4-iv. 2 have been discovered by Grenfell and Hunt.[1] + For complete details see Charles, _op. cit._ pp. xviii.-xxxiii.; also + Flemming in Hennecke's _NTliche Apok_. + + _Latin Version._--The first Latin Version (L^1) is fragmentary (=ii. + 14-iii. 13, vii. 1-19). It was discovered and edited by Mai in 1828 + (Script. _vet. nova collectio_ III. ii. 238), and reprinted by + Dillmann in his edition of 1877, and subsequently in a more correct + form by Charles in his edition of 1900. The second version (L^2), which + consists of vi.-xi., was first printed at Venice in 1522, by Gieseler + in 1832, Dillmann in 1877 and Charles in 1900. + + _Ethiopic Version._--There are three MSS. This version is on the whole + a faithful reproduction of G^1. These were used by Dillmann and + subsequently by Charles in their editions. + + _Different Elements in the Book._--The compositeness of this work is + universally recognized. Dillmann's analysis is as follows, (i.) + _Martyrdom of Isaiah_, of Jewish origin; ii. 1-iii. 12, v. 2-14. (ii.) + The _Vision of Isaiah_, of Christian origin, vi. 1-xi. 1, 23-40. + (iii.) The above two constituents were put together by a Christian + writer, who prefixed i. 1, 2, 4b-13 and appended xi. 42, 43. (iv.) + Finally a later Christian editor incorporated the two sections iii. + 13-v. 1 and xi. 2-22, and added i. 3, 4a, v. 15, 16, xi. 41. + + This analysis has on the whole been accepted by Harnack, Schurer, + Deane and Beer. These scholars have been influenced by Gebhardt's + statement that in the _Greek Legend_ there is not a trace of iii. + 13-v. 1, xi. 2-22, and that accordingly these sections were absent + from the text when the _Greek Legend_ was composed. But this statement + is wrong, for at least five phrases or clauses in the _Greek Legend_ + are derived from the sections in question. Hence R. H. Charles has + examined (_op. cit._ pp. xxxviii.-xlvii.) the problem _de novo_, and + arrived at the following conclusions. The book is highly composite, + and arbitrariness and disorder are found in every section. There are + three original documents at its base, (i.) The _Martyrdom of Isaiah_ = + i. 1, 2a, 6b-13a, ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12, v. 1b-14. This is but an + imperfect survival of the original work. Part of the original work + omitted by the final editor of our book is preserved in the _Opus + imperfectum_, which goes back _not to our text, but to the original + Martyrdom_, (ii.) The _Testament of Hezekiah_ = iii. 13b-iv. 18. This + work is mutilated and without beginning or end. (iii.) The _Vision of + Isaiah_ = vi.-xi. 1-40. The archetype of this section existed + independently in Greek; for the second Latin and the Slavonic Versions + presuppose an independent circulation of their Greek archetype in + western and Slavonic countries. This archetype differs in many + respects from the form in which it was republished by the editor of + the entire work. + + We may, in short, put this complex matter as follows: The conditions + of the problem are sufficiently satisfied by supposing a single + editor, who had three works at his disposal, the _Martyrdom of + Isaiah_, of Jewish origin, and the _Testament of Hezekiah_ and the + _Vision of Isaiah_, of Christian origin. These he reduced or enlarged + as it suited his purpose, and put them together as they stand in our + text. Some of the editorial additions are obvious, as i. 2b-6a, 13a, + ii. 9, iii. 13a, iv. 1a, 19-v. 1a, 15, 16, xi. 41-43. + + _Dates of the Various Constituents of the Ascension._--(a) The + _Martyrdom_ is quoted by the _Opus Imperfectum_, Ambrose, Jerome, + Origen, Tertullian and by Justin Martyr. It was probably known to the + writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Thus we are brought back to the + 1st century A.D. if the last reference is trustworthy. And this is no + doubt the right date, for works written by Jews in the 2nd century + would not be likely to become current in the Christian Church. (b) The + _Testament of Hezekiah_ was written between A.D. 88-100. The grounds + for this date will be found in Charles, _op. cit._ pp. lxxi.-lxxii. + and 30-31. (c) The _Vision of Isaiah_. The later recension of this + Vision was used by Jerome, and a more primitive form of the text by + the Archontici according to Epiphanius. It is still earlier attested + by the _Actus Petri Vercellenses_. Since the Protevangel of James was + apparently acquainted with it, and likewise Ignatius (_ad. Ephes._ + xix.), the composition of the primitive form of the Vision goes back + to the close of the 1st century. + + The work of combining and editing these three independent writings may + go back to early in the 3rd or even to the 2nd century. + + LITERATURE.--_Editions of the Ethiopic Text_: Laurence, _Ascensio + Isaiae vatis_ (1819); Dillmann, _Ascensio Isaiae Aethiopice et Latine, + cum prolegomenis, adnotationibus criticis et exegeticis, additis + versionum Latinarum reliquiis edita_ (1877); Charles, _Ascension of + Isaiah, translated from the Ethiopic Version, which, together with the + new Greek Fragment, the Latin Versions and the Latin translation of + the Slavonic, is here published in full, edited with Introduction, + Notes and Indices_ (1900); Flemming, in Hennecke's _NTliche Apok._ + 292-305; _NTliche Apok.-Handbuch_, 323-331. This translation is made + from Charles's text, and his analysis of the text is in the main + accepted by this scholar. _Translations_: In addition to the + translations given in the preceding editions, Basset, _Les Apocryphes + ethiopiens_, iii. "L'Ascension d'Isaie" (1894); Beer, _Apok. und + Pseud._ (1900) ii. 124-127. The latter is a German rendering of + ii.-iii. 1-12, v. 2-14, of Dillmann's text. _Critical Inquiries_: + Stokes, art. "Isaiah, Ascension of," in Smith's _Dict. of Christian + Biography_ (1882), iii. 298-301; Robinson, "The Ascension of Isaiah" + in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ ii. 499-501. For complete bibliography see + Schurer,[3] _Gesch. des jud. Volks_, iii. 280-285; Charles, _op. cit._ + (R. H. C.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Published by them in the _Amherst Papyri_, an account of the + Greek papyri in the collection of Lord Amherst (1900), and by Charles + in his edition. + + + + +ISANDHLWANA, an isolated hill in Zululand, 8 m. S.E. of Rorke's Drift +across the Tugela river, and 105 m. N. by W. of Durban. On the 22nd of +January 1879 a British force encamped at the foot of the hill was +attacked by about 10,000 Zulus, the flower of Cetewayo's army, and +destroyed. Of eight hundred Europeans engaged about forty escaped (see +ZULULAND: _History_). + + + + +ISAR (identical with _Isere_, in Celtic "the rapid"), a river of +Bavaria. It rises in the Tirolese Alps N.E. from Innsbruck, at an +altitude of 5840 ft. It first winds in deep, narrow glens and gorges +through the Alps, and at Tolz (2100 ft.), due north from its source, +enters the Bavarian plain, which it traverses in a generally north and +north-east direction, and pours its waters into the Danube immediately +below Deggendorf after a course of 219 m. The area of its drainage basin +is 38,200 sq. m. Below Munich the stream is 140 to 350 yards wide, and +is studded with islands. It is not navigable, except for rafts. The +total fall of the river is 4816 ft. The Isar is essentially the national +stream of the Bavarians. It has belonged from the earliest times to the +Bavarian people and traverses the finest corn land in the kingdom. On +its banks lie the cities of Munich and Landshut, and the venerable +episcopal see of Freising, and the inhabitants of the district it waters +are reckoned the core of the Bavarian race. + + See C. Gruber, _Die Isar nach ihrer Entwickelung und ihren + hydrologischen Verhaltnissen_ (Munich, 1889); and _Die Bedeutung der + Isar als Verkehrsstrasse_ (Munich, 1890). + + + + +ISATIN, C8H5NO2, in chemistry, a derivative of indol, interesting on +account of its relation to indigo; it may be regarded as the anhydride +of ortho-aminobenzoylformic or isatinic acid. It crystallizes in orange +red prisms which melt at 200-201 deg. C. It may be prepared by oxidizing +indigo with nitric or chromic acid (O. L. Erdmann, _Jour. prak. Chem._, +1841, 24, p. 11); by boiling ortho-nitrophenylpropiolic acid with +alkalis (A. Baeyer, _Ber._, 1880, 13, p. 2259), or by oxidizing +carbostyril with alkaline potassium permanganate (P. Friedlander and H. +Ostermaier, _Ber._, 1881, 14, p. 1921). P. J. Meyer (German Patent 26736 +(1883)) obtains substituted isatins by condensing para-toluidine with +dichloracetic acid, oxidizing the product with air and then hydrolysing +the oxidized product with hydrochloric acid. T. Sandmeyer (German +Patents 113981 and 119831 (1899)) obtained isatin-[alpha]-anilide by +condensing aniline with chloral hydrate and hydroxylamine, an +intermediate product isonitrosodiphenylacetamidine being obtained, which +is converted into isatin-[alpha]-anilide by sulphuric acid. This can be +converted into indigo by reduction with ammonium sulphide. Isatin +dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid gives a blue coloration with +thiophene, due to the formation of indophenin (see _Abst. J.C.S._, +1907). Concentrated nitric acid oxidizes it to oxalic acid, and alkali +fusion yields aniline. It dissolves in soda forming a violet solution, +which soon becomes yellow, a change due to the transformation of sodium +N-isatin into sodium isatate, the _aci_-isatin salt being probably +formed intermediately (Heller, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, i. p. 442). Most +metallic salts are N-derivatives yielding N-methyl ethers; the silver +salt is, however, an O-derivative, yielding an O-methyl ether (A. v. +Baeyer, 1883; W. Peters, _Abst. J.C.S._, 1907, i. p. 239). + + /\ /CO /\ /CO /\ /CO /\ /CO + / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ + | | \CO | | \CO | | \ | | \ + | | / | | / | | //C(OH) | | //COAg. + \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ // \ / \ // + \/ \NH \/ \N(Na) \/ \N \/ \N + + Isatin([psi]) Sodium salt Isatin Silver salt + + + + +ISAURIA, in ancient geography, a district in the interior of Asia Minor, +of very different extent at different periods. The permanent nucleus of +it was that section of the Taurus which lies directly to south of +Iconium and Lystra. Lycaonia had all the Iconian plain; but Isauria +began as soon as the foothills were reached. Its two original towns, +Isaura Nea and Isaura Palaea, lay, one among these foothills (_Dorla_) +and the other on the watershed (Zengibar Kale). When the Romans first +encountered the Isaurians (early in the 1st century B.C.), they regarded +Cilicia Trachea as part of Isauria, which thus extended to the sea; and +this extension of the name continued to be in common use for two +centuries. The whole basin of the Calycadnus was reckoned Isaurian, and +the cities in the valley of its southern branch formed what was known as +the Isaurian Decapolis. Towards the end of the 3rd century A.D., +however, all Cilicia was detached for administrative purposes from the +northern slope of Taurus, and we find a province called at first +Isauria-Lycaonia, and later Isauria alone, extending up to the limits of +Galatia, but not passing Taurus on the south. Pisidia, part of which had +hitherto been included in one province with Isauria, was also detached, +and made to include Iconium. In compensation Isauria received the +eastern part of Pamphylia. Restricted again in the 4th century, Isauria +ended as it began by being just the wild district about Isaura Palaea +and the heads of the Calycadnus. Isaura Palaea was besieged by +Perdiccas, the Macedonian regent after Alexander's death; and to avoid +capture its citizens set the place alight and perished in the flames. +During the war of the Cilician and other pirates against Rome, the +Isaurians took so active a part that the proconsul P. Servilius deemed +it necessary to follow them into their fastnesses, and compel the whole +people to submission, an exploit for which he received the title of +Isauricus (75 B.C.). The Isaurians were afterwards placed for a time +under the rule of Amyntas, king of Galatia; but it is evident that they +continued to retain their predatory habits and virtual independence. In +the 3rd century they sheltered the rebel emperor, Trebellianus. In the +4th century they are still described by Ammianus Marcellinus as the +scourge of the neighbouring provinces of Asia Minor; but they are said +to have been effectually subdued in the reign of Justinian. In common +with all the eastern Taurus, Isauria passed into the hands of Turcomans +and Yuruks with the Seljuk conquest. Many of these have now coalesced +with the aboriginal population and form a settled element: but the +district is still lawless. + +This comparatively obscure people had the honour of producing two +Byzantine emperors, Zeno, whose native name was Traskalisseus +Rousoumbladeotes, and Leo III., who ascended the throne of +Constantinople in 718, reigned till 741, and became the founder of a +dynasty of three generations. The ruins of Isaura Palaea are mainly +remarkable for their fine situation and their fortifications and tombs. +Those of Isaura Nea have disappeared, but numerous inscriptions and many +sculptured _stelae_, built into the houses of _Dorla_, prove the site. +It was the latter, and not the former town, that Servilius reduced by +cutting off the water supply. The site was identified by W. M. Ramsay +in 1901. The only modern exploration of highland Isauria was that made +by J. S. Sterrett in 1885; but it was not exhaustive. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W. M. Ramsay, _Historical Geography of Asia Minor_ + (1890), and article "Nova Isaura" in _Journ. Hell. Studies_ (1905); A. + M. Ramsay, ibid. (1904); J. R. S. Sterrett, "Wolfe Expedition to Asia + Minor," _Papers Amer. Inst. of Arch._ iii. (1888); C. Ritter, + _Erdkunde_, xix. (1859); E. J. Davis, _Life in As. Turkey_ (1879). + (D. G. H.) + + + + +ISCHIA (Gr. [Greek: Pithekousa], Lat. _Aenaria_, in poetry _Inarime_), +an island off the coast of Campania, Italy, 16 m. S.W. of Naples, to the +province of which it belongs, and 7 m. S.W. of the Capo Miseno, the +nearest point of the mainland. Pop. about 20,000. It is situated at the +W. extremity of the Gulf of Naples, and is the largest island near +Naples, measuring about 19 m. in circumference and 26 sq. m. in area. It +belongs to the same volcanic system as the mainland near it, and the +Monte Epomeo (anc. [Greek: Epopeus], viewpoint), the highest point of +the island (2588 ft.), lies on the N. edge of the principal crater, +which is surrounded by twelve smaller cones. The island was perhaps +occupied by Greek settlers even before Cumae; its Eretrian and +Chalcidian inhabitants abandoned it about 500 B.C. owing to an eruption, +and it is said to have been deserted almost at once by the greater part +of the garrison which Hiero I. of Syracuse had placed there about 470 +B.C., owing to the same cause. Later on it came into the possession of +Naples, but passed into Roman hands in 326, when Naples herself lost her +independence. The ancient town, traces of the fortifications of which +still exist, was situated near Lacco, at the N.W. corner of the island. +Augustus gave it back to Naples in exchange for Capri. After the fall of +Rome it suffered attacks and devastations from the successive masters of +Italy, until it was finally taken by the Neapolitans in 1299. + +Several eruptions are recorded in Roman times. The last of which we have +any knowledge occurred in 1301, but the island was visited by +earthquakes in 1881 and 1883, 1700 lives being lost in the latter year, +when the town of Casamicciola on the north side of the island was almost +entirely destroyed. The hot springs here, which still survive from the +period of volcanic activity, rise at a temperature of 147 deg. Fahr. and +are alkaline and saline; they are much visited by bathers, especially in +summer. They were known in Roman times, and many votive altars dedicated +to Apollo and the nymphs have been found. The whole island is +mountainous, and is remarkable for its beautiful scenery and its +fertility. Wine, corn, oil and fruit are produced, especially the +former, while the mountain slopes are clothed with woods. Tiles and +pottery are made in the island. Straw-plaiting is a considerable +industry at Lacco; and a certain amount of fishing is also done. The +potter's clay of Ischia served for the potteries of Cumae and Puteoli in +ancient times, and was indeed in considerable demand until the +catastrophe at Casamicciola in 1883. + +The chief towns are Ischia on the E. coast, the capital and the seat of +a bishop (pop. in 1901, town, 2756; commune, 7012), with a 15th-century +castle, to which Vittoria Colonna retired after the death of her husband +in 1525; Casamicciola (pop. in 1901, town, 1085; commune, 3731) on the +north, and Forio on the west coast (pop. in 1901, town, 3640; commune, +7197). There is regular communication with Naples, both by steamer +direct, and also by steamer to Torregaveta, 2 m. W.S.W. of Baiae and +12(1/2) m. W.S.W. of Naples, and thence by rail. + + See J. Beloch, _Campanien_ (Breslau, 1890), 202 sqq. (T. As.) + + + + +ISCHL, a market-town and watering-place of Austria, in Upper Austria, 55 +m. S.S.W. of Linz by rail. Pop. (1900) 9646. It is beautifully situated +on the peninsula formed by the junction of the rivers Ischl and Traun +and is surrounded by high mountains, presenting scenery of the finest +description. To the S. is the Siriuskogl or Hundskogl (1960 ft.), and to +the W. the Schafberg (5837 ft.), which is ascended from St Wolfgang by a +rack-and-pinion railway, built in 1893. It possesses a fine parish +church, built by Maria Theresa and renovated in 1877-1880, and the +Imperial Villa is surrounded by a magnificent park. Ischl is one of the +most fashionable spas of Europe, being the favourite summer residence +of the Austrian Imperial family and of the Austrian nobility since 1822. +It has saline and sulphureous drinking springs and numerous brine and +brine-vapour baths. The brine used at Ischl contains about 25% of salt +and there are also mud, sulphur and pine-cone baths. Ischl is situated +at an altitude of 1533 ft. above sea-level and has a very mild climate. +Its mean annual temperature is 49.4 deg. F. and its mean summer +temperature is 63.5 deg. F. Ischl is an important centre of the salt +industry and 4 m. to its W. is a celebrated salt mine, which has been +worked as early as the 12th century. + + + + +ISEO, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Sebinus_ of the Romans), a lake in Lombardy, +N. Italy, situated at the southern foot of the Alps, and between the +provinces of Bergamo and Brescia. It is formed by the Oglio river, which +enters the northern extremity of the lake of Lovere, and issues from the +southern end at Sarnico, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake +is about 24 sq. m., it is 17(1/2) m. in length, and 3 m. wide in the +broadest portion, while the greatest depth is said to be about 984 ft. +and the height of its surface above sea-level 607 ft. It contains one +large island, that of Siviano, which culminates in the Monte Isola (1965 +ft.) that is crowned by a chapel, while to the south is the islet of San +Paolo, occupied by the buildings of a small Franciscan convent now +abandoned, and to the north the equally tiny island of Loreto, with a +ruined chapel containing frescoes. At the southern end of the lake are +the small towns of Iseo (15 m. by rail N.W. of Brescia) and of Sarnico. +From Paratico, opposite Sarnico, on the other or left bank of the Oglio, +a railway runs in 6(1/4) m. to Palazzolo, on the main Brescia-Bergamo +line. Towards the head of the lake, the deep wide valley of the Oglio is +seen, dominated by the glittering snows of the Adamello (11,661 ft.), a +glorious prospect. Along the east shore (the west shore is far more +rugged) a fine carriage road rims from Iseo to the considerable town of +Pisogne (13(1/2) m.), situated at the northern end of the lake, and +nearly opposite that of Lovere, on the right bank of the Oglio. The +portion of this road some way S. of Pisogne is cleverly engineered, and +is carried through several tunnels. The lake's charms were celebrated by +Lady Mary Wortley-Montagu, who spent ten summers (1747-1757) in a villa +at Lovere, then much frequented by reason of an iron spring. The lake +has several sardine and eel fisheries. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +ISERE [anc. _Isara_], one of the chief rivers in France as well as of +those flowing down on the French side of the Alpine chain. Its total +length from its source to its junction with the Rhone is about 180 m., +during which it descends a height of about 7550 ft. Its drainage area is +about 4725 sq. m. It flows through the departments of Savoie, Isere and +Drome. This river rises in the Galise glaciers in the French Graian Alps +and flows, as a mountain torrent, through a narrow valley past Tignes in +a north-westerly direction to Bourg St Maurice, at the western foot of +the Little St Bernard Pass. It now bends S.W., as far as Moutiers, the +chief town of the Tarentaise, as the upper course of the Isere is named. +Here it again turns N.W. as far as Albertville, where after receiving +the Arly (right) it once more takes a south-westerly direction, and near +St Pierre d'Albigny receives its first important tributary, the Arc +(left), a wild mountain stream flowing through the Maurienne and past +the foot of the Mont Cenis Pass. A little way below, at Montmelian, it +becomes officially navigable (for about half of its course), though it +is but little used for that purpose owing to the irregular depth of its +bed and the rapidity of its current. Very probably, in ancient days, it +flowed from Montmelian N.W. and, after passing through or forming the +Lac du Bourget, joined the Rhone. But at present it continues from +Montmelian in a south-westerly direction, flowing through the broad and +fertile valley of the Graisivaudan, though receiving but a single +affluent of any importance, the Breda (left). At Grenoble, the most +important town on its banks, it bends for a short distance again N.W. +But just below that town it receives by far its most important affluent +(left) the Drac, which itself drains the entire S. slope of the lofty +snow-clad Dauphine Alps, and which, 11 m. above Grenoble, had received +the Romanche (right), a mountain stream which drains the entire central +and N. portion of the same Alps. Hence the Drac is, at its junction +with the Isere, a stream of nearly the same volume, while these two +rivers, with the Durance, drain practically the entire French slope of +the Alpine chain, the basins of the Arve and of the Var forming the sole +exceptions. A short distance below Moirans the Isere changes its +direction for the last time and now flows S.W. past Romans before +joining the Rhone on the left, as its principal affluent after the Saone +and the Durance, between Tournon and Valence. The Isere is remarkable +for the way in which it changes its direction, forming three great loops +of which the apex is respectively at Bourg St Maurice, Albertville and +Moirans. For some way after its junction with the Rhone the grey +troubled current of the Isere can be distinguished in the broad and +peaceful stream of the Rhone. (W. A. B. C ) + + + + +ISERE, a department of S.E. France, formed in 1790 out of the northern +part of the old province of Dauphine. Pop. (1906) 562,315. It is bounded +N. by the department of the Ain, E. by that of Savoie, S. by those of +the Hautes Alpes and the Drome and W. by those of the Loire and the +Rhone. Its area is 3179 sq. m. (surpassed only by 7 other departments), +while its greatest length is 93 m. and its greatest breadth 53 m. The +river Isere runs for nearly half its course through this department, to +which it gives its name. The southern portion of the department is very +mountainous, the loftiest summit being the Pic Lory (13,396 ft.) in the +extensive snow-clad Oisans group (drained by the Drac and Romanche, two +mighty mountain torrents), while minor groups are those of Belledonne, +of Allevard, of the Grandes Rousses, of the Devoluy, of the Trieves, of +the Royannais, of the Vercors and, slightly to the north of the rest, +that of the Grande Chartreuse. The northern portion of the department is +composed of plateaux, low hills and plains, while on every side but the +south it is bounded by the course of the Rhone. It forms the bishopric +of Grenoble (dating from the 4th century), till 1790 in the +ecclesiastical province of Vienne, and now in that of Lyons. The +department is divided into four arrondissements (Grenoble, St Marcellin, +La Tour du Pin and Vienne), 45 cantons and 563 communes. Its capital is +Grenoble, while other important towns in it are the towns of Vienne, St +Marcellin and La Tour du Pin. It is well supplied with railways (total +length 342 m.), which give access to Gap, to Chambery, to Lyons, to St +Rambert and to Valence, while it also possesses many tramways (total +length over 200 m.). It contains silver, lead, coal and iron mines, as +well as extensive slate, stone and marble quarries, besides several +mineral springs (Allevard, Uriage and La Motte). The forests cover much +ground, while among the most flourishing industries are those of glove +making, cement, silk weaving and paper making. The area devoted to +agriculture (largely in the fertile valley of the Graisivaudan, or +Isere, N.E. of Grenoble) is about 1211 sq. m. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +ISERLOHN, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, on the Baar, in +a bleak and hilly region, 17 m. W. of Arnsberg, and 30 m. E.N.E. from +Barmen by rail. Pop. (1900) 27,265. Iserlohn is one of the most +important manufacturing towns in Westphalia. Both in the town and +neighbourhood there are numerous foundries and works for iron, brass, +steel and bronze goods, while other manufactures include wire, needles +and pins, fish-hooks, machinery, umbrella-frames, thimbles, bits, +furniture, chemicals, coffee-mills, and pinchbeck and britannia-metal +goods. Iserlohn is a very old town, its gild of armourers being referred +to as "ancient" in 1443. + + + + +ISFAHAN (older form _Ispahan_), the name of a Persian province and town. +The province is situated in the centre of the country, and bounded S. by +Fars, E. by Yezd, N. by Kashan, Natanz and Irak, and W. by the Bakhtiari +district and Arabistan. It pays a yearly revenue of about L100,000, and +its population exceeds 500,000. It is divided into twenty-five +districts, its capital, the town of Isfahan, forming one of them. These +twenty-five districts, some very small and consisting of only a little +township and a few hamlets, are Isfahan, Jai, Barkhar, Kahab, Kararaj, +Baraan, Rudasht, Marbin, Lenjan, Kerven, Rar, Kiar, Mizdej, Ganduman, +Somairam, Jarkuyeh, Ardistan, Kuhpayeh, Najafabad, Komisheh, Chadugan, +Varzek, Tokhmaklu, Gurji, Chinarud. Most of these districts are very +fertile, and produce great quantities of wheat, barley, rice, cotton, +tobacco and opium. Lenjan, west of the city of Isfahan, is the greatest +rice-producing district; the finest cotton comes from Jarkuyeh; the best +opium and tobacco from the villages in the vicinity of the city. + +The town of Isfahan or Ispahan, formerly the capital of Persia, now the +capital of the province, is situated on the Zayendeh river in 32 deg. +39' N. and 51 deg. 40' E.[1] at an elevation of 5370 ft. Its population, +excluding that of the Armenian colony of Julfa on the right or south +bank of the river (about 4000), is estimated at 100,000 (73,654, +including 5883 Jews, in 1882). The town is divided into thirty-seven +_mahallehs_ (parishes) and has 210 mosques and colleges (many half +ruined), 84 caravanserais, 150 public baths and 68 flour mills. The +water supply is principally from open canals led off from the river and +from several streams and canals which come down from the hills in the +north-west. The name of the Isfahan river was originally Zendeh (Pahlavi +_zendek_) rud, "the great river"; it was then modernized into +Zindeh-rud, "the living river," and is now called Zayendeh rud, "the +life-giving river." Its principal source is the Jananeh rud which rises +on the eastern slope of the Zardeh Kuh about 90 to 100 m. W. of Isfahan. +After receiving the Khursang river from Feridan on the north and the +Zarin rud from Chaharmahal on the south it is called Zendeh rud. It then +waters the Lenjan and Marbin districts, passes Isfahan as Zayendeh-rud +and 70 m. farther E. ends in the Gavkhani depression. From its entrance +into Lenjan to its end 105 canals are led off from it for purposes of +irrigation and 14 bridges cross it (5 at Isfahan). Its volume of water +at Isfahan during the spring season has been estimated at 60,000 cub. +ft. per second; in autumn the quantity is reduced to one-third, but +nearly all of it being then used for feeding the irrigation canals very +little is left for the river bed. The town covers about 20 sq. m., but +many parts of it are in ruins. The old city walls--a ruined mud +curtain--are about 5 m. in circumference. + +Of the many fine public buildings constructed by the Sefavis and during +the reign of the present dynasty very little remains. There are still +standing in fairly good repair the two palaces named respectively Chehel +Situn, "the forty pillars," and Hasht Behesht, "the eight paradises," +the former constructed by Shah Abbas I. (1587-1629), the latter by Shah +Soliman in 1670, and restored and renovated by Fath Ali Shah +(1797-1834). They are ornamented with gilding and mirrors in every +possible variety of Arabesque decoration, and large and brilliant +pictures, representing scenes of Persian history, cover the walls of +their principal apartments and have been ascribed in many instances to +Italian and Dutch artists who are known to have been in the service of +the Sefavis. Attached to these palaces were many other buildings such as +the Imaretino built by Amin ed-Dowleh (or Addaula) for Fath Ali Shah, +the Imaret i Ashref built by Ashref Khan, the Afghan usurper, the Talar +Tavileh, Guldasteh, Sarpushideh, &c., erected in the early part of the +19th century by wealthy courtiers for the convenience of the sovereign +and often occupied as residences of European ministers travelling +between Bushire and Teheran and by other distinguished travellers. +Perhaps the most agreeable residence of all was the Haft Dast, "the +seven courts," in the beautiful garden of Saadetabad on the southern +bank of the river, and 2 or 3 m. from the centre of the city. This +palace was built by Shah Abbas II. (1642-1667), and Fath Ali Shad Kajar +died there in 1834. Close to it was the Aineh Khaneh, "hall of mirrors" +and other elegant buildings in the Hazar jerib (1000 acre) garden. All +these palaces and buildings on both sides of the river were surrounded +by extensive gardens, traversed by avenues of tall trees, principally +planes, and intersected by paved canals of running water with tanks and +fountains. Since Fath Ali Shah's death, palaces and gardens have been +neglected. In 1902 an official was sent from Teheran to inspect the +crown buildings, to report on their condition, and repair and renovate +some, &c. The result was that all the above-mentioned buildings, +excepting the Chehel Situn and Hasht Behesht, were demolished and their +timber, bricks, stone, &c., sold to local builders. The gardens are +wildernesses. The garden of the Chehel Situn palace opens out through +the Ala Kapu ("highest gate, sublime porte") to the Maidan-i-Shah, which +is one of the most imposing piazzas in the world, a parallelogram of 560 +yds. (N.-S.) by 174 yds. (E.-W.) surrounded by brick buildings divided +into two storeys of recessed arches, or arcades, one above the other. In +front of these arcades grow a few stunted planes and poplars. On the +south side of the maidan is the famous Masjed i Shah (the shah's mosque) +erected by Shah Abbas I. in 1612-1613. It is covered with glazed tiles +of great brilliancy and richly decorated with gold and silver ornaments +and cost over L175,000. It is in good repair, and plans of it were +published by C. Texier (_L'Armenie, la Perse_, &c., vol. i. pls. 70-72) +and P. Coste (_Monuments de la Perse_). On the eastern side of the +maidan stands the Masjed i Lutf Ullah with beautiful enamelled tiles and +in good repair. Opposite to it on the western side of the maidan is the +Ala Kapu, a lofty building in the form of an archway overlooking the +maidan and crowned in the fore part by an immense open throne-room +supported by wooden columns, while the hinder part is elevated three +storeys higher. On the north side of the maidan is the entrance gate to +the main bazaar surmounted by the Nekkareh-Khaneh, or drumhouse, where +is blared forth the appalling music saluting the rising and setting sun, +said to have been instituted by Jamshid many thousand years ago. West of +the Chehel Situn palace and conducting N.-S. from the centre of the city +to the great bridge of Allah Verdi Khan is the great avenue nearly a +mile in length called Chahar Bagh, "the four gardens," recalling the +fact that it was originally occupied by four vineyards which Shah Abbas +I. rented at L360 a year and converted into a splendid approach to his +capital. + + It was thus described by Lord Curzon of Kedleston in 1880: "Of all the + sights of Isfahan, this in its present state is the most pathetic in + the utter and pitiless decay of its beauty. Let me indicate what it + was and what it is. At the upper extremity a two-storeyed pavilion,[2] + connected by a corridor with the Seraglio of the palace, so as to + enable the ladies of the harem to gaze unobserved upon the merry scene + below, looked out upon the centre of the avenue. Water, conducted in + stone channels, ran down the centre, falling in miniature cascades + from terrace to terrace, and was occasionally collected in great + square or octagonal basins where cross roads cut the avenue. On either + side of the central channel was a row of oriental planes and a paved + pathway for pedestrians. Then occurred a succession of open parterres, + usually planted or sown. Next on either side was a second row of + planes, between which and the flanking walls was a raised causeway for + horsemen. The total breadth is now fifty-two yards. At intervals + corresponding with the successive terraces and basins, arched doorways + with recessed open chambers overhead conducted through these walls + into the various royal or noble gardens that stretched on either side, + and were known as the Gardens of the Throne, of the Nightingale, of + Vines, of Mulberries, Dervishes, &c. Some of these pavilions were + places of public resort and were used as coffee-houses, where when the + business of the day was over, the good burghers of Isfahan assembled + to sip that beverage and inhale their _kalians_ the while; as Fryer + puts it: 'Night drawing on, all the pride of Spahaun was met in the + Chaurbaug and the Grandees were Airing themselves, prancing about with + their numerous Trains, striving to outvie each other in Pomp and + Generosity.' At the bottom, quays lined the banks of the river, and + were bordered with the mansions of the nobility." + + Such was the Chahar Bagh in the plenitude of its fame. But now what a + tragical contrast! The channels are empty, their stone borders + crumbled and shattered, the terraces are broken down, the parterres + are unsightly bare patches, the trees, all lopped and pollarded, have + been chipped and hollowed out or cut down for fuel by the soldiery of + the Zil, the side pavilions are abandoned and tumbling to pieces and + the gardens are wildernesses. Two centuries of decay could never make + the Champs Elysees in Paris, the Unter den Linden in Berlin, or + Rotten Row in London, look one half as miserable as does the ruined + avenue of Shah Abbas. It is in itself an epitome of modern Iran." + +Towards the upper end of the avenue on its eastern side stands the +medresseh (college) which Shah Hosain built in 1710. It still has a few +students, but is very much out of repair; Lord Curzon spoke of it in +1888 as "one of the stateliest ruins that he saw in Persia." South of +this college the avenue is altogether without trees, and the gardens on +both sides have been turned into barley fields. Among the other notable +buildings of Isfahan must be reckoned its five bridges, all fine +structures, and one of them, the bridge of Allah Verdi Kahn, 388 yds. in +length with a paved roadway of 30 ft. in breadth, is one of the +stateliest bridges in the world, and has suffered little by the march of +decay. + +Another striking feature of Isfahan is the line of covered bazaars, +which extends for nearly 3 m. and divides the city from south to north. +The confluence of people in these bazaars is certainly very great, and +gives an exaggerated idea of the populousness of the city, the truth +being that while the inhabitants congregate for business in the bazaars, +the rest of the city is comparatively deserted. When surveyed from a +commanding height within the city, or in the immediate environs, the +enormous extent of mingled garden and building, about 30 m. in circuit, +gives an impression of populousness and busy life, but a closer scrutiny +reveals that the whole scene is nothing more than a gigantic sham. With +the exception of the bazaars and a few parishes there is really no +continuous inhabited area. Whole streets, whole quarters of the city +have fallen into utter ruin and are absolutely deserted, and the +traveller who is bent on visiting some of the remarkable sites in the +northern part of the city or in the western suburbs, such as the +minarets dating from the 12th century, the remains of the famous castle +of Tabarrak built by the Buyid Rukn addaula (d. 976), the ruins of the +old fire temple, the shaking minarets of Guladan, &c., has to pass +through miles of crumbling mud walls and roofless houses. It is believed +indeed that not a twentieth part of the area of the old city is at +present peopled, and the million or 600,000 inhabitants of Chardin's +time (middle of the 17th century) have now dwindled to about 85,000. The +Armenian suburb of Julfa, at any rate, which contained a population of +30,000 souls in the 17th century, has now only 4000, and the Christian +churches, which numbered thirteen and were maintained with splendour, +are now reduced to half a dozen edifices with bare walls and empty +benches. Much improvement has recently taken place in the education of +the young and also in their religious teaching, the wealthy Armenians of +India and Java having liberally contributed to the national schools, and +the Church Missionary Society of London having a church, schools and +hospitals there since 1869. + +The people of Isfahan have a very poor reputation in Persia either for +courage or morals. They are regarded as a clever but at the same time +dissolute and disorderly community, whose government requires a strong +hand. The _lutis_ (hooligans) of Isfahan are proverbial as the most +turbulent and rowdy set of vagabonds in Persia. The priesthood of +Isfahan are much respected for their learning and high character, and +the merchants are a very respectable class. The commerce of Isfahan has +greatly fallen off from its former flourishing condition, and it is +doubtful whether the trade of former days can ever be restored. + (A. H.-S.) + + _History._--The natural advantages of Isfahan--a genial climate, a + fertile soil and abundance of water for irrigation--must have always + made it a place of importance. In the most ancient cuneiform + documents, referring to a period between 3000 and 2000 B.C., the + province of _Anshan_, which certainly included Isfahan, was the limit + of the geographical knowledge of the Babylonians, typifying the + extreme east, as Syria (or _Martu-ki_) typified the west. The two + provinces of _Anshan_ and _Subarta_, by which we must understand the + country from Isfahan to Shuster, were ruled in those remote ages by + the same king, who undoubtedly belonged to the great Turanian family; + and from this first notice of Anshan down to the 7th century B.C. the + region seems to have remained, more or less, dependent on the + paramount power of Susa. With regard to the eastern frontier of + Anshan, however, ethnic changes were probably in extensive operation + during this interval of twenty centuries. The western Iranians, for + instance, after separating from their eastern brethren on the Oxus, as + early perhaps as 3000 B.C., must have followed the line of the Elburz + mountains, and then bifurcating into two branches must have scattered, + westward into Media and southward towards Persia. The first + substantial settlement of the southern branch would seem then to have + been at Isfahan, where _Jem_, the eponym of the Persian race, is said + to have founded a famous castle, the remains of which were visible as + late as the 10th century A.D. This castle is known in the Zoroastrian + writings as _Jem-gird_, but its proper name was _Saru_ or _Saruk_ + (given in the Bundahish as _Sruwa_ or _Srobak_), and it was especially + famous in early Mahommedan history as the building where the ancient + records and tables of the Persians were discovered which proved of so + much use to Albumazar and his contemporaries. A valuable tradition, + proceeding from quite a different source, has also been preserved to + the effect that Jem, who invented the original Persian character, + "dwelt in Assan, a district of Shuster" (see Flugel's _Fihrist_, p. + 12, l. 21), which exactly accords with the Assyrian notices of Assan + or Anshan classed as a dependency of Elymais. Now, it is well known + that native legend represented the Persian race to have been held in + bondage for a thousand years, after the reign of Jem, by the foreign + usurper _Zohak_ or _Biverasp_, a period which may well represent the + duration of Elymaean supremacy over the Aryans of Anshan. At the + commencement of the 7th century B.C. Persia and Ansan are still found + in the annals of Sennacherib amongst the tributaries of Elymais, + confederated against Assyria; but shortly afterwards the great Susian + monarchy, which had lasted for full 2000 years, crumbled away under + continued pressure from the west, and the Aryans of Anshan recovered + their independence, founding for the first time a national dynasty, + and establishing their seat of government at Gabae on the site of the + modern city of Isfahan. + + The royal city of Gabae was known as a foundation of the Achaemenidae + as late as the time of Strabo, and the inscriptions show that + Achaemenes and his successors did actually rule at Anshan until the + great Cyrus set out on his career of western victory. Whether the + _Kabi_ or _Kavi_ of tradition, the blacksmith of Isfahan, who is said + to have headed the revolt against Zohak, took his name from the town + of Gabae may be open to question; but it is at any rate remarkable + that the national standard of the Persian race, named after the + blacksmith, and supposed to have been first unfurled at this epoch, + retained the title of _Darafsh-a Kavani_ (the banner of Kavi) to the + time of the Arab conquest, and that the men of Isfahan were, moreover, + throughout this long period, always especially charged with its + protection. The provincial name of Anshan or Assan seems to have been + disused in the country after the age of Cyrus, and to have been + replaced by that of Gabene or Gabiane, which alone appears in the + Greek accounts of the wars of Alexander and his successors, and in the + geographical descriptions of Strabo. Gabae or Gavi became gradually + corrupted to _Jai_ during the Sassanian period, and it was thus by the + latter name that the old city of Isfahan was generally known at the + time of the Arab invasion. Subsequently the title of Jai became + replaced by _Sheheristan_ or _Medineh_, "the city" _par excellence_, + while a suburb which had been founded in the immediate vicinity, and + which took the name of _Yahudieh_, or the "Jews' town," from its + original Jewish inhabitants, gradually rose into notice and superseded + the old capital.[3] + + _Sheheristan_ and _Yahudieh_ are thus in the early ages of Islam + described as independent cities, the former being the eastern and the + latter the western division of the capital, each surrounded by a + separate wall; but about the middle of the 10th century the famous + Buyid king, known as the _Rukn-addaula_ (_al-Dowleh_), united the two + suburbs and many of the adjoining villages in one general enclosure + which was about 10 m. in circumference. The city, which had now + resumed its old name of Isfahan, continued to flourish till the time + of Timur (A.D. 1387), when in common with so many other cities of the + empire it suffered grievously at the hands of the Tatar invaders. + Timur indeed is said to have erected a _Kelleh Minar_ or "skull tower" + of 70,000 heads at the gate of the city, as a warning to deter other + communities from resisting his arms. The place, however, owing to its + natural advantages, gradually recovered from the effects of this + terrible visitation, and when the Safavid dynasty, who succeeded to + power in the 16th century, transferred their place of residence to it + from Kazvin, it rose rapidly in populousness and wealth. It was under + Shah Abbas the first, the most illustrious sovereign of this house, + that Isfahan attained its greatest prosperity. This monarch adopted + every possible expedient, by stimulating commerce, encouraging arts + and manufactures, and introducing luxurious habits, to attract + visitors to his favourite capital. He built several magnificent + palaces in the richest style of Oriental decoration, planted gardens + and avenues, and distributed amongst them the waters of the Zendeh-rud + in an endless series of reservoirs, fountains and cascades. The baths, + the mosques, the colleges, the bazaars and the caravanserais of the + city received an equal share of his attention, and European artificers + and merchants were largely encouraged to settle in his capital. + Ambassadors visited his court from many of the first states of Europe, + and factories were permanently established for the merchants of + England, France, Holland, the Hanseatic towns, Spain, Portugal and + Moscow. The celebrated traveller Chardin, who passed a great portion + of his life at Isfahan in the latter half of the 17th century, has + left a detailed and most interesting account of the statistics of the + city at that period. He himself estimated the population at 600,000, + though in popular belief the number exceeded a million. There were + 1500 flourishing villages in the immediate neighbourhood; the enceinte + of the city and suburbs was reckoned at 24 m., while the mud walls + surrounding the city itself, probably nearly following the lines of + the Buyid enclosure, measured 20,000 paces. In the interior were + counted 162 mosques, 48 public colleges, 1802 caravanserais, 273 baths + and 12 cemeteries. The adjoining suburb of Julfa was also a most + flourishing place. Originally founded by Shah Abbas the Great, who + transported to this locality 3400 Armenian families from the town of + Julfa on the Arras, the colony increased rapidly under his fostering + care, both in wealth and in numbers, the Christian population being + estimated in 1685 at 30,000 souls. The first blow to the prosperity of + modern Isfahan was given by the Afghan invasion at the beginning of + the 18th century, since which date, although continuing for some time + to be the nominal head of the empire, the city has gradually dwindled + in importance, and now only ranks as a second or third rate provincial + capital. When the Kajar dynasty indeed mounted the throne of Persia at + the end of the 18th century the seat of government was at once + transferred to Teheran, with a view to the support of the royal tribe, + whose chief seat was in the neighbouring province of Mazenderan; and, + although it has often been proposed, from considerations of state + policy in reference to Russia, to re-establish the court at Isfahan, + which is the true centre of Persia, the scheme has never commanded + much attention. At the same time the government of Isfahan, owing to + the wealth of the surrounding districts, has always been much sought + after. Early in the 19th century the post was often conferred upon + some powerful minister of the court, but in later times it has been + usually the apanage of a favourite son or brother of the reigning + sovereign.[4] Fath Ali Shah, who had a particular affection for + Isfahan, died here in 1834, and it became a time-honoured custom for + the monarch on the throne to seek relief from the heat of Teheran by + forming a summer camp at the rich pastures of Ganduman, on the skirts + of Zardeh-Kuh, to the west of Isfahan, for the exercise of his troops + and the health and amusement of his courtiers, but in recent years the + practice has been discontinued. (H. C. R.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] These figures are approximate for the centre of the town north of + the river. The result of astronomical observations taken by the + German expedition for observing the transit of Venus in 1874 and by + Sir O. St John in 1870 on the south bank of the river near, and in + Julfa respectively was 51 deg. 40' 3.45" E., 32 deg. 37' 30" N. The + stone slab commemorating the work of the expedition and placed on + the spot where the observations were taken has been carried off and + now serves as a door plinth of an Armenian house. + + [2] This pavilion was the Persian telegraph office of Isfahan for + nearly forty years and was demolished in 1903. + + [3] The name of Yahudieh or "Jews' town" is derived by the early Arab + geographers from a colony of Jews who are said to have migrated from + Babylonia to Isfahan shortly after Nebuchadrezzar's conquest of + Jerusalem, but this is pure fable. The Jewish settlement really dates + from the 3rd century A.D. as is shown by a notice in the Armenian + history of Moses of Chorene, lib. iii. cap. 35. The name _Isfahan_ + has been generally compared with the Aspadana of Ptolemy in the + extreme north of Persis, and the identification is probably correct. + At any rate the title is of great antiquity being found in the + Bundahish, and being derived in all likelihood from the family name + of the race of _Feridun_, the _Athviyan_ of romance, who were + entitled _Aspiyan_ in Pahlavi, according to the phonetic rules of + that language. + + [4] Zill es Sultan, elder brother of Muzafar ed d-n Shah, became + governor-general of the Isfahan province in 1869. + + + + +ISHIM, a town of West Siberia, in the government of Tobolsk, 180 m. N.W. +of Omsk, on a river of the same name, tributary, on the left, of the +Irtysh. Pop. (1897) 7161. The town, which was founded in 1630, has +tallow-melting and carries on a large trade in rye and rye flour. The +fair is one of the most important in Siberia, its returns being +estimated at L500,000 annually. + + + + +ISHMAEL (a Hebrew name meaning "God hears"), in the Bible, the son of +Abraham by his Egyptian concubine Hagar, and the eponym of a number of +(probably) nomadic tribes living outside Palestine. Hagar in turn +personifies a people found to the east of Gilead (1 Chron. v. 10) and +Petra (Strabo).[1] Through the jealousy of Sarah, Abraham's wife, mother +and son were driven away, and they wandered in the district south of +Beersheba and Kadesh (Gen. xvi. J, xxi. E); see ABRAHAM. It had been +foretold to his mother before his birth that he should be "a wild ass +among men," and that he should dwell "before the face of" (that is, to +the eastward of) his brethren. It is subsequently stated that after +leaving his father's roof he "became an archer,[2] and dwelt in the +wilderness of Paran, and his mother took him a wife out of the land of +Egypt." But the genealogical relations were rather with the Edomites, +Midianites and other peoples of North Arabia and the eastern desert than +with Egypt proper, and this is indicated by the expressions that "they +dwelt from Havilah unto Shur that is east of Egypt, and he settled to +the eastward of his brethren" (see MIZRAIM). Like Jacob, the ancestor of +the Israelites, he had twelve sons (xxv. 12-18, P), of which only a few +have historical associations apart from the biblical records. Nebaioth +and Kedar suggest the Nabataei and Cedrei of Pliny (v. 12). the +first-mentioned of whom were an important Arab people after the time of +Alexander (see NABATAEANS). The names correspond to the Nabaitu and +Kidru of the Assyrian inscriptions occupying the desert east of the +Jordan and Dead Sea, whilst the Massa and Tema lay probably farther +south. Dumah may perhaps be the same as the Domata of Pliny (vi. 32) and +the [Greek: Doumetha] or [Greek: Doumaitha] of Ptolemy (v. 19, 7, viii. +22, 3)--Sennacherib conquered a fortress of "Aribi" named Adumu,--and +Jetur is obviously the Ituraea of classical geographers.[3] + + "Ishmael," therefore, is used in a wide sense of the wilder, roving + peoples encircling Canaan from the north-east to the south, related to + but on a lower rank than the "sons" of Isaac. It is practically + identical with the term "Arabia" as used by the Assyrians. Nothing + certain is known of the history of these mixed populations. They arc + represented as warlike nomads and with a certain reputation for wisdom + (Baruch iii. 23). Not improbably they spoke a dialect (or dialects) + akin to Arabic or Aramaic.[4] According to the Mahommedans, Ishmael, + who is recognized as their ancestor, lies buried with his mother in + the Kaaba in Mecca. See further, T. Noldeke, _Ency. Bib., s.v._, and + the articles EDOM, MIDIAN. (S. A. C.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] On Paul's use of the story of Hagar (Gal. iv. 24-26), see _Ency. + Bib._ col. 1934; and H. St J. Thackeray, _Relation of St Paul to + contemporary Jewish Thought_ (London, 1900), pp. 196 sqq.; Hagar + typifies the old Sinaitic covenant, and Sarah represents the new + covenant of freedom from bondage. The treatment of the concubine and + her son in Gen. xvi. compared with ch. xxi. illustrates old Hebrew + customs, on which see further S. A. Cook, _Laws of Moses, &c._ + (London, 1903), pp. 116 sqq., 140 sq. + + [2] The Ituraean archers were of Jetur, one of the "sons" of Ishmael + (Gen. xxv. 15), and were Roman mercenaries, perhaps even in Great + Britain (_Pal. Expl. Fund, Q.S._, 1909, p. 283). + + [3] With Adbeel (Gen. xxv. 13) may be identified Idibi'il (-ba'il) a + tribe employed by Tiglath-Pileser IV. (733 B.C.) to watch the + frontier of Musri (Sinaitic peninsula or N. Arabia?). + + [4] This is suggested by the fact that Ashurbanipal (7th century) + mentions as the name of their deity Atar-Samain (i.e. "Ishtar of the + heavens"). + + + + +ISHPEMING, a city of Marquette county, Michigan, U.S.A., about 15 m. W. +by S. of Marquette, in the N. part of the upper peninsula. Pop. (1890) +11,197; (1900) 13,255, of whom 5970 were foreign-born; (1904) 11,623; +(1910) 12,448. It is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Duluth, +South Shore & Atlantic, and the Lake Superior and Ishpeming railways. +The city is 1400 ft. above sea-level (whence its name, from an Ojibway +Indian word, said to mean "high up"), in the centre of the Marquette +Range iron district, and has seven mines within its limits; the mining +of iron ore is its principal industry. Ishpeming was settled about 1854, +and was incorporated as a city in 1873. + + + + +ISHTAR, or ISTAR, the name of the chief goddess of Babylonia and +Assyria, the counterpart of the Phoenician Astarte (q.v.). The meaning +of the name is not known, though it is possible that the underlying stem +is the same as that of Assur (q.v.), which would thus make her the +"leading one" or "chief." At all events it is now generally recognized +that the name is Semitic in its origin. Where the name originated is +likewise uncertain, but the indications point to Erech where we find the +worship of a great mother-goddess independent of any association with a +male counterpart flourishing in the oldest period of Babylonian history. +She appears under various names, among which are Nana, Innanna, Nina and +Anunit. As early as the days of Khammurabi we find these various names +which represented originally different goddesses, though all manifest as +the chief trait the life-giving power united in Ishtar. Even when the +older names are employed it is always the great mother-goddess who is +meant. Ishtar is the one goddess in the pantheon who retains her +independent position despite and throughout all changes that the +Babylonian-Assyrian religion undergoes. In a certain sense she is the +only real goddess in the pantheon, the rest being mere reflections of +the gods with whom they are associated as consorts. Even when Ishtar is +viewed as the consort of some chief--of Marduk occasionally in the +south, of Assur more frequently in the north--the consciousness that she +has a personality of her own apart from this association is never lost +sight of. + +We may reasonably assume that the analogy drawn from the process of +reproduction among men and animals led to the conception of a female +deity presiding over the life of the universe. The extension of the +scope of this goddess to life in general--to the growth of plants and +trees from the fructifying seed--was a natural outcome of a fundamental +idea; and so, whether we turn to incantations or hymns, in myths and in +epics, in votive inscriptions and in historical annals, Ishtar is +celebrated and invoked as the great mother, as the mistress of lands, as +clothed in splendour and power--one might almost say as the +personification of life itself. + +But there are two aspects to this goddess of life. She brings forth, she +fertilizes the fields, she clothes nature in joy and gladness, but she +also withdraws her favours and when she does so the fields wither, and +men and animals cease to reproduce. In place of life, barrenness and +death ensue. She is thus also a grim goddess, at once cruel and +destructive. We can, therefore, understand that she was also invoked as +a goddess of war and battles and of the chase; and more particularly +among the warlike Assyrians she assumes this aspect. Before the battle +she appears to the army, clad in battle array and armed with bow and +arrow. In myths symbolizing the change of seasons she is portrayed in +this double character, as the life-giving and the life-depriving power. +The most noteworthy of these myths describes her as passing through +seven gates into the nether world. At each gate some of her clothing and +her ornaments are removed until at the last gate she is entirely naked. +While she remains in the nether world as a prisoner--whether voluntary +or involuntary it is hard to say--all fertility ceases on earth, but the +time comes when she again returns to earth, and as she passes each gate +the watchman restores to her what she had left there until she is again +clad in her full splendour, to the joy of mankind and of all nature. +Closely allied with this myth and personifying another view of the +change of seasons is the story of Ishtar's love for Tammuz--symbolizing +the spring time--but as midsummer approaches her husband is slain and, +according to one version, it is for the purpose of saving Tammuz from +the clutches of the goddess of the nether world that she enters upon her +journey to that region. + +In all the great centres Ishtar had her temples, bearing such names as +E-anna, "heavenly house," in Erech; E-makh, "great house," in Babylon; +E-mash-mash, "house of offerings," in Nineveh. Of the details of her +cult we as yet know little, but there is no evidence that there were +obscene rites connected with it, though there may have been certain +mysteries introduced at certain centres which might easily impress the +uninitiated as having obscene aspects. She was served by priestesses as +well as by priests, and it would appear that the votaries of Ishtar were +in all cases virgins who, as long as they remained in the service of +Ishtar, were not permitted to marry. + + In the astral-theological system, Ishtar becomes the planet Venus, and + the double aspect of the goddess is made to correspond to the + strikingly different phases of Venus in the summer and winter seasons. + On monuments and seal-cylinders she appears frequently with bow and + arrow, though also simply clad in long robes with a crown on her head + and an eight-rayed star as her symbol. Statuettes have been found in + large numbers representing her as naked with her arms folded across + her breast or holding a child. The art thus reflects the popular + conceptions formed of the goddess. Together with Sin, the moon-god, + and Shamash, the sun-god, she is the third figure in a triad + personifying the three great forces of nature--moon, sun and earth, as + the life-force. The doctrine involved illustrates the tendency of the + Babylonian priests to centralize the manifestations of divine power in + the universe, just as the triad Anu, Bel and Ea (q.v.)--the heavens, + the earth and the watery deep--form another illustration of this same + tendency. + + Naturally, as a member of a triad, Ishtar is dissociated from any + local limitations, and similarly as the planet Venus--a conception + which is essentially a product of theological speculation--no thought + of any particular locality for her cult is present. It is because her + cult, like that of Sin (q.v.) and Shamash (q.v.), is spread over all + Babylonia and Assyria, that she becomes available for purposes of + theological speculation. + + Cf. ASTARTE, ATARGATIS, GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, and specially + BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION. (M. Ja.) + + + + +ISHTIB, or Istib (anc. _Astibon_, Slav. _Shtipliye_ or _Shtip_), a town +of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Kossovo; 45 m. E.S.E. +of Uskub. Pop. (1905) about 10,000. Ishtib is built on a hill at the +confluence of the small river Ishtib with the Bregalnitza, a tributary +of the Vardar. It has a thriving agricultural trade, and possesses +several fine mosques, a number of fountains and a large bazaar. A hill +on the north-west is crowned by the ruins of an old castle. + + + + +ISIDORE OF ALEXANDRIA,[1] Greek philosopher and one of the last of the +Neoplatonists, lived in Athens and Alexandria towards the end of the 5th +century A.D. He became head of the school in Athens in succession to +Marinus who followed Proclus. His views alienated the chief members of +the school and he was compelled to resign his position to Hegias. He is +known principally as the preceptor of Damascius whose testimony to him +in the _Life of Isidorus_ presents him in a very favourable light as a +man and a thinker. It is generally admitted, however, that he was rather +an enthusiast than a thinker; reasoning with him was subsidiary to +inspiration, and he preferred the theories of Pythagoras and Plato to +the unimaginative logic and the practical ethics of the Stoics and the +Aristotelians. He seems to have given loose rein to a sort of +theosophical speculation and attached great importance to dreams and +waking visions on which he used to expatiate in his public discourses. + + Damascius' _Life_ is preserved by Photius in the _Bibliotheca_, and + the fragments are printed in the Didot edition of Diogenes Laertius. + See Agathias, _Hist._ ii. 30; Photius, _Bibliotheca_, 181; and + histories of Neoplatonism. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] With Isidore of Alexandria has been confused an Isidore of Gaza, + mentioned by Photius. Little is known of him except that he was one + of those who accompanied Damascius to the Persian court when + Justinian closed the schools in Athens in 529. Suidas, in speaking of + Isidore of Alexandria, says that Hypatia was his wife, but there is + no means of approximating the dates (see HYPATIA). Suetonius, in his + _Life of Nero_, refers to a Cynic philosopher named Isidore, who is + said to have jested publicly at the expense of Nero. + + + + +ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, or ISIDORUS HISPALENSIS (c. 560-636), Spanish +encyclopaedist and historian, was the son of Severianus, a distinguished +native of Cartagena, who came to Seville about the time of the birth of +Isidore. Leander, bishop of Seville, was his elder brother. Left an +orphan while still young, Isidore was educated in a monastery, and soon +distinguished himself in controversies with the Arians. In 599, on the +death of his brother, he was chosen archbishop of Seville, and acquired +high renown by his successful administration of the episcopal office, as +well as by his numerous theological, historical and scientific works. He +founded a school at Seville, and taught in it himself. In the provincial +and national councils he played an important part, notably at Toledo in +610, at Seville in 619 and in 633 at Toledo, which profoundly modified +the organization of the church in Spain. His great work, however, was in +another line. Profoundly versed in the Latin as well as in the Christian +literature, his indefatigable intellectual curiosity led him to condense +and reproduce in encyclopaedic form the fruit of his wide reading. His +works, which include all topics--science, canon law, history or +theology--are unsystematic and largely uncritical, merely reproducing at +second hand the substance of such sources as were available. Yet in +their inadequate way they served to keep alive throughout the dark ages +some little knowledge of the antique culture and learning. The most +elaborate of his writings is the _Originum sive etymologiarum libri XX_. +It was the last of his works, written between 622 and 633, and was +corrected by his friend and disciple Braulion. It is an encyclopaedia of +all the sciences, under the form of an explanation of the terms proper +to each of them. It was one of the capital books of the middle ages. + + On the _Libri differentiarum sive de proprietate sermonum_--of which + the first book is a collection of synonyms, and the second of + explanations of metaphysical and religious ideas--see A. Mace's + doctoral dissertation, Rennes, 1900. Mommsen has edited the _Chronica + majora_ or _Chronicon de sex aetatibus_ (from the creation to A.D. + 615) and the "Historia Gothorum, Wandalorum, Sueborum," in the + _Monumenta Germaniae historica, auctores antiqitissimi: Chronica + minora II_. The history of the Goths is a historical source of the + first order. The _De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_ or better _De viris + illustribus_, was a continuation of the work of St Jerome and of + Gennadius (cf. G. von Dzialowski in _Kirchengeschichtliche Studien_, + iv. (1899). Especially interesting is the _De natura rerum ad + Sisebutum regem_, a treatise on astronomy and meteorology, which + contained the sum of physical philosophy during the early middle ages. + The _Regula monachorum_ of Isidore was adopted by many of the + monasteries in Spain during the 7th and 8th centuries. The collection + of canons known as the _Isidoriana_ or _Hispalensis_ is not by him, + and the following, attributed to him, are of doubtful authenticity: + _De ortu ac obitu patrum qui in Scriptura laudibus efferuntur_; + _Allegoriae scripturae sacrae et liber numerorum_; _De ordine + creaturarum_. + + The edition of all of Isidore's works by F. Orevalo (Rome, 1797-1803, + 7 vols.), reproduced in Migne, _Patrologia Latina_, 81-84, is + carefully edited. See also C. Canal, _San Isidoro, exposicion de sus + obras e indicaciones a cerca de la influencia que han ejercido en la + civilizacion espanola_ (Seville, 1897). A list of monographs is in the + _Bibliographie_ of Ulysse Chevalier. + + + + +ISINGLASS (probably a corruption of the Dutch _huisenblas_, Ger. +_Hausenblase_, literally "sturgeon's bladder"), a pure form of +commercial gelatin obtained from the swimming bladder or sound of +several species of fish. The sturgeon is the most valuable, various +species of which, especially _Acipenser stellatus_ (the seuruga), _A. +ruthenus_ (the sterlet) and _A. guldenstadtii_ (the ossetr), flourish in +the Volga and other Russian rivers, in the Caspian and Black Seas, and +in the Arctic Ocean, and yield the "Russian isinglass"; a large fish, +_Silurus parkerii_, and probably some other fish, yield the "Brazilian +isinglass"; other less definitely characterized fish yield the "Penang" +product; while the common cod, the hake and other _Gadidae_ also yield a +variety of isinglass. The sounds, having been removed from the fish and +cleansed, undergo no other preparation than desiccation or drying, an +operation needing much care; but in this process the sounds are +subjected to several different treatments. If the sound be unopened the +product appears in commerce as "pipe," "purse" or "lump isinglass"; if +opened and unfolded, as "leaf" or "honeycomb"; if folded and dried, as +"book," and if rolled out, as "ribbon isinglass." Russian isinglass +generally appears in commerce as leaf, book, and long and short staple; +Brazilian isinglass, from Para and Maranham, as pipe, lump and +honeycomb; the latter product, and also the isinglass of Hudson's Bay, +Penang, Manila, &c., is darker in colour and less soluble than the +Russian product. + +The finest isinglass, which comes from the Russian ports of Astrakhan +and Taganrog, is prepared by steeping the sounds in hot water in order +to remove mucus, &c.; they are then cut open and the inner membrane +exposed to the air; after drying, the outer membrane is removed by +rubbing and beating. As imported, isinglass is usually too tough and +hard to be directly used. To increase its availability, the raw material +is sorted, soaked in water till it becomes flexible and then trimmed; +the trimmings are sold as a lower grade. The trimmed sheets are +sometimes passed between steel rollers, which reduce them to the +thickness of paper; it then appears as a transparent ribbon, "shot" like +watered silk. The ribbon is dried, and, if necessary, cut into strips. + +The principal use of isinglass is for clarifying wines, beers and other +liquids. This property is the more remarkable since it is not possessed +by ordinary gelatin; it has been ascribed to its fibrous structure, +which forms, as it were, a fine network in the liquid in which it is +disseminated, and thereby mechanically carries down all the minute +particles which occasion the turbidity. The cheaper varieties are more +commonly used; many brewers prefer the Penang product; Russian leaf, +however, is used by some Scottish brewers; and Russian long staple is +used in the Worcestershire cider industry. Of secondary importance is +its use for culinary and confectionery purposes, for example, in making +jellies, stiffening jams, &c. Here it is often replaced by the so-called +"patent isinglass," which is a very pure gelatin, and differs from +natural isinglass by being useless for clarifying liquids. It has few +other applications in the arts. Mixed with gum, it is employed to give a +lustre to ribbons and silk; incorporated with water, Spanish liquorice +and lamp black it forms an Indian ink; a solution, mixed with a little +tincture of benzoin, brushed over sarsenet and allowed to dry, forms the +well-known "court plaster." Another plaster is obtained by adding acetic +acid and a little otto of roses to a solution of fine glue. It also has +valuable agglutinating properties; by dissolving in two parts of pure +alcohol it forms a diamond cement, the solution cooling to a white, +opaque, hard solid; it also dissolves in strong acetic acid to form a +powerful cement, which is especially useful for repairing glass, pottery +and like substances. + + + + +ISIS (Egyptian _Ese_), the most famous of the Egyptian goddesses. She +was of human form, in early times distinguished only by the hieroglyph +of her name [symbol] upon her head. Later she commonly wore the horns of +a cow, and the cow was sacred to her; it is doubtful, however, whether +she had any animal representation in early times, nor had she possession +of any considerable locality until a late period, when Philae, Behbet +and other large temples were dedicated to her worship. Yet she was of +great importance in mythology, religion and magic, appearing constantly +in the very ancient Pyramid texts as the devoted sister-wife of Osiris +and mother of Horus. In the divine genealogies she is daughter of Keb +and Nut (earth and sky). She was supreme in magical power, cunning and +knowledge. A legend of the New Kingdom tells how she contrived to learn +the all-powerful hidden name of Re' which he had confided to no one. A +snake which she had fashioned for the purpose stung the god, who sent +for her as a last resort in his unendurable agony; whereupon she +represented to him that nothing but his own mysterious name could +overcome the venom of the snake. Much Egyptian magic turns on the +healing or protection of Horus by Isis, and it is chiefly from magical +texts that the myth of Isis and Osiris as given by Plutarch can be +illustrated. The Metternich stela (XXXth Dynasty), the finest example of +a class of prophylactic stelae generally known by the name of "Horus on +the crocodiles," is inscribed with a long text relating the adventures +of Isis and Horus in the marshes of the Delta. With her sister Nephthys, +Isis is frequently represented as watching the body of Osiris or +mourning his death. + +Isis was identified with Demeter by Herodotus, and described as the +goddess who was held to be the greatest by the Egyptians; he states that +she and Osiris, unlike other deities, were worshipped throughout the +land. The importance of Isis had increased greatly since the end of the +New Kingdom. The great temple of Philae was begun under the XXXth +Dynasty; that of Behbet seems to have been built by Ptolemy II. The cult +of Isis spread into Greece with that of Serapis early in the 3rd century +B.C. In Egypt itself Isea, or shrines of Isis, swarmed. At Coptos Isis +became a leading divinity on a par with the early god Min. About 80 B.C. +Sulla founded an Isiac college in Rome, but their altars within the city +were overthrown by the consuls no less than four times in the decade +from 58 to 48 B.C., and the worship of Isis at Rome continued to be +limited or suppressed by a succession of enactments which were enforced +until the reign of Caligula. The Isiac mysteries were a representation +of the chief events in the myth of Isis and Osiris--the murder of +Osiris, the lamentations of Isis and her wanderings, followed by the +triumph of Horus over Seth and the resurrection of the slain +god--accompanied by music and an exposition of the inner meaning of the +spectacle. These were traditional in ancient Egypt, and in their later +development were no doubt affected by the Eleusinian mysteries of +Demeter. They appealed powerfully to the imagination and the religious +sense. The initiated went through rites of purification, and practised a +degree of asceticism; but for many the festival was believed to be an +occasion for dark orgies. Isis nursing the child Horus (Harpokhrates) +was a very common figure in the Deltaic period, and in these later days +was still a favourite representation. The Isis temples discovered at +Pompeii and in Rome show that ancient monuments as well as objects of +small size were brought from Egypt to Italy for dedication to her +worship, but the goddess absorbed the attributes of all female +divinities; she was goddess of the earth and its fruits, of the Nile, of +the sea, of the underworld, of love, healing and magic. From the time of +Vespasian onwards the worship of Isis, always popular with some +sections, had a great vogue throughout the western world, and is not +without traces in Britain. It proved the most successful of the pagan +cults in maintaining itself against Christianity, with which it had not +a little in common, both in doctrine and in emblems. But the destruction +of the Serapeum at Alexandria in A.D. 397 was a fatal blow to the +prestige of the Graeco-Egyptian divinities. The worship of Isis, +however, survived in Italy into the 5th century. At Philae her temple +was frequented by the barbarous Nobatae and Blemmyes until the middle of +the 6th century, when the last remaining shrine of Isis was finally +closed. + + See G. Lafaye, art. "Isis" in Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des + antiquites_ (1900); _id. Hist. du culte des divinites d'Alexandrie + hors de l'Egypte_ (1883); Meyer and Drexler, art. "Isis" in Roscher's + _Lexicon der griech. und rom. Mythologie_ (1891-1892) (very + elaborate); E. A. W. Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_, vol. ii. ch. + xiii.; Ad. Rusch, _De Serapide et Iside in Graecia cultis_ + (dissertation) (Berlin, 1906). (The author especially collects the + evidence from Greek inscriptions earlier than the Roman conquest; he + contends that the mysteries of Isis were not equated with the + Eleusinian mysteries.) (F. Ll. G.) + + + + +ISKELIB, the chief town of a _Caza_ (governed by a _kaimakam_) in the +vilayet of Angora in Asia Minor, altitude 2460 ft., near the left bank +of the Kizil Irmak (anc. _Halys_), 100 m. in an air-line N.E. of Angora +and 60 S.E. of Kastamuni (to which vilayet it belonged till 1894). Pop. +10,600 (Cuinet, _La Turquie d'Asie_, 1894). It lies several miles off +the road, now abandoned by wheeled traffic, between Changra and Amasia +in a picturesque _cul de sac_ amongst wooded hills, at the foot of a +limestone rock crowned by the ruins of an ancient fortress now filled +with houses (photograph in Anderson, _Studia Pontica_, p. 4). Its +ancient name is uncertain. Near the town (on S.) are saline springs, +whence salt is extracted. + + + + +ISLA, JOSE FRANCISCO DE (1703-1781), Spanish satirist, was born at +Villavidanes (Leon) on the 24th of March 1703. He joined the Jesuits in +1719, was banished from Spain with his brethren in 1767, and settled at +Bologna, where he died on the 2nd of November 1781. His earliest +publication, a _Carta de un residente en Roma_ (1725), is a panegyric of +trifling interest, and _La Juventud triunfante_ (1727) was written in +collaboration with Luis de Lovada. Isla's gifts were first shown in his +_Triunfo del amor y de la lealtad: Dia Grande de Navarra_, a satirical +description of the ceremonies at Pamplona in honour of Ferdinand VI.'s +accession; its sly humour so far escaped the victims that they thanked +the writer for his appreciation of their local efforts, but the true +significance of the work was discovered shortly afterwards, and the +protests were so violent that Isla was transferred by his superiors to +another district. He gained a great reputation as an effective preacher, +and his posthumous _Sermones morales_ (1792-1793) justify his fame in +this respect. But his position in the history of Spanish literature is +due to his _Historia del famoso predicador fray Gerundio de Campazas, +alias Zotes_ (1758), a novel which wittily caricatures the bombastic +eloquence of pulpit orators in Spain. Owing to the protests of the +Dominicans and other regulars, the book was prohibited in 1760, but the +second part was issued surreptitiously in 1768. He translated _Gil +Blas_, adopting more or less seriously Voltaire's unfounded suggestion +that Le Sage plagiarized from Espinel's _Marcos de Obregon_, and other +Spanish books; the text appeared in 1783, and in 1828 was greatly +modified by Evaristo Pena y Martin, whose arrangement is still widely +read. + + See Policarpo Mingote y Tarrazona, _Varones ilustres de la provincia + de Leon_ (Leon, 1880), pp. 185-215; Bernard Gaudeau, _Les Precheurs + burlesques en Espagne au XVIII^e siecle_ (Paris, 1891); V. Cian, _L' + Immigrazione dei Gesuiti spagnuoli letterati in Italia_ (Torino, + 1895). (J. F.-K.) + + + + +ISLAM, an Arabic word meaning "pious submission to the will of God," the +name of the religion of the orthodox Mahommedans, and hence used, +generically, for the whole body of Mahommedan peoples. _Salama_, from +which the word is derived appears in _salaam_, "peace be with you," the +greeting of the East, and in Moslem, and means to be "free" or "secure." +(See MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION, &c.) + + + + +ISLAMABAD, a town of India in the state of Kashmir, on the north bank of +the Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 9390. The town crowns the summit of a long low +ridge, extending from the mountains eastward. It is the second town in +Kashmir, and was originally the capital of the valley, but is now +decaying. It contains an old summer palace, overshadowed by plane trees, +with numerous springs, and a fine mosque and shrine. Below the town is a +reservoir containing a spring of clear water called the _Anant Nag_, +slightly sulphurous, from which volumes of gas continually arise; the +water swarms with sacred fish. There are manufactures of Kashmir shawls, +also of chintzes, cotton and woollen goods. + + + + +ISLAND (O.E. _ieg_ = isle, + land[1]), in physical geography, a term +generally definable as a piece of land surrounded by water. Islands may +be divided into two main classes, continental and oceanic. The former +are such as would result from the submergence of a coastal range, or a +coastal highland, until the mountain bases were cut off from the +mainland while their summits remained above water. The island may have +been formed by the sea cutting through the landward end of a peninsula, +or by the eating back of a bay or estuary until a portion of the +mainland is detached and becomes surrounded by water. In all cases where +the continental islands occur, they are connected with the mainland by a +continental shelf, and their structure is essentially that of the +mainland. The islands off the west coast of Scotland and the Isles of +Man and Wight have this relation to Britain, while Britain and Ireland +have a similar relation to the continent of Europe. The north-east coast +of Australia furnishes similar examples, but in addition to these in +that locality there are true oceanic islands near the mainland, formed +by the growth of the Great Barrier coral reef. Oceanic islands are due +to various causes. It is a question whether the numberless islands of +the Malay Archipelago should be regarded as continental or oceanic, but +there is no doubt that the South Sea islands scattered over a portion of +the Pacific belong to the oceanic group. The ocean floor is by no means +a level plain, but rises and falls in mounds, eminences and basins +towards the surface. When this configuration is emphasized in any +particular oceanic area, so that a peak rises above the surface, an +oceanic island is produced. Submarine volcanic activity may also raise +material above sea-level, or the buckling of the ocean-bed by earth +movements may have a similar result. Coral islands (see ATOLL) are +oceanic islands, and are frequently clustered upon plateaux where the +sea is of no great depth, or appear singly as the crown of some isolated +peak that rises from deep water. + +Island life contains many features of peculiar interest. The sea forms a +barrier to some forms of life but acts as a carrier to other colonizing +forms that frequently develop new features in their isolated +surroundings where the struggle for existence is greater or less than +before. When a sea barrier has existed for a very long time there is a +marked difference between the fauna and flora even of adjacent islands. +In Bali and Borneo, for example, the flora and fauna are Asiatic, while +in Lombok and Celebes they are Australian, though the Bali Straits are +very narrow. In Java and Sumatra, though belonging to the same group, +there are marked developments of bird life, the peacock being found in +Java and the Argus pheasant in Sumatra, having become too specialized to +migrate. The Cocos, Keeling Islands and Christmas Island in the Indian +Ocean have been colonized by few animal forms, chiefly sea-birds and +insects, while they are clothed with abundant vegetation, the seeds of +which have been carried by currents and by other means, but the variety +of plants is by no means so great as on the mainland. Island life, +therefore, is a sure indication of the origin of the island, which may +be one of the remnants of a shattered or dissected continent, or may +have arisen independently from the sea and become afterwards colonized +by drift. + + The word "island" is sometimes used for a piece of land cut off by the + tide or surrounded by marsh (e.g. Hayling Island). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The O.E. _ieg_, _ig_, still appearing in local names, e.g. + Anglesey, Battersea, is cognate with Norw. _oy_, Icel. _ey_, and the + first part of Ger. _Eiland_, &c.; it is referred to the original + Teut. _ahwia_, a place in water, _ahwa_, water, cf. Lat. _aqua_; the + same word is seen in English "eyot," "ait," an islet in a river. The + spelling "island," accepted before 1700, is due to a false connexion + with "isle," Fr. _ile_, Lat. _insula_. + + + + +ISLAY, the southernmost island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, +Scotland, 16 m. W. of Kintyre and 3/4 m. S.W. of Jura, from which it is +separated by the Sound of Islay. Pop. (1901) 6857; area, 150,400 acres; +maximum breadth 19 m. and maximum length 25 m. The sea-lochs Gruinart +and Indaal cut into it so deeply as almost to convert the western +portion into a separate island. It is rich and productive, and has been +called the "Queen of the Hebrides." The surface generally is regular, +the highest summits being Ben Bheigeir (1609 ft.) and Sgorr nam +Faoileann (1407 ft.). There are several freshwater lakes and streams, +which provide good fishing. Islay was the ancient seat of the "lord of +the Isles," the first to adopt that title being John Macdonald of Isle +of Islay, who died about 1386; but the Macdonalds were ultimately ousted +by their rivals, the Campbells, about 1616. Islay House, the ancient +seat of the Campbells of Islay, stands at the head of Loch Indaal. The +island was formerly occupied by small crofters and tacksmen, but since +1831 it has been gradually developed into large sheep and arable farms +and considerable business is done in stock-raising. Dairy-farming is +largely followed, and oats, barley and various green crops are raised. +The chief difficulty in the way of reclamation is the great area of peat +(60 sq. m.), which, at its present rate of consumption, is calculated to +last 1500 years. The island contains several whisky distilleries, +producing about 400,000 gallons annually. Slate and marble are quarried, +and there is a little mining of iron, lead and silver. At Bowmore, the +chief town, there is a considerable shipping trade. Port Ellen, the +principal village, has a quay with lighthouse, a fishery and a +golf-course. Port Askaig is the ferry station for Faolin on Jura. +Regular communication with the Clyde is maintained by steamers, and a +cable was laid between Lagavulin and Kintyre in 1871. + + + + +ISLES OF THE BLEST, or FORTUNATE ISLANDS (Gr. [Greek: ai ton makaron +nesoi]: Lat., Fortunatae Insulae), in Greek mythology a group of islands +near the edge of the Western Ocean, peopled not by the dead, but by +mortals upon whom the gods had conferred immortality. Like the islands +of the Phaeacians in Homer (_Od._ viii.) or the Celtic Avalon and St +Brendan's island, the Isles of the Blest are represented as a land of +perpetual summer and abundance of all good things. No reference is made +to them by Homer, who speaks instead of the Elysian Plain (_Od._ iv. and +ix.), but they are mentioned by Hesiod (_Works and Days_, 168) and +Pindar (_Ol._ ii.). A very old tradition suggests that the idea of such +an earthly paradise was a reminiscence of some unrecorded voyage to +Madeira and the Canaries, which are sometimes named Fortunatae Insulae +by medieval map-makers. (See ATLANTIS.) + + + + +ISLINGTON (in Domesday and later documents _Iseldon_, _Isendon_ and in +the 16th century _Hisselton_), a northern metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded E. by Stoke Newington and Hackney, S. by +Shoreditch and Finsbury, and W. by St Pancras, and extending N. to the +boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901) 334,991. The name is +commonly applied to the southern part of the borough, which, however, +includes the districts of Holloway in the north, Highbury in the east, +part of Kingsland in the south-east, and Barnsbury and Canonbury in the +south-central portion. The districts included preserve the names of +ancient manors, and in Canonbury, which belonged as early as the 13th +century to the priory of St Bartholomew, Smithfield, traces of the old +manor house remain. The fields and places of entertainment in Islington +were favourite places of resort for the citizens of London in the 17th +century and later; the modern Ball's Pond Road recalls the sport of +duck-hunting practised here and on other ponds in the parish, and the +popularity of the place was increased by the discovery of chalybeate +wells. At Copenhagen Fields, now covered by the great cattle market +(1855) adjoining Caledonian Road, a great meeting of labourers was held +in 1834. They were suspected of intending to impose their views on +parliament by violence, but a display of military force held them in +check. The most noteworthy modern institutions in Islington are the +Agricultural Hall, Liverpool Road, erected in 1862, and used for cattle +and horse shows and other exhibitions; Pentonville Prison, Caledonian +Road (1842), a vast pile of buildings radiating from a centre, and +Holloway Prison. The borough has only some 40 acres of public grounds, +the principal of which is Highbury Fields. Among its institutions are +the Great Northern Central Hospital, Holloway, the London Fever +Hospital, the Northern Polytechnic, and the London School of Divinity, +St John's Hall Highbury. Islington is a suffragan bishopric in the +diocese of London. The parliamentary borough of Islington has north, +south, east and west divisions, each returning one member. The borough +council consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, +3091.5 acres. + + + + +ISLIP, a township of Suffolk county, New York, U.S.A., in the central +part of the S. side of Long Island. Pop. (1905, state census) 13,721; +(1910) 18,346. The township is 16 m. long from E. to W., and 8 m. wide +in its widest part. It is bounded on the S. by the Atlantic Ocean; +between the ocean and the Great South Bay, here 5-7 m. wide, is a long +narrow strip of beach, called Fire Island, at the W. end of which is +Fire Island Inlet. The "Island" beach and the Inlet, both very dangerous +for shipping, are protected by the Fire Island Lighthouse, the Fire +Island Lightship, and a Life Saving Station near the Lighthouse and +another at Point o' Woods. Near the Lighthouse there are a United States +Wireless Telegraph Station and a station of the Western Union Telegraph +Company, which announces to New York incoming steamships; and a little +farther E., on the site formerly occupied by the Surf House, a +well-known resort for hay-fever patients, is a state park. Along the +"Island" beach there is excellent surf-bathing. The township is served +by two parallel branches of the Long Island railroad about 4 m. apart. +On the main (northern) division are the villages of Brentwood (first +settled as Modern Times, a quasi free-love community), which now has the +Convent and School of St Joseph and a large private sanitarium; Central +Islip, the seat of the Central Islip State Hospital for the Insane; and +Ronkonkoma, on the edge of a lake of the same name (with no visible +outlet or inlet and suffering remarkable changes in area). On the S. +division of the Long Island railroad are the villages of Bay Shore (to +the W. of which is West Islip); Oakdale; West Sayville, originally a +Dutch settlement; Sayville and Bayport. The "South Country Road" of +crushed clam or oyster shells runs through these villages, which are +famous for oyster and clam fisheries. About one-half of the present +township was patented in 1684, 1686, 1688 and 1697 by William Nicolls +(1657-1723), the son of Matthias Nicolls, who came from Islip in +Oxfordshire, England; this large estate (on either side of the +Connetquot or Great river) was kept intact until 1786; the W. part of +Islip was mostly included in the Moubray patent of 1708; and the +township was incorporated in 1710. + + + + +ISLY, the name of a small river on the Moroccan-Algerian frontier, a +sub-tributary of the Tafna, famous as the scene of the greatest victory +of the French army in the Algerian wars. The intervention of Morocco on +the side of Abd-el-Kader led at once to the bombardment of Tangier by +the French fleet under the prince de Joinville, and the advance of the +French army of General Bugeaud (1844). The enemy, 45,000 strong, was +found to be encamped on the Isly river near Kudiat-el-Khodra. Bugeaud +disposed of some 6500 infantry and 1500 cavalry, with a few pieces of +artillery. In his own words, the formation adopted was "a boar's head." +With the army were Lamoriciere, Pelissier and other officers destined to +achieve distinction. On the 14th of August the "boar's head" crossed the +river about 9 m. to the N.W. of Kudiat and advanced upon the Moorish +camp; it was immediately attacked on all sides by great masses of +cavalry; but the volleys of the steady French infantry broke the force +of every charge, and at the right moment the French cavalry in two +bodies, each of the strength of a brigade, broke out and charged. One +brigade stormed the Moorish camp (near Kudiat) in the face of artillery +fire, the other sustained a desperate conflict on the right wing with a +large body of Moorish horse which had not charged; and only the arrival +of infantry put an end to the resistance in this quarter. A general +rally of the Moorish forces was followed by another action in which +they endeavoured to retake the camp. Bugeaud's forces, which had +originally faced S. when crossing the river, had now changed direction +until they faced almost W. Near Kudiat-el-Khodra the Moors had rallied +in considerable force, and prepared to retake their camp. The French, +however, continued to attack in perfect combination, and after a +stubborn resistance the Moors once more gave way. For this great +victory, which was quickly followed by proposals of peace, Bugeaud was +made duc d'Isly. + + + + +ISMAIL (1830-1895), khedive of Egypt, was born at Cairo on the 31st of +December 1830, being the second of the three sons of Ibrahim and +grandson of Mehemet Ali. After receiving a European education at Paris, +where he attended the Ecole d'Etat-Major, he returned home, and on the +death of his elder brother became heir to his uncle, Said Mohammed, the +Vali of Egypt. Said, who apparently conceived his own safety to lie in +ridding himself as much as possible of the presence of his nephew, +employed him in the next few years on missions abroad, notably to the +pope, the emperor Napoleon III. and the sultan of Turkey. In 1861 he was +despatched at the head of an army of 14,000 to quell an insurrection in +the Sudan, and this he successfully accomplished. On the death of Said, +on 18th January 1863, Ismail was proclaimed viceroy without opposition. +Being of an Orientally extravagant disposition, he found with +considerable gratification that the Egyptian revenue was vastly +increased by the rise in the value of cotton which resulted from the +American Civil War, the Egyptian crop being worth about L25,000,000 +instead of L5,000,000. Besides acquiring luxurious tastes in his +sojourns abroad, Ismail had discovered that the civilized nations of +Europe made a free use of their credit for raising loans. He proceeded +at once to apply this idea to his own country by transferring his +private debts to the state and launching out on a grand scale of +expenditure. Egypt was in his eyes the ruler's estate which was to be +exploited for his benefit and his renown. His own position had to be +strengthened, and the country provided with institutions after European +models. To these objects Ismail applied himself with energy and +cleverness, but without any stint of expense. During the 'sixties and +'seventies Egypt became the happy hunting-ground of self-seeking +financiers, to whose schemes Ismail fell an easy and a willing prey. In +1866-1867 he obtained from the sultan of Turkey, in exchange for an +increase in the tribute, firmans giving him the title of khedive, and +changing the law of succession to direct descent from father to son; and +in 1873 he obtained a new firman making him to a large extent +independent. He projected vast schemes of internal reform, remodelling +the customs system and the post office, stimulating commercial progress, +creating a sugar industry, introducing European improvements into Cairo +and Alexandria, building palaces, entertaining lavishly and maintaining +an opera and a theatre. It has been calculated that, of the total amount +of debt incurred by Ismail for his projects, about 10% may have been +sunk in works of permanent utility--always excluding the Suez Canal. +Meanwhile the opening of the Canal had given him opportunities for +asserting himself in foreign courts. On his accession he refused to +ratify the concessions to the Canal company made by Said, and the +question was referred in 1864 to the arbitration of Napoleon III., who +awarded L3,800,000 to the company as compensation for the losses they +would incur by the changes which Ismail insisted upon in the original +grant. Ismail then used every available means, by his own undoubted +powers of fascination and by judicious expenditure, to bring his +personality before the foreign sovereigns and public, and he had no +little success. He was made G.C.B. in 1867, and in the same year visited +Paris and London, where he was received by Queen Victoria and welcomed +by the lord mayor; and in 1869 he again paid a visit to England. The +result was that the opening of the Canal in November 1869 enabled him to +claim to rank among European sovereigns, and to give and receive royal +honours: this excited the jealousy of the sultan, but Ismail was clever +enough to pacify his overlord. In 1876 the old system of consular +jurisdiction for foreigners was modified, and the system of mixed courts +introduced, by which European and native judges sat together to try all +civil cases without respect of nationality. In all these years Ismail +had governed with _eclat_ and profusion, spending, borrowing, raising +the taxes on the fellahin and combining his policy of independence with +dazzling visions of Egyptian aggrandizement. In 1874 he annexed Darfur, +and was only prevented from extending his dominion into Abyssinia by the +superior fighting power of the Abyssinians. But at length the inevitable +financial crisis came. A national debt of over one hundred millions +sterling (as opposed to three millions when he became viceroy) had been +incurred by the khedive, whose fundamental idea of liquidating his +borrowings was to borrow at increased interest. The bond-holders became +restive. Judgments were given against the khedive in the international +tribunals. When he could raise no more loans he sold his Suez Canal +shares (in 1875) to Great Britain for L3,976,582; and this was +immediately followed by the beginning of foreign intervention. In +December 1875 Mr Stephen Cave was sent out by the British government to +inquire into the finances of Egypt, and in April 1876 his report was +published, advising that in view of the waste and extravagance it was +necessary for foreign Powers to interfere in order to restore credit. +The result was the establishment of the Caisse de la Dette. In October +Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M. Joubert made a further +investigation, which resulted in the establishment of Anglo-French +control. A further commission of inquiry by Major Baring (afterwards +Lord Cromer) and others in 1878 culminated in Ismail making over his +estates to the nation and accepting the position of a constitutional +sovereign, with Nubar as premier, Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) Rivers +Wilson as finance minister, and M. de Blignieres as minister of public +works. Ismail professed to be quite pleased. "Egypt," he said, "is no +longer in Africa; it is part of Europe." The new regime, however, only +lasted six months, and then Ismail dismissed his ministers, an occasion +being deliberately prepared by his getting Arabi (q.v.) to foment a +military _pronunciamiento_. England and France took the matter +seriously, and insisted (May 1879) on the reinstatement of the British +and French ministers; but the situation was no longer a possible one; +the tribunals were still giving judgments for debt against the +government, and when Germany and Austria showed signs of intending to +enforce execution, the governments of Great Britain and France perceived +that the only chance of setting matters straight was to get rid of +Ismail altogether. He was first advised to abdicate, and a few days +afterwards (26th June), as he did not take the hint, he received a +telegram from the sultan (who had not forgotten the earlier history of +Mehemet Ali's dynasty), addressed to him as ex-khedive, and informing +him that his son Tewfik was his successor. He at once left Egypt for +Naples, but eventually was permitted by the sultan to retire to his +palace of Emirghian on the Bosporus. There he remained, more or less a +state prisoner, till his death on the 2nd of March 1895. Ismail was a +man of undoubted ability and remarkable powers. But beneath a veneer of +French manners and education he remained throughout a thorough Oriental, +though without any of the moral earnestness which characterizes the +better side of Mahommedanism. Some of his ambitions were not unworthy, +and though his attitude towards western civilization was essentially +cynical, he undoubtedly helped to make the Egyptian upper classes +realize the value of European education. Moreover, spendthrift as he +was, it needed--as is pointed out in Milner's _England in Egypt_--a +series of unfortunate conditions to render his personality as pernicious +to his country as it actually became. "It needed a nation of submissive +slaves, not only bereft of any vestige of liberal institutions, but +devoid of the slightest spark of the spirit of liberty. It needed a +bureaucracy which it would have been hard to equal for its combination +of cowardice and corruption. It needed the whole gang of +swindlers--mostly European--by whom Ismail was surrounded." It was his +early encouragement of Arabi, and his introduction of swarms of foreign +concession-hunters, which precipitated the "national movement" that led +to British occupation. His greatest title to remembrance in history must +be that he made European intervention in Egypt compulsory. (H. Ch.) + + + + +ISMAIL HADJI MAULVI-MOHAMMED (1781-1831), Mussulman reformer, was born +at Pholah near Delhi. In co-operation with Syed Ahmed he attempted to +free Indian Mahommedanism from the influence of the native early Indian +faiths. The two men travelled extensively for many years and visited +Mecca. In the Wahhabite movement they found much that was akin to their +own views, and on returning to India preached the new doctrine of a pure +Islam, and gathered many adherents. The official Mahommedan leaders, +however, regarded their propaganda with disfavour, and the dispute led +to the reformers being interdicted by the British government in 1827. +The little company then moved to Punjab where, aided by an Afghan chief, +they declared war on the Sikhs and made Peshawar the capital of the +theocratic community which they wished to establish (1829). Deserted by +the Afghans they had to leave Peshawar, and Ismail Hadji fell in battle +against the Sikhs amid the Pakhli mountains (1831). The movement +survived him, and some adherents are still found in the mountains of the +north-west frontier. + + Ismail's book _Taqouaiyat el Iman_ was published in Hindustani and + translated in the _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, xiii. 1852. + + + + +ISMAILIA, a town of Lower Egypt, the central station on the Suez Canal, +on the N.W. shore of Lake Timsa, about 50 m. from the Mediterranean and +the Red Sea, and 93 m. N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907) 10,373. It was +laid out in 1863, in connexion with the construction of the canal, and +is named after the khedive Ismail. It is divided into two quarters by +the road leading from the landing-place to the railway station, and has +numerous public offices, warehouses and other buildings, including a +palace of the khedive, used as a hospital during the British military +operations in 1882, but subsequently allowed to fall into a dilapidated +condition. The broad macadamized streets and regular squares bordered +with trees give the town an attractive appearance; and it has the +advantage, a rare one in Egypt, of being surrounded on three sides by +flourishing gardens. The Quai Mehemet Ali, which lies along the canal +for upwards of a mile, contains the chalet occupied by Ferdinand de +Lesseps during the building of the canal. At the end of the quay are the +works for supplying Port Said with water. On the other side of the lake +are the so-called Quarries of the Hyenas, from which the building +material for the town was obtained. + + + + +ISMAY, THOMAS HENRY (1837-1899), British shipowner, was born at +Maryport, Cumberland, on the 7th of January 1837. He received his +education at Croft House School, Carlisle, and at the age of sixteen was +apprenticed to Messrs Imrie & Tomlinson, shipowners and brokers, of +Liverpool. He then travelled for a time, visiting the ports of South +America, and on returning to Liverpool started in business for himself. +In 1867 he took over the White Star line of Australian clippers, and in +1868, perceiving the great future which was open to steam navigation, +established, in conjunction with William Imrie, the Oceanic Steam +Navigation Company, which has since become famous as the White Star +Line. While continuing the Australian service, the firm determined to +engage in the American trade, and to that end ordered from Messrs +Harland & Wolff, of Belfast, the first _Oceanic_ (3807 tons), which was +launched in 1870. This vessel may fairly be said to have marked an era +in North Atlantic travel. The same is true of the successive types of +steamer which Ismay, with the co-operation of the Belfast shipbuilding +firm, subsequently provided for the American trade. To Ismay is mainly +due the credit of the arrangement by which some of the fastest ships of +the British mercantile marine are held at the disposal of the government +in case of war. The origin of this plan dates from the Russo-Turkish +war, when there seemed a likelihood of England being involved in +hostilities with Russia, and when, therefore, Ismay offered the +admiralty the use of the White Star fleet. In 1892 he retired from +partnership in the firm of Ismay, Imrie and Co., though he retained the +chairmanship of the White Star Company. He served on several important +committees and was a member of the royal commission in 1888 on army and +navy administration. He was always most generous in his contributions +to charities for the relief of sailors, and in 1887 he contributed +L20,000 towards a pension fund for Liverpool sailors. He died at +Birkenhead on the 23rd of November 1899. + + + + +ISMID, or ISNIKMID (anc. _Nicomedia_), the chief town of the Khoja Ili +sanjak of Constantinople, in Asia Minor, situated on rising ground near +the head of the gulf of Ismid. The sanjak has an area of 4650 sq. m. and +a population of 225,000 (Moslems 131,000). It is an agricultural +district, producing cocoons and tobacco, and there are large forests of +oak, beech and fir. Near Yalova there are hot mineral springs, much +frequented in summer. The town is connected by the lines of the +Anatolian railway company with Haidar Pasha, the western terminus, and +with Angora, Konia and Smyrna. It contains a fine 16th-century mosque, +built by the celebrated architect Sinan. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems 9500, +Christians 8000, Jews, 2500). As the seat of a mutessarif, a Greek +metropolitan and an Armenian archbishop, Ismid retains somewhat of its +ancient dignity, but the material condition of the town is little in +keeping with its rank. The head of the gulf of Ismid is gradually +silting up. The dockyard was closed in 1879, and the port of Ismid is +now at Darinje, 3(3/4) m. distant, where the Anatolian Railway Company +have established their workshops and have built docks and a quay. + + + + +ISNARD, MAXIMIN (1758-1825), French revolutionist, was a dealer in +perfumery at Draguignan when he was elected deputy for the department of +the Var to the Legislative Assembly, where he joined the Girondists. +Attacking the court, and the "Austrian committee" in the Tuileries, he +demanded the disbandment of the king's bodyguard, and reproached Louis +XVI. for infidelity to the constitution. But on the 20th of June 1792, +when the crowd invaded the palace, he was one of the deputies who went +to place themselves beside the king to protect him. After the 10th of +August 1792 he was sent to the army of the North to justify the +insurrection. Re-elected to the Convention, he voted the death of Louis +XVI. and was a member of the Committee of General Defence when it was +organized on the 4th of January 1793. The committee, consisting of 25 +members, proved unwieldy, and on the 4th of April Isnard presented, on +behalf of the Girondist majority, the report recommending a smaller +committee of nine, which two days later was established as the Committee +of Public Safety. On the 25th of May, Isnard was presiding at the +Convention when a deputation of the commune of Paris came to demand that +J. R. Hebert should be set at liberty, and he made the famous reply: "If +by these insurrections, continually renewed, it should happen that the +principle of national representation should suffer, I declare to you in +the name of France that soon people will search the banks of the Seine +to see if Paris has ever existed." On the 2nd of June 1793 he offered +his resignation as representative of the people, but was not comprised +in the decree by which the Convention determined upon the arrest of +twenty-nine Girondists. On the 3rd of October, however, his arrest was +decreed along with that of several other Girondist deputies who had left +the Convention and were fomenting civil war in the departments. He +escaped, and on the 8th of March 1795 was recalled to the Convention, +where he supported all the measures of reaction. He was elected deputy +for the Var to the Council of Five Hundred, where he played a very +insignificant role. In 1797 he retired to Draguignan. In 1800 he +published a pamphlet _De l'immortalite de l'ame_, in which he praised +Catholicism; in 1804 _Reflexions relatives au senatus-consulte du 28 +floreal an XII._, which is an enthusiastic apology for the Empire. Upon +the restoration he professed such royalist sentiments that he was not +disturbed, in spite of the law of 1816 proscribing regicide ex-members +of the Convention. + + See F. A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_ + (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906). + + + + +ISOBAR (from Gr. [Greek: isos], equal, and [Greek: baros], weight), a +line upon a meteorological map or pressure chart connecting points where +the atmospheric pressure is the same at sea-level, or upon the earth's +surface. A general pressure map will indicate, by these lines, the +average pressure for any month or season over large areas. The daily +weather charts for more confined regions indicate the presence of a +cyclonic or anticyclonic system by means of lines, which connect all +places having the same barometric pressure at the same time. It is to be +noted that isobaric lines are the intersections of inclined isobaric +surfaces with the surface of the earth. + + + + +ISOCLINIC LINES (Gr. [Greek: isos], equal, and [Greek: klinein], to +bend), lines connecting those parts of the earth's surface where the +magnetic inclination is the same in amount. (See MAGNETISM, +TERRESTRIAL.) + + + + +ISOCRATES (436-338 B.C.), Attic orator, was the son of Theodorus, an +Athenian citizen of the deme of Erchia--the same in which, about 431 +B.C., Xenophon was born--who was sufficiently wealthy to have served the +state as choregus. The fact that he possessed slaves skilled in the +trade of flute-making perhaps lends point to a passage in which his son +is mentioned by the comic poet Strattis.[1] Several popular "sophists" +are named as teachers of the young Isocrates. Like other sons of +prosperous parents, he may have been trained in such grammatical +subtleties as were taught by Protagoras or Prodicus, and initiated by +Theramenes into the florid rhetoric of Gorgias, with whom at a later +time (about 390 B.C.) he was in personal intercourse. He tells us that +his father had been careful to provide for him the best education which +Athens could afford. A fact of greater interest is disclosed by Plato's +_Phaedrus_ (278 E). "Isocrates is still young, Phaedrus," says the +Socrates of that dialogue, "but I do not mind telling you what I +prophesy of him.... It would not surprise me if, as years go on, he +should make all his predecessors seem like children in the kind of +oratory to which he is now addressing himself, or if--supposing this +should not content him--some divine impulse should lead him to greater +things. My dear Phaedrus, a certain philosophy is inborn in him." This +conversation is dramatically supposed to take place about 410 B.C. It is +unnecessary to discuss here the date at which the _Phaedrus_ was +actually composed. From the passage just cited it is at least clear that +there had been a time--while Isocrates could still be called "young"--at +which Plato had formed a high estimate of his powers. + +Isocrates took no active part in the public life of Athens; he was not +fitted, as he tells us, for the contests of the popular assembly or of +the law-courts. He lacked strength of voice--a fatal defect in the +ecclesia, when an audience of many thousands was to be addressed in the +open air; he was also deficient in "boldness." He was, in short, the +physical opposite of the successful Athenian demagogue in the generation +after that of Pericles; by temperament as well as taste he was more in +sympathy with the sedate decorum of an older school. Two ancient +biographers have, however, preserved a story which, if true, would show +that this lack of voice and nerve did not involve any want of moral +courage. During the rule of the Thirty Tyrants, Critias denounced +Theramenes, who sprang for safety to the sacred hearth of the council +chamber. Isocrates alone, it is said, dared at that moment to plead for +the life of his friend.[2] Whatever may be the worth of the story, it +would scarcely have connected itself with the name of a man to whose +traditional character it was repugnant. While the Thirty were still in +power, Isocrates withdrew from Athens to Chios.[3] He has mentioned +that, in the course of the Peloponnesian War--doubtless in the troubles +which attended on its close--he lost the whole of that private fortune +which had enabled his father to serve the state, and that he then +adopted the profession of a teacher. The proscription of the "art of +words" by the Thirty would thus have given him a special motive for +withdrawing from Athens. He returned thither, apparently, either soon +before or soon after the restoration of the democracy in 403 B.C. + +For ten years from this date he was occupied--at least occasionally--as +a writer of speeches for the Athenian law-courts. Six of these speeches +are extant. The earliest (_Or._ xxi.) may be referred to 403 B.C.; the +latest (_Or._ xix.) to 394-393 B.C. This was a department of his own +work which Isocrates afterwards preferred to ignore. Nowhere, indeed, +does he say that he had not written forensic speeches. But he frequently +uses a tone from which that inference might be drawn. He loves to +contrast such petty concerns as engage the forensic writer with those +larger and nobler themes which are treated by the politician. This helps +to explain how it could be asserted--by his adopted son, Aphareus--that +he had written nothing for the law-courts. Whether the assertion was due +to false shame or merely to ignorance, Dionysius of Halicarnassus +decisively disposes of it. Aristotle had, indeed, he says, exaggerated +the number of forensic speeches written by Isocrates; but some of those +which bore his name were unquestionably genuine, as was attested by one +of the orator's own pupils, Cephisodorus. The real vocation of Isocrates +was discovered from the moment that he devoted himself to the work of +teaching and writing. The instruction which Isocrates undertook to +impart was based on rhetorical composition, but it was by no means +merely rhetorical. That "inborn philosophy," of which Plato recognized +the germ, still shows itself. In many of his works--notably in the +_Panegyricus_--we see a really remarkable power of grasping a complex +subject, of articulating it distinctly, of treating it, not merely with +effect but luminously, at once in its widest bearings and in its most +intricate details. Young men could learn more from Isocrates than the +graces of style; nor would his success have been what it was if his +skill had been confined to the art of expression. + +It was about 392 B.C.--when he was forty-four--that he opened his school +at Athens near the Lyceum. In 339 B.C. he describes himself as revising +the _Panathenaicus_ with some of his pupils; he was then ninety-seven. +The celebrity enjoyed by the school of Isocrates is strikingly attested +by ancient writers. Cicero describes it as that school in which the +eloquence of all Greece was trained and perfected: its disciples were +"brilliant in pageant or in battle,"[4] foremost among the accomplished +writers or powerful debaters of their time. The phrase of Cicero is +neither vague nor exaggerated. Among the literary pupils of Isocrates +might be named the historians Ephorus and Theopompus, the Attic +archaelogist Androtion, and Isocrates of Apollonia, who succeeded his +master in the school. Among the practical orators we have, in the +forensic kind, Isaeus; in the political, Leodamas of Acharnae, Lycurgus +and Hypereides. Hermippus of Smyrna (mentioned by Athenaeus) wrote a +monograph on the "Disciples of Isocrates." And scanty as are now the +sources for such a catalogue, a modern scholar[5] has still been able to +recover forty-one names. At the time when the school of Isocrates was in +the zenith of its fame it drew disciples, not only from the shores and +islands of the Aegean, but from the cities of Sicily and the distant +colonies of the Euxine. As became the image of its master's spirit, it +was truly Panhellenic. When Mausolus, prince of Caria, died in 351 B.C., +his widow Artemisia instituted a contest of panegyrical eloquence in +honour of his memory. Among all the competitors there was not one--if +tradition may be trusted--who had not been the pupil of Isocrates. + +Meanwhile the teacher who had won this great reputation had also been +active as a public writer. The most interesting and most characteristic +works of Isocrates are those in which he deals with the public questions +of his own day. The influence which he thus exercised throughout Hellas +might be compared to that of an earnest political essayist gifted with a +popular and attractive style. And Isocrates had a dominant idea which +gained strength with his years, until its realization had become, we +might say, the main purpose of his life. This idea was the invasion of +Asia by the united forces of Greece. The Greek cities were at feud with +each other, and were severally torn by intestine faction. Political +morality was become a rare and a somewhat despised distinction. Men who +were notoriously ready to sell their cities for their private gain were, +as Demosthenes says, rather admired than otherwise.[6] The social +condition of Greece was becoming very unhappy. The wealth of the country +had ceased to grow; the gulf between rich and poor was becoming wider; +party strife was constantly adding to the number of homeless paupers; +and Greece was full of men who were ready to take service with any +captain of mercenaries, or, failing that, with any leader of +desperadoes. Isocrates draws a vivid and terrible picture of these +evils. The cure for them, he firmly believed, was to unite the Greeks in +a cause which would excite a generous enthusiasm. Now was the time, he +thought, for that enterprise in which Xenophon's comrades had virtually +succeeded, when the headlong rashness of young Cyrus threw away their +reward with his own life.[7] The Persian empire was unsound to the +core--witness the retreat of the Ten Thousand: let united Greece attack +it and it must go down at the first onset. Then new wealth would flow +into Greece; and the hungry pariahs of Greek society would be drafted +into fertile homes beyond the Aegean. + +A bright vision; but where was the power whose spell was first to unite +discordant Greece, and, having united it, to direct its strength against +Asia? That was the problem. The first attempt of Isocrates to solve it +is set forth in his splendid _Panegyricus_ (380 B.C.). Let Athens and +Sparta lay aside their jealousies. Let them assume, jointly, a +leadership which might be difficult for either, but which would be +assured to both. That eloquent pleading failed. The next hope was to +find some one man equal to the task. Jason of Pherae, Dionysius I. of +Syracuse, Archidamus III., son of Agesilaus--each in turn rose as a +possible leader of Greece before the imagination of the old man who was +still young in his enthusiastic hope, and one after another they failed +him. But now a greater than any of these was appearing on the Hellenic +horizon, and to this new luminary the eyes of Isocrates were turned with +eager anticipation. Who could lead united Greece against Asia so fitly +as the veritable representative of the Heracleidae, the royal descendant +of the Argive line--a king of half-barbarians it is true, but by race, +as in spirit, a pure Hellene--Philip of Macedon? We can still read the +words in which this fond faith clothed itself; the ardent appeal of +Isocrates to Philip is extant; and another letter shows that the belief +of Isocrates in Philip lasted at any rate down to the eve of +Chaeronea.[8] Whether it survived that event is a doubtful point. The +popular account of the orator's death ascribed it to the mental shock +which he received from the news of Philip's victory. He was at Athens, +in the palaestra of Hippocrates, when the tidings came. He repeated +three verses in which Euripides names three foreign Conquerors of +Greece--Danaus, Pelops, Cadmus--and four days later he died of voluntary +starvation. Milton (perhaps thinking of Eli) seems to conceive the death +of Isocrates as instantaneous:-- + + "As that dishonest victory + At Chaeronea, fatal to liberty, + Killed with report that old man eloquent." + +Now the third of the letters which bears the name of Isocrates is +addressed to Philip, and appears to congratulate him on his victory at +Chaeronea, as being an event which will enable him to assume the +leadership of Greece in a war against Persia. Is the letter genuine? +There is no evidence, external or internal, against its authenticity, +except its supposed inconsistency with the views of Isocrates and with +the tradition of his suicide. As to his views, those who have studied +them in his own writings will be disposed to question whether he would +have regarded Philip's victory at Chaeronea as an irreparable disaster +for Greece. Undoubtedly he would have deplored the conflict between +Philip and Athens; but he would have divided the blame between the +combatants. And, with his old belief in Philip, he would probably have +hoped, even after Chaeronea, that the new position won by Philip would +eventually prove compatible with the independence of the Greek cities, +while it would certainly promote the project on which, as he was +profoundly convinced, the ultimate welfare of Greece depended,--a +Panhellenic expedition against Persia. As to the tradition of his +suicide, the only rational mode of reconciling it with that letter is to +suppose that Isocrates destroyed himself, not because Philip had +conquered, but because, after that event, he saw Athens still resolved +to resist. We should be rather disposed to ask how much weight is to be +given to the tradition. The earliest authority for it--Dionysius of +Halicarnassus in the age of Augustus--may have had older sources; +granting, however, that these may have remounted even to the end of the +4th century B.C., that would not prove much. Suppose that +Isocrates--being then ninety-eight and an invalid--had happened to die +from natural causes a few days after the battle of Chaeronea. Nothing +could have originated more easily than a story that he killed himself +from intense chagrin. Every one knew that Isocrates had believed in +Philip; and most people would have thought that Chaeronea was a crushing +refutation of that belief. Once started, the legend would have been sure +to live, not merely because it was picturesque, but also because it +served to accentuate the contrast between the false prophet and the +true--between Isocrates and Demosthenes; and Demosthenes was very justly +the national idol of the age which followed the loss of Greek +independence.[9] + +Isocrates is said to have taught his Athenian pupils gratuitously, and +to have taken money only from aliens; but, as might have been expected, +the fame of his school exposed him to attacks on the ground of his +gains, which his enemies studiously exaggerated. After the financial +reform of 378 B.C. he was one of those 1200 richest citizens who +constituted the twenty unions ([Greek: symmoriai]) for the assessment of +the war-tax ([Greek: eisphora]). He had discharged several public +services ([Greek: leitourgiai]); in particular, he had thrice served as +trierarch. He married Plathane, the widow of the "sophist" Hippias of +Elis, and then adopted her son Aphareus, afterwards eminent as a +rhetorician and a tragic poet. In 355 B.C. he had his first and only +lawsuit. A certain Megaclides (introduced into the speech under the +fictitious name of Lysimachus) challenged him to undertake the +trierarchy or exchange properties. This was the lawsuit which suggested +the form of the discourse which he calls the _Antidosis_ ("exchange of +properties"--353 B.C.)--his defence of his professional life. + +He was buried on a rising ground near the Cynosarges--a temenos of +Heracles, with a gymnasion, on the east side of Athens, outside the +Diomeian gate. His tomb was surmounted by a column some 45 ft. high, +crowned with the figure of a siren, the symbol of persuasion and of +death. A tablet of stone, near the column, represented a group of which +Gorgias was the centre; his pupil Isocrates stood at his side. Aphareus +erected a statue to his adopted father near the Olympieum. Timotheus, +the illustrious son of Conon, dedicated another in the temple of +Eleusis. + +It was a wonderful century which the life of one man had thus all but +spanned. Isocrates had reached early manhood when the long struggle of +the Peloponnesian War--begun in his childhood--ended with the overthrow +of Athens. The middle period of his career was passed under the +supremacy of Sparta. His more advanced age saw that brief ascendancy +which the genius of Epameinondas secured to Thebes. And he lived to urge +on Philip of Macedon a greater enterprise than any which the Hellenic +world could offer. His early promise had won a glowing tribute from +Plato, and the rhetoric of his maturity furnished matter to the analysis +of Aristotle; he had composed his imaginary picture of that Hellenic +host which should move through Asia in a pageant of sacred triumph, just +as Xenophon was publishing his plain narrative of the retreat of the Ten +Thousand; and, in the next generation, his literary eloquence was still +demonstrating the weakness of Persia when Demosthenes was striving to +make men feel the deadly peril of Greece. This long life has an element +of pathos not unlike that of Greek tragedy; a power above man was +compelling events in a direction which Isocrates could not see; but his +own agency was the ally of that power, though in a sense which he knew +not; his vision was of Greece triumphant over Asia, while he was the +unconscious prophet of an age in which Asia should be transformed by the +diffusion of Hellenism.[10] + + His character should be viewed in both its main aspects--the political + and the literary. + + With regard to the first, two questions have to be asked: (1) How far + were the political views of Isocrates peculiar to himself, and + different from those of the clearest minds contemporary with him? (2) + How far were those views falsified by the event? + + 1. The whole tone of Greek thought in that age had taken a bent + towards monarchy in some form. This tendency may be traced alike in + the practical common sense of Xenophon and in the lofty idealism of + Plato. There could be no better instance of it than a well-known + passage in the _Politics_ of Aristotle. He is speaking of the gifts + which meet in the Greek race--a race warlike, like the Europeans, but + more subtle--keen, like the Asiatics, but braver. Here, he says, is a + race which "might rule all men, if it were brought under a single + government."[11] It is unnecessary to suppose a special allusion to + Alexander; but it is probable that Aristotle had in his mind a + possible union of the Greek cities under a strong constitutional + monarchy. His advice to Alexander (as reported by Plutarch) was to + treat the Greeks in the spirit of a leader ([Greek: hegemonikos]) and + the barbarians in the spirit of a master ([Greek: despotikos]).[12] + Aristotle conceived the central power as political and permanent; + Isocrates conceived it as, in the first place, military, having for + its immediate aim the conduct of an expedition against Asia. The + general views of Isocrates as to the largest good possible for the + Greek race were thus in accord with the prevailing tendency of the + best Greek thought in that age. + + 2. The vision of the Greek race "brought under one polity" was not, + indeed, fulfilled in the sense of Aristotle or of Isocrates. But the + invasion of Asia by Alexander, as captain-general of Greece, became + the event which actually opened new and larger destinies to the Greek + race. The old political life of the Greek cities was worn out; in the + new fields which were now opened, the empire of Greek civilization + entered on a career of world-wide conquest, until Greece became to + East and West more than all that Athens had been to Greece. Athens, + Sparta, Thebes, ceased indeed to be the chief centres of Greek life; + but the mission of the Greek mind could scarcely have been + accomplished with such expansive and penetrating power if its + influence had not radiated over the East from Pergamum, Antioch and + Alexandria. + + Panhellenic politics had the foremost interest for Isocrates. But in + two of his works--the oration _On the Peace_ and the _Areopagiticus_ + (both of 355 B.C.)--he deals specially with the politics of Athens. + The speech _On the Peace_ relates chiefly to foreign affairs. It is an + eloquent appeal to his fellow-citizens to abandon the dream of + supremacy, and to treat their allies as equals, not as subjects. The + fervid orator personifies that empire, that false mistress which has + lured Athens, then Sparta, then Athens once more, to the verge of + destruction. "Is she not worthy of detestation?" Leadership passes + into empire; empire begets insolence; insolence brings ruin. The + _Areopagiticus_ breathes a kindred spirit in regard to home policy. + Athenian life had lost its old tone. Apathy to public interests, + dissolute frivolity, tawdry display and real poverty--these are the + features on which Isocrates dwells. With this picture he contrasts the + elder democracy of Solon and Cleisthenes, and, as a first step towards + reform, would restore to the Areopagus its general censorship of + morals. It is here, and here alone--in his comments on Athenian + affairs at home and abroad--that we can distinctly recognize the man + to whom the Athens of Pericles was something more than a tradition. We + are carried back to the age in which his long life began. We find it + difficult to realize that the voice to which we listen is the same + which we hear in the letter to Philip. + + Turning from the political to the literary aspect of his work, we are + at once upon ground where the question of his merits will now provoke + comparatively little controversy. Perhaps the most serious prejudice + with which his reputation has had to contend in modern times has been + due to an accident of verbal usage. He repeatedly describes that art + which he professed to teach as his [Greek: philosophia]. His use of + this word--joined to the fact that in a few passages he appears to + allude slightingly to Plato or to the Socratics--has exposed him to a + groundless imputation. It cannot be too distinctly understood that, + when Isocrates speaks of his [Greek: philosophia], he means simply his + theory or method of "culture"--to use the only modern term which is + really equivalent in latitude to the Greek word as then current.[13] + + The [Greek: philosophia], or practical culture, of Isocrates was not + in conflict, because it had nothing in common, with the Socratic or + Platonic philosophy. The personal influence of Socrates may, indeed, + be traced in his work. He constantly desires to make his teaching bear + on the practical life. His maxims of homely moral wisdom frequently + recall Xenophon's _Memorabilia_. But there the relation ends. Plato + alludes to Isocrates in perhaps three places. The glowing prophecy in + the _Phaedrus_ has been quoted; in the _Gorgias_ a phrase of Isocrates + is wittily parodied; and in the _Euthydemus_ Isocrates is probably + meant by the person who dwells "on the borderland between philosophy + and statesmanship."[14] The writings of Isocrates contain a few more + or less distinct allusions to Plato's doctrines or works, to the + general effect that they are barren of practical result.[15] But + Isocrates nowhere assails Plato's philosophy as such. When he declares + "knowledge" ([Greek: episteme]) to be unattainable, he means an exact + "knowledge" of the contingencies which may arise in practical life. + "Since it is impossible for human nature to acquire any science + ([Greek: epistemen]) by which we should know what to do or to say, in + the next resort I deem those wise who, as a rule, can hit what is best + by their opinions" ([Greek: doxas]).[16] + + Isocrates should be compared with the practical teachers of his day. + In his essay _Against the Sophists_, and in his speech on the + _Antidosis_, which belong respectively to the beginning and the close + of his professional career, he has clearly marked the points which + distinguish him from "the sophists of the herd" ([Greek: agelaioi + sophistai]). First, then, he claims, and justly, greater breadth of + view. The ordinary teacher confined himself to the narrow scope of + local interests--training the young citizen to plead in the Athenian + law courts, or to speak on Athenian affairs in the ecclesia. Isocrates + sought to enlarge the mental horizon of his disciples by accustoming + them to deal with subjects which were not merely Athenian, but, in his + own phrase, Hellenic. Secondly, though he did not claim to have found + a philosophical basis for morals, it has been well said of him that + "he reflects the human spirit always on its nobler side,"[17] and + that, in an age of corrupt and impudent selfishness, he always strove + to raise the minds of his hearers into a higher and purer air. + Thirdly, his method of teaching was thorough. Technical exposition + came first. The learner was then required to apply the rules in actual + composition, which the master revised. The ordinary teachers of + rhetoric (as Aristotle says) employed their pupils in committing model + pieces to memory, but neglected to train the learner's own faculty + through his own efforts. Lastly, Isocrates stands apart from most + writers of that day in his steady effort to produce results of + permanent value. While rhetorical skill was largely engaged in the + intermittent journalism of political pamphlets, Isocrates set a higher + ambition before his school. His own essays on contemporary questions + received that finished form which has preserved them to this day. The + impulse to solid and lasting work, communicated by the example of the + master, was seen in such monuments as the _Atthis_ of Androtion, the + _Hellenics_ of Theopompus and the _Philippica_ of Ephorus. + + In one of his letters to Atticus, Cicero says that he has used "all + the fragrant essences of Isocrates, and all the little stores of his + disciples."[18] The phrase has a point of which the writer himself was + perhaps scarcely conscious: the style of Isocrates had come to Cicero + through the school of Rhodes; and the Rhodian imitators had more of + Asiatic splendour than of Attic elegance. But, with this allowance + made, the passage may serve to indicate the real place of Isocrates in + the history of literary style. The old Greek critics consider him as + representing what they call the "smooth" or "florid" mode of + composition ([Greek: glaphyra, anthera harmonia]) as distinguished + from the "harsh" ([Greek: austera]) style of Antiphon and the perfect + "mean" ([Greek: mese]) of Demosthenes. Tried by a modern standard, the + language of Isocrates is certainly not "florid." The only sense in + which he merits the epithet is that (especially in his earlier work) + he delights in elaborate antitheses. Isocrates is an "orator" in the + larger sense of the Greek word _rhetor_; but his real distinction + consists in the fact that he was the first Greek who gave an artistic + finish to literary rhetoric. The practical oratory of the day had + already two clearly separated branches--the forensic, represented by + Isaeus, and the deliberative, in which Callistratus was the forerunner + of Demosthenes. Meanwhile Isocrates was giving form and rhythm to a + standard literary prose. Through the influence of his school, this + normal prose style was transmitted--with the addition of some florid + embellishments--to the first generation of Romans who studied rhetoric + in the Greek schools. The distinctive feature in the composition of + Isocrates is his structure of the periodic sentence. This, with him, + is no longer rigid or monotonous, as with Antiphon--no longer terse + and compact, as with Lysias--but ample, luxuriant, unfolding itself + (to use a Greek critic's image) like the soft beauties of a winding + river. Isocrates was the first Greek who worked out the idea of a + prose rhythm. He saw clearly both its powers and its limits; poetry + has its strict rhythms and precise metres; prose has its metres and + rhythms, not bound by a rigid framework, yet capable of being brought + under certain general laws which a good ear can recognize, and which a + speaker or writer may apply in the most various combinations. This + fundamental idea of prose rhythm, or number, is that which the style + of Isocrates has imparted to the style of Cicero. When Quintilian (x. + 1. 108) says, somewhat hyperbolically, that Cicero has artistically + reproduced (_effinxisse_) "the force of Demosthenes, the wealth of + Plato, the charm of Isocrates," he means principally this smooth and + harmonious rhythm. Cicero himself expressly recognizes this original + and distinctive merit of Isocrates.[19] Thus, through Rome, and + especially through Cicero, the influence of Isocrates, as the founder + of a literary prose, has passed into the literatures of modern Europe. + It is to the eloquence of the preacher that we may perhaps look for + the nearest modern analogue of that kind in which Isocrates + excelled--especially, perhaps, to that of the great French preachers. + Isocrates was one of the three Greek authors, Demosthenes and Plato + being the others, who contributed most to form the style of Bossuet. + + WORKS.--The extant works of Isocrates consist of twenty-one speeches + or discourses and nine letters.[20] Among these, the six forensic + speeches represent the first period of his literary life--belonging to + the years 403-393 B.C. All six concern private causes. They may be + classed as follows: 1. _Action for Assault_ ([Greek: dike aikias]), + Or. xx., _Against Lochites_, 394 B.C. 2. _Claim to an Inheritance_ + ([Greek: epidikasia]), Or. xix., _Aegineticus_, end of 394 or early in + 393 B.C. 3. _Actions to Recover a Deposit_: (1) Or. xxi., _Against + Euthynus_, 403 B.C.; (2) Or. xvii., _Trapeziticus_, end of 394 or + early in 393 B.C. 4. _Action for Damage_ ([Greek: dike blabes]), Or. + xvi., _Concerning the Team of Horses_, 397 B.C. 5. _Special Plea_ + ([Greek: paragraphe]), Or. xviii., _Against Callimachus_, 402 B.C. Two + of these have been regarded as spurious by G. E. Benseler, viz. Or. + xxi., on account of the frequent hiatus and the short compact periods, + and Or. xvii., on the first of these grounds. But we are not warranted + in applying to the early work of Isocrates those canons which his + mature style observed. The genuineness of the speech against Euthynus + is recognized by Philostratus; while the _Trapeziticus_--thrice named + without suspicion by Harpocration--is treated by Dionysius, not only + as authentic, but as the typical forensic work of its author. The + speech against Lochites--where "a man of the people" ([Greek: tou + plethous eis]) is the speaker--exhibits much rhetorical skill. The + speech [Greek: Peri tou zeugous] ("concerning the team of horses") has + a curious interest. An Athenian citizen had complained that Alcibiades + had robbed him of a team of four horses, and sues the statesman's son + and namesake (who is the speaker) for their value. This is not the + only place in which Isocrates has marked his admiration for the genius + of Alcibiades; it appears also in the _Philippus_ and in the + _Busiris_. But, among the forensic speeches, we must, on the whole, + give the palm to the _Aegineticus_--a graphic picture of ordinary + Greek life in the islands of the Aegean. Here--especially in the + narrative--Isocrates makes a near approach to the best manner of + Lysias. + + The remaining fifteen orations or discourses do not easily lend + themselves to the ordinary classification under the heads of + "deliberative" and "epideictic." Both terms must be strained; and + neither is strictly applicable to all the pieces which it is required + to cover. The work of Isocrates travelled out of the grooves in which + the rhetorical industry of the age had hitherto moved. His position + among contemporary writers was determined by ideas peculiar to + himself; and his compositions, besides having a style of their own, + are in several instances of a new kind. The only adequate principle of + classification is one which considers them in respect to their + subject-matter. Thus viewed, they form two clearly separated + groups--the scholastic and the political. + + _Scholastic Writings._--Under this head we have, first, three letters + or essays of a hortatory character. (1) The letter to the young + Demonicus[21]--once a favourite subject in the schools--contains a + series of precepts neither below nor much above the average practical + morality of Greece. (2) The letter to Nicocles--the young king of the + Cyprian Salamis--sets forth the duty of a monarch to his subjects. (3) + In the third piece, it is Nicocles who speaks, and impresses on the + Salaminians their duty to their king--a piece remarkable as containing + a popular plea for monarchy, composed by a citizen of Athens. These + three letters may be referred to the years 374-372 B.C. + + Next may be placed four pieces which are "displays" ([Greek: + epideixeis]) in the proper Greek sense. The _Busiris_ (Or. xi., + 390-391 B.C.) is an attempt to show how the ill-famed king of Egypt + might be praised. The _Encomium on Helen_ (Or. x., 370 B.C.), a piece + greatly superior to the last, contains the celebrated passage on the + power of beauty. These two compositions serve to illustrate their + author's view that "encomia" of the hackneyed type might be elevated + by combining the mythical matter with some topic of practical + interest--as, in the case of _Busiris_, with the institutions of + Egypt, or, in that of Helen, with the reforms of Theseus. The + _Evagoras_ (Or. ix., 365 B.C.?), the earliest known biography, is a + laudatory epitaph on a really able man--the Greek king of the Cyprian + Salamis. A passage of singular interest describes how, under his rule, + the influences of Hellenic civilization had prevailed over the + surrounding barbarism. The _Panathenaicus_ (Or. xii.), intended for + the great Panathenaea of 342 B.C., but not completed till 339 B.C., + contains a recital of the services rendered by Athens to Greece, but + digresses into personal defence against critics; his last work, + written in extreme old age, it bears the plainest marks of failing + powers. + + The third subdivision of the scholastic writings is formed by two most + interesting essays on education--that entitled _Against the Sophists_ + (Or. xiii., 391-390 B.C.), and the _Antidosis_ (Or. xv., 353 B.C.). + The first of these is a manifesto put forth by Isocrates at the outset + of his professional career of teaching, in which he seeks to + distinguish his aims from those of other "sophists." These "sophists" + are (1) the "eristics" ([Greek: hoi peri tas eridas]), by whom he + seems to intend the minor Socratics, especially Euclides; (2) the + teachers of practical rhetoric, who had made exaggerated claims for + the efficacy of mere instruction, independently of natural faculty or + experience; (3) the writers of "arts" of rhetoric, who virtually + devoted themselves (as Aristotle also complains) to the lowest, or + forensic, branch of their subject (see also E. Holzner, _Platos + Phaedrus und die Sophistenrede des Isokrates_, Prague, 1894). As this + piece is the prelude to his career, its epilogue is the speech on the + "Antidosis"--so called because it has the form of a speech made in + court in answer to a challenge to undertake the burden of the + trierarchy, or else exchange properties with the challenger. The + discourse "Against the Sophists" had stated what his art was not; this + speech defines what it is. His own account of his [Greek: + philosophia]--"the discipline of discourse" ([Greek: he ton logon + paideia])--has been embodied in the sketch of it given above. + + _Political Writings._--These, again, fall into two classes--those + which concern (1) the relations of Greece with Persia, (2) the + internal affairs of Greece. The first class consist of the + _Panegyricus_ (Or. iv., 380 B.C.) and the _Philippus_ (Or. v., 346 + B.C.). The _Panegyricus_ takes its name from the fact that it was + given to the Greek public at the time of the Olympic + festivals--probably by means of copies circulated there. The orator + urges that Athens and Sparta should unite in leading the Greeks + against Persia. The feeling of antiquity that this noble discourse is + a masterpiece of careful work finds expression in the tradition that + it had occupied its author for more than ten years. Its excellence is + not merely that of language, but also--and perhaps even more + conspicuously--that of lucid arrangement. The _Philippus_ is an appeal + to the king of Macedon to assume that initiative in the war on Persia + which Isocrates had ceased to expect from any Greek city. In the view + of Demosthenes, Philip was the representative barbarian; in that of + Isocrates, he is the first of Hellenes, and the natural champion of + their cause. + + Of those discourses which concern the internal affairs of Greece, two + have already been noticed,--that _On the Peace_ (Or. viii.), and the + _Areopagiticus_ (Or. vii.)--both of 355 B.C.--as dealing respectively + with the foreign and the home affairs of Athens. The _Plataicus_ (Or. + xiv.) is supposed to be spoken by a Plataean before the Athenian + ecclesia in 373 B.C. In that year Plataea had for the second time in + its history been destroyed by Thebes. The oration--an appeal to Athens + to restore the unhappy town--is remarkable both for the power with + which Theban cruelty is denounced, and for the genuine pathos of the + peroration. The _Archidamus_ (Or. vi.) is a speech purporting to be + delivered by Archidamus III., son of Agesilaus, in a debate at Sparta + on conditions of peace offered by Thebes in 366 B.C. It was demanded + that Sparta should recognize the independence of Messene, which had + lately been restored by Epameinondas (370 B.C.). The oration gives + brilliant expression to the feeling which such a demand was calculated + to excite in Spartans who knew the history of their own city. Xenophon + witnesses that the attitude of Sparta on this occasion was actually + such as the _Archidamus_ assumes (_Hellen._ vii. 4. 8-11). + + _Letters._--The first letter--to Dionysius I.--is fragmentary; but a + passage in the _Philippus_ leaves no doubt as to its object. Isocrates + was anxious that the ruler of Syracuse should undertake the command of + Greece against Persia. The date is probably 368 B.C. Next in + chronological order stands the letter "To the Children of Jason" + (vi.). Jason, tyrant of Pherae, had been assassinated in 370 B.C.; and + no fewer than three of his successors had shared the same fate. + Isocrates now urges Thebe, the daughter of Jason, and her + half-brothers to set up a popular government. The date is 359 B.C.[22] + The letter to Archidamus III. (ix.)--the same person who is the + imaginary speaker of Oration vi.--urges him to execute the writer's + favourite idea,--"to deliver the Greeks from their feuds, and to crush + barbarian insolence." It is remarkable for a vivid picture of the + state of Greece; the date is about 356 B.C. The letter to Timotheus + (vii., 345 B.C.), ruler of Heraclea on the Euxine, introduces an + Athenian friend who is going thither, and at the same time offers some + good counsels to the benevolent despot. The letter "to the government + of Mytilene" (viii., 350 B.C.) is a petition to a newly established + oligarchy, begging them to permit the return of a democratic exile, a + distinguished musician named Agenor. The first of the two letters to + Philip of Macedon (ii.) remonstrates with him on the personal danger + to which he had recklessly exposed himself, and alludes to his + beneficent intervention in the affairs of Thessaly; the date is + probably the end of 342 B.C. The letter to Alexander (v.), then a boy + of fourteen, is a brief greeting sent along with the last, and + congratulates him on preferring "practical" to "eristic" studies--a + distinction which is explained by the sketch of the author's [Greek: + philosophia], and of his essay "Against the Sophists," given above. It + was just at this time, probably, that Alexander was beginning to + receive the lessons of Aristotle (342 B.C.). The letter to Antipater + (iv.) introduces a friend who wished to enter the military service of + Philip. Antipater was then acting as regent in Macedonia during + Philip's absence in Thrace (340-339 B.C.). The later of the two + letters to Philip (iii.) appears to be written shortly after the + battle of Chaeronea in 338 B.C. The questions raised by it have + already been discussed. + + No lost work of Isocrates is known from a definite quotation, except + an "Art of Rhetoric," from which some scattered precepts are cited. + Quintilian, indeed, and Photius, who had seen this "Art," felt a doubt + as to whether it was genuine. Only twenty-five discourses--out of an + ascriptive total of some sixty--were admitted as authentic by + Dionysius; Photius (_circ._ A.D. 850) knew only the number now + extant--twenty-one. + + With the exception of defects at the end of Or. xiii., at the + beginning of Or. xvi., and probably at the end of Letters i., vi., + ix., the existing text is free from serious mutilations. It is also + unusually pure. The smooth and clear style of Isocrates gave few + opportunities for the mistakes of copyists. On the other hand, he was + a favourite author of the schools. Numerous glosses crept into his + text through the comments or conjectures of rhetoricians. This was + already the case before the 6th century, as is attested by the + citations of Priscian and Stobaeus. Jerome Wolf and Koraes + successively accomplished much for the text. But a more decided + advance was made by Immanuel Bekker. He used five MSS., viz. (1) Codex + Urbinas III., [Gamma] (this, the best, was his principal guide); (2) + Vaticanus 936, [Delta]; (3) Laurentianus 87, 14, [Theta] (13th + century); (4) Vaticanus 65, [Lambda]; and (5) Marcianus 415, [Xi]. The + first three, of the same family, have Or. xv. entire; the last two are + from the same original, and have Or. xv. incomplete. + + J. G. Baiter and H. Sauppe in their edition (1850) follow [Gamma] + "even more constantly than Bekker." Their apparatus is enriched, + however, by a MS. to which he had not access--Ambrosianus O. 144, + [Epsilon], which in some cases, as they recognize, has alone preserved + the true reading. The readings of this MS. were given in full by G. E. + Benseler in his second edition (1854-1855). The distinctive + characteristic of Benseler's textual criticism was a tendency to + correct the text against even the best MS., where the MS. conflicted + with the usage of Isocrates as inferred from his recorded precepts or + from the statements of ancient writers. Thus, on the strength of the + rule ascribed to Isocrates--[Greek: phoneenta me sympiptein]--Benseler + would remove from the text every example of hiatus (on the MSS. of + Isocrates, see H. Burmann, _Die handschriftliche Uberlieferung des + Isocrates_, Berlin, 1885-1886, and E. Drerup, in _Leipziger Studien_, + xvii., 1895). (R. C. J.) + + EDITIONS.--In _Oratores Attici_, ed. Imm. Bekker (1823, 1828); W. S. + Dobson (1828); J. G. Baiter and Hermann Sauppe (1850). Separately + _Ausgewahlte Reden, Panegyrikos und Areopagitikos_, by Rudolf + Rauchenstein, 6th ed., Karl Munscher (1908); in Teubner's series, by + G. E. Benseler (new ed., by F. Blass, 1886-1895) and by E. Drerup + (1906- ); _Ad Demonicum et Panegyricus_, ed. J. E. Sandys (1868); + _Evagoras_, ed. H. Clarke (1885). Extracts from Orations iii., iv., + vi., vii., viii., ix., xiii., xiv., xv., xix., and Letters iii., v., + edited with revised text and commentary, in _Selections from the Attic + Orators_, by R. C. Jebb (1880); vol. i. of an English prose + translation, with introduction and notes by J. H. Freese, has been + published in Bohn's _Classical Library_ (1894). See generally Jebb's + _Attic Orators_ (where a list of authorities is given) and F. Blass, + Die attische Beredsamkeit (2nd ed., 1887-1898), and the latter's _Die + Rhythmen der attischen Kunstprosa_ (1901). There is a special lexicon + by S. Preuss (1904). On the philosophy of Isocrates and his relation + to the Socratic schools, see Thompson's ed. of Plato's _Phaedrus_, + Appendix 2. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] [Greek: Hatalante], fr. 1, Meineke, Poetarum comicorum Graecorum + frag. (1855), p. 292. + + [2] [Plut.] _Vita Isocr._, and the anonymous biographer. Dionysius + does not mention the story, though he makes Isocrates a pupil of + Theramenes. + + [3] Some would refer the sojourn of Isocrates at Chios to the years + 398-395 B.C., others to 393-388 B.C. The reasons which support the + view given in the text will be found in Jebb's _Attic Orators_, vol. + ii. (1893), p. 6, note 2. + + [4] Partim in pompa, partim in acie illustres (_De orat._ ii. 24). + + [5] P. Sanneg, _De schola Isocratea_ (Halle, 1867). + + [6] _De falsa legat._ p. 426 [Greek: ouch opos orgizonto e kolazein + exioun tous tauta poiountas, all' apeblepon, ezeloun, etimon, andras + hegounto.] + + [7] [Greek: ekeinous gar homologeitai ... ede egkrateis dokountas + einai ton pragmaton dia ten Kyrou propeteian atychesai] (_Philippus_, + 90; cp. _Panegyr._ 149). + + [8] _Philippus_, 346 B.C.; _Epist._ ii. end of 342 B.C. (?). + + [9] The views of several modern critics on the tradition of the + suicide are brought together in the _Attic Orators_, ii. (1893) p. + 31, note 1. + + [10] Isocrates, a loyal and genuine Hellene, can yet conceive of + Hellenic culture as shared by men not of Hellenic blood (_Panegyr._ + 50). He is thus, as Ernst Curtius has ably shown, a forerunner of + Hellenism--analogous, in the literary province, to Epameinondas and + Timotheus in the political (_History of Greece_, v. 116, 204, tr. + Ward). + + [11] [Greek: to ton Hellenon genos ... dunamenon archein panton, mias + tugchanon politeias] (_Polit._ iv. [vii.] 6, 7). + + [12] _De Alex. virt._ i. 6. + + [13] The word [Greek: philosophia] seems to have come into Athenian + use not much before the time of Socrates; and, till long after the + time of Isocrates, it was commonly used, not in the sense of + "philosophy," but in that of "literary taste and study--culture + generally" (see Thompson on _Phaedrus_, 278 D). Aristeides, ii. 407 + [Greek: philokalia tis kai diatribe peri logous, kai ouch ho nun + tropos houtos, alla paideia koinos]. And so writers of the 4th + century B.C. use [Greek: philosophein] as simply = "to study"; as + e.g. an invalid "studies" the means of relief from pain, Lys. _Or._ + xxiv. 10; cf. Isocr. _Or._ iv. 6, &c. + + [14] Plato, _Gorg._ p. 463; _Euthyd._ 304-306. + + [15] These allusions are discussed in the _Attic Orators_, vol. ii. + ch. 13. + + [16] Isocr. _Or._ xv. 271. + + [17] A. Cartelier, _Le Discours d'Isocrate sur lui-meme_, p. lxii. + (1862). + + [18] Totum Isocratis [Greek: myrothekion] atque omnes ejus + discipulorum arculas (_Ad Att._ ii. 1). + + [19] Idque princeps Isocrates instituisse fertur, ... ut inconditam + antiquorum dicendi consuetudinem ... numeris astringeret (_De or._ + iii. 44, 173). + + [20] The dates here given differ to some extent from those in F. + Blass, _Die attische Beredsamkeit_ (2nd ed., 1887-1898). + + [21] Some authorities consider the _Ad Demonicum_ spurious. + + [22] This was shown by R. C. Jebb in a paper on "The Sixth Letter of + Isocrates," _Journal of Philology_, v. 266 (1874). The fact that + Thebe, widow of Alexander of Pherae, was the daughter of Jason is + incidentally noticed by Plutarch in his life of Pelopidas, c. 28. It + is this fact which gives the clue to the occasion of the letter; cf. + Diod. Sic. xvi. 14. + + + + +ISODYNAMIC LINES (Gr. [Greek: isodynamos], equal in power), lines +connecting those parts of the earth's surface where the magnetic force +has the same intensity (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL). + + + + +ISOGONIC LINES (Gr. [Greek: isogonios], equiangular), lines connecting +those parts of the earth's surface where the magnetic declination is the +same in amount (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL). + + + + +ISOLA DEL LIRI, a town of Campania, in the province of Caserta, Italy, +15 m. by rail N.N.W. of Roccasecca, which is on the main line from Rome +to Naples, 10 m. N.W. of Cassino. Pop. (1901), town, 2384; commune, +8244. The town consists of two parts, Isola Superiore and Isola +Inferiore; as its name implies it is situated between two arms of the +Liri. The many waterfalls of this river and of the Fibreno afford motive +power for several important paper-mills. Two of the falls, 80 ft. in +height, are especially fine. About 1 m. to the N. is the church of San +Domenico, erected in the 12th century, which probably marks the site of +the villa of Cicero (see ARPINO). + + + + +ISOMERISM, in chemistry. When Wohler, in 1825, analysed his cyanic acid, +and Liebig his quite different fulminic acid in 1824, the composition of +both compounds proved to be absolutely the same, containing each in +round numbers 28% of carbon, 33% of nitrogen, 37% of oxygen and 2% of +hydrogen. This fact, inconsistent with the then dominating conception +that difference in qualities was due to difference in chemical +composition, was soon corroborated by others of analogous nature, and so +Berzelius introduced the term _isomerism_ (Gr. [Greek: isomeres], +composed of equal parts) to denominate the existence of the property of +substances having different qualities, in chemical behaviour as well as +physical, notwithstanding identity in chemical composition. These +phenomena were quite in accordance with the atomic conception of matter, +since a compound containing the same number of atoms of carbon, +nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen as another in the same weight might differ +in internal structure by different arrangements of those atoms. Even in +the time of Berzelius the newly introduced conception proved to include +two different groups of facts. The one group included those isomers +where the identity in composition was accompanied by identity in +molecular weight, i.e. the vapour densities of the isomers were the +same, as in butylene and isobutylene, to take the most simple case; here +the molecular conception admits that the isolated groups in which the +atoms are united, i.e. the molecules, are identical, and so the molecule +of both butylene and isobutylene is indicated by the same chemical +symbol C4H8, expressing that each molecule contains, in both cases, four +atoms of carbon (C) and eight of hydrogen (H). This group of isomers was +denominated metamers by Berzelius, and now often "isomers" (in the +restricted sense), whereas the term _polymerism_ (Gr. [Greek: polys], +many) was chosen for compounds like butylene, C4H8, and ethylene, C2H4, +corresponding to the same composition in weight but differing in +molecular formula, and having different densities in gas or vapour, a +litre of butylene and isobutylene weighing, for instance, under ordinary +temperature and pressure, about 2.5 gr., ethylene only one-half as much, +since density is proportional to molecular weight. + +A further distinction is necessary to a survey of the subdivisions of +isomerism regarded in its widest sense. There are subtle and more subtle +differences causing isomerism. In the case of metamerism we can imagine +that the atoms are differently linked, say in the case of butylene that +the atoms of carbon are joined together as a continuous chain, expressed +by --C--C--C--C--, _normally_ as it is called, whereas in isobutylene the +fourth atom of carbon is not attached to the third but to the second +carbon atom, i.e. + + C-- + / + --C--C . + \ + C-- + +Now there are cases in which analogy of internal structure goes so far +as to exclude even that difference in linking, the only remaining +possibility then being the difference in relative position. This kind +of isomerism has been denominated _stereoisomerism_ (q.v.) often +stereomerism. But there is a last group belonging here in which identity +of structure goes farthest. There are substances such as sulphur, +showing difference of modification in crystalline state--the ordinary +rhombic form in which sulphur occurs as a mineral, while, after melting +and cooling, long needles appear which belong to the monosymmetric +system. These differences, which go hand in hand with those in other +properties, e.g. specific heat and specific gravity, are absolutely +confined to the crystalline state, disappearing with it when both +modifications of sulphur are melted, or dissolved in carbon disulphide +or evaporated. So it is natural to admit that here we have to deal with +identical molecules, but that only the internal arrangement differs from +case to case as identical balls may be grouped in different ways. This +case of difference in properties combined with identical composition is +therefore called _polymorphism_. + +To summarize, we have to deal with polymerism, metamerism, +stereoisomerism, polymorphism; whereas phenomena denominated +tautomerism, pseudomerism and desmotropism form different particular +features of metamerism, as well as the phenomena of allotropy, which is +merely the difference of properties which an element may show, and can +be due to polymerism, as in oxygen, where by the side of the ordinary +form with molecules O2 we have the more active ozone with O3. +Polymorphism in the case of an element is illustrated in the case of +sulphur, whereas metamerism in the case of elements has so far as yet +not been observed; and is hardly probable, as most elements are built +up, like the metals, from molecules containing only one atom per +molecule; here metamerism is absolutely excluded, and a considerable +number of the rest, having diatomic molecules, are about in the same +condition. It is only in cases like sulphur with octatomic molecules, +where a difference of internal structure might play a part. + +Before entering into detail it may be useful to consider the nature of +isomerism from a general standpoint. It is probable that the whole +phenomenon of isomerism is due to the possibility that compounds or +systems which in reality are unstable yet persist, or so slowly change +that practically one can speak of their stability; for instance, such +systems as explosives and a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, where the +stable form is water, and in which, according to some, a slow but until +now undetected change takes place even at ordinary temperatures. +Consequently, of each pair of isomers we may establish beforehand which +is the more stable; either in particular circumstances, a direct change +taking place, as, for instance, with maleic acid, which when exposed to +sunlight in presence of a trace of bromine, yields the isomeric fumaric +acid almost at once, or, indirectly, one may conclude that the isomer +which forms under greater heat-development is the more stable, at least +at lower temperatures. Now, whether a real, though undetected, change +occurs is a question to be determined from case to case; it is certain, +however, that a substance like aragonite (a mineral form of calcium +carbonate) has sensibly persisted in geological periods, though the +polymorphous calcite is the more stable form. Nevertheless, the +theoretical possibility, and its realization in many cases, has brought +considerations to the front which have recently become of predominant +interest; consequently the possible transformations of isomers and +polymers will be considered later under the denomination of reversible +or dynamical isomerisms. + +Especially prominent is the fact that polymerism and metamerism are +mainly reserved to the domain of organic chemistry, or the chemistry of +carbon, both being discovered there; and, more especially, the +phenomenon of metamerism in organic chemistry has largely developed our +notions concerning the structure of matter. That this particular feature +belongs to carbon compounds is due to a property of carbon which +characterizes the whole of organic chemistry, i.e. that atoms attached +to carbon, to express it in the atomic style, cling more intensely to it +than, for instance, when combined with oxygen. This explains a good +deal of the possible instability; and, from a practical point of view, +it coincides with the fact that such a large amount of energy can be +stored in our most intense explosives such as dynamite, the explanation +being that hydrogen is attached to carbon distant from oxygen in the +same molecule, and that only the characteristic resistance of the carbon +linkage prevents the hydrogen from burning, which is the main occurrence +in the explosion of dynamite. The possession of this peculiar property +by carbon seems to be related to its high valency, amounting to four; +and, generally, when we consider the most primitive expression of +isomerism, viz. the allotropy of elements, we meet this increasing +resistance with increasing valency. The monovalent iodine, for instance, +is transformed by heating into an allotropic form, corresponding to the +formula I, whereas ordinary iodine answers to I2. Now these +modifications show hardly any tendency to persist, the one stable at +high temperatures being formed at elevated temperatures, but changing in +the reverse sense on cooling. In the divalent oxygen we meet with the +modification called ozone, which, although unstable, changes but slowly +into oxygen. Similarly the trivalent phosphorus in the ordinary white +form shows such resistance as if it were practically stable; on the +other hand the red modification is in reality also stable, being formed, +for instance, under the influence of light. In the case of the +quadrivalent carbon, diamond seems to be the stable form at ordinary +temperatures, but one may wait long before it is formed from graphite. + +This connexion of isomerism with resistant linking, and of this with +high valency, explains, in considerable measure, why inorganic compounds +afforded, as a rule, no phenomena of this kind until the systematic +investigation of metallic compounds by Werner brought to light many +instances of isomerism in inorganic compounds. Whereas carbon renders +isomerism possible in organic compounds, cobalt and platinum are the +determining elements in inorganic chemistry, the phenomena being +exhibited especially by complex ammoniacal derivatives. The constitution +of these inorganic isomers is still somewhat questionable; and in +addition it seems that polymerism, metamerism and stereoisomerism play a +part here, but the general feature is that cobalt and platinum act in +them with high valency, probably exceeding four. The most simple case is +presented by the two platinum compounds PtCl2(NH3)2, the +platosemidiammine chloride of Peyrone, and the platosammine chloride of +Jules Reiset, the first formed according to the equation PtCl4K2 + 2NH3 += PtCl2(NH3)2 + 2KCl, the second according to Pt(NH3)4Cl2 = PtCl2(NH3)2 ++ 2NH3, these compounds differing in solubility, the one dissolving in +33, the other in 160 parts of boiling water. With cobalt the most simple +case was discovered in 1892 by S. Jorgensen in the second +dinitrotetramminecobalt chloride, [Co(NO2)2(NH3)4]Cl, designated as +flavo--whereas the older isomer of Gibbs was distinguished as +croceo-salt. An interesting lecture on the subject was delivered by A. +Werner before the German chemical society (_Ber._, 1907, 40, p. 15). +(See COBALT; PLATINUM.) + +Dealing with organic compounds, it is metamerism that deserves chief +attention, as it has largely developed our notions as to molecular +structure. Polymerism required no particular explanation, since this was +given by the difference in molecular magnitude. One general remark, +however, may be made here. There are polymers which have hardly any +inter-relations other than identity in composition; on the other hand, +there are others which are related by the possibility of mutual +transformation; examples of this kind are cyanic acid (CNOH) and +cyanuric acid (CNOH)3, the latter being a solid which readily transforms +into the former on heating as an easily condensable vapour; the reverse +transformation may also be realized; and the polymers methylene oxide +(CH2O) and trioxymethylene (CH2O)3. In the first group we may mention +the homologous series of hydrocarbons derived from ethylene, given by +the general formula C_nH_(2n), and the two compounds methylene-oxide and +honey-sugar C6H12O6. The cases of mutual transformation are generally +characterized by the fact that in the compound of higher molecular +weight no new links of carbon with carbon are introduced, the +trioxymethylene being probably + + CH2--O + / \ + O CH2, + \ / + CH2--O + +whereas honey-sugar corresponds to CH2OH.CHOH.CHOH.CHOH.CHOH.CHO, each +point representing a linking of the carbon atom to the next. This +observation is closely related to the above-mentioned resistivity of the +carbon-link, and corroborates it in a special case. As carbon tends to +hold the atom attached to it, one may presume that this property +expresses itself in a predominant way where the other element is carbon +also, and so the linkage represented by --C--C-- is one of the most +difficult to loosen. + +The conception of metamerism, or isomerism in restricted sense, has been +of the highest value for the development of our notions concerning +molecular structure, i.e. the conception as to the order in which the +atoms composing a molecule are linked together. In this article we shall +confine ourselves to the fatty compounds, from which the fundamental +notions were first obtained; reference may be made to the article +CHEMISTRY: _Organic_, for the general structural relations of organic +compounds, both fatty and aromatic. + +A general philosophical interest is attached to the phenomena of +isomerism. By Wilhelm Ostwald especially, attempts have been made to +substitute the notion of atoms and molecular structure by less +hypothetical conceptions; these ideas may some day receive thorough +confirmation, and when this occurs science will receive a striking +impetus. The phenomenon of isomerism will probably supply the crucial +test, at least for the chemist, and the question will be whether the +Ostwaldian conception, while substituting the Daltonian hypothesis, will +also explain isomerism. An early step accomplished by Ostwald in this +direction is to define ozone in its relation to oxygen, considering the +former as differing from the latter by an excess of energy, measurable +as heat of transformation, instead of defining the difference as +diatomic molecules in oxygen, and triatomic in ozone. Now, in this case, +the first definition expresses much better the whole chemical behaviour +of ozone, which is that of "energetic" oxygen, while the second only +includes the fact of higher vapour-density; but in applying the first +definition to organic compounds and calling isobutylene "butylene with +somewhat more energy" hardly anything is indicated, and all the +advantages of the atomic conception--the possibility of exactly +predicting how many isomers a given formula includes and how you may get +them--are lost. + +To Kekule is due the credit of taking the decisive step in introducing +the notion of tetravalent carbon in a clear way, i.e. in the property of +carbon to combine with four different monatomic elements at once, +whereas nitrogen can only hold three (or in some cases five), oxygen two +(in some cases four), hydrogen one. This conception has rendered +possible a clear idea of the linking or internal structure of the +molecule, for example, in the most simple case, methane, CH4, is +expressed by + + H + | + H--C--H + | + H + +It is by this conception that possible and impossible compounds are at +once fixed. Considering the hydrocarbons given by the general formula +C_xH_y, the internal linkages of the carbon atoms need at least x - 1 +bonds, using up 2(x - 1) valencies of the 4x to be accounted for, and +thus leaving no more than 2(x + 1) for binding hydrogen: a compound C3H9 +is therefore impossible, and indeed has never been met. The second +prediction is the possibility of metamerism, and the number of metamers, +in a given case among compounds, which are realizable. Considering the +predicted series of compounds C_nH_(2n + 2), which is the well-known +homologous series of methane, the first member, the possible of +isomerism lies in that of a different linking of the carbon atoms. This +first presents itself when four are present, i.e. in the difference +between C--C--C--C and + + C--C--C + | . + C + +With this compound C4H10, named butane, isomerism is actually observed, +being limited to a pair, whereas the former members ethane, C2H6, and +propane, C3H8, showed no isomerism. Similarly, pentane, C5H12, and +hexane, C6H14, may exist in three and five theoretically isomeric forms +respectively; confirmation of this theory is supplied by the fact that +all these compounds have been obtained, but no more. The third most +valuable indication which molecular structure gives about these isomers +is how to prepare them, for instance, that normal hexane, represented by +CH3.CH2.CH2.CH2.CH2.CH3, may be obtained by action of sodium on propyl +iodide, CH3.CH2.CH2I, the atoms of iodine being removed from two +molecules of propyl iodide, with the resulting fusion of the two systems +of three carbon atoms into a chain of six carbon atoms. But it is not +only the formation of different isomers which is included in their +constitution, but also the different ways in which they will decompose +or give other products. As an example another series of organic +compounds may be taken, viz. that of the alcohols, which only differ +from the hydrocarbons by having a group OH, called hydroxyl, instead of +H, hydrogen; these compounds, when derived from the above methane series +of hydrocarbons, are expressed by the general formula C_nH_(2n + 1)OH. +In this case it is readily seen that isomerism introduces itself in the +three carbon atom derivative: the propyl alcohols, expressed by the +formulae CH3.CH2.CH2OH and CH3.CHOH.CH3, are known as propyl and +isopropyl alcohol respectively. Now in oxidizing, or introducing more +oxygen, for instance, by means of a mixture of sulphuric acid and +potassium bichromate, and admitting that oxygen acts on both compounds +in analogous ways, the two alcohols may give (as they lose two atoms of +hydrogen) CH3.CH2.COH and CH3CO.CH3. The first compound, containing a +group COH, or more explicitly O = C - H, is an _aldehyde_, having a +pronounced reducing power, producing silver from the oxide, and is +therefore called propylaldehyde; the second compound containing the +group --C.CO.C-- behaves differently but just as characteristically, and +is a _ketone_, it is therefore denominated propylketone (also acetone or +dimethyl ketone). And so, as a rule, from isomeric alcohols, those +containing a group --CH2.OH, yield by oxidation aldehydes and are +distinguished by the name primary; whereas those containing CH.OH, +called secondary, produce ketones. (Compare CHEMISTRY: _Organic_.) + +The above examples may illustrate how, in a general way, chemical +properties of isomers, their formation as well as transformation, may be +read in the structure formula. It is different, however, with physical +properties, density, &c.; at present we have no fixed rules which enable +us to predict quantitatively the differences in physical properties +corresponding to a given difference in structure, the only general rule +being that those differences are not large. + + Perhaps a satisfactory point of view may be here obtained by applying + the van der Waals' equation A(P + a/V^2)(V - b) = 2T, which connects + volume V, pressure P and temperature T (see CONDENSATION OF GASES). In + this equation a relates to molecular attraction; and it is not + improbable that in isomeric molecules, containing in sum the same + amount of the same atoms, those mutual attractions are approximately + the same, whereas the chief difference lies in the value of b, that + is, the volume occupied by the molecule itself. For what reason this + volume may differ from case to case lies close at hand; in connexion + with the notion of negative and positive atoms, like chlorine and + hydrogen, experience tends to show that the former, as well as the + latter, have a mutual repulsive power, but the former acts on the + latter in the opposite sense; the necessary consequence is that, when + those negative and positive groups are distributed in the molecule, + its volume will be smaller than if the negative elements are heaped + together. An example may prove this, but before quoting it, the + question of determining b must be decided; this results immediately + from the above quotation, b being the volume V at the absolute zero (T + = 0); so the volume of isomers ought to be compared at the absolute + zero. Since this has not been done we must adopt the approximate rule + that the volume at absolute zero is proportional to that at the + boiling-point. Now taking the isomers H3C.CCl3(M_v = 108) and + ClH2.CHCl2(M_v = 103), we see the negative chlorine atoms heaped up in + the left hand formula, but distributed in the second; the former + therefore may be presumed to occupy a larger space, the molecular + volume, that is, the volume in cubic centimetres occupied by the + molecular weight in grams, actually being 108 in the former, and 103 + in the latter case (compare CHEMISTRY: _Physical_). An analogous + remark applies to the boiling-point of isomers. According to the above + formula the critical temperature is given by 8aA/54b, and as the + critical temperature is approximately proportional to the + boiling-point, both being estimated on the absolute scale of + temperature, we may conclude that the larger value of b corresponds to + the lower boiling-point, and indeed the isomer corresponding to the + left-hand formula boils at 74 deg., the other at 114 deg. Other + physical properties might be considered; as a general rule they depend + upon the distribution of negative and positive elements in the + molecule. + +_Reversible (dynamical) Isomerism._--Certain investigations on isomerism +which have become especially prominent in recent times bear on the +possibility of the mutual transformation of isomers. As soon as this +reversibility is introduced, general laws related to thermodynamics are +applicable (see CHEMICAL ACTION; ENERGETICS). These laws have the +advantage of being applicable to the mutual transformations of isomers, +whatever be the nature of the deeper origin, and so bring polymerism, +metamerism and polymorphism together. As they are pursued furthest in +the last case, this may be used as an example. The study of polymorphism +has been especially pursued by Otto Lehmann, who proved that it is an +almost general property; the variety of forms which a given substance +may show is often great, ammonium nitrate, for instance, showing at +least four of them before melting. The general rule which correlates +this polymorphic change is that its direction changes at a given +temperature. For example, sulphur is stable in the rhombic form till +95.4 deg., from then upwards it tends to change over into the prismatic +form. The phenomenon absolutely corresponds to that of fusion and +solidification, only that it generally takes place less quickly; +consequently we may have prismatic sulphur at ordinary temperature for +some time, as well as rhombic sulphur at 100 deg. This may be expressed +in the chosen case by a symbol; "rhombic sulphur <--95.4 deg.--> +prismatic sulphur," indicating that there is equilibrium at the so-called +"transition-point," 95.4 deg., and opposite change below and above. + +This comparison with fusion introduces a second notion, that of the +"triple-point," this being in the melting-phenomenon the only +temperature at which solid, liquid and vapour are in equilibrium, in +other words, where three phases of one substance are co-existent. This +temperature is somewhat different from the ordinary melting-point, the +latter corresponding to atmospheric pressure, the former to the maximum +vapour-pressure; and so we come to a third relation for polymorphism. +Just as the melting-point changes with pressure, the transition-point +also changes; even the same quantitative relation holds for both, as L. +J. Reicher proved with sulphur: aT/aP = AvT/q, v being the change in +volume which accompanies the change from rhombic to prismatic sulphur, +and q the heat absorbed. Both formula and experiment proved that an +increase of pressure of one atmosphere elevated the transition point for +about 0.04 deg. The same laws apply to cases of more complicated nature, +and one of them, which deserves to be pursued further, is the mutual +transformation of cyanuric acid, C3H3N3O3, cyanic acid, CHNO, and +cyamelide (CHNO)_x; the first corresponding to prismatic sulphur, stable +at higher temperatures, the last to rhombic, the equilibrium-symbol +being: cyamelide <--150 deg.--> cyanuric acid; the cyanic acid +corresponds to sulphur vapour, being in equilibrium with either cyamelide + or cyanuric acid at a maximum pressure, definite for each temperature. + +A second law for these mutual transformations is that when they take +place without loss of homogeneity, for example, in the liquid state, the +definite transition point disappears and the change is gradual. This +seems to be the case with molten sulphur, which, when heated, becomes +dark-coloured and plastic; and also in the case of metals, which obtain +or lose magnetic properties without loss of continuous structure. At the +same time, however, the transition point sometimes reappears even in the +liquid state; in such cases two layers are formed, as has been recently +observed with sulphur, and by F. M. Jager in complicated organic +compounds. Thus the introduction of heterogeneity, or the appearance of +a new phase, demands the existence of a fixed temperature of +transformation. + +On the basis of the relation between physical phenomena and +thermodynamical laws, properties of the polymorphous compounds may be +predicted. The chief consideration here is that the stable form must +have the lower vapour pressure, otherwise, by distillation, it would +transform in opposite sense. From this it follows that the stable form +must have the higher melting-point, since at the melting-point the +vapour of the solid and of the liquid have the same pressure. Thus +prismatic sulphur has a higher melting-point (120 deg.) than the rhombic +form (116 deg.), and it is even possible to calculate the difference +theoretically from the thermodynamic relations. A third consequence is +that the stable form must have the smaller solubility: J. Meyer and J. +N. Bronstedt found that at 25 deg., 10 c.c. of benzene dissolved 0.25 +and 0.18 gr. of prismatic and rhombic sulphur respectively. It can be +easily seen that this ratio, according to Henry's law, must correspond +to that of vapour-pressures, and so be independent of the solvent; in +fact, in alcohol the figures are 0.0066 and 0.0052. Recently Hermann +Walther Nernst has been able to deduce the transition-point in the case +of sulphur from the specific heat and the heat developed in the +transition only. This best studied case shows that a number of mutual +relations are to be found between the properties of two modifications +when once the phenomenon of mutual transformation is accessible. + +In ordinary isomers indications of mutual transformation often occur; +and among these the predominant fact is that denoted as tautomerism or +pseudomerism. It exhibits itself in the peculiar behaviour of some +organic compounds containing the group --C.CO.C--, e.g. +CH3CO.CHX.CO2C2H5, derivatives of acetoacetic ester. These compounds +generally behave as ketones; but at the same time they may act as +alcohols, i.e. as if containing the OH group; this leads to the formula +H3C.C(OH):CX.CO2C2H5. In reality such tautomeric compounds are +apparently a mixture of two isomers in equilibrium, and indeed in some +cases both forms have been isolated; then one speaks of _desmotropy_ +(Gr. [Greek: desmos], a bond or link, and [Greek: trope], a turn or +change). Nevertheless, the relations obtained in reversible cases such +as sulphur have not yet found application in the highly interesting +cases of ordinary irreversible isomerism. + +A further step in this direction has been effected by the introduction +of reversibility into a non-reversible case by means of a catalytic +agent. The substance investigated was acetaldehyde, C2H4O, in its +relation to paraldehyde, a polymeric modification. The phenomena were +first observed without mutual transformation, aldehyde melting at -118 +deg., paraldehyde at 13 deg., the only mutual influence being a lowering +of melting-point, with a minimum at -120 deg. in the eutectic point. +When a catalytic agent, such as sulphurous acid, is added, which +produces a mutual change, the whole behaviour is different; only one +melting-point, viz. 7 deg., is observed for all mixtures; this has been +called the "natural melting-point." It corresponds to one of the +melting-points in the series without catalytic agents, viz. in that +mixture which contains 88% of paraldehyde and 12% of acetaldehyde, which +the catalytic agent leaves unaffected. Such an introduction of +reversibility is also possible by allowing sufficient time to permit the +transformation to be produced by itself. By R. Rothe and Alexander +Smith's interesting observations on sulphur, results have been obtained +which tend to prove that the melting-point, as well as the appearance of +two layers in the liquid state, correspond to unstable conditions. + (J. H. van't H.) + + + + +ISOTHERM (Gr. [Greek: isos], equal, and [Greek: therme], heat), a line +upon a map connecting places where the temperature is the same at +sea-level on the earth's surface. These isothermal lines will be found +to vary from month to month over the two hemispheres, or over local +areas, during summer and winter, and their position is modified by +continental or oceanic conditions. + + + + +ISOXAZOLES, monazole chemical compounds corresponding to furfurane, in +which the [-=]CH group adjacent to the oxygen atom is replaced by a +nitrogen atom, and therefore they contain the ring system + + HC = N + | \ + | O. + | / + HC = CH + +They may be prepared by the elimination of water from the monoximes of +[beta]-diketones, [beta]-ketone aldehydes or oxymethylene ketones (L. +Claisen, _Ber._, 1891, 24, p. 3906), the general reaction proceeding +according to the equation + + R.CO.CH2.CO.R + H2N.OH = 2H2O + R.C = N + | \ + | O. + | / + HC = C--R + +W. Dunstan and T. S. Dymond (_Jour. Chem. Soc._, 1891, 49, p. 410) have +also prepared isoxazoles by the action of alkalis on nitroparaffins, but +have not been able to obtain the parent substance. Those isoxazoles in +which the carbon atom adjacent to nitrogen is substituted are stable +compounds, but if this is not the case, rearrangement of the molecule +takes place and nitriles are formed. The isoxazoles are feebly basic. + + The _isoxazolones_ are the keto derivatives of the as yet unknown + dihydroisoxazole, and are compounds of strongly acid nature, + decomposing the carbonates of the alkaline earth metals and forming + salts with metals and with ammonia. Their constitution is not yet + definitely fixed and they may be regarded as derived from one of the + three types + + CH2--C HC--CO HC = C(OH) + | \ || \ | \ + | O; || O; | O. + | / || / | / + CH = N HC--NH HC = N--- + + By the action of nitrous acid on the oxime of o-aminobenzophenone as + [alpha]-phenyl indoxazene, + + C--C6H5 + / \\ + C6H4 N, + \ / + O + + is obtained; this is a derivative of benzisoxazole. + + + + +ISRAEL (Hebrew for "God strives" or "rules"; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the +allusion in Hosea xii. 4), the national designation of the Jews. Israel +was a name borne by their ancestor Jacob the father of the twelve +tribes. For some centuries the term was applied to the northern kingdom, +as distinct from Judah, although the feeling of national unity extended +it so as to include both. It emphasizes more particularly the position +of the Hebrews as a religious community, bound together by common aims +and by their covenant-relation with the national God, Yahweh. + + See further JACOB, HEBREW LANGUAGE, HEBREW RELIGION, JEWS: _History_ + and _Palestine_. + + + + +ISRAELI, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (9th-10th centuries), Jewish physician and +philosopher. A contemporary of Seadiah (q.v.), he was born and passed +his life in North Africa. He died c. 950. At Kairawan, Israeli was court +physician; he wrote several medical works in Arabic, and these were +afterwards translated into Latin. Similarly his philosophical writings +were translated, but his chief renown was in the circle of Moslem +authors. + + + + +ISRAELS, JOSEF (1824- ), Dutch painter, was born at Groningen, of +Hebrew parents, on the 27th of January 1824. His father intended him to +be a man of business, and it was only after a determined struggle that +he was allowed to enter on an artistic career. However, the attempts he +made under the guidance of two second-rate painters in his native +town--Buys and van Wicheren--while still working under his father as a +stockbroker's clerk, led to his being sent to Amsterdam, where he became +a pupil of Jan Kruseman and attended the drawing class at the academy. +He then spent two years in Paris, working in Picot's studio, and +returned to Amsterdam. There he remained till 1870, when he moved to The +Hague for good. Israels is justly regarded as one of the greatest of +Dutch painters. He has often been compared to J. F. Millet. As artists, +even more than as painters in the strict sense of the word, they both, +in fact, saw in the life of the poor and humble a motive for expressing +with peculiar intensity their wide human sympathy; but Millet was the +poet of placid rural life, while in almost all Israels' pictures we find +some piercing note of woe. Duranty said of them that "they were painted +with gloom and suffering." He began with historical and dramatic +subjects in the romantic style of the day. By chance, after an illness, +he went to recruit his strength at the fishing-town of Zandvoort near +Haarlem, and there he was struck by the daily tragedy of life. +Thenceforth he was possessed by a new vein of artistic expression, +sincerely realistic, full of emotion and pity. Among his more important +subsequent works are "The Zandvoort Fisherman" (in the Amsterdam +gallery), "The Silent House" (which gained a gold medal at the Brussels +Salon, 1858) and "Village Poor" (a prize at Manchester). In 1862 he +achieved great success in London with his "Shipwrecked," purchased by Mr +Young, and "The Cradle," two pictures of which the _Athenaeum_ spoke as +"the most touching pictures of the exhibition." We may also mention +among his maturer works "The Widower" (in the Mesdag collection), "When +we grow Old" and "Alone in the World" (Amsterdam gallery), "An Interior" +(Dordrecht gallery), "A Frugal Meal" (Glasgow museum), "Toilers of the +Sea," "A Speechless Dialogue," "Between the Fields and the Seashore," +"The Bric-a-brac Seller" (which gained medals of honour at the great +Paris Exhibition of 1900). "David Singing before Saul," one of his +latest works, seems to hint at a return on the part of the venerable +artist to the Rembrandtesque note of his youth. As a water-colour +painter and etcher he produced a vast number of works, which, like his +oil paintings, are full of deep feeling. They are generally treated in +broad masses of light and shade, which give prominence to the principal +subject without any neglect of detail. + + See Jan Veth, _Mannen of Beteckenis: Jozef Israels_; Chesneau, + _Peintres francais et etrangers_; Ph. Zilcken, _Peintres hollandais + modernes_ (1893); Dumas, _Illustrated Biographies of Modern Artists_ + (1882-1884); J. de Meester, in Max Rooses' _Dutch Painters of the + Nineteenth Century_ (1898); Jozef Israels, _Spain: the Story of a + Journey_ (1900). + + + + +ISSACHAR (a Hebrew name meaning apparently "there is a hire," or +"reward"), Jacob's ninth "son," his fifth by Leah; also the name of a +tribe of Israel. Slightly differing explanations of the reference in the +name are given in Gen. xxx. 16 (J) and v. 18 (E).[1] The territory of +the tribe (Joshua xix. 17-23) lay to the south of that allotted to +Zebulun, Naphtali, Asher and Dan, and included the whole of the great +plain of Esdraelon, and the hills to the east of it, the boundary in +that direction extending from Tabor to the Jordan, apparently along the +deep gorge of Wadi el Bireh. In the rich territory of Issachar, +traversed by the great commercial highway from the Mediterranean and +Egypt to Bethshean and the Jordan, were several important towns which +remained in the hands of the Canaanites for some time (Judges i. 27), +separating the tribe from Manasseh. Although Issachar is mentioned as +having taken some part in the war of freedom under Deborah (Judges v. +15), it is impossible to misunderstand the reference to its tributary +condition in the blessing of Jacob (Gen. xlix. 14 seq.), or the fact +that the name of this tribe is omitted from the list given in Judges i. +of those who bestirred themselves against the earlier inhabitants of the +country. In the "blessing upon Zebulun and Issachar" in Deut. xxxiii. 18 +seq., reference is made to its agricultural life in terms suggesting +that along with its younger, but more successful "brother," it was the +guardian of a sacred mountain (Carmel, Tabor?) visited periodically for +sacrificial feasts. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] On the origin of the name, see the article by H. W. Hogg, _Ency. + Bib._ col. 2290; E. Meyer, _Israeliten_, p. 536 seq. + + + + +ISSEDONES, an ancient people of Central Asia at the end of the trade +route leading north-east from Scythia (q.v.), described by Herodotus +(iv. 26). The position of their country is fixed as the Tarym basin by +the more precise indications of Ptolemy, who tells how a Syrian merchant +penetrated as far as Issedon. They had their wives in common and were +accustomed to slay the old people, eat their flesh and make cups of +their skulls. Such usages survived among Tibetan tribes and make it +likely that the Issedones were of Tibetan race. Some of the Issedones +seem to have invaded the country of the Massagetae to the west, and +similar customs are assigned to a section of these. (E. H. M.) + + + + +ISSERLEIN, ISRAEL (d. 1460), German Talmudist. His fame attracted many +students to Neustadt, and his profound learning did much to revive the +study of the original Rabbinic authorities. After the publication of the +Code of Joseph Qaro (q.v.) the decisions of Isserlein in legal matters +were added in notes to that code by Moses Isserles. His chief works were +_Terumath ha-Deshen_ (354 decisions) and _Peasqim u-kethahim_ (267 +decisions) largely on points of the marriage law. + + + + +ISSERLES, MOSES BEN ISRAEL (c. 1520-1572), known as REMA, was born at +Cracow and died there in 1572. He wrote commentaries on the _Zohar_, the +"Bible of the Kabbalists," but is best known as the critic and expander +of the _Shulhan Aruch_ of Joseph Qaro (Caro)(q.v.). His chief halakhic +(legal) works were _Darke Moshe_ and _Mappah_. Qaro, a Sephardic +(Spanish) Jew, in his Code neglected Ashkenazic (German) customs. These +deficiencies Isserles supplied, and the notes of Rema are now included +in all editions of Qaro's Code. + + + + +ISSOIRE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Puy-de-Dome, on the Couze, near its junction with the +Allier, 22 m. S.S.E. of Clermont-Ferrand on the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee +railway to Nimes. Pop. (1906) 5274. Issoire is situated in the fertile +plain of Limagne. The streets in the older part of the town are narrow +and crooked, but in the newer part there are several fine tree-shaded +promenades, while a handsome boulevard encircles the town. The church of +St Paul or St Austremoine built on the site of an older chapel raised +over the tomb of St Austremoine (Stremonius) affords an excellent +specimen of the Romanesque architecture of Auvergne. Issoire is the seat +of a sub-prefect; its public institutions include tribunals of first +instance and commerce and a communal college. Brewing, wool-carding and +the manufacture of passementerie, candles, straw hats and woollen goods +are carried on. There is trade in lentils and other agricultural +products, in fruit and in wine. + +Issoire (_Iciodurum_) is said to have been founded by the Arverni, and +in Roman times rose to some reputation for its schools. In the 5th +century the Christian community established there by Stremonius in the +3rd century was overthrown by the fury of the Vandals. During the +religious wars of the Reformation, Issoire suffered very severely. +Merle, the leader of the Protestants, captured the town in 1574, and +treated the inhabitants with great cruelty. The Roman Catholics retook +it in 1577, and the ferocity of their retaliation may be inferred from +the inscription "_Ici fut Issoire_" carved on a pillar which was raised +on the site of the town. In the contest between the Leaguers and Henry +IV., Issoire sustained further sieges, and never wholly regained its +early prosperity. + + + + +ISSOUDUN, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Indre, on the right bank of the Theols, 17 m. N.E. of +Chateauroux by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,566. Among the interesting buildings +are the church of St Cyr, combining various architectural styles, with a +fine porch and window, and the chapel of the Hotel Dieu of the early +16th century. Of the fortifications with which the town was formerly +surrounded, a town-gate of the 16th century and the White Tower, a lofty +cylindrical building of the reign of Philip Augustus, survive. Issoudun +is the seat of a sub-prefecture, and has tribunals of first instance and +of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a communal college. +The industries, of which the most important is leather-dressing, also +include malting and brewing and the manufacture of bristles for brushes +and parchment. Trade is in grain, live-stock, leather and wine. + +Issoudun, in Latin _Exoldunum_ or _Uxellodunum_, existed in and before +Roman times. In 1195 it was stoutly and successfully defended by the +partizans of Richard Coeur-de-Lion against Philip Augustus, king of +France. It has suffered severely from fires. A very destructive one in +1651 was the result of an attack on the town in the war of Fronde; Louis +XIV. rewarded its fidelity to him during that struggle by the grant of +several privileges. + + + + +ISSYK-KUL, also called TUZ-KUL, and by the Mongols _Temurtu-nor_, a lake +of Central Asia, lying in a deep basin (5400 ft. above sea-level), +between the Kunghei Ala-tau and the Terskei Ala-tau, westward +continuations of the Tian-shan mountains, and extending from 76 deg. 10' +to 78 deg. 20' E. The length from W.S.W. to E.N.E. is 115 m. and the +breadth 38 m., the area being estimated at 2230 sq. m. The name is +Kirghiz for "warm lake," and, like the Chinese synonym She-hai, has +reference to the fact that the lake is never entirely frozen over. On +the south the Terskei Ala-tau do not come down so close to the shore as +the mountains on the north, but leave a strip 5 to 13 m. broad. The +margins of the lake are overgrown with reeds. The water is brackish. +Fish are remarkably abundant, the principal species being carp. + +It was by the route beside this lake that the tribes (e.g. Yue-chi) +driven from China by the Huns found their way into the Aralo-Caspian +basin in the end of the 2nd century. The Ussuns or Uzuns settled on the +lake and built the town of Chi-gu, which still existed in the 5th +century. It is to Hsuan-tsang, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, that we are +indebted for the first account of Issyk-kul based on personal +observation. In the beginning of the 14th century Nestorian Christians +reached the lake and founded a monastery on the northern shore, +indicated on the Catalan map of 1374. It was not till 1856 that the +Russians made acquaintance with the district. + + + + +ISTAHBANAT, a town and district of Persia in the province of Fars. The +district, which is very fertile, extends for nearly 50 m. east and west +along the southern shore of the Bakhtegan lake and produces much grain, +cotton, good tobacco and excellent fruit, particularly pomegranates and +grapes, walnuts and figs. The town is situated in the midst of a plain +12 m. from the eastern corner of the lake and about 100 m. S.E. of +Shiraz, and has a population of about 10,000. It occupies the site of +the ancient city of Ij, the capital of the old province of Shabankareh, +which was captured and partly destroyed by Mubariz ed-din, the founder +of the Muzaffarid dynasty, in 1355. When rebuilt it became known by its +present name. Of the old period a ruined mosque and two colleges remain; +other mosques and colleges are of recent construction. At the entrance +of the town stands a noble chinar (oriental plane), measuring 45 ft. in +circumference at 2 ft. from the ground. + + + + +ISTHMUS (Gr. [Greek: isthmos], neck), a narrow neck of land connecting +two larger portions of land that are otherwise separated by the sea. + + + + +ISTRIA (Ger. _Istrien_), a margraviate and crownland of Austria, bounded +N. by the Triestine territory, Gorz and Gradisca, and Carniola, E. by +Croatia and S. and W. by the Adriatic; area 1908 sq. m. It comprises the +peninsula of the same name (area 1545 sq. m.), which stretches into the +Adriatic Sea between the Gulf of Trieste and the Gulf of Quarnero, and +the islands of Veglia, Cherso, Lussino and others. The coast line of +Istria extends for 267 m., including Trieste, and presents many good +bays and harbours. Besides the great Gulf of Trieste, the coast is +indented on the W. by the bays of Muggia, Capodistria, Pirano, Porto +Quieto and Pola, and on the E. by those of Medolino, Arsa, Fianona and +Volosca. A great portion of Istria belongs to the Karst region, and is +occupied by the so-called Istrian plateau, flanked on the north and east +by high mountains, which attain in the Monte Maggiore an altitude of +4573 ft. In the south and west the surface gradually slopes down in +undulating terraces towards the Adriatic. The Quieto in the west and the +Arsa in the east, neither navigable, are the principal streams. The +climate of Istria, although it varies with the varieties of surface, is +on the whole warm and dry. The coasts are exposed to the prevailing +winds, namely the _Sirocco_ from the south-south-east, and the _Bora_ +from the north-east. Of the total area 33.21% is occupied by forests, +32.09% by pastures, 11.2% by arable land, 9.5% by vineyards, 7.21% by +meadows and 3.26% by gardens. The principal agricultural products are +wheat, maize, rye, oats and fruit, namely olives, figs and melons. +Viticulture is well developed, and the best sorts of wine are produced +near Capodistria, Muggia, Isola, Parenzo and Dignano, while well-known +red wines are made near Refosco and Terrano. The oil of Istria was +already famous in Roman times. Cattle-breeding is another great source +of revenue, and the exploitation of the forests gives beech and oak +timber (good for shipbuilding), gall-nuts, oak-bark and cork. Fishing, +the recovery of salt from the sea-water, and shipbuilding constitute the +other principal occupations of the population. Istria had in 1900 a +population of 344,173, equivalent to 180 inhabitants per square mile. +Two-thirds of the population were Slavs and the remainder Italians, +while nearly the whole of the inhabitants (99.6%) were Roman Catholics, +under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of three bishops. The local Diet, +which meets at Parenzo, and of which the three bishops are members +_ex-officio_, is composed of 33 members, and Istria sends 5 deputies to +the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes the province is +divided into 6 districts and an autonomous municipality, Rovigno (pop. +10,205). Other important places are Pola (45,052), Capodistria (10,711), +Pinguente (15,827), Albona (10,968), Isola (7500), Parenzo (9962), +Dignano (9684), Castua (17,988), Pirano (13,339) and Mitterburg +(16,056). + +The modern Istria occupies the same position as the ancient Istria or +Histria, known to the Romans as the abode of a fierce tribe of Illyrian +pirates. It owed its name to an old belief that the Danube (Ister, in +Greek) discharged some of its water by an arm entering the Adriatic in +that region. The Istrians, protected by the difficult navigation of +their rocky coasts, were only subdued by the Romans in 177 B.C. after +two wars. Under Augustus the greater part of the peninsula was added to +Italy, and, when the seat of empire was removed to Ravenna, Istria +reaped many benefits from the proximity of the capital. After the fall +of the Western empire it was pillaged by the Longobardi and the Goths; +it was annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pippin in 789; and about the +middle of the 10th century it fell into the hands of the dukes of +Carinthia. Fortune after that, however, led it successively through the +hands of the dukes of Meran, the duke of Bavaria and the patriarch of +Aquileia, to the republic of Venice. Under this rule it remained till +the peace of Campo Formio in 1797, when Austria acquired it, and added +it to the north-eastern part which had fallen to her share so early as +1374. By the peace of Pressburg, Austria was in 1805 compelled to cede +Istria to France, and the department of Istria was formed; but in 1813 +Austria again seized it, and has retained it ever since. + + See T. G. Jackson, _Dalmatia, the Quarnero and Istria_ (Oxford, 1887). + + + + +ISYLLUS, a Greek poet, whose name was rediscovered in the course of +excavations on the site of the temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus. An +inscription was found engraved on stone, consisting of 72 lines of verse +(trochaic tetrameters, hexameters, ionics), mainly in the Doric dialect. +It is preceded by two lines of prose stating that the author was +Isyllus, an Epidaurian, and that it was dedicated to Asclepius and +Apollo of Malea. It contains a few political remarks, showing general +sympathy with an aristocratic form of government; a self-congratulatory +notice of the resolution, passed at the poet's instigation, to arrange a +solemn procession in honour of the two gods; a paean (no doubt for use +in the procession), chiefly occupied with the genealogical relations of +Apollo and Asclepius; a poem of thanks for the assistance rendered to +Sparta by Asclepius against Philip, when he led an army against Sparta +to put down the monarchy. The offer of assistance was made by the god +himself to the youthful poet, who had entered the Asclepieum to pray for +recovery from illness, and communicated the good news to the Spartans. +The Philip referred to is identified with (a) Philip II. of Macedon, who +invaded Peloponnesus after the battle of Chaeronea in 338, or (b) with +Philip III., who undertook a similar campaign in 218. + + Wilamowitz-Mollendorff, who characterizes Isyllus as a "poetaster + without talent and a farcical politician," has written an elaborate + treatise on him (Kiessling and Mollendorff, _Philosophische + Untersuchungen_, Heft 9, 1886), containing the text with notes, and + essays on the political condition of Peloponnesus and the cult of + Asclepius. The inscription was first edited by P. Kavvadias (1885), + and by J. F. Baunack in _Studien auf dem Gebiete der griechischen und + der arischen Sprachen_ (1886). + + + + +ITACOLUMITE, the name given to a variety of porous yellow sandstone or +quartzose schist, which occurs at Itacolumi, in the southern portion of +Minas Geraes, Brazil. This rock is of interest for two reasons; it is +believed to be the source of the diamonds which are found in great +numbers in the district, and it is the best and most widely known +example of a flexible sandstone. Itacolumite is yellow or pale-brown, +and splits readily into thin flat slabs. It is a member of a metamorphic +series, being accompanied by clay-slate, mica schist, hornblende schist +and various types of ferriferous schists. In many places itacolumite is +really a coarse grit or fine conglomerate. Other quartzites occur in the +district, and there is some doubt whether the diamantiferous sandstones +are always itacolumites and also as to the exact manner in which the +presence of diamond in these rocks is to be accounted for. Some +authorities hold that the diamond has been formed in certain quartz +veins which traverse the itacolumite. It is clear, however, that the +diamonds are found only in those streams which contain the detritus of +this rock. + + On the split faces of the slabs, scales of greenish mica are visible, + but in other respects the rock seems to be remarkably pure. If a piece + which is a foot or two long and half an inch thick be supported at its + ends it will gradually bend by its own weight. If it then be turned + over it will straighten and bend in the opposite direction. Flakes a + millimetre or two thick can be bent between the fingers and are said + to give out a creaking sound. It should be noted that specimens + showing this property form only a small part of the whole mass of the + rock. Flexible rocks have also been reported and described from North + and South Carolina, Georgia, Delhi, and from the north of England + (Durham). They are mostly sandstones or quartzites, but the Durham + rock is a variety of the magnesian limestone of that district. + + Some discussion has taken place regarding the cause of the + flexibility. At one time it was ascribed to the presence of thin + scales of mica which were believed to permit a certain amount of + motion between adjacent grains of quartz. More probably, however it is + due to the porous character of the rock together with the interlocking + junctions between the sand grains. The porosity allows interstitial + movement, while the hinge-like joints by which the particles are + connected hold them together in spite of the displacement. These + features are dependent to some extent on weathering, as the rocks + contain perishable constituents which are removed and leave open + cavities in their place, while at the same time additional silica may + have been deposited on the quartz grains fitting their irregular + surfaces more perfectly together. Most of the known flexible rocks are + also fine-grained; in some cases they are said to lose their + flexibility after being dried for some time, probably because of the + hardening of some interstitial substance, but many specimens kept in a + dry atmosphere for years retain this property in a high degree. + (J. S. F.) + + + + +ITAGAKI, TAISUKE, COUNT (1837- ), Japanese statesman, was born in Tosa +in 1837. He distinguished himself originally as one of the soldier +politicians who contributed so much to the overthrow of feudalism and +the restoration of the administrative power to the throne. After taking +a prominent part in subduing the resistance offered by a section of the +_shogun's_ feudatories to those changes, he received cabinet rank in the +newly organized system. But in 1873 he resigned his portfolio as a +protest against the ministry's resolve to refrain from warlike action +against Korea. This incident inspired Itagaki with an apprehension that +the country was about to pass under the yoke of a bureaucratic +government. He became thenceforth a warm advocate of constitutional +systems, though at the outset he does not seem to have contemplated +anything like a popular assembly in the English sense of the term, his +ideas being limited to the enfranchisement of the _samurai_ class. +Failing to obtain currency for his radical propaganda, he retired to his +native province, and there established a school (the _Risshi-sha_) for +teaching the principles of government by the people, thus earning for +himself the epithet of "the Rousseau of Japan." His example found +imitators. Not only did pupils flock to Tosa from many quarters, +attracted alike by the novelty of Itagaki's doctrines, by his eloquence +and by his transparent sincerity, but also similar schools sprang up +among the former vassals of other fiefs, who saw themselves excluded +from the government. In 1875 no less than seven of these schools sent +deputies to hold a convention in Osaka, and for a moment an appeal to +force seemed possible. But the statesmen in power were not less +favourable to constitutional institutions than the members of the +_Aikoku Ko-to_ (public party of patriots), as Itagaki and his followers +called themselves. A conference attended by Kido, Okubo, Inouye, Ito, +Itagaki and others entered into an agreement by which they pledged +themselves to the principle of a constitutional monarchy and a +legislative assembly. Itagaki now accepted office once more. Finding, +however, that his colleagues in the administration favoured a much more +leisurely rate of progress than he himself advocated, he once more +retired into private life (1876) and renewed his liberal propagandism. +It is in the nature of such movements to develop violent phases, and the +leaders of the _Aikoku-sha_ (patriotic association), as the agitators +now called themselves, not infrequently showed disregard for the +preservation of peace and order. Itagaki made the mistake of +memorializing the government at the moment when its very existence was +imperilled by the Satsuma rebellion (1877), and this evident disposition +to take advantage of a great public peril went far to alienate the +sympathies of the cabinet. Recourse was had to legislation in restraint +of free speech and public meeting. But repression served only to provoke +opposition. Throughout 1879 and 1880 Itagaki's followers evinced no +little skill in employing the weapons of local association, public +meetings and platform tours, and in November 1881 the first genuine +political party was formed in Japan under the name of _Jiyu-to_, with +Itagaki for declared leader. A year later the emperor announced that a +parliamentary system should be inaugurated in 1891, and Itagaki's task +might be said to have been accomplished. Thenceforth he devoted himself +to consolidating his party. In the spring of 1882, he was stabbed by a +fanatic during the reception given in the public park at Gifu. The words +he addressed to his would-be assassin were: "Itagaki may perish, but +liberty will survive." Once afterwards (1898) he held office as minister +of home affairs, and in 1900 he stepped down from the leadership of the +_Jiyu-to_ in order that the latter might form the nucleus of the +_Seiyu-kai_ organized by Count Ito. Itagaki was raised to the nobility +with the title of "count" in 1887. From the year 1900 he retired into +private life, devoting himself to the solution of socialistic problems. +His countrymen justly ascribe to him the fame of having been the first +to organize and lead a political party in Japan. + + + + +ITALIAN LANGUAGE.[1] The Italian language is the language of culture in +the whole of the present kingdom of Italy, in some parts of Switzerland +(the canton of Ticino and part of the Grisons), in some parts of the +Austrian territory (the districts of Trent and Gorz, Istria along with +Trieste, and the Dalmatian coast), and in the islands of Corsica[2] and +Malta. In the Ionian Islands, likewise, in the maritime cities of the +Levant, in Egypt, and more particularly in Tunis, this literary language +is extensively maintained through the numerous Italian colonies and the +ancient traditions of trade. + +The Italian language has its native seat and living source in Middle +Italy, or more precisely Tuscany and indeed Florence. For real +linguistic unity is far from existing in Italy; in some respects the +variety is less, in others more observable than in other countries which +equally boast a political and literary unity. Thus, for example, Italy +affords no linguistic contrast so violent as that presented by Great +Britain with its English dialects alongside of the Celtic dialects of +Ireland, Scotland and Wales, or by France with the French dialects +alongside of the Celtic dialects of Brittany, not to speak of the Basque +of the Pyrenees and other heterogeneous elements. The presence of not a +few Slavs stretching into the district of Udine (Friuli), of Albanian, +Greek and Slav settlers in the southern provinces, with the Catalans of +Alghero (Sardinia, v. _Arch. glott._ ix. 261 et seq.), a few Germans at +Monte Rosa and in some corners of Venetia, and a remnant or two of other +comparatively modern immigrations is not sufficient to produce any such +strong contrast in the conditions of the national speech. But, on the +other hand, the Neo-Latin dialects which live on side by side in Italy +differ from each other much more markedly than, for example, the English +dialects or the Spanish; and it must be added that, in Upper Italy +especially, the familiar use of the dialects is tenaciously retained +even by the most cultivated classes of the population. + +In the present rapid sketch of the forms of speech which occur in modern +Italy, before considering the Tuscan or Italian _par excellence_, the +language which has come to be the noble organ of modern national +culture, it will be convenient to discuss (A) dialects connected in a +greater or less degree with Neo-Latin systems that are not peculiar to +Italy;[3] (B) dialects which are detached from the true and proper +Italian system, but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin +system; and (C) dialects which diverge more or less from the true +Italian and Tuscan type, but which at the same time can be conjoined +with the Tuscan as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin +dialects. + +A. _Dialects which depend in a greater or less degree on Neo-Latin +systems not peculiar to Italy._ + + 1. _Franco-Provencal and Provencal Dialects._--(a) _Franco-Provencal_ + (see Ascoli, _Arch. glott._ iii. 61-120; Suchier, in _Grundriss der + romanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed., i. 755, &c.; Nigra, _Arch. glott._ + iii. 1 sqq.; Salvioni, _Rendic. istit. lomb._, s. ii. vol. xxxvii. + 1043 sqq.; Cerlogne, _Dictionnaire du patois valdotain_ (Aosta, 1907). + These occupy at the present time very limited areas at the extreme + north-west of the kingdom of Italy. The system stretches from the + borders of Savoy and Valais into the upper basin of the Dora Baltea + and into the head-valleys of the Orco, of the northern Stura, and of + the Dora Riparia. As this portion is cut off by the Alps from the rest + of the system, the type is badly preserved; in the valleys of the + Stura and the Dora Riparia, indeed, it is passing away and everywhere + yielding to the Piedmontese. The most salient characteristic of the + Franco-Provencal is the phonetic phenomenon by which the Latin _a_, + whether as an accented or as an unaccented final, is reduced to a thin + vowel (_e_, _i_) when it follows a sound which is or has been palatal, + but on the contrary is kept intact when it follows a sound of another + sort. The following are examples from the Italian side of these Alps: + AOSTA: _travalji_, Fr. travailler; _zarzi_, Fr. charger; _enteruzi_, + Fr. interroger; _zevra_, Fr. chevre; _zir_, Fr. cher; _gljace_, Fr. + glace; _vazze_, Fr. vache; alongside of _sa_, Fr. sel; _man_, Fr. + main; _epousa_, Fr. epouse; _erba_, Fr. herbe. VAL. SOANA: _taljer_, + Fr. tailler; _coci-sse_, Fr. se coucher; _cin_, Fr. chien; _civra_, + Fr. chevre; _vacci_, Fr. vache; _mangi_, Fr. manche; alongside of + _alar_, Fr. aller; _porta_, Fr. porte; _amara_, Fr. amere; _neva_, Fr. + neuve. CHIAMORIO (Val di Lanzo): _la spranssi dla vendeta_, sperantia + de illa vindicta. VIU: _pansci_, pancia. USSEGLIO: _la muragli_, + muraille. A morphological characteristic is the preservation of that + paradigm which is legitimately traced back to the Latin pluperfect + indicative, although possibly it may arise from a fusion of this + pluperfect with the imperfect subjunctive (amaram, amarem, alongside + of habueram, haberem), having in Franco-Provencal as well as in + Provencal and in the continental Italian dialects in which it will be + met with further on (C. 3, b; cf. B. 2) the function of the + conditional. VAL SOANA: _portaro_, _portare_, _portaret_; _portaront_; + AOSTA: _avre_ = Prov. _agra_, haberet (see _Arch._ iii. 31 _n_). The + final _t_ in the third persons of this paradigm in the Val Soana + dialect is, or was, constant in the whole conjugation, and becomes in + its turn a particular characteristic in this section of the + Franco-Provencal. VAL SOANA: _eret_, Lat. erat; _sejt_, sit; _portet_, + _portavet_; _portont_, _portavont_; CHIAMORIO: _jeret_, erat; _ant + dit_, habent dictum; _ejssount fet_, habuissent factum; VIU: _che + s'minget_, Ital. che si mangi: GRAVERE (Val di Susa): _at pensa_, ha + pensato; _avat_, habebat; GIAGLIONE (sources of the Dora Riparia); + _maciavont_, mangiavano.--From the valleys, where, as has just been + said, the type is disappearing, a few examples of what is still + genuine Franco-Provencal may be subjoined: _Civreri_ (the name of a + mountain between the Stura and the Dora Riparia), which, according to + the regular course of evolution, presupposes a Latin _Capraria_ (cf. + _maneri_, maniera, even in the Chiamorio dialect); _carasti_ + (_ciarasti_), carestia, in the Viu dialect; and _cinta_, cantare, in + that of Usseglio. From CHIAMORIO, _li tens_, i tempi, and _chejches + birbes_, alcune (qualche) birbe, are worthy of mention on account of + the final _s_. [In this connexion should also be mentioned the + Franco-Provencal colonies of Transalpine origin, Faeto and Celle, in + Apulia (_v._ Morosi, _Archivio glottologico_, xii. 33-75), the + linguistic relations of which are clearly shown by such examples as + _talij_, Ital. tagliare; _banij_, Ital. bagnare; side by side with + _canta_, Ital. cantare; _lua_, Ital. levare.] + + (b) _Provencal_ (see _La Lettura_ i. 716-717, _Romanische Forschungen_ + xxiii. 525-539).--Farther south, but still in the same western + extremity of Piedmont, phenomena continuous with those of the Maritime + Alps supply the means of passing from the Franco-Provencal to the + Provencal proper, precisely as the same transition takes place beyond + the Cottian Alps in Dauphine almost in the same latitude. On the + Italian side of the Cottian and the Maritime Alps the Franco-Provencal + and the Provencal are connected with each other by the continuity of + the phenomenon _c_ (a pure explosive) from the Latin _c_ before _a_. + At OULX (sources of the Dora Riparia), which seems, however, to have a + rather mixed dialect, there also occurs the important Franco-Provencal + phenomenon of the surd interdental (English _th_ in _thief_) instead + of the surd sibilant (for example _ithi_ = Fr. ici). At the same time + _agu_ = avuto, takes us to the Provencal. [If, in addition to the + Provencal characteristic of which _agu_ is an example, we consider + those characteristics also Provencal, such as the _o_ for _a_ final + unaccented, the preservation of the Latin diphthong _au_, _p_ between + vowels preserved as _b_, we shall find that they occur, together or + separately, in all the Alpine varieties of Piedmont, from the upper + valleys of the Dora Riparia and Clusone to the Colle di Tenda. Thus at + FENESTRELLE (upper valley of the Clusone): _agu_, _vengu_, Ital. + venuto; _pauc_, Lat. _paucu_, Ital. poco; _ariba_ (Lat. _ripa)_, Ital. + arrivare; _truba_, Ital. trovare; _ciabrin_, Ital. capretto; at OULX + (source of the Dora Riparia): _agu_, _vengu_; _uno gran famino e + venuo_, Ital. una gran fame e venuta; at GIAGLIONE: _auvou_, Ital. odo + (Lat. _audio_); _arriba_, _resebu_, Ital. ricevuto (Lat. _recipere_); + at ONCINO (source of the Po): _agu_, _vengu_; _ero en campagno_, Ital. + "era in campagna"; _donavo_, Ital. dava; _paure_, Lat. _pauper_, Ital. + povero; _truba_, _ciabri_; at SANPEYRE (valley of the Varaita): _agu_, + _volgu_, Ital. voluto; _pressioso_, Ital. preziosa; _fasio_, Ital. + faceva; _trobar_; at ACCEGLIO (valley of the Macra): _venghess_, Ital. + venisse; _virro_, Ital. ghiera; _chesto allegrio_, Ital. questa + allegria; _ero_, Ital. era; _troba_; at CASTELMAGNO (valley of the + Grana): _gu_, _vengu_; _rabbio_, Ital. rabbia; _trubar_; at VINADIO + (valley of the southern Stura); _agu_, _beigu_, Ital. bevuto; + _cadeno_, Ital. catena; _manggo_, Ital. manica; _canto_, Ital. canta; + _pau_, _auvi_, Ital. udito; _sabe_, Ital. sapete; _trobar_; at + VALDIERI and ROASCHIA (valley of the Gesso): _purgu_, Ital. potuto; + _pjagu_, Ital. piaciuto; _corrogu_, Ital. corso; _pau_; _arriba_, + _ciabri_; at LIMONE (Colle di Tenda): _agu_, _vengu_; _saber_, Ital. + sapere; _aruba_, _trubava_. Provencal also, though of a character + rather Transalpine (like that of Dauphine) than native, are the + dialects of the Vaudois population above Pinerolo (_v._ Morosi, _Arch. + glott._ xi. 309-416), and their colonies of Guardia in Calabria (ib. + xi. 381-393) and of Neu-Hengstett and Pinache-Serres in Wurttemberg + (ib. xi. 393-398). The Vaudois literary language, in which is written + the _Nobla Leyczon_, has, however, no direct connexion with any of the + spoken dialects; it is a literary language, and is connected with + literary Provencal, the language of the _troubadours_; see W. + Foerster, _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_ (1888) Nos. 20-21.] + + 2. _Ladin Dialects_ (Ascoli, _Arch. glott._ i., iv. 342 sqq., vii. 406 + sqq.; Gartner, _Ratoromanische Grammatik_ (Heilbronn, 1883), and in + _Grundriss der romanischen Philologie_, 2nd ed., i. 608 sqq.; + Salvioni, _Arch. glott._ xvi. 219 sqq.).--The purest of the Ladin + dialects occur on the northern versant of the Alps in the Grisons + (Switzerland), and they form the western section of the system. To + this section also belongs both politically and in the matter of + dialect the valley of Munster (Monastero); it sends its waters to the + Adige, and might indeed consequently be geographically considered + Italian, but it slopes towards the north. In the central section of + the Ladin zone there are two other valleys which likewise drain into + tributaries of the Adige, but are also turned towards the north,--the + valleys of the Gardena and Gadera, in which occurs the purest Ladin + now extant in the central section. The valleys of Munster, the Gardena + and the Gadera may thus be regarded as inter-Alpine, and the question + may be left open whether or not they should be included even + geographically in Italy. There remain, however, within what are + strictly Italian limits, the valleys of the Noce, the Avisio, the + Cordevole, and the Boite, and the upper basin of the Piave (Comelico), + in which are preserved Ladin dialects, more or less pure, belonging to + the central section of the Ladin zone or belt. To Italy belongs, + further, the whole eastern section of the zone composed of the + Friulian territories. It is by far the most populous, containing about + 500,000 inhabitants. The Friulian region is bounded on the north by + the Carnic Alps, south by the Adriatic, and west by the eastern rim of + the upper basin of the Piave and the Livenza; while on the east it + stretches into the eastern versant of the basin of the Isonzo, and, + further the ancient dialect of Trieste was itself Ladin (_Arch. + glott._ x. 447 et seq.). The Ladin element is further found in greater + or less degree throughout an altogether Cis-Alpine "amphizone," which + begins at the western slopes of Monte Rosa, and is to be noticed more + particularly in the upper valley of the Ticino and the upper valley of + the Liro and of the Mera on the Lombardy versant, and in the Val + Fiorentina and central Cadore on the Venetian versant. The Ladin + element is clearly observable in the most ancient examples of the + dialects of the Venetian estuary (_Arch._ i. 448-473). The main + characteristics by which the Ladin type is determined may be + summarized as follows: (1) the guttural of the formulae _c_ + _a_ and + _g_ + _a_ passes into a palatal; (2) the _l_ of the formulae _pl_, + _cl_, &c., is preserved; (3) the _s_ of the ancient terminations is + preserved; (4) the accented _e_ in position breaks into a diphthong; + (5) the accented _o_ in position breaks into a diphthong; (6) the form + of the diphthong which comes from short accented _o_ or from the _o_ + of position is _ue_ (whence _ue_, _o_); (7) long accented _e_ and + short accented _i_ break into a diphthong, the purest form of which is + sounded _ei_; (8) the accented _a_ tends, within certain limits, to + change into _e_, especially if preceded by a palatal sound; (9) the + long accented _u_ is represented by _u_. These characteristics are all + foreign to true and genuine Italian. _Carn_, carne; _spelunca_, + spelunca; _clefs_, claves; _fuormas_, formae; _infiern_, infernu; + _ordi_, hordeu; _mod_, modu; _plain_, plenu; _pail_, pilu; _quael_, + quale; _pur_, puru--may be taken as examples from the Upper Engadine + (western section of the zone). The following are examples from the + central and eastern sections on the Italian versant:-- + + a. _Central Section_.--BASIN OF THE NOCE: examples of the dialect of + Fondo: _cavel_, capillu; _pescador_, piscatore; _pluevia_, pluvia + (plovia); _pluma_ (dial. of Val de Rumo: _plovia_, _plumo_); _vecla_, + vetula; _cantes_, cantas. The dialects of this basin are + disappearing.--BASIN OF THE AVISIO: examples of the dialect of the Val + di Fassa: _carn_, carne; _cezer_, cadere (cad-jere); _vaca_, vacca; + _forca_, furca; _glezia_ (_gezia_), ecclesia; _oeglje_ (_oeje_), + oculi; _cans_, canes; _rames_, rami; _teila_, tela; _neif_, nive; + _coessa_, coxa. The dialects of this basin which are farther west than + Fassa are gradually being merged in the Veneto-Tridentine + dialects.--BASIN OF THE CORDEVOLE: here the district of Livinal-Lungo + (Buchenstein) is Austrian politically, and that of Rocca d' Agordo and + Laste is Italian. Examples of the dialect of Livinal-Lungo: _carie_, + Ital. caricare; _cante_, cantatus; _ogle_, oculu; _cans_, canes; + _caveis_, capilli; _vierm_, verme; _fuoc_, focu; _avei_, habere; + _nei_, nive.--BASIN OF THE BOITE: here the district of Ampezzo + (Heiden) is politically Austrian, that of Oltrechiusa Italian. + Examples of the dialect of Ampezzo are _casa_, casa; _candera_, + candela; _forces_, furcae, pl.; _sentes_, sentis. It is a decadent + form.--UPPER BASIN OF THE PIAVE: dialect of the Comelico: _cesa_, + casa; _cen_ (can), cane; _calje_, caligariu; _bos_, boves; _noevo_, + novu; _loego_, locu. + + b. _Eastern Section or Friulian Region_.--Here there still exists a + flourishing "Ladinity," but at the same time it tends towards Italian, + particularly in the want both of the _e_ from _a_ and of the _u_ (and + consequently of the _o_). Examples of the Udine variety: _carr_, + carro; _caval_, caballu; _castiel_, castellu; _force_, furca; _clar_, + claru; _glac_, glacie; _plan_, planu; _colors_, colores; _lungs_, + longi, pl.; _devis_, debes; _vidiel_, vitello; _fieste_, festa; + _puess_, possum; _cuett_, coctu; _uardi_, hordeu.--The most ancient + specimens of the Friulian dialect belong to the 14th century (see + _Arch._ iv. 188 sqq.). + +B. _Dialects which are detached from the true and proper Italian system, +but form no integral part of any foreign Neo-Latin system. _ + + 1. Here first of all is the extensive system of the dialects usually + called _Gallo-Italian_, although that designation cannot be considered + sufficiently distinctive, since it would be equally applicable to the + Franco-Provencal (A. 1) and the Ladin (A. 2). The system is subdivided + into four great groups--(a) the _Ligurian_, (b) the _Piedmontese_, (c) + the _Lombard_ and (d) the _Emilian_--the name furnishing on the whole + sufficient indication of the localization and limits.--These groups, + considered more particularly in their more pronounced varieties, + differ greatly from each other; and, in regard to the Ligurian, it was + even denied that it belongs to this system at all (see _Arch._ ii. III + sqq.).--Characteristic of the Piedmontese, the Lombard and the Emilian + is the continual elision of the unaccented final vowels except _a_ + (e.g. Turinese _oj_, oculu; Milanese _voc_, voce; Bolognese _vid_, + Ital. vite), but the Ligurian does not keep them company (e.g. Genoese + _oggu_, oculu; _voze_, voce). In the Piedmontese and Emilian there is + further a tendency to eliminate the protonic vowels--a tendency much + more pronounced in the second of these groups than in the first (e.g. + Pied, _dne_, danaro; _vsin_, vicino; _fnoc_, finocchio; Bolognese + _cpra_, disperato). This phenomenon involves in large measure that of + the prothesis of _a_; as, e.g. in Piedmontese and Emilian _armor_, + rumore; Emilian _alvar_, levare, &c. U for the long accented Latin _u_ + and _o_ for the short accented Latin _o_ (and even within certain + limits the short Latin _o_ of position) are common to the Piedmontese, + the Ligurian, the Lombard and the northernmost section of the Emilian: + e.g., Turinese, Milanese and Piacentine _dur_, and Genoese _duu_, + duro; Turinese and Genoese _move_, Parmigiane _mover_, and Milanese + _mof_, muovere; Piedmontese _dorm_, dorme; Milanese _volta_, volta. + _Ei_ for the long accented Latin _e_ and for the short accented Latin + _i_ is common to the Piedmontese and the Ligurian, and even extends + over a large part of Emilia: e.g. Turinese and Genoese _avei_, habere, + Bolognese _aveir_; Turinese and Genoese _beive_, bibere, Bolognese + _neiv_, neve. In Emilia and part of Piedmont _ei_ occurs also in the + formulae _en_, _ent_, _emp_; e.g. Bolognese and Modenese _bein_, + _solameint_. In connexion with these examples, there is also the + Bolognese _fein_, Ital. fine, representing the series in which _e_ is + derived from an _i_ followed by _n_, a phenomenon which occurs, to a + greater or less extent throughout the Emilian dialects; in them also + is found, parallel with the _ei_ from _e_, the _ou_ from _o_: + Bolognese _udour_, Ital. odore; _famous_, Ital. famoso; _louv_, lupu. + The system shows a repugnance throughout to _ie_ for the short + accented Latin _e_ (as it occurs in Italian _piede_, &c.); in other + words, this diphthong has died out, but in various fashions; + Piedmontese and Lombard _dec_, dieci; Genoese _deze_ (in some corners + of Liguria, however, occurs _dieze_); Bolognese _dic_, old Bolognese, + _diese_. The greater part of the phenomena indicated above have + "Gallic" counterparts too evident to require to be specially pointed + out. One of the most important traces of Gallic or Celtic reaction is + the reduction of the Latin accented _a_ into _e_ (_a_, &c.), of which + phenomenon, however, no certain indications have as yet been found in + the Ligurian group. On the other hand it remains, in the case of very + many of the Piedmontese dialects, in the _e_ of the infinitives of the + first conjugation: _porte_, portare, &c.; and numerous vestiges of it + are still found in Lombardy (e.g. in Bassa Brianza: _andae_, andato; + _guardae_, guardato; _sae_, sale; see _Arch._ i. 296-298, 536). Emilia + also preserves it in very extensive use: Modenese _ander_, andare; + _ariveda_, arrivata; _pec_, pace; Faenzan _parle_, parlare and + parlato; _parleda_, parlata; _ches_, caso; &c. The phenomenon, in + company with other Gallo-Italian and more specially Emilian + characteristics extends to the valley of the Metauro, and even passes + to the opposite side of the Apennines, spreading on both banks of the + head stream of the Tiber and through the valley of the Chiane: hence + the types _artrover_, ritrovare, _porteto_, portato, &c., of the + Perugian and Aretine dialects (see _infra_ C. 3, b). In the phenomenon + of _a_ passing into _e_ (as indeed, the Gallo-Italic evolution of + other Latin vowels) special distinctions would require to be drawn + between bases in which a (not standing in position) precedes a + non-nasal consonant (e.g. _amato_), and those which have a before a + nasal: and in the latter case there would be a non-positional + subdivision (e.g. _fame_, _pane_) and a positional one (e.g. _quanto_, + _amando_, _campo_); see _Arch._ i. 293 sqq. This leads us to the + nasals, a category of sounds comprising other Gallo-Italic + characteristics. There occurs more or less widely, throughout all the + sections of the system, and in different gradations, that "velar" + nasal in the end of a syllable (_pan, man_; _canta, mont_)[4] which + may be weakened into a simple nasalizing of a vowel (_pa_, &c.) or + even grow completely inaudible (Bergamese _pa_, pane; _padru_, + padrone; _tep_, tempo; _met_, mente; _mut_, monte; _put_, ponte; + _puca_, punta, i.e. "puncta"), where Celtic and especially Irish + analogies and even the frequent use of _t_ for _nt_, &c., in ancient + Umbrian orthography occur to the mind. Then we have the faucal n by + which the Ligurian and the Piedmontese (_lana luna_, &c.) are + connected with the group which we call Franco-Provencal (A. 1).--We + pass on to the "Gallic" resolution of the nexus ct (e.g. _facto_, + fajto, fajtjo. _fait, fac_; _tecto_, tejto, tejtjo, _teit_, _tec_) + which invariably occurs in the Piedmontese, the Ligurian and the + Lombard: Pied, _fait_, Lig. _fajtu_, _faetu_, Lombard _fac_; Pied. + _teit_, Lig. _teitu_, Lom. _tec_; &c. Here it is to be observed that + besides the Celtic analogy the Umbrian also helps us (_adveitu_ = + ad-vecto; &c.). The Piedmontese and Ligurian come close to each other, + more especially by a curious resolution of the secondary hiatus (Gen. + _reize_, Piedm. _rejs_ = _*ra-ice_, Ital. radice) by the regular + dropping of the d both primary and secondary, a phenomenon common in + French (as Piedmontese and Ligurian _rie_, ridere; Piedmontese _pue_, + potare; Genoese _naeghe_ = naighe. natiche, &c.). The Lombard type, or + more correctly the type which has become the dominant one in Lombardy + (_Arch._ i. 305-306, 310-311), is more sparing in this respect; and + still more so is the Emilian. In the Piedmontese and in the Alpine + dialects of Lombardy is also found that other purely Gallic resolution + of the guttural between two vowels by which we have the types _braja_, + _mania_, over against the Ligurian _braga_, _manega_, braca, manica. + Among the phonetic phenomena peculiar to the Ligurian is a continual + reduction (as also in Lombardy and part of Piedmont) of _l_ between + vowels into _r_ and the subsequent dropping of this _r_ at the end of + words in the modern Genoese; just as happens also with the primary + _r_: thus _du_ = durur = dolore, &c. Characteristic of the Ligurian, + but not without analogies in Upper Italy even (_Arch._, ii. 157-158, + ix. 209, 255), is the resolution of _pj_, _bj_, _fj_ into _c, g, s_: + _cu_, piu, plus; _ragga_, rabbia, rabies; _su_, fiore. Finally, the + sounds _s_ and _z_ have a very wide range in Ligurian (_Arch._ ii. + 158-159), but are, however, etymologically, of different origin from + the sounds _s_ and _z_ in Lombard. The reduction of _s_ into _h_ + occurs in the Bergamo dialects: _hira_, sera; _groh_, grosso; + _cahtel_, castello (see also B.2).--A general phenomenon in + Gallo-Italic phonetics which also comes to have an inflexional + importance is that by which the unaccented final _i_ has an influence + on the accented vowel. This enters into a series of phenomena which + even extends into southern Italy; but in the Gallo-Italic there are + particular resolutions which agree well with the general connexions of + this system. [We may briefly recall the following forms in the plural + and 2nd person singular: old Piedmontese _drayp_ pl. of _drap_, Ital. + drappo; _man_, _meyn_, Ital. mano, -i; _long_, _loyng_, Ital. lungo, + -ghi; Genoese, _kan_, _ken_, Ital. cane, -i; _bun_, _buin_, Ital. + buono, -i; Bolognese, _far_, _fir_, Ital. ferro, -i; _peir_, _pir_, + Ital. pero, -i. _zop_, _zup_, Ital. zoppo, -i; _louv_, _luv_, Ital. + lupo, -i; _vedd_, _vi_, Ital. io vedo, tu vedi; _vojj_, _vu_, Ital. io + voglio, tu vuoi; Milanese _quest_, _quist_, Ital. questo, -i, and, in + the Alps of Lombardy, _pal_, _pel_, Ital. palo, -i; _red_, _rid_, + Ital. rete, -i; _cor_, _cor_, Ital. cuore, -i; _ors_, _urs_, Ital. + orso, -i; _law_, _lew_, Ital. io lavo, tu lavi; _met_, _mit_, Ital. io + metto, tu metti; _mow mow_, Ital. io muovo, tu muovi; _cor_, _cur_, + Ital. io corro, tu corri. [Vicentine _pomo_, _pumi_, Ital. pomo, -i; + _pero_, _pieri = *piri_, Ital. pero, -i; v. _Arch._ i. 540-541; ix. + 235 et seq., xiv. 329-330].--Among morphological peculiarities the + first place may be given to the Bolognese _sipa (seppa)_, because, + thanks to Dante and others, it has acquired great literary celebrity. + It really signifies "sia" (sim, sit), and is an analogical form + fashioned on _aepa_, a legitimate continuation of the corresponding + forms of the other auxiliary (habeam, habeat), which is still heard in + _ch'me aepa purtae, ch'lu aepa purtae_, ch'io abbia portato, ch'egli + abbia portato. Next may be noted the 3rd person singular in _-p_ of + the perfect of _esse_ and of the first conjugation in the Forli + dialect (_fop_, fu; _mandep_, mando; &c.). This also must be + analogical, and due to a legitimate _ep_, ebbe (see _Arch._ ii. 401; + and compare _fobbe_, fu, in the dialect of Camerino, in the province + of Macerata, as well as the Spanish analogy of _tuve estuve_ formed + after _hube_). Characteristic of the Lombard dialect is the ending + _-i_ in the 1st person sing. pres. indic. (_mi a porti_, Ital. io + porto); and of Piedmontese, the _-ejca_, as indicating the subjunctive + imperfect (_portejca_, Ital. portassi) the origin of which is to be + sought in imperfects of the type _staesse_, _faesse_ reduced normally + to _stejc_-, _fejc_-. Lastly, in the domain of syntax, may be added + the tendency to repeat the pronoun (e.g. _ti te cantet_ of the + Milanese, which really is _tu tu cantas-tu_, equivalent merely to + "cantas"), a tendency at work in the Emilian and Lombard, but more + particularly pronounced in the Piedmontese. With this the + corresponding tendency of the Celtic languages has been more than once + and with justice compared; here it may be added that the Milanese + _nun_, apparently a single form for "noi," is really a compound or + reduplication in the manner of the _ni-ni_, its exact counterpart in + the Celtic tongues. [From Lombardy, or more precisely, from the + Lombardo-Alpine region extending from the western slopes of Monte Rosa + to the St Gotthard, are derived the Gallo-Italian dialects, now + largely, though not all to the same extent, Sicilianized, from the + Sicilian communes of Sanfratello, Piazza-Armerina, Nicosia, Aidone, + Novara and Sperlinga (v. _Arch. glott._ viii. 304-316, 406-422, xiv. + 436-452; _Romania_, xxviii. 409-420; _Memorie dell' Istituto + lombardo_, xxi. 255 et seq.). The dialects of Gombitelli and Sillano + in the Tuscan Apennines are connected with Emilia (_Arch. glott._ xii. + 309-354). And from Liguria come those of Carloforte in Sardinia, as + also those of Monaco, and of Mons, Escragnolles and Biot in the French + departments of Var and Alpes Maritimes (_Revue de linguistique_, xiii. + 308)]. The literary records for this group go back as far as the 12th + century, if we are right in considering as Piedmontese the + Gallo-Italian Sermons published and annotated by Foerster (_Romanische + Studien_, iv. 1-92). But the documents published by A. Gaudenzi + (_Dial. di Bologna_, 168-172) are certainly Piedmontese, or more + precisely Canavese, and seem to belong to the 13th century. The Chieri + texts date from 1321 (_Miscellanea di filol. e linguistica_, 345-355), + and to the 14th century also belongs the _Grisostomo_ (_Arch. glott._ + vii. 1-120), which represents the old Piedmontese dialect of Pavia + (_Bollett. della Soc. pav. di Storia Patria_, ii. 193 et seq.). The + oldest Ligurian texts, if we except the "contrasto" in two languages + of Rambaud de Vaqueiras (12th century _v._ Crescini, _Manualetto + provenzale_, 2nd ed., 287-291), belong to the first decades of the + 14th century (_Arch. glott._ xiv. 22 et seq., ii. 161-312, x. 109-140, + viii. 1-97). Emilia has manuscripts going back to the first or second + half of the 13th century, the _Parlamenti_ of Guido Fava (see + Gaudenzi, _op. cit._ 127-160) and the _Regola dei servi_ published by + G. Ferraro (Leghorn, 1875). An important Emilian text, published only + in part, is the Mantuan version of the _De proprietatibus rerum_ of + Bartol. Anglico, made by Vivaldo Belcalzer in the early years of the + 14th century (v. Cian. _Giorn. stor. della letteratura italiana_, + supplement, No. 5, and cf. _Rendiconti Istituto Lombardo_, series ii. + vol. xxxv. p. 957 et seq.). For Modena also there are numerous + documents, starting from 1327. For western Lombardy the most ancient + texts (13th century, second half) are the poetical compositions of + Bonvesin de la Riva and Pietro da Bescape, which have reached us only + in the 14th-century copies. For eastern Lombardy we have, preserved in + Venetian or Tuscan versions, and in MSS. of a later date, the works of + Gerardo Patecchio, who lived at Cremona in the first half of the 13th + century. Bergamasc literature is plentiful, but not before the 14th + century (_v. Studi medievali_, i. 281-292; _Giorn. stor. della lett. + ital._ xlvi. 351 et seq.). + + 2. _Sardinian Dialects._[5]--These are three--the Logudorese or + central, the Campidanese or southern and the Gallurese or northern. + The third certainly indicates a Sardinian basis, but is strangely + disturbed by the intrusion of other elements, among which the Southern + Corsican (Sartene) is by far the most copious. The other two are + homogeneous, and have great affinity with each other; the Logudorese + comes more particularly under consideration here.--The pure Sardinian + vocalism has this peculiarity that each accented vowel of the Latin + appears to be retained without alteration. Consequently there are no + diphthongs representing simple Latin vowels; nor does the rule hold + good which is true for so great a proportion of the Romance languages, + that the representatives of the _e_ and the _i_ on the one hand and + those of the _o_ and the _u_ on the other are normally coincident. + Hence _plenu_ (_e_); _deghe_, decem (_e_); _binu_, vino (_i_); _pilu_ + (_i_); _flore_ (_o_); _roda_, rota (_o_); _duru_ (_u_); _nughe_, nuce + (_u_). The unaccented vowels keep their ground well, as has already + been seen in the case of the finals by the examples adduced.--The _s_ + and _t_ of the ancient termination are preserved, though not + constantly: _tres_, _onus_, _passados annos_, _plantas_, _faghes_, + facis, _tenemus_; _mulghet_, _mulghent_.--The formulae _ce_, _ci_, + _ge_, _gi_ may be represented by _che_ (_ke_), &c.; but this + appearance of special antiquity is really illusory (see _Arch._ ii. + 143-144). The nexus _cl_, &c., may be maintained in the beginning of + words (_claru_, _plus_); but if they are in the body of the word they + usually undergo resolutions which, closely related though they be to + those of Italian, sometimes bring about very singular results (e.g. + _usare_, which by the intermediate forms _uscare_, _usjare_ leads back + to _usclare_ = _ustlare_ = _ustulare_). _Nz_ is the representative of + _nj_ (_testimonzu_, &c.); and _lj_ is reduced to _z_ alone (e.g. + _mezus_, melius; Campidanese _mellus_). For _ll_ a frequent substitute + is _dd_: _massidda_, maxilla, &c. Quite characteristic is the + continual labialization of the formulae _qua_, _gua_, _cu_, _gu_, &c.; + e.g. _ebba_, equa; _sambene_, sanguine (see _Arch._ ii. 143). The + dropping of the primary d (_roere_, rodere, &c.) but not of the + secondary (_finidu_, _sanidade_, _maduru_) is frequent. Characteristic + also is the Logudorese prothesis of _i_ before the initial _s_ + followed by a consonant (_iscamnu_, _istella_, _ispada_), like the + prothesis of _e_ in Spain and in France (see _Arch._ iii. 447 + sqq.).--In the order of the present discussion it is in connexion with + this territory that we are for the first time led to consider those + phonetic changes in words of which the cause is merely syntactical of + transitory, and chiefly those passing accidents which occur to the + initial consonant through the historically legitimate or the merely + analogical action of the final sound that precedes it. The general + explanation of such phenomena reduces itself to this, that, given the + intimate syntactic relation of two words, the initial consonant of the + second retains or modifies its character as it would retain or modify + it if the two words were one. The Celtic languages are especially + distinguished by this peculiarity; and among the dialects of Upper + Italy the Bergamasc offers a clear example. This dialect is accustomed + to drop the _v_, whether primary or secondary, between vowels in the + individual vocables (_caa_, cavare; _faa_, fava, &c.), but to preserve + it if it is preceded by a consonant (_serva_, &c.).--And similarly in + syntactic combination we have, for example, _de i_, di vino; but _ol + vi_, il vino. Insular, southern and central Italy furnish a large + number of such phenomena; for Sardinia we shall simply cite a single + class, which is at once obvious and easily explained, viz. that + represented by _su oe_, il bove, alongside of _sos boes_, i. buoi (cf. + _biere_, bibere; _erba_).--The article is derived from _ipse_ instead + of from _ille_: _su sos_, _sa sas_,--again a geographical anticipation + of Spain, which in the Catalan of the Balearic islands still preserves + the article from _ipse_.--A special connexion with Spain exists + besides in the _nomine_ type of inflexion, which is constant among the + Sardinians (Span. _nomne_, &c., whence _nombre_, &c.), _nomen_, + _nomene_, _ramine_, aeramine, _legumene_, &c. (see _Arch._ ii. 429 + sqq.).--Especially noteworthy in the conjugation of the verb is the + paradigm _cantere_, _canteres_, &c., _timere_, _timeres_, &c., + precisely in the sense of the imperfect subjunctive (cf. A. 1; cf. C. + 3 b). Next comes the analogical and almost corrupt diffusion of the + -_si_ of the ancient strong perfects (such as _posi_, _rosi_) by + which _cantesi_, _timesi_ (cantavi, timui), _dolfesi_, dolui, are + reached. Proof of the use and even the abuse of the strong perfects is + afforded, however, by the participles and the infinitives of the + category to which belong the following examples: _tennidu_, tenuto; + _parfidu_, parso; _balfidu_, valso; _tennere_, _balere_, &c. (_Arch._ + ii. 432-433). The future, finally, shows the unagglutinated + periphrasis: _hapo a mandigare_ (ho a mangiare = manger-o); as indeed + the unagglutinated forms of the future and the conditional occur in + ancient vernacular texts of other Italian districts. [The Campidanese + manuscript, in Greek characters, published by Blancard and Wescher + (_Bibliotheque de l'Ecole des Chartes_, xxxv. 256-257), goes back as + far as the last years of the 11th century. Next come the Cagliari MSS. + published by Solmi (_Le Carte volgari dell' Archivio arcivescovile di + Cagliari_, Florence, 1905; cf. Guarnerio in _Studi romanzi_, fascicolo + iv. 189 et seq.), the most ancient of which in its original form dates + from 1114-1120. For Logoduro, the _Condaghe di S. Pietro di Silchi_ + (SS xii.-xiii.), published by G. Bonazzi (Sassari-Cagliari, 1900; cf. + Meyer-Lubke, _Zur Kenntnis des Altlogudoresischen_, Vienna, 1902), is + of the highest importance.] + + [3. _Vegliote_ (_Veglioto_).--Perhaps we may not be considered to be + departing from Ascoli's original plan if we insert here as a third + member of the group B the neo-Latin dialect which found its last + refuge in the island of Veglia (Gulf of Quarnero), where it came + definitively to an end in 1898. The Vegliote dialect is the last + remnant of a language which some long time ago extended from thence + along the Dalmatian coast, whence it gained the name of _Dalmatico_, a + language which should be carefully distinguished from the Venetian + dialect spoken to this day in the towns of the Dalmatian littoral. Its + character reminds us in many ways of Rumanian, and of that type of + Romano-Balkan dialect which is represented by the Latin elements of + Albanian, but to a certain extent also, and especially with regard to + the vowel sounds, of the south-eastern dialects of Italy, while it has + also affinities with Friuli, Istria and Venetia. These characteristics + taken altogether seem to suggest that _Dalmatico_ differs as much as + does Sardinian from the purely Italian type. It rejects the -s, it is + true, retaining instead the nominative form in the plural; but here + these facts are no longer a criterion, since in this point Italian and + Rumanian are in agreement. A tendency which we have already noted, and + shall have further cause to note hereafter, and which connects in a + striking way the Vegliote and Abruzzo-Apulian dialects, consists in + reducing the accented vowels to diphthongs: examples of this are: + spuota, Ital. spada; _buarka_, Ital. barca; _fiar_, Ital. ferro; + _nuat_, Ital. notte; _kataina_, Ital. catena; _paira_, Ital. pero; + Lat. _piru_; _jaura_, Ital. ora; _nauk_, Ital. noce; Lat. _nuce_; + _ortaika_, Ital. ortica; _joiva_, Ital. uova. Other vowel phenomena + should also be noted, for example those exemplified in _prut_, Ital. + prato; _dik_, Ital. dieci, Lat. _decem_; _luk_, Ital. luogo, Lat. + _locu_; _krask_, Ital. crescere; _cenk_, Ital. cinque, Lat. _quinque_; + _buka_, Ital. bocca, Lat. _bcca_. With regard to the consonants, we + should first notice the invariable persistence of the explosive surds + (as in Rumanian and the southern dialects) for which several of the + words just cited will serve as examples, with the addition of _kuosa_, + Ital. casa; _praiza_, Ital. presa; _struota_, Ital. strada; _rosuota_, + Ital. rugiada; _latri_, Ital. ladro; _raipa_, Ital. riva. The _c_ in + the formula _ce_, whether primary or secondary, is represented by _k_: + _kaina_, Ital. cena; _kanaisa_, Ital. cinigia; _akait_, Ital. aceto; + _plakar_, Ital. piacere; _dik_, Ital. dieci; _mukna_, Ital. macina; + _dotko_, Ital. dodici; and similarly the _g_ in the formula _ge_ is + represented by the corresponding guttural: _ghelut_, Ital. gelato; + _jongar_, Ital. giungere; _plungre_, Ital. piangere, &c. On the + contrary, the guttural of the primitive formula _cu_ becomes _c_ + (_col_, Ital. culo); this phenomenon is also noteworthy as seeming to + justify the inference that the _u_ was pronounced _u_. _Pt_ is + preserved, as in Rumanian (_sapto_, Lat. _septem_), and often, again + as in Rumanian, _ct_ is also reduced to _pt_ (_guapto_, Lat. _octo_). + As to morphology, a characteristic point is the preservation of the + Lat. _cantavero_, Ital. avro cantato, in the function of a simple + future. _Cantaverum_ also occurs as a conditional. For Vegliote and + Dalmatico in general, see M. G. Bartoli's fundamental work, _Das + Dalmatische_ (2 vols., Vienna, 1906), and _Zeitschrift fur roman. + Philologie_, xxxii. 1 sqq.; Merlo, _Rivista di filologia e + d'istruzione class_, xxxv. 472 sqq. A short document written about + 1280 in the Dalmatic dialect of Ragusa is to be found in _Archeografo + Triestino_, new series, vol. i. pp. 85-86.] + +C. _Dialects which diverge more or less from the genuine Italian or +Tuscan type, but which at the same time can be conjoined with the Tuscan +as forming part of a special system of Neo-Latin dialects_. + + 1. _Venetian._--Between "Venetian" and "Venetic" several distinctions + must be drawn (_Arch._ i. 391 sqq.). At the present day the population + of the Venetian cities is "Venetian" in language, but the country + districts are in various ways Venetic.[6] The ancient language of + Venice itself and of its estuary was not a little different from that + of the present time; and the Ladin vein was particularly evident (see + A. 2). A more purely Italian vein--the historical explanation of which + presents an attractive problem--has ultimately gained the mastery and + determined the "Venetian" type which has since diffused itself so + vigorously.--In the Venetian, then, we do not find the most + distinctive characteristics of the dialects of Upper Italy comprised + under the denomination Gallo-Italic (see B. 1),--neither the _u_ nor + the _o_, nor the velar[7] and faucal nasals, nor the Gallic resolution + of the _ct_, nor the frequent elision of unaccented vowels, nor the + great redundancy of pronouns. On the contrary, the pure Italian + diphthong of _o_ (e.g. _cuor_) is heard, and the diphthong of _e_ is + in full currency (_diese_, dieci, &c.). Nevertheless the Venetian + approaches the type of Northern Italy, or diverges notably from that + of Central Italy, by the following phonetic phenomena: the ready + elision of primary or secondary _d_ (_cruo_, crudo; _sea_, seta, &c.); + the regular reduction of the surd into the sonant guttural (e.g. + _cuogo_, Ital. cuoco, coquus); the pure _c_ in the resolution of _cl_ + (e.g. _cave_, clave; _oreca_, auricula); the _s_ for _g_ (_sovene_, + Ital. giovane); _c_ for _s_ and _c_ (_pece_, Ital. pesce; _ciel_, + Ital. cielo). _Lj_ preceded by any vowel, primary or secondary, except + _i_, gives _g_: _famega_, familia. No Italian dialect is more averse + than the Venetian to the doubling of consonants.--In the morphology + the use of the 3rd singular for the 3rd plural also, the analogical + participle in _esto_ (_tasesto_, Ital. taciuto, &c.; see _Arch._ iv. + 393, sqq.) and _se_, Lat. _est_, are particularly noteworthy. A + curious double relic of Ladin influence is the interrogative type + represented by the example _credis-tu_, credis tu,--where apart from + the interrogation _ti credi_ would be used. For other ancient sources + relating to Venice, the estuary of Venice, Verona and Padua, see + _Arch._ i. 448, 465, 421-422; iii. 245-247. [Closely akin to Venetian, + though differing from it in about the same degree that the various + Gallo-Italian dialects differ among one another, is the indigenous + dialect of ISTRIA, now almost entirely ousted by Venetian, and found + in a few localities only (Rovigno, Dignano). The most salient + characteristics of Istrian can be recognized in the treatment of the + accented vowels, and are of a character which recalls, to a certain + extent at least, the Vegliote dialect. Thus we have in Istrian _i_ for + _e_ (_bivi_, Ital. bevi, Lat. _bibis_; _tila_, Ital. tela; _viro_, + Ital. vero and vetro, Lat. _veru_, _vitru_; _nito_, Ital. netto, Lat. + _nitidu_, &c.) and analogously _u_ for _o_ (_fiur_, Ital. fiore, Lat. + _flore_; _bus_, Ital. voce, Lat. _voce_, &c.); _ei_ and _ou_ from the + Lat. _i_ and _u_ respectively (_ameigo_, Lat. _amicu_, _feil_, Lat. + _filu_, &c.; _mour_, Lat. _muru_; _noudu_, Lat. _nudu_; _frouto_, + Ital. frutto, Lat. _fructu_, &c.); _ie_ and _uo_ from _e_ and _o_ + respectively in position (_piel_, Lat. _pelle_, _mierlo_, Ital. merlo, + Lat. _merula_; _kuorno_, Lat. _cornu_; _puorta_, Lat. _porta_), a + phenomenon in which Istrian resembles not only Vegliote but also + Friulian. The resemblance with Verona, in the reduction of final + unaccented -_e_ to _o_ should also be noted (_nuoto_, Ital. notte, + &c., _bivo_, Ital. _beve_; _malamentro_, Ital. malamente, &c.), and + that with Belluno and Treviso in the treatment of -_oni_, -_ani_ + (_barboi_, -_oin_, Ital. barboni), though it is peculiar to Istrian + that -_ain_ should give -_en_ (_kan_, _ken_, Ital. cane -i). With + regard to consonants, we should point out the _n_ for _gn_ (_lino_, + Ital. legno); and as to morphology, we should note certain survivals + of the inflexional type, _amita_, -_anis_ (sing. _sia_, Ital. zia, pl. + _sianne_).] The most ancient Venetian documents take us back to the + first half of the 13th century (v. E. Bertanza and V. Lazzarini, _Il + Dialetto veneziano fino alla morte di Dante Alighieri_, Venice, 1891), + and to the second half of the same century seems to belong the + Saibante MS. For Verona we have also documents of the 13th century (v. + Cipolla, in _Archivio storico italiano_, 1881 and 1882); and to the + end of the same century perhaps belongs the MS. which has preserved + for us the writings of Giacomino da Verona. See also _Archivio + glottologico_, i. 448, 465, 421-422, iii. 245-247. + + 2. _Corsican_[8]--If the "Venetian," in spite of its peculiar + "Italianity," has naturally special points of contact with the other + dialects of Upper Italy (B. 1), the Corsican in like manner, + particularly in its southern varieties, has special points of contact + with Sardinian proper (B. 2). In general, it is in the southern + section of the island, which, geographically even, is farthest removed + from Tuscany, that the most characteristic forms of speech are found. + The unaccented vowels are undisturbed; but _u_ for the Tuscan _o_ is + common to almost all the island,--an insular phenomenon _par + excellence_ which connects Corsica with Sardinia and with Sicily, and + indeed with Liguria also. So also -_i_ for the Tuscan -_e_ (_latti_, + latte; _li cateni_, le catene), which prevails chiefly in the southern + section, is also found in Northern and Southern Sardinian, and is + common to Sicily. It is needless to add that this tendency to _u_ and + _i_ manifests itself, more or less decidedly, also within the words. + Corsican, too, avoids the diphthongs of _e_ and _o_ (_pe_, _eri_; + _cori_, _fora_): but, unlike Sardinian, it treats _i_ and _u_ in the + Italian fashion: _beju_, bibo; _peveru_, piper; _pesci_; _noci_, + nuces.[9]--It is one of its characteristics to reduce a to e in the + formula _ar_ + a consonant (_cherne_, _berba_, &c.), which should be + compared particularly with the Piedmontese examples of the same + phenomenon (_Arch._ ii. 133, 144-150). But the gerund in _-endu_ of + the first conjugation (_turnendu_, _lagrimendu_, &c.) must on the + contrary be considered as a phenomenon of analogy, as it is especially + recognized in the Sardinian dialects, to all of which it is common + (see _Arch._ ii. 133). And the same is most probably the case with + forms of the present participle like _merchente_, mercante, in spite + of _enzi_ and _innenzi_ (anzi, innanzi), in which latter forms there + may probably be traced the effect of the Neo-Latin _i_ which availed + to reduce the _t_ of the Latin _ante_; alongside of them we find also + _anzi_ and _nantu_. But cf. also, _grendi_, Ital. grande. In Southern + Corsican _dr_ for _ll_ is conspicuous--a phenomenon which also + connects Corsica with Sardinia, Sicily and a good part of Southern + Italy (see C. 2; and _Arch._ ii. 135, &c.), also with the northern + coast of Tuscany, since examples such as _beddu_ belong also to + Carrara and Montignoso. In the Ultramontane variety occur besides, the + phenomena of _rn_ changed to r (= _rr_) and of _nd_ becoming _nn_ + (_furu_, Ital. forno; _koru_, Ital. corno; _kuannu_, Ital. quando; + _vidennu_, Ital. vedendo). The former of these would connect Corsican + with Sardinian (_corru_, cornu; _carre_, carne, &c.); the latter more + especially with Sicily, &c. A particular connexion with the central + dialects is given by the change of _ld_ into _ll_ (_kallu_, Ital. + caldo).--As to phonetic phenomena connected with syntax, already + noticed in B. 2, space admits the following examples only: Cors, _na + vella_, una bella, _e bella_ (_ebbella_, et bella); _lu jallu_, lo + gallo, _gran ghiallu_; cf. _Arch._ ii. 136 (135, 150), xiv. 185. As + Tommaseo has already noted, _-one_ is for the Corsicans not less than + for the Sicilians, Calabrians and the French a termination of + diminution: e.g. _fratedronu_, fratellino.--In the first person of the + conditional the _b_ is maintained (e.g. _farebe_, farei), as even at + Rome and elsewhere. Lastly, the series of Corsican verbs of the + derivative order which run alongside of the Italian series of the + original order, and may be represented by the example _dissipeghja_, + dissipa (Falcucci), is to be compared with the Sicilian series + represented by _cuadiari_, riscaldare, _curpiari_, colpire (_Arch._ + ii. 151). + + 3. _Dialects of Sicily and of the Neapolitan Provinces._--Here the + territories on both sides of the Strait of Messina will first be + treated together, chiefly with the view of noting their common + linguistic peculiarities.--Characteristic then of these parts, as + compared with Upper Italy and even with Sardinia, is, generally + speaking, the tenacity of the explosive elements of the Latin bases + (cf. _Arch._ ii. 154, &c.). Not that these consonants are constantly + preserved uninjured; their degradations, and especially the Neapolitan + degradation of the surd into the sonant, are even more frequent than + is shown by the dialect as written, but their disappearance is + comparatively rather rare; and even the degradations, whether regard + be had to the conjunctures in which they occur or to their specific + quality, are very different from those of the dialects of Upper Italy. + Thus, the t between vowels ordinarily remains intact in Sicilian and + Neapolitan (e.g. Sicil. _sita_, Neap. _seta_, seta, where in the + dialects of Upper Italy we should have _seda_, _sea_); and in the + Neapolitan dialects it is reduced to _d_ when it is preceded by _n_ or + _r_ (e.g._ viende_, vento), which is precisely a collocation in which + the _t_ would be maintained intact in Upper Italy. The _d_, on the + other hand, is not resolved by elision, but by its reduction to _r_ + (e.g. Sicil. _viriri_, Neap. dialects _vere_, vedere), a phenomenon + which has been frequently compared, perhaps with too little caution, + with the _d_ passing into _rs_ (_d_) in the Umbrian inscriptions. The + Neapolitan reduction of _nt_ into _nd_ has its analogies in the + reduction of _nc_ (_nk_) into _ng_, and of _mp_ into _mb_, which is + also a feature of the Neapolitan dialects, and in that of _ns_ into + _nz_; and here and there we even find a reduction of _nf_ into _mb_ + (_nf_, _nv_, _nb_, _mb_), both in Sicilian and Neapolitan (e.g. at + Casteltermini in Sicily _'mbiernu_, inferno, and in the Abruzzi + _cumbonn'_, _'mbonn'_, confondere, infondere). Here we find ourselves + in a series of phenomena to which it may seem that some special + contributions were furnished by Oscan and Umbrian (_nt_, _mp_, _nc_ + into _nd_, &c.), but for which more secure and general, and so to say + "isothermal," analogies are found in modern Greek and Albanian. The + Sicilian does not appear to fit in here as far as the formulae _nt_ + and _mp_ are concerned; and it may even be said to go counter to this + tendency by reducing _ng_ and _nz_ to _nc_, _nz_ (e.g. _punciri_, + pungere; _menzu_, Ital. mezzo; _sponza_, Ital. spugna, Ven. + _sponza_).[10] Nay, even in the passing of the sonant into the surd, + the Neapolitan dialects would yield special and important + contributions (nor is even the Sicilian limited to the case just + specified), among which we will only mention the change of _d_ between + vowels into _t_ in the last syllable of proparoxytones (e.g. _ummeto_, + Sicil. _umitu_, umido), and in the formula _dr_ (Sicil. and Neap. + _quatro_, Ital. quadro, &c.). From these series of sonants changing + into surds comes a peculiar feature of the southern dialects.--A + pretty common characteristic is the regular progressive assimilation + by which _nd_ is reduced to _nn_, _ng_ to _nn_, _mb_ to _mm_, and even + _nv_ also to _mm_ (_nv_, _nb_, _mb_, _mm_), e.g. Sicil. _sinniri_, + Neap. _sennere_, scendere; Sicil. _chiummu_, Neap. _chiumme_, piombo; + Sicil. and Neap. _'mmidia_, invidia; Sicil. _sannu_, sangue. As + belonging to this class of phenomena the Palaeo-Italic analogy (_nd_ + into _nn_, _n_), of which the Umbrian furnishes special evidence, + readily suggests itself. Another important common characteristic is + the reduction of secondary _pj fj_ into _kj_ (_chianu_ -_e_, Sicil., + Neap., &c., Ital. piano), _s_ (Sicil. _sumi_, Neap. _summe_, fiume), + of secondary _bj_ to _j_ (which may be strengthened to _ghj_) if + initial (Sicil. _jancu_, Neap. _janche_, bianco; Sicil. + _agghianchiari_, imbiancare), to _l_ if between vowels (Neap. + _neglia_, nebbia, Sicil. _nigliu_, nibbio); of primary _pj_ and _bj_ + into _c_ (Sicil. _sicca_, Neap. _secca_, seppia) or _g_ respectively + (Sicil. _ragga_, Neap. _arragga_, rabbia), for which phenomena see + also Genoese (B. 1). Further is to be noted the tendency to the + sibilation of _cj_, for which Sicil. _jazzu_, ghiaccio, may serve as + an example (_Arch._ ii. 149),--a tendency more particularly betrayed + in Upper Italy, but Abruzzan departs from it (cf. Abr. _jacce_, + ghiaccio, _vracce_, braccio, &c.). There is a common inclination also + to elide the initial unaccented palatal vowel, and to prefix _a_, + especially before _r_ (this second tendency is found likewise in + Southern Sardinian, &c.; see _Arch._ ii. 138); e.g. Sicil. + _'ntenniri_, Neap. _'ndennere_, intendere; Sicil. _arriccamari_, Neap. + _arragamare_, ricamare (see _Arch._ ii. 150). Throughout the whole + district, and the adjacent territories in Central Italy, a tendency + also prevails towards resolving certain combinations of consonants by + the insertion of a vowel; thus combinations in which occur _r_ or _l_, + _w_ or _j_ (Sicil. _kiruci_, Ital. croce, _filagutu_, Ital. flauto, + _salivari_, salvare, _variva_, Ital. barba; Abr. _calechene_, Ital. + ganghero, _Salevestre_, Silvestro, _feulemenande_, fulminante, + _jereve_, Ital. erba, &c.; Avellinese _garamegna_, gramigna; Neap. + _avotro_ = _*awtro_, Ital. altro, _cevoza_ = _*cewza_, Ital. gelso, + _ajeta_ side by side with _ajta_, Ital. eta, _odejo_ = _odjo_, Ital. + odio, &c.; Abr. _'nniveje_, indiva, _nebbeje_, nebbia, &c.); + _cattajeve_ = _cattajve_, cattivo, _gouele_ = _*gowle_, gola, &c. &c., + are examples from Molfetta, where is also normal the resolution of + _sk_ by _sek_ (_mesekere_, maschera, _sekatele_, scatola, &c.); cf. + _seddegno_, sdegno, in some dialects of the province of Avellino. In + complete contrast to the tendency to get rid of double consonants + which has been particularly noted in Venetian (C. 1), we here come to + the great division of Italy where the tendency grows strong to + gemination (or the doubling of consonants), especially in + proparoxytones; and the Neapolitan in this respect goes farther than + the Sicilian (e.g. Sicil. _soggiru_, suocero, _cinniri_, cenere, + _doppu_, dopo; _'nsemmula_, insieme, in-simul; Neap. _dellecato_, + dilicato; _ummeto_, umido; _debbole_).--As to the phonetic phenomena + connected with the syntax (see B. 2), it is sufficient to cite such + Sicilian examples as _nisuna ronna_, nesuna donna, alongside of _c' e + donni_, c' e donne; _cincu jorna_, cinque giorni, alongside of _chiu + ghiorna_, piu giorni; and the Neapolitan _la vocca_, la bocca, + alongside of _a bocca_, ad buccam, &c. + + We now proceed to the special consideration, first, of the Sicilian + and, secondly, of the dialects of the mainland. + + (a) _Sicilian._--The Sicilian vocalism is conspicuously etymological. + Though differing in colour from the Tuscan, it is not less noble, and + between the two there are remarkable points of contact. The dominant + variety, represented in the literary dialect, ignores the diphthongs + of _e_ and of _o_, as it has been seen that they are ignored in + Sardinia (B. 2), and here also the _i_ and the _u_ appear intact; but + the _e_ and the _o_ are fittingly represented by _i_ and _u_; and with + equal symmetry unaccented _e_ and _o_ are reproduced by _i_ and _u_. + Examples: _teni_, tiene; _novu_, nuovo; _pilu_, pelo; _minnitta_, + Ital. vendetta; _jugu_, giogo; _agustu_, Ital. agosto; _cridiri_, + credere; _vinniri_, Ital. vendere; _sira_, sera; _vina_, vena; _suli_, + Ital. sole; _ura_, ora; _furma_, Ital. forma. In the evolution of the + consonants it is enough to add here the change of _lj_ into _ghj_ + (e.g. _figghiu_, Ital. figlio) and of _ll_ into _dd_ (e.g. _gaddu_, + Ital. gallo). As to morphology, we will confine ourselves to pointing + out the masculine plurals of neuter form (_li pastura_, _li + marinara_). For the Sicilian dialect we have a few fragments going + back to the 13th century, but the documents are scanty until we come + to the 14th century. + + (b) _Dialects of the Neapolitan Mainland._--The Calabrian (by which is + to be understood more particularly the vernacular group of the two + Further Calabrias) may be fairly considered as a continuation of the + Sicilian type, as is seen from the following examples:--_cori_, + cuore; _petra_; _fimmina_, femina; _vuce_, voce; _unure_, onore; + _figghiu_, figlio; _spadde_, spalle; _trizza_, treccia. Both Sicilian + and Calabrian is the reducing of _rl_ to _rr_ (Sicil. _parrari_, Cal. + _parrare_, parlare, &c.). The final vowel -_e_ is reduced to -_i_, but + is preserved in the more southern part, as is seen from the above + examples. Even the _h_ for _s_ = _fj_, as in _huri_ (Sicil. _suri_, + fiore), which is characteristic in Calabrian, has its forerunners in + the island (see _Arch._ ii. 456). And, in the same way, though the + dominant varieties of Calabria seem to cling to the _mb_ (it sometimes + happens that _mm_ takes the form of _mb_: _imbiscare_ = Sicil. + '_mmiscari_ 'immischiare', &c.) and _nd_, as opposed to the _mm_, + _nn_, of the whole of Southern Italy and Sicily, we must remember, + firstly, that certain other varieties have, e.g. _granne_, Ital. + grande, and _chiummu_, Ital. piombo; and secondly, that even in Sicily + (at Milazzo, Barcelona, and as far as Messina) districts are to be + found in which _nd_ is used. Along the coast of the extreme south of + Italy, when once we have passed the interruptions caused by the + Basilisco type (so called from the Basilicata), the Sicilian vocalism + again presents itself in the Otrantine, especially in the seaboard of + Capo di Leuca. In the Lecce variety of the Otrantine the vocalism + which has just been described as Sicilian also keeps its ground in the + main (cf. Morosi, _Arch._ iv.): _sira_, sera; _leitu_, oliveto; + _pilu_; _ura_, ora; _dulure_. Nay more, the Sicilian phenomenon of + _lj_ into _ghj_ (_figghiu_, figlio, &c.) is well marked in Terra d' + Otranto and also in Terra di Bari, and even extends through the + Capitanata and the Basilicata (cf. D' Ovidio, _Arch._ iv. 159-160). As + strongly marked in the Terra d'Otranto is the insular phenomenon of + _ll_ into _dd_ (_dr_), which is also very widely distributed through + the Neapolitan territories on the eastern side of the Apennines, + sending outshoots even to the Abruzzo. But in Terra d'Otranto we are + already in the midst of the diphthongs of _e_ and of _o_, both + non-positional and positional, the development or permanence of which + is determined by the quality of the unaccented final vowel,--as + generally happens in the dialects of the south. The diphthongs of _e_ + and _o_, determined by final -_i_ and -_u_, are also characteristic of + central and northern Calabria (_viecchiu_ -_i_, vecchio -a, _vecchia_ + -_e_, vecchia -e; _buonu_ -_i_, _bona_ -_e_, &c. &c.). Thus there + comes to be a treatment of the vowels, peculiar to the two peninsulas + of Calabria and Salent. The diphthongal product of the _o_ is here + _ue_. The following are examples from the Lecce variety of the + dialect: _core_, pl. _cueri_; _metu_, _mieti_, _mete_, mieto, mieti, + miete (Lat. metere); _sentu_, _sienti_, _sente_; _olu_, _ueli_, _ola_, + volo, voli, vola; _mordu_, _muerdi_, _morde_. The _ue_ recalls the + fundamental reduction which belongs to the Gallic (not to speak of the + Spanish) regions, and stretches through the north of the Terra di + Bari, where there are other diphthongs curiously suggestive of the + Gallic: e.g. at Bitonto alongside of _lueche_, luogo, _suenne_, sonno, + we have the _oi_ and the _ai_ from _i_ or _e_ of the previous phase + (_vecoine_, vicino), and the _au_ from _o_ of the previous phase + (_anaure_, onore), besides a diphthongal disturbance of the _a_. Here + also occurs the change of _a_ into an _e_ more or less pure (thus, at + Cisternino, _scunsulete_, sconsolata; at Canosa di Puglia, _arruete_, + arrivata; _n-ghepe_, "in capa," that is, in capo); to which may be + added the continual weakening or elision of the unaccented vowels not + only at the end but in the body of the word (thus, at Bitonto, + _vendett_, _spranz_). A similar type meets us as we cross into + Capitanata (Cerignola: _graite_ and _grei_-, creta (but also _peite_, + piede, &c.), _coute_, coda (but also _foure_, fuori, &c.); _voine_, + vino, and similarly _poile_, pelo (Neap. _pilo_), &c.; _fueke_, fuoco; + _caretate_, carita, _parla_, parlare, &c.); such forms being + apparently the outposts of the Abruzzan, which, however, is only + reached through the Molise--a district not very populous even now, and + still more thinly peopled in bygone days--whose prevailing forms of + speech in some measure interrupt the historical continuity of the + dialects of the Adriatic versant, presenting, as it were, an irruption + from the other side of the Apennines. In the head valley of the + Molise, at Agnone, the legitimate precursors of the Abruzzan + vernaculars reappear (_feafa_, fava, _stufeate_ and -_uote_, stufo, + annojato, _fea_, fare; _chiezza_, piazza, _chiegne_, piangere, + _cuene_, cane; _puole_, palo, _pruote_, prato, _cuone_, cane; _veire_ + and _vaire_, vero, _moile_, melo, and similarly voive and veive, vivo; + _deune_, dono, _deuva_, doga; _minaure_, minore; _cuerpe_, corpo, but + _cuolle_). The following are pure Abruzzan examples. (1) From + Bucchianico (Abruzzo Citeriore): _veive_, vivo; _rraje_, re; + _allaure_, allora; _craune_, corona; _cirche_, cercare; _mele_, male; + _grenne_, grande; _quenne_; but _'nsultate_, insultata; _strade_, + strada (where again it is seen that the reduction of the _a_ depends + on the quality of the final unaccented vowel, and that it is not + produced exclusively by _i_, which would give rise to a further + reduction: _scillarite_, scellerati; _ampire_, impari). (2) From + Pratola Peligna (Abruzzo Ulteriore II.); _maje_, mia; _'naure_, onore; + _'njuriete_, inguriata; _desperete_, disperata ( alongside of + _venneca_, vendicare). It almost appears that a continuity with + Emilian[11] ought to be established across the Marches (where another + irruption of greater "Italianity" has taken place; a third of more + dubious origin has been indicated for Venice, C. 1); see _Arch._ ii., + 445. A negative characteristic for Abruzzan is the absence of the + change in the third syllable of the combinations _pl_, _bl_, _fl_ + (into _kj_, _j-_, _s_) and the reason seems evident. Here the _pj_, + _bj_ and _fj_ themselves appear to be modern or of recent + reduction--the ancient formulae sometimes occurring intact (as in the + Bergamasc for Upper Italy), e.g. _planje_ and _pranje_ alongside of + _pianje_, piagnere, _branghe_ alongside of _bianghe_, bianco (Fr. + _blanc_), _flume_ and _frume_ alongside _fiume_, fiume. To the south + of the Abruzzi begins and in the Abruzzi grows prominent that contrast + in regard to the formulae _alt ald_ (resolved in the Neapolitan and + Sicilian into _aut_, &c., just as in the Piedmontese, &c.), by which + the types _aldare_, altare, and _calle_, caldo, are reached.[12] For + the rest, when the condition and connexions of the vowel system still + retained by so large a proportion of the dialects of the eastern + versant of the Neapolitan Apennines, and the difference which exists + in regard to the preservation of the unaccented vowels between the + Ligurian and the Gallo-Italic forms of speech on the other versant of + the northern Apennines, are considered, one cannot fail to see how + much justice there is in the longitudinal or Apenninian partition of + the Italian dialects indicated by Dante.--But, to continue, in the + Basilicata, which drains into the Gulf of Taranto, and may be said to + lie within the Apennines, not only is the elision of final unaccented + vowels a prevailing characteristic; there are also frequent elisions + of the unaccented vowels within the word. Thus at Matera: _sintenn la + femn chessa cos_, sentendo la femina questa cosa; _disprat_, + disperata; at Saponara di Grumento: _uomnn' scilrati_, uomini + scellerati; _mnetta_, vendetta.--But even if we return to the + Mediterranean versant and, leaving the Sicilian type of the Calabrias, + retrace our steps till we pass into the Neapolitan pure and simple, we + find that even in Naples the unaccented final vowels behave badly, the + labial turning to _e_ (_bielle_, bello) and even the _a_ (_bella_) + being greatly weakened. And here occurs a Palaeo-Italic instance which + is worth mention: while Latin was accustomed to drop the u of its + nominative only in presence of _r_ (_gener_ from *gener-u-s, _vir_ + from *vir-u-s; cf. the Tuscan or Italian apocopated forms _vener_ = + venere, _venner_ = vennero, &c.), Oscan and Umbrian go much farther: + Oscan, hurz = *hort-u-s, Lat. hortus; Umbr. _pihaz_, piatus; _emps_, + emptus, &c. In Umbrian inscriptions we find _u_ alternating with the + _a_ of the nom. sing. fem. and plur. neut. In complete contrast with + the Sicilian vocalism is the Neapolitan _e_ for unaccented and + particularly final _i_ of the Latin and Neo-Latin or Italian phases + (e.g. _viene_, vieni; cf. _infra_), to say nothing further of the + regular diphthongization, within certain limits, of accented _e_ or + _o_ in position (_apierte_, aperto, fem. _aperta_; _muorte_, morto, + fem. _morta_, &c.).--In the quasi-morphological domain it is to be + noted how the Siculo-Calabrian _u_ for the ancient _o_ and _u_, and + the Siculo-Calabrian _i_ for the ancient _e_, _i_, are also still + found in the Neapolitan, and, in particular, that they alternate with + _o_ and _e_ in a manner that is determined by the difference of + termination. Thus _cosetore_, cucitore, pl. _coseture_ (i.e. + _coseturi_, the _-i_ passing into _e_ in keeping with the Neapolitan + characteristic already mentioned); _russe_, Ital. rosso, _-i_; _rossa_ + _-e_, Ital. rossa -e; _noce_, _noce_, pl. _nuce_; _crede_, io credo; + _cride_ (*cridi), tu credi; _crede_, egli crede; _nigre_, but _negra_. + + Passing now to a cursory mention of purely morphological phenomena, we + begin with that form which is referred to the Latin pluperfect (see A. + 1, B. 2), but which here too performs the functions of the + conditional. Examples from the living dialects of (1) Calabria + Citeriore are _faceru_, farei (Castrovillari); _tu te la collerre_, tu + te l'acolleresti (Cosenza); _l'accettera_, l'accetterebbe (Grimaldi); + and from those of (2) the Abruzzi, _vuler'_, vorrei (Castelli); + _dere_, darei (Atessa); _candere_, canterei. For the dialects of the + Abruzzi, we can check our observations by examples from the oldest + chronicle of Aquila, as _non habera lassato_, non avrebbe lasciato + (str. 180) (cf. _negara_, Ital. negherei, in old MS. of the Marches). + There are some interesting remains (more or less corrupted both in + form and usage) of ancient consonantal terminations which have not yet + been sufficiently studied: _s' incaricaviti_, s' incaricava, -abat + (Basilicata, Senise); ebbiti, ebbe (ib.); _aviadi_, aveva (Calabria, + Grimaldi); _arrivaudi_, arrivo (ib.). The last example also gives the + _-au_ of the 3rd pers. sing. perf. of the first conjugation, which + still occurs in Sicily and between the horns of the Neapolitan + mainland. In the Abruzzi (and in the Ascolan district) the 3rd person + of the plural is in process of disappearing (the _-no_ having fallen + away and the preceding vowel being obscured), and its function is + assumed by the 3rd person singular; cf. C. 1.[13] The explanation of + the Neapolitan forms _songhe_, io sono, essi sono, _donghe_, io do, + stonghe, io sto, as also of the enclitic of the 2nd person plural + which exists, e.g. in the Sicil. _avissivu_, Neap. _avisteve_, aveste, + has been correctly given more than once. It may be remarked in + conclusion that this Neo-Latin region keeps company with the Rumanian + in maintaining in large use the -ora derived from the ancient neuter + plurals of the type _tempora_; Sicil. _jocura_, giuochi; Calabr. + _nidura_, Abruzz. _nidere_, nidi, Neap. _ortola_ (= -_ra_), orti, + Capitanata _acure_, aghi, Apulian _aceddere_ (Tarantine _aceddiri_), + uccelli, &c. It is in this region, and more particularly in Capua, + that we can trace the first appearance of what can definitely be + called Italian, as shown in a Latin legal document of the year 960 + (_sao co kelle terre per kelle fini qui ki contene trenta anni le + possette parte Sancti Benedicti_, Ital. "so che quelle terre per quei + confini che qui contiene trent 'anni le possedette la parte di S. + Benedetto"), and belongs more precisely to Capua. The so-called _Carta + Rossanese_ (Calabria), written in a mixture of Latin and vulgar + tongue, belongs to the first decades of the 12th century; while a + document of Fondi (Campania) in the vulgar tongue goes back to the + last decades of the same century. Neapolitan documents do not become + abundant till the 14th century. The same is true of the Abruzzi and of + Apulia; in the case of the latter the date should perhaps be put even + later. + + 4. _Dialects of Umbria, the Marches and the Province of Rome._--The + phenomena characteristic of the Gallo-Italian dialects can be traced + in the northern Marches in the dialects not only of the provinces of + Pesaro and Urbino (_Arch. glott._ ii. 444), where we note also the + constant dropping of the final vowels, strong elisions of accented and + unaccented vowels, the suffix -_ariu_ becoming -_er_, &c., but also as + far as Ancona and beyond. As in Ancona, the double consonants are + reduced to single ones; there are strong elisions (_breta_, Ital. + berretta; _blin_, Ital. bellino; _figurte_, Ital. "figurati"; + _vermne_, Ital. verme, "vermine," &c.); the -_k_- becomes _g_; the + _s_, _s_. At Jesi -_t_- and -_k_- become _d_ and _g_, and the _g_ is + also found at Fabriano, though here it is modified in the Southern + fashion (_spia_ = _spiga_, Ital. spica). Examples are also found of + the dropping of -_d_- primary between vowels: Pesaran _raica_, Ital. + radica; Fabr. _peo_; Ital. piede, which are noteworthy in that they + indicate an isolated Gallo-Italian phenomenon, which is further + traceable in Umbria (_peacchia_ = ped-, Ital. orma; _raica_ and + _raice_, Ital. radice; _trubio_, Ital. torbido; _fracio_, Ital. + fracido; at Rieti also the dropping of the -_d_- is normal: _veo_, + Ital. vedo; _fiatu_, Ital. fidato, &c.; and here too is found the + dropping of initial _d_ for syntactical reasons: _ente_, Ital. dente, + from _lu [d]ente)_. According to some scholars of the Marches, the _e_ + for _a_ also extends as far as Ancona; and it is certainly continued + from the north, though it is precisely in the territory of the Marches + that Gallo-Italian and Abruzzan come into contact. The southern part + of the Marches (the basin of the Tronto), after all, is Abruzzan in + character. But the Abruzzan or Southern phenomena in general are + widely diffused throughout the whole of the region comprising the + Marches, Umbria, Latium and Aquila (for the territory of Aquila, + belonging as it does both geographically and politically to the + Abruzzi, is also attached linguistically to this group), which with + regard to certain phenomena includes also that part of Tuscany lying + to the south of the southern Ombrone. Further, the Tuscan dialect + strictly so called sends into the Marches a few of its + characteristics, and thus at Arcevia we have the pronunciation of + -_c_- between vowels as _s_ (_formesce_, Ital. forbici),[14] and + Ancona has no changes of tonic vowels determined by the final vowel. + Again, Umbria and the Sabine territory, and some parts of the Roman + territory, are connected with Tuscany by the phenomenon of -_ajo_ for + -_ariu_ (_molinajo_, Ital. mugnaio, &c.). But, to come to the Abruzzan + Southern phenomena, we should note that the Abruzzan _ll_ for _ld_ + extends into the central region (Norcia: _callu_, caldo; Rome: + _ariscalla_, riscalda; the phenomenon, however, occurs also in + Corsica); and the assimilation of _nd_ into _nn_, and of _mb_ into + _mm_ stretches through Umbria, the Marches and Rome, and even crosses + from the Roman province into southern Tuscany (Rieti: _quanno_, + quando; Spoleto: _comannava_, comandava; Assisi: _piagnenno_, + piangendo; Sanseverino Marches: _piagnenne_, '_mmece_, invece + (imbece); Fabriano: _vennecasse_, vendicarsi; Osimo: _monno_, mondo; + Rome: _fronna_, fronda; _piommo_, piombo; Pitigliano (Tuscany): + _quanno_, _piagnenno_). It is curious to note, side by side with this + phenomenon, in the same districts, that of _nd_ for _nn_, which we + still find and which was more common in the past (_affando_, affanno, + &c., see _Zeitschrift fur roman. Philol._ xxii. 510). Even the + diphthongs of the _e_ and the _o_ in position are largely represented. + Examples are--at Norcia, _tiempi_, _uocchi_, _stuortu_; Assisi and + Fabriano: _tiempo_; Orvieto: _tiempo_, _tierra_, _le tuorte_, li + torti, and even _duonna_. The change of preconsonantal _l_ into _r_, + so frequent throughout this region, and particularly characteristic of + Rome, is a phenomenon common to the Aquilan dialect. Similar facts + might be adduced in abundance. And it is to be noted that the features + common to Umbro-Roman and the Neapolitan dialects must have been more + numerous in the past, as this was the region where the Tuscan current + met the southern, and by reason of its superior culture gradually + gained the ascendancy.[15] Typical for the whole district (except the + Marches) is the reduction to _t_ (and later to _j_) of _ll_ and of _l_ + initial, when followed by _i_ or _u_ (Velletri, _tuna_, _tuce_; Sora, + _juna_, Ital. luna, _jima_, Ital. lima; melica. Ital. mollica, _bete_, + Ital. belli, bello, in vulgar Latin _bellu_; but _bella_, bella, &c.). + The phonological connexions between the Northern Umbrian, the Aretine, + and the Gallo-Italic type have already been indicated (B. 2). In what + relates to morphology, the -_orno_ of the 3rd pers. plur. of the + perfect of the first conjugation has been pointed out as an essential + peculiarity of the Umbro-Roman territory; but even this it shares with + the Aquila vernaculars, which, moreover, extend it to the other + conjugations (_amorno_, _timorono_, &c.), exactly like the -_o_ of the + 3rd person singular. Further, this termination is found also in the + Tuscan dialects. + + Throughout almost the whole district should be noted the distinction + between the masculine and neuter substantive, expressed by means of + the article, the distinction being that the neuter substantive has an + abstract and indeterminate signification; e.g. at S. Ginesio, in the + Marches, _lu pesce_, but _lo pesce_, of fish in general, as food, &c.; + at Sora _te wetre_, the sheet of glass, but _le wetre_, glass, the + material, original substance.[16] As to the inflection of verbs, there + is in the ancient texts of the region a notable prevalence of perfect + form in the formation of the imperfect conjunctive; _tolzesse_, Ital. + togliesse; _sostenesse_, Ital. sostenesse; _conubbessero_, Ital. + conoscessero, &c. In the northern Marches, we should note the + preposition sa, Ital. con (_sa lia_, Ital. con lei), going back to a + type similar to that of the Ital. "con-esso." + + In a large part of Umbria an _m_ or _t_ is prefixed to the sign of the + dative: _t-a lu_, a lui; _m-al re_, al re;[17] which must be the + remains of the auxiliary prepositions _int(us)_, _a(m)pud_, cf. Prov. + _amb_, _am_ (cf. _Arch._ ii. 444-446). By means of the series of + Perugine texts this group of dialects may be traced back with + confidence to the 13th century; and to this region should also belong + a "Confession," half Latin half vernacular, dating from about the 11th + century, edited and annotated by Flechia (_Arch._ vii. 121 sqq.). The + "chronicle" of Monaldeschi has been already mentioned. The MSS. of the + Marches go back to the beginning of the 13th century and perhaps still + further back. For Roman (see Monaci, _Rendic. dell' Accad. dei + Lincei_, xvi. 103 sqq.) there is a short inscription of the 11th + century. To the 13th century belongs the _Liber historiarum Romanorum_ + (Monaci, _Archivio della Societa rom. di storia patria_, xii.; and + also, _Rendic. dei Lincei_, i. 94 sqq.), and to the first half of the + same century the _Formole volgari_ of Raineri da Perugia (Monaci, ib., + xiv. 268 sqq.). There are more abundant texts for all parts of this + district in the 14th century, to which also belongs the _Cronica + Aquilana_ of Buccio di Ranallo, republished by De Bartholomaeis (Rome, + 1907). + +D. _Tuscan, and the Literary Language of the Italians._ + +We have now only to deal with the Tuscan territory. It is bounded on the +W. by the sea. To the north it terminates with the Apennines; for +Romagna Toscana, the strip of country on the Adriatic versant which +belongs to it administratively, is assigned to Emilia as regards +dialect. In the north-west also the Emilian presses on the Tuscan, +extending as it does down the Mediterranean slope of the Apennines in +Lunigiana and Garfagnana. Intrusions which may be called Emilian have +also been noted to the west of the Apennines in the district where the +Arno and the Tiber take their rise (Aretine dialects); and it has been +seen how thence to the sea the Umbrian and Roman dialects surround the +Tuscan. Such are the narrow limits of the "promised land" of the +language which has succeeded and was worthy to succeed Latin in the +history of Italian culture and civilization,--the land which comprises +Florence, Siena, Lucca and Pisa. The Tuscan type may be best described +by the negative method. There do not exist in it, on the one hand, any +of those phenomena by which the other dialectal types of Italy mainly +differ from the Latin base (such as _u_ = _u_; frequent elision of +unaccented vowels; _ba = gua_; _s_ = _fl_; _nn_ = _nd_, &c.), nor, on +the other hand, is there any series of alterations of the Latin base +peculiar to the Tuscan. This twofold negative description may further +serve for the Tuscan or literary Italian as contrasted with all the +other Neo-Latin languages; indeed, even where the Tuscan has a tendency +to alterations common to other types of the family, it shows itself more +sober and self-denying--as may be seen in the reduction of the _t_ +between vowels into _d_ or of _c_ (_k_) between vowels into _g_, which +in Italian affects only a small part of the lexical series, while in +Provencal or Spanish it may be said to pervade the whole (e.g. Prov. and +Span. _mudar_, Ital. _mutare_; Prov. _segur_, Span. _seguro_, Ital. +_sicuro_). It may consequently be affirmed without any partiality that, +in respect to historical nobility, the Italian not only holds the first +rank among Neo-Latin languages, but almost constitutes an intermediate +grade between the ancient or Latin and the modern or Romance. What has +just been said about the Tuscan, as compared with the other dialectal +types of Italy, does not, however, preclude the fact that in the various +Tuscan veins, and especially in the plebeian forms of speech, there +occur particular instances of phonetic decay; but these must of +necessity be ignored in so brief a sketch as the present. We shall +confine ourselves to noting--what has a wide territorial diffusion--the +reduction of _c_ (_k_) between vowels to a mere breathing (e.g. _fuoho_, +fuoco, but _porco_), or even its complete elision; the same phenomenon +occurs also between word and word (e.g. _la hasa_, but _in casa_), thus +illustrating anew that syntactic class of phonetic alterations, either +qualitative or quantitative, conspicuous in this region, also, which has +been already discussed for insular and southern Italy (B. 2; C. 2, 3), +and could be exemplified for the Roman region as well (C. 4). As regards +one or two individual phenomena, it must also be confessed that the +Tuscan or literary Italian is not so well preserved as some other +Neo-Latin tongues. Thus, French always keeps in the beginning of words +the Latin formulae _cl_, _pl_, _fl_ (_clef_, _plaisir_, _fleur_, in +contrast with the Italian _chiave_, _piacere_, _fiore_); but the Italian +makes up for this by the greater vigour with which it is wont to resolve +the same formula within the words, and by the greater symmetry thus +produced between the two series (in opposition to the French _clef_, +clave, we have, for example, the French _oeil_, oclo; whereas, in the +Italian, _chiave_ and _occhio_ correspond to each other). The Italian as +well as the Rumanian has lost the ancient sibilant at the end (-_s_ of +the plurals, of the nominative singular, of the 2nd persons, &c.), which +throughout the rest of the Romance area has been preserved more or less +tenaciously; and consequently it stands lower than old Provencal and old +French, as far as true declension or, more precisely, the functional +distinction between the forms of the _casus rectus_ and the _casus +obliquus_ is concerned. But even in this respect the superiority of +French and Provencal has proved merely transitory, and in their modern +condition all the Neo-Latin forms of speech are generally surpassed by +Italian even as regards the pure grammatical consistency of the noun. In +conjugation Tuscan has lost that tense which for the sake of brevity we +shall continue to call the pluperfect indicative; though it still +survives outside of Italy and in other dialectal types of Italy itself +(C. 3b; cf. B. 2). It has also lost the _futurum exactum_, or perfect +subjunctive, which is found in Spanish and Rumanian. But no one would on +that account maintain that the Italian conjugation is less truly Latin +than the Spanish, the Rumanian, or that of any other Neo-Latin language. +It is, on the contrary, by far the most distinctively Latin as regards +the tradition both of form and function, although many effects of the +principle of analogy are to be observed, sometimes common to Italian +with the other Neo-Latin languages and sometimes peculiar to itself. + +Those who find it hard to believe in the ethnological explanation of +linguistic varieties ought to be convinced by any example so clear as +that which Italy presents in the difference between the Tuscan or purely +Italian type on the one side and the Gallo-Italic on the other. The +names in this instance correspond exactly to the facts of the case. For +the Gallo-Italic on either side of the Alps is evidently nothing else +than a modification--varying in degree, but always very great--of the +vulgar Latin, due to the reaction of the language or rather the oral +tendencies of the Celts who succumbed to the Roman civilization. In +other words, the case is one of new ethnic individualities arising from +the fusion of two national entities, one of which, numerically more or +less weak, is so far victorious that its speech is adopted, while the +other succeeds in adapting that speech to its own habits of utterance. +Genuine Italian, on the other hand, is not the result of the combination +or conflict of the vulgar Latin with other tongues, but is the pure +development of this alone. In other words, the case is that of an +ancient national fusion in which vulgar Latin itself originated. Here +that is native which in the other case was intrusive. This greater +purity of constitution gives the language a persistency which approaches +permanent stability. There is no Old Italian to oppose to Modern Italian +in the same sense as we have an Old French to oppose to a Modern French. +It is true that in the old French writers, and even in the writers who +used the dialects of Upper Italy, there was a tendency to bring back the +popular forms to their ancient dignity; and it is true also that the +Tuscan or literary Italian has suffered from the changes of centuries; +but nevertheless it remains undoubted that in the former cases we have +to deal with general transformations between old and new, while in the +latter it is evident that the language of Dante continues to be the +Italian of modern speech and literature. This character of invariability +has thus been in direct proportion to the purity of its Latin origin, +while, on the contrary, where popular Latin has been adopted by peoples +of foreign speech, the elaboration which it has undergone along the +lines of their oral tendencies becomes always the greater the farther we +get away from the point at which the Latin reached them,--in proportion, +that is, to the time and space through which it has been transmitted in +these foreign mouths.[18] + +As for the primitive seat of the literary language of Italy, not only +must it be regarded as confined within the limits of that narrower +Tuscany already described; strictly speaking, it must be identified with +the city of Florence alone. Leaving out of account, therefore, a small +number of words borrowed from other Italian dialects, as a certain +number have naturally been borrowed from foreign tongues, it may be said +that all that was not Tuscan was eliminated from the literary form of +speech. If we go back to the time of Dante, we find, throughout almost +all the dialects of the mainland with the exception of Tuscan, the +change of vowels between singular and plural seen in _paese_, _paisi_; +_quello_, _quilli_; _amore_, _amuri_ (see B. 1; C. 3 b); but the +literary language knows nothing at all of such a phenomenon, because it +was unknown to the Tuscan region. But in Tuscan itself there were +differences between Florentine and non-Florentine; in Florentine, e.g. +it was and is usual to say _unto_, _giunto_, _punto_, while the +non-Florentine had it _onto_, _gionto_, _ponto_, (Lat. _unctu_, &c.); at +Florence they say _piazza_, _mezzo_, while elsewhere (at Lucca, Pisa) +they say or used to say, _piassa_, _messo_. Now, it is precisely the +Florentine forms which alone have currency in the literary language. + +In the ancient compositions in the vulgar tongue, especially in poetry, +non-Tuscan authors on the one hand accommodated their own dialect to the +analogy of that which they felt to be the purest representative of the +language of ancient Roman culture, while the Tuscan authors in their +turn did not refuse to adopt the forms which had received the rights of +citizenship from the literary celebrities of other parts of Italy. It +was this state of matters which gave rise in past times to the numerous +disputes about the true fatherland and origin of the literary language +of the Italians. But these have been deprived of all right to exist by +the scientific investigation of the history of that language. If the +older Italian poetry assumed or maintained forms alien to Tuscan speech, +these forms were afterwards gradually eliminated, and the field was left +to those which were purely Tuscan and indeed purely Florentine. And thus +it remains absolutely true that, so far as phonetics, morphology, +rudimental syntax, and in short the whole character and material of +words and sentences are concerned, there is no literary language of +Europe that is more thoroughly characterized by homogeneity and oneness, +as if it had come forth in a single cast from the furnace, than the +Italian. + +But on the other hand it remains equally true that, so far as concerns a +living confidence and uniformity in the use and style of the literary +language--that is, of this Tuscan or Florentine material called to +nourish the civilization and culture of all the Italians--the case is +not a little altered, and the Italian nation appears to enjoy less +fortunate conditions than other nations of Europe. Modern Italy had no +glowing centre for the life of the whole nation into which and out of +which the collective thought and language could be poured in ceaseless +current for all and by all. Florence has not been Paris. Territorial +contiguity and the little difference of the local dialect facilitated in +the modern Rome the elevation of the language of conversation to a level +with the literary language that came from Tuscany. A form of speech was +thus produced which, though certainly destitute of the grace and the +abundant flexibility of the Florentine, gives a good idea of what the +dialect of a city becomes when it makes itself the language of a nation +that is ripening its civilization in many and dissimilar centres. In +such a case the dialect loses its slang and petty localisms, and at the +same time also somewhat of its freshness; but it learns to express with +more conscious sobriety and with more assured dignity the thought and +the feeling of the various peoples which are fused in one national life. +But what took place readily in Rome could not with equal ease happen in +districts whose dialects were far removed from the Tuscan. In Piedmont, +for example, or in Lombardy, the language of conversation did not +correspond with the language of books, and the latter accordingly became +artificial and laboured. Poetry was least affected by these unfortunate +conditions; for poetry may work well with a multiform language, where +the need and the stimulus of the author's individuality assert +themselves more strongly. But prose suffered immensely, and the Italians +had good cause to envy the spontaneity and confidence of foreign +literatures--of the French more particularly. In this reasonable envy +lay the justification and the strength of the Manzoni school, which +aimed at that absolute naturalness of the literary language, that +absolute identity between the language of conversation and that of +books, which the bulk of the Italians could reach and maintain only by +naturalizing themselves in the living speech of modern Florence. The +revolt of Manzoni against artificiality and mannerism in language and +style was worthy of his genius, and has been largely fruitful. But the +historical difference between the case of France (with the colloquial +language of Paris) and that of Italy (with the colloquial language of +Florence) implies more than one difficulty of principle; in the latter +case there is sought to be produced by deliberate effort of the +_literati_ what in the former has been and remains the necessary and +spontaneous product of the entire civilization. Manzoni's theories too +easily lent themselves to deplorable exaggerations; men fell into a new +artificiality, a manner of writing which might be called vulgar and +almost slangy. The remedy for this must lie in the regulating power of +the labour of the now regenerate Italian intellect,--a labour ever +growing wider in its scope, more assiduous and more thoroughly united. + +The most ancient document in the Tuscan dialect is a very short fragment +of a jongleur's song (12th century; see Monaci, _Crestomazia_, 9-10). +After that there is nothing till the 13th century. P. Santini has +published the important and fairly numerous fragments of a book of +notes of some Florentine bankers, of the year 1211. About the middle of +the century, our attention is arrested by the _Memoriali_ of the Sienese +Matasala di Spinello. To 1278 belongs the MS. in which is preserved the +Pistojan version of the _Trattati morali_ of Albertano, which we owe to +Sofredi del Grathia. The Riccardian _Tristano_, published and annotated +by E. G. Parodi, seems to belong to the end of the 13th and beginning of +the 14th centuries. For other 13th-century writings see Monaci, _op. +cit._ 31-32, 40, and Parodi, _Giornale storico della letteratura +italiana_, x. 178-179. For the question concerning language, see Ascoli, +_Arch. glott._ i. v. et seq.; D' Ovidio, _Le Correzioni ai Promessi +Sposi e la questione della lingua_, 4th ed. Naples, 1895. + + _Literature._--K. L. Fernow in the third volume of his _Romische + Studien_ (Zurich, 1806-1808) gave a good survey of the dialects of + Italy. The dawn of rigorously scientific methods had not then + appeared; but Fernow's view is wide and genial. Similar praise is due + to Biondelli's work _Sui dialetti gallo-italici_ (Milan, 1853), which, + however, is still ignorant of Diez. August Fuchs, between Fernow and + Biondelli, had made himself so far acquainted with the new methods; + but his exploration (_Uber die sogenannten unregelmassigen Zeitworter + in den romanischen Sprachen, nebst Andeutungen uber die wichtigsten + romanischen Mundarten_, Berlin, 1840), though certainly of utility, + was not very successful. Nor can the rapid survey of the Italian + dialects given by Friedrich Diez be ranked among the happiest portions + of his great masterpiece. Among the followers of Diez who + distinguished themselves in this department the first outside of Italy + were certainly Mussafia, a cautious and clear continuator of the + master, and the singularly acute Hugo Schuchardt. Next came the + _Archivio glottologico italiano_ (Turin, 1873 and onwards. Up to 1897 + there were published 16 vols.), the lead in which was taken by Ascoli + and G. Flechia (d. 1892), who, together with the Dalmatian Adolf + Mussafia (d. 1906), may be looked upon as the founders of the study of + Italian dialects, and who have applied to their writings a rigidly + methodical procedure and a historical and comparative standard, which + have borne the best fruit. For historical studies dealing specially + with the literary language, Nannucci, with his good judgment and + breadth of view, led the way; we need only mention here his _Analisi + critica dei verbi italiani_ (Florence, 1844). But the new method was + to show how much more it was to and did effect. When this movement on + the part of the scholars mentioned above became known, other + enthusiasts soon joined them, and the _Arch. glottologico_ developed + into a school, which began to produce many prominent works on language + [among the first in order of date and merit may be mentioned "Gli + Allotropi italiani," by U. A. Canello (1887), _Arch. glott._ iii. + 285-419; and _Le Origini della lingua poetica italiana_, by N. Caix + (d. 1882), (Florence, 1880)], and studies on the dialects. We shall + here enumerate those of them which appear for one reason or another to + have been the most notable. But, so far as works of a more general + nature are concerned, we should first state that there have been other + theories as to the classification of the Italian dialects (see also + above the various notes on B. 1, 2 and C. 2) put forward by W. + Meyer-Lubke (_Einfuhrung in das Studium der romanischen + Sprachwissenschaft_, Heidelberg, 1901; pp. 21-22), and M. Bartoli + (_Altitalienische Chrestomathie, von P. Savj-Lopez und M. Bartoli_, + Strassburg, 1903, pp. 171 et seq. 193 et seq., and the table at the + end of the volume). W. Meyer-Lubke afterwards filled in details of the + system which he had sketched in Grober's _Grundriss der romanischen + Philologie_, i., 2nd ed. (1904), pp. 696 et seq. And from the same + author comes that masterly work, the _Italienische Grammatik_ + (Leipzig, 1890), where the language and its dialects are set out in + one organic whole, just as they are placed together in the concise + chapter devoted to Italian in the above-mentioned _Grundriss_ (pp. 637 + et seq.). We will now give the list, from which we omit, however, the + works quoted incidentally throughout the text: B. 1 a: Parodi, _Arch. + glott._ xiv. 1 sqq., xv. 1 sqq., xvi. 105 sqq. 333 sqq.; _Poesie in + dial. tabbiese del sec. XVII. illustrate da E. G. Parodi_ (Spezia, + 1904); Schadel, _Die Mundart von Ormea_ (Halle, 1903); Parodi, _Studj + romanzi_, fascic. v.; b: Giacomino, _Arch. glott._ xv. 403 sqq.; + Toppino, ib. xvi. 517 sqq.; Flechia, ib. xiv. 111 sqq.; Nigra, + _Miscell. Ascoli_ (Turin, 1901), 247 sqq.; Renier, _Il Gelindo_ + (Turin, 1896); Salvioni, _Rendiconti Istituto lombardo_, s. ii., vol. + xxxvii. 522, sqq.; c: Salvioni, _Fonetica del dialetto di Milano_ + (Turin, 1884); _Studi di filol. romanza_, viii. 1 sqq.; _Arch. glott._ + ix. 188 sqq. xiii. 355 sqq.; _Rendic. Ist. lomb._ s. ii., vol. xxxv. + 905 sqq.; xxxix. 477 sqq.; 505 sqq. 569 sqq. 603 sqq., xl. 719 sqq.; + _Bollettino storico della Svizzera italiana_, xvii. and xviii.; + Michael, _Der Dialekt des Poschiavotals_ (Halle, 1905); v. Ettmayer, + _Bergamaskische Alpenmundarten_ (Leipzig, 1903); _Romanische + Forschungen_, xiii. 321 sqq.; d: Mussafia, _Darstellung der + romagnolischen Mundart_ (Vienna, 1871); Gaudenzi, _I Suoni ecc. della + citta di Bologna_ (Turin, 1889); Ungarelli, _Vocab. del dial. bologn. + con una introduzione di A. Trauzzi sulla fonetica e sulla morfologia + del dialetto_ (Bologna, 1901); Bertoni, _Il Dialetto di Modena_ + (Turin, 1905); Pulle, "Schizzo dei dialetti del Frignano" in _L' + Apennino modenese_. 673 sqq. (Rocca S. Casciano, 1895); Piagnoli, + _Fonetica parmigiana_ (Turin, 1904); Restori, _Note fonetiche sui + parlari dell' alta valle di Macra_ (Leghorn, 1892); Gorra, + _Zeitschrift fur romanische Philologie_, xvi. 372 sqq.; xiv. 133 sqq.; + Nicoli, _Studi di filologia romanza_, viii. 197 sqq. B. 2: Hofmann, + _Die logudoresische und campidanesische Mundart_ (Marburg, 1885); + Wagner, _Lautlehre der sudsardischen Mundarten_ (Malle a. S., 1907); + Campus, _Fonetica del dialetto logudorese_ (Turin, 1901); Guarnerio, + _Arch. glott._ xiii. 125 sqq., xiv. 131 sqq., 385 sqq. C. 1: Rossi, + _Le Lettere di Messer Andrea Calmo_ (Turin, 1888); Wendriner, _Die + paduanische Mundart bei Ruzante_ (Breslau, 1889); _Le Rime di + Bartolomeo Cavassico notaio bellunese della prima meta del sec. xvi. + con illustraz. e note di v. Cian, e con illustrazioni linguistiche e + lessico a cura di C. Salvioni_ (2 vols., Bologna, 1893-1894); Gartner, + _Zeitschr. fur roman. Philol._ xvi. 183 sqq., 306 sqq.; Salvioni, + _Arch. glott._ xvi. 245 sqq.; Vidossich, _Studi sul dialetto + triestino_ (Triest, 1901); _Zeitschr. fur rom. Phil._ xxvii. 749 sqq.; + Ascoli, _Arch. glott._ xiv. 325 sqq.; Schneller, _Die romanischen + Volksmundarten in Sudtirol_, i. (Gera, 1870); von Slop, _Die + tridentinische Mundart_ (Klagenfurt, 1888); Ive, _I Dialetti + ladino-veneti dell' Istria_ (Strassburg, 1900). C. 2: Guarnerio, + _Arch. glott._ xiii. 125 sqq., xiv. 131 sqq., 385 sqq. C. 3 a: + Wentrup-Pitre, in Pitre, _Fiabe, novelle e racconti popolari + siciliani_, vol. i., pp. cxviii. sqq.; Schneegans, _Laute und + Lautentwickelung des sicil. Dialektes_ (Strassburg, 1888); De + Gregorio, _Saggio di fonetica siciliana_ (Palermo, 1890); Pirandello, + _Laute und Lautentwickelung der Mundart von Girgenti_ (Halle, 1891); + Cremona, _Fonetica del Caltagironese_ (Acireale, 1895); Santangelo, + Arch. glott. xvi. 479 sqq.; La Rosa, _Saggi di morfologia siciliana_, + i. _Sostantivi_ (Noto, 1901); Salvioni, _Rendic. Ist. lomb._ s. ii., + vol. xl. 1046 sqq., 1106 sqq., 1145 sqq.; b: Scerbo, _Sul dialetto + calabro_ (Florence, 1886); Accattati's, _Vocabolario del dial. + calabrese_ (Castrovillari, 1895); Gentili, _Fonetica del dialetto + cosentino_ (Milan, 1897); Wentrup, _Beitrage zur Kenntniss der + neapolitanischen Mundart_ (Wittenberg, 1855); Subak, _Die Konjugation + im Neapolitanischen_ (Vienna, 1897); Morosi, _Arch. glott._ iv. 117 + sqq.; De Noto, _Appunti di fonetica sul dial. di Taranto_ (Trani, + 1897); Subak, _Das Zeitwort in der Mundart von Tarent_ (Brunn, 1897); + Panareo, _Fonetica del dial. di Maglie d' Otranto_ (Milan, 1903); + Nitti di Vito, _Il Dial. di Bari_, part 1, "Vocalismo moderno" (Milan, + 1896); Abbatescianni, _Fonologia del dial. barese_ (Avellino, 1896); + Zingarelli, _Arch. glott._ xv. 83 sqq., 226 sqq.; Ziccardi, _Studi + glottologici_, iv. 171 sqq.; D' Ovidio, _Arch. glott._ iv. 145 sqq., + 403 sqq.; Finamore, _Vocabolario dell' uso abruzzese_ (2nd ed., Citta + di Castello, 1893); Rollin, _Mitteilung XIV. der Gesellschaft zur + Forderung deutscher Wissenschaft, Kunst und Literatur in Bohmen_ + (Prague, 1901); De Lollis, _Arch. glott._ xii. 1 sqq., 187 sqq.; + _Miscell. Ascoli_, 275 sqq.; Savini, _La Grammatica e il lessico del + dial. teramano_ (Turin, 1881). C. 4: Merlo, _Zeitschr. f. roman. + Phil._, xxx. 11 sqq., 438 sqq., xxxi. 157 sqq.; E. Monaci (notes on + old Roman), _Rendic. dei Lincei_, Feb. 21st, 1892, p. 94 sqq.; + Rossi-Case, _Bollett. di stor. patria degli Abruzzi_, vi.; Crocioni, + _Miscell. Monaci_, pp. 429 sqq.; Ceci, _Arch. glott._ x. 167 sqq.; + Parodi, ib. xiii. 299 sqq.; Campanelli, _Fonetica del dial. reatino_ + (Turin, 1896); Verga, _Sonetti e altre poesie di R. Torelli in dial. + perugino_ (Milan, 1895); Bianchi, _Il Dialetto e la etnografia di + Citta di Castello_ (Citta di Castello, 1888); Neumann-Spallart, + _Zeitschrift fur roman. Phil._ xxviii. 273 sqq., 450 sqq.; _Weitere + Beitrage zur Charakteristik des Dialektes der Marche_ (Halle a. S., + 1907); Crocioni, _Studi di fil. rom._, ix. 617 sqq.; _Studi romanzi_, + fasc. 3^0, 113 sqq., _Il Dial. di Arcevia_ (Rome, 1906); Lindsstrom, + _Studi romanzi_, fasc. 5^0, 237 sqq.; Crocioni, ib. 27 sqq. D.: Parodi, + _Romania_, xviii.; Schwenke, _De dialecto quae carminibus popularibus + tuscanicis a Tigrio editis continetur_ (Leipzig, 1872); Pieri, _Arch. + glott._ xii. 107 sqq., 141 sqq., 161 sqq.; _Miscell. Caix-Canello_, + 305 sqq.; _Note sul dialetto aretino_ (Pisa, 1886); _Zeitschr. fur + rom. Philol._ xxviii. 161 sqq.; Salvioni, _Arch. glott._ xvi. 395 + sqq.; Hirsch, _Zeitschrift f. rom. Philol._ ix. 513 sqq., x. 56 sqq., + 411 sqq. For researches on the etymology of all the Italian dialects, + but chiefly of those of Northern Italy, the _Beitrag zur Kunde der + norditalienischen Mundarten im XV. Jahrhundert_ of Ad. Mussafia + (Vienna, 1873) and the _Postille etimologiche_ of Giov. Flechia + (_Arch. glott._ ii., iii.) are of the greatest importance. Biondelli's + book is of no small service also for the numerous translations which + it contains of the Prodigal Son into Lombard, Piedmontese and Emilian + dialects. A dialogue translated into the vernaculars of all parts of + Italy will be found in Zuccagni Orlandini's _Raccolta di dialetti + italiani con illustrazioni etnologiche_ (Florence, 1864). And every + dialectal division is abundantly represented in a series of versions + of a short novel of Boccaccio, which Papanti has published under the + title _I Parlari italiani in Certaldo_, &c. (Leghorn, 1875). + + [A very valuable and rich collection of dialectal essays on the most + ancient documents for all parts of Italy is to be found in the + _Crestomazia italiana dei primi secoli_ of E. Monaci (Citta di + Castello, 1889-1897); see also in the _Altitalienische Chrestomathie_ + of P. Savj-Lopez and M. Bartoli (Strassburg, 1903).] + (G. I. A.; C. S.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The article by G. I. Ascoli in the 9th edition of the + _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, which has been recognized as a classic + account of the Italian language, was reproduced by him, with slight + modifications, in _Arch. glott._ viii. 98-128. The author proposed to + revise his article for the present edition of the _Encyclopaedia_, + but his death on the 21st of January 1907 prevented his carrying out + this work, and the task was undertaken by Professor C. Salvioni. In + the circumstances it was considered best to confine the revision to + bringing Ascoli's article up to date, while preserving its form and + main ideas, together with the addition of bibliographical notes, and + occasional corrections and substitutions, in order that the results + of more recent research might be embodied. The new matter is + principally in the form of notes or insertions within square + brackets. + + [2] [In Corsica the present position of Italian as a language of + culture is as follows. Italian is only used for preaching in the + country churches. In all the other relations of public and civil life + (schools, law courts, meetings, newspapers, correspondence, &c.), its + place is taken by French. As the elementary schools no longer teach + Italian but French, an educated Corsican nowadays knows only his own + dialect for everyday use, and French for public occasions.] + + [3] [It may be asked whether we ought not to include under this + section the Vegliote dialect (Veglioto), since under this form the + Dalmatian dialect (Dalmatico) is spoken in Italy. But it should be + remembered that in the present generation the Dalmatian dialect has + only been heard as a living language at Veglia.] + + [4] As a matter of fact the "velar" at the end of a word, when + preceded by an accented vowel, is found also in Venetia and Istria. + This fact, together with others (v. _Kritischer Jahresbericht uber + die Fortschritte der roman. Philol._ vii. part i. 130), suggests that + we ought to assume an earlier group in which Venetian and + Gallo-Italian formed part of one and the same group. In this + connexion too should be noted the atonic pronoun _ghe_ (Ital. _ci_-a + lui, a lei, a loro), which is found in Venetian, Lombard, + North-Emilian and Ligurian. + + [5] [The latest authorities for the Sardinian dialects are W. + Meyer-Lubke and M. Bartoli, in the passages quoted by Guarnerio in + his "Il sardo e il corso in una nuova classificazione delle lingue + romanze" (_Arch. glott._ xvi. 491-516). These scholars entirely + dissociate Sardinian from the Italian system, considering it as + forming in itself a Romance language, independent of the others; a + view in which they are correct. The chief discriminating criterion is + supplied by the treatment of the Latin -_s_, which is preserved in + Sardinian, the Latin accusative form prevailing in the declension of + the plural, as opposed to the nominative, which prevails in the + Italian system. In this respect the Gallo-Italian dialects adhere to + the latter system, rejecting the -_s_ and retaining the nominative + form. On the other hand, these facts form an important link between + Sardinian and the Western Romance dialects, such as the Iberian, + Gallic and Ladin; it is not, however, to be identified with any of + them, but is distinguished from them by many strongly-marked + characteristics peculiar to itself, chief among which is the + treatment of the Latin accented vowels, for which see Ascoli in the + text. As to the internal classification of the Sardinian dialects, + Guarnerio assumes four types, the Campidanese, Logudorese, Gallurese + and Sassarese. The separate individuality of the last of these is + indicated chiefly by the treatment of the accented vowels (_dezi_, + Ital. dieci; _tela_, Ital. tela; _pelu_, Ital. pelo; _nobu_, Ital. + nuovo; _fiori_, Ital. fiore; _nozi_, Ital. noce, as compared, e.g. + with Gallurese _deci_, _tela_, _pilu_, _nou_, _fiori_, _nuci_). Both + Gallura and Sassari, however, reject the -_s_, and adopt the + nominative form in the plural, thus proving that they are not + entirely distinct from the Italian system.] + + [6] On this point see the chapter, "La terra ferma veneta considerata + in ispecie ne' suoi rapporti con la sezione centrale della zona + ladina," in _Arch._ i. 406-447. + + [7] [There are also examples of Istrian variants, such as _lanna_, + Ital. lana; _kadenna_, Ital. catena.] + + [8] [There have been of late years many different opinions concerning + the classification of Corsican. Meyer-Lubke dissociates it from + Italian, and connects it with Sardinian, making of the languages of + the two islands a unit independent of the Romance system. But even he + (in Grober's _Grundriss_, 2nd ed., vol. i. p. 698) recognized that + there were a number of characteristics, among them the participle in + -_utu_ and the article _illu_, closely connecting Sassari and Corsica + with the mainland. The matter has since then been put in its true + light by Guarnerio (_Arch. glott._ xvi. 510 et seq.), who points out + that there are two varieties of language in Corsica, the + _Ultramontane_ or southern, and the _Cismontane_, by far the most + widely spread, in the rest of the island. The former is, it is true, + connected with Sardinian, but with that variety, precisely, which, as + we have already seen, ought to be separated from the general + Sardinian type. Here we might legitimately assume a North-Sardinian + and South-Corsican type, having practically the same relation to + Italian as have the Gallo-Italian dialects. As to the Cismontane, it + has the Tuscan accented vowel-system, does not alter _ll_ or _rn_, + turns _lj_ into _i_ (Ital. _gli_), and shares with Tuscan the + peculiar pronunciation of _c_ between vowels, while, together with + many of the Tuscan and central dialects, it reduces _rr_ to a single + consonant. For these reasons, Guarnerio is right in placing the + Cismontane, as Ascoli does for all the Corsican dialects, on the same + plane as Umbrian, &c.] + + [9] The Ultramontane variety has, however, _tela_, _pilu_, _iddu_, + _boci_, _gula_, _furu_, corresponding exactly to the Gallurese + _tela_, _pilu_, Ital. _pelo_, _iddu_; Ital. "ello," Lat. _illu_; + _boci_, Ital. voce; _gula_, Ital. gole. + + [10] [Traces are not lacking on the mainland of _ng_ becoming _nc_, + not only in Calabria, where at Cosenza are found, e.g. _chiancere_, + Ital. piangere, _manciare_, but also in Sannio and Apulia: _chiance_, + _monce_, Ital. mungere, in the province of Avellino, _punci_, Ital. + (tu) pungi, at Brindisi. In Sicily, on the other hand, can be traced + examples of _nc_ _nk_ _nt_ _mp_ becoming _ng_ _ng_ _nd_ _mb_.] + + [11] It should, however, be noticed that there seem to be examples of + the e from a in the southern dialects on the Tyrrhenian side; texts + of Serrara d'Ischia give: _mancete_, mangiata, _maretete_, maritata, + _manneto_, mandato; also _tenno_ = Neap. _tanno_, allora. As to the + diphthongs, we should not omit to mention that some of them are + obviously of comparatively recent formation. Thus, examples from + Cerignola, such as _levoite_, oliveto, come from _*olivitu_ (cf. + Lecc. _leitu_, &c.), that is to say, they are posterior to the + phenomenon of vowel change by which the formula _e-u_ became _i-u_. + And, still in the same dialect, in an example like _grejte_, creta, + the _ej_ seems perhaps to be recent, for the reason that another _e_, + derived from an original _e_ (Lat. _e_), is treated in the same way + (_pejte_, piede, &c.). As to examples from Agnone like _puole_, palo, + there still exists a plural _pjele_ which points to the phase + _*palo_. + + [12] We should here mention that _callu_ is also found in the + _Vocabolario Siciliano_, and further occurs in Capitanata. + + [13] This is derived in reality from the Latin termination _-unt_, + which is reduced phonetically to _-u_, a phenomenon not confined to + the Abruzzi; cf. _facciu_, Ital. fanno, Lat. _faciunt_, at Norcia; + _crisciu_, Ital. crescono, Lat. _crescunt_, &c., at Rieti. And + examples are also to be found in ancient Tuscan. + + [14] [This resolution of -_c_- by _s_, or by a sound very near to + _s_, is, however, a Roman phenomenon, found in some parts of Apulia + (Molfettese _lausce_, luce, &c.), and also heard in parts of Sicily.] + + [15] There is therefore nothing surprising in the fact that, for + example, the chronicle of Monaldeschi of Orvieto (14th century) + should indicate a form of speech of which Muratori remarks: "Romanis + tunc familiaris, nimirum quae in nonnullis accedabat ad Neapolitanam + seu vocibus seu pronuntiatione." The _alt_ into _ait_, &c. (_aitro_, + _moito_), which occur in the well-known _Vita di Cola di Rienzo_, + examples of which can also be found in some corners of the Marches, + and of which there are also a few traces in Latium, also shows + Abruzzan affinity. The phenomenon occurs also, however, in Emilian + and Tuscan. + + [16] A distinction between the masculine and the neuter article can + also be noticed at Naples and elsewhere in the southern region, where + it sometimes occurs that the initial consonant of the substantive is + differently determined according as the substantive itself is + conceived as masculine or neuter; thus at Naples, neut. _lo bero_, + masc. _lo vero_, "il vero," &c.; at Cerignola (Capitanata), _u + mmegghie_, "il meglio," side by side with _u moise_ "il mese." The + difference is evidently to be explained by the fact that the neuter + article originally ended in a consonant (-_d_ or -_c_?; see Merlo, + _Zeitschrift fur roman. Philol._ xxx. 449), which was then + assimilated to the initial letter of the substantive, while the + masculine article ended in a vowel. + + [17] This second prefix is common to the opposite valley of the + Metauro, and appears farther south in the form of _me_,--Camerino: + _me lu pettu_, nel petto, _me lu Seppurgru_, al Sepolcro. + + [18] A complete analogy is afforded by the history of the Aryan or + Sanskrit language in India, which in space and time shows always more + and more strongly the reaction of the oral tendencies of the + aboriginal races on whom it has been imposed. Thus the Pali presents + the ancient Aryan organism in a condition analogous to that of the + oldest French, and the Prakrit of the Dramas, on the other hand, in a + condition like that of modern French. + + + + +ITALIAN LITERATURE. 1. _Origins._--One characteristic fact distinguishes +the Italy of the middle ages with regard to its intellectual +conditions--the tenacity with which the Latin tradition clung to life +(see LATIN). At the end of the 5th century the northern conquerors +invaded Italy. The Roman world crumbled to pieces. A new kingdom arose +at Ravenna under Theodoric, and there learning was not extinguished. The +liberal arts flourished, the very Gothic kings surrounded themselves +with masters of rhetoric and of grammar. The names of Cassiodorus, of +Boetius, of Symmachus, are enough to show how Latin thought maintained +its power amidst the political effacement of the Roman empire. And this +thought held its ground throughout the subsequent ages and events. Thus, +while elsewhere all culture had died out, there still remained in Italy +some schools of laymen,[1] and some really extraordinary men were +educated in them, such as Ennodius, a poet more pagan than Christian, +Arator, Fortunatus, Venantius Jovannicius, Felix the grammarian, Peter +of Pisa, Paulinus of Aquileia and many others, in all of whom we notice +a contrast between the barbarous age they lived in and their aspiration +towards a culture that should reunite them to the classical literature +of Rome. The Italians never had much love for theological studies, and +those who were addicted to them preferred Paris to Italy. It was +something more practical, more positive, that had attraction for the +Italians, and especially the study of Roman law. This zeal for the study +of jurisprudence furthered the establishment of the medieval +universities of Bologna, Padua, Vicenza, Naples, Salerno, Modena and +Parma; and these, in their turn, helped to spread culture, and to +prepare the ground in which the new vernacular literature was afterwards +to be developed. The tenacity of classical traditions, the affection for +the memories of Rome, the preoccupation with political interests, +particularly shown in the wars of the Lombard communes against the +empire of the Hohenstaufens, a spirit more naturally inclined to +practice than to theory--all this had a powerful influence on the fate +of Italian literature. Italy was wanting in that combination of +conditions from which the spontaneous life of a people springs. This was +chiefly owing to the fact that the history of the Italians never +underwent interruption,--no foreign nation having come in to change them +and make them young again. That childlike state of mind and heart, which +in other Latin races, as well as in the Germanic, was such a deep source +of poetic inspiration, was almost utterly wanting in the Italians, who +were always much drawn to history and very little to nature; so, while +legends, tales, epic poems, satires, were appearing and spreading on all +sides, Italy was either quite a stranger to this movement or took a +peculiar part in it. We know, for example, what the Trojan traditions +were in the middle ages; and we should have thought that in Italy--in +the country of Rome, retaining the memory of Aeneas and Virgil--they +would have been specially developed, for it was from Virgil that the +medieval sympathy for the conquered of Troy was derived. In fact, +however, it was not so. A strange book made its appearance in Europe, no +one quite knows when, the _Historia de excidio Trojae_, which purported +to have been written by a certain Dares the Phrygian, an eye-witness of +the Trojan war. In the middle ages this book was the basis of many +literary labours. Benoit de Sainte-More composed an interminable French +poem founded on it, which afterwards in its turn became a source for +other poets to draw from, such as Herbort of Fritzlar and Conrad of +Wurzburg. Now for the curious phenomenon displayed by Italy. Whilst +Benoit de Sainte-More wrote his poem in French, taking his material from +a Latin history, whilst the two German writers, from a French source, +made an almost original work in their own language--an Italian, on the +other hand, taking Benoit for his model, composed in Latin the _Historia +destructionis Trojae_; and this Italian was Guido delle Colonne of +Messina, one of the vernacular poets of the Sicilian school, who must +accordingly have known well how to use his own language. Guido was an +imitator of the Provencals; he understood French, and yet wrote his own +book in Latin, nay, changed the romance of the Troubadour into serious +history. Much the same thing occurred with the other great legends. That +of Alexander the Great (q.v.) gave rise to many French, German and +Spanish poems,--in Italy, only to the Latin distichs of Qualichino of +Arezzo. The whole of Europe was full of the legend of Arthur (q.v.). The +Italians contented themselves with translating and with abridging the +French romances, without adding anything of their own. The Italian +writer could neither appropriate the legend nor colour it with his own +tints. Even religious legend, so widely spread in the middle ages, and +springing up so naturally as it did from the heart of that society, only +put out a few roots in Italy. Jacopo di Voragine, while collecting his +lives of the saints, remained only an historian, a man of learning, +almost a critic who seemed doubtful about the things he related. Italy +had none of those books in which the middle age, whether in its ascetic +or its chivalrous character, is so strangely depicted. The intellectual +life of Italy showed itself in an altogether special, positive, almost +scientific, form, in the study of Roman law, in the chronicles of Farfa, +of Marsicano and of many others, in translations from Aristotle, in the +precepts of the school of Salerno, in the travels of Marco Polo--in +short, in a long series of facts which seem to detach themselves from +the surroundings of the middle age, and to be united on the one side +with classical Rome and on the other with the Renaissance. + + + Provencal and French preparatory periods. + +The necessary consequence of all this was that the Latin language was +most tenacious in Italy, and that the elaboration of the new vulgar +tongue was very slow,--being in fact preceded by two periods of Italian +literature in foreign languages. That is to say, there were many +Italians who wrote Provencal poems, such as the Marchese Alberto +Malaspina (12th century), Maestro Ferrari of Ferrara, Cigala of Genoa, +Zorzi of Venice, Sordello of Mantua, Buvarello of Bologna, Nicoletto of +Turin and others, who sang of love and of war, who haunted the courts, +or lived in the midst of the people, accustoming them to new sounds and +new harmonies. At the same time there was other poetry of an epic kind, +written in a mixed language, of which French was the basis, but in which +forms and words belonging to the Italian dialects were continually +mingling. We find in it hybrid words exhibiting a treatment of sounds +according to the rules of both languages,--French words with Italian +terminations, a system of vocalization within the words approaching the +Italo-Latin usage,--in short, something belonging at once to both +tongues, as it were an attempt at interpenetration, at fusion. Such were +the _Chansons de Geste_, _Macaire_, the _Entree en Espagne_ written by +Niccola of Padua, the _Prise de Pampelune_ and some others. All this +preceded the appearance of a purely Italian literature. + + + Dialect. + +In the Franco-Italian poems there was, as it were, a clashing, a +struggle between the two languages, the French, however, gaining the +upper hand. This supremacy became gradually less and less. As the +struggle continued between French and Italian, the former by degrees +lost as much as the latter gained. The hybridism recurred, but it no +longer predominated. In the _Bovo d' Antona_ and the _Rainardo e +Lesengrino_ the Venetian dialect makes itself clearly felt, although the +language is influenced by French forms. Thus these writings, which G. I. +Ascoli has called "miste" (mixed), immediately preceded the appearance +of purely Italian works. + + + North Italy. + +It is now an established historical fact that there existed no writing +in Italian before the 13th century. It was in the course of that +century, and especially from 1250 onwards, that the new literature +largely unfolded and developed itself. This development was simultaneous +in the whole peninsula, only there was a difference in the +subject-matter of the art. In the north, the poems of Giacomino of +Verona and Bonvecino of Riva were specially religious, and were intended +to be recited to the people. They were written in a dialect partaking of +the Milanese and the Venetian; and in their style they strongly bore the +mark of the influence of French narrative poetry. They may be considered +as belonging to the popular kind of poetry, taking the word, however, in +a broad sense. Perhaps this sort of composition was encouraged by the +old custom in the north of Italy of listening in the piazzas and on the +highways to the songs of the jongleurs. To the very same crowds who had +been delighted with the stories of romance, and who had listened to the +story of the wickedness of _Macaire_ and the misfortunes of +_Blanciflor_, another jongleur would sing of the terrors of the +_Babilonia Infernale_ and the blessedness of the _Gerusalemme celeste_, +and the singers of religious poetry vied with those of the _Chansons de +Geste_. + + + South Italy. + +In the south of Italy, on the other hand, the love-song prevailed, of +which we have an interesting specimen in the Contrasto attributed to +Ciullo d' Alcamo, about which modern Italian critics have much exercised +themselves. This "contrasto" (dispute) between a man and a woman in +Sicilian dialect certainly must not be considered as the most ancient or +as the only southern poem of a popular kind. It belongs without doubt to +the time of the emperor Frederick II., and is important as a proof that +there existed a popular poetry independent of literary poetry. The +_Contrasto_ of Ciullo d'Alcamo is the most remarkable relic of a kind of +poetry that has perished or which perhaps was smothered by the ancient +Sicilian literature. Its distinguishing point was its possessing all the +opposite qualities to the poetry of the rhymers of what we shall call +the Sicilian school. Vigorous in the expression of feelings, it seems to +come from a real sentiment. The conceits, which are sometimes most bold +and very coarse, show that it proceeded from the lowest grades of +society. Everything is original in Ciullo's _Contrasto_. Conventionality +has no place in it. It is marked by the sensuality characteristic of the +people of the South. + + + Siculo-Provencal School. + +The reverse of all this happened in the Siculo-Provencal school, at the +head of which was Frederick II. Imitation was the fundamental +characteristic of this school, to which belonged Enzio, king of +Sardinia, Pier delle Vigne, Inghilfredi, Guido and Odo delle Colonne, +Jacopo d' Aquino, Rugieri Pugliese, Giacomo da Lentino, Arrigo Testa and +others. These rhymers never moved a step beyond the ideas of chivalry; +they had no originality; they did not sing of what they felt in their +heart; they abhorred the true and the real. They only aimed at copying +as closely as they could the poetry of the Provencal troubadours.[2] The +art of the Siculo-Provencal school was born decrepit, and there were +many reasons for this--first, because the chivalrous spirit, from which +the poetry of the troubadours was derived, was now old and on its +death-bed; next, because the Provencal art itself, which the Sicilians +took as their model, was in its decadence. It may seem strange, but it +is true, that when the emperor Frederick II., a philosopher, a +statesman, a very original legislator, took to writing poetry, he could +only copy and amuse himself with absolute puerilities. His art, like +that of all the other poets of his court, was wholly conventional, +mechanical, affected. It was completely wanting in what constitutes +poetry--ideality, feeling, sentiment, inspiration. The Italians have had +great disputes among themselves about the original form of the poems of +the Sicilian school, that is to say, whether they were written in +Sicilian dialect, or in that language which Dante called "volgare, +illustre, aulico, cortigiano." But the critics of most authority hold +that the primitive form of these poems was the Sicilian dialect, +modified for literary purposes with the help of Provencal and Latin; the +theory of the "lingua illustre" has been almost entirely rejected, since +we cannot say on what rules it could have been founded, when literature +was in its infancy trying its feet, and lisping its first words. The +Sicilian certainly, in accordance with a tendency common to all +dialects, in passing from the spoken to the written form, must have +gained in dignity; but this was not enough to create the so-called +"lingua illustre," which was upheld by Perticari and others on grounds +rather political than literary. + + + Religious lyric poetry in Umbria. + +In the 13th century a mighty religious movement took place in Italy, of +which the rise of the two great orders of Saint Francis and Saint +Dominic was at once the cause and the effect. Around Francis of Assisi a +legend has grown up in which naturally the imaginative element prevails. +Yet from some points in it we seem to be able to infer that its hero had +a strong feeling for nature, and a heart open to the most lively +impressions. Many poems are attributed to him. The legend relates that +in the eighteenth year of his penance, when almost rapt in ecstasy, he +dictated the _Cantico del Sole_. Even if this hymn be really his, it +cannot be considered as a poetical work, being written in a kind of +prose simply marked by assonances. As for the other poems, which for a +long time were believed to be by Saint Francis, their spuriousness is +now generally recognized. The true poet who represented in all its +strength and breadth the religious feeling that had made special +progress in Umbria was Jacopo dei Benedetti of Todi, known as Jacopone. +The story is that sorrow at the sudden death of his wife had disordered +his mind, and that, having sold all he possessed and given it to the +poor, he covered himself with rags, and took pleasure in being laughed +at, and followed by a crowd of people who mocked him and called after +him "Jacopone, Jacopone." We do not know whether this be true. What we +do know is that a vehement passion must have stirred his heart and +maintained a despotic hold over him, the passion of divine love. Under +its influence Jacopone went on raving for years and years, subjecting +himself to the severest sufferings, and giving vent to his religious +intoxication in his poems. There is no art in him, there is not the +slightest indication of deliberate effort; there is only feeling, a +feeling that absorbed him, fascinated him, penetrated him through and +through. His poetry was all inside him, and burst out, not so much in +words as in sighs, in groans, in cries that often seem really to come +from a monomaniac. But Jacopone was a mystic, who from his hermit's cell +looked out into the world and specially watched the papacy, scourging +with his words Celestine V. and Boniface VIII. He was put in prison and +laden with chains, but his spirit lifted itself up to God, and that was +enough for him. The same feeling that prompted him to pour out in song +ecstasies of divine love, and to despise and trample on himself, moved +him to reprove those who forsook the heavenly road, whether they were +popes, prelates or monks. In Jacopone there was a strong originality, +and in the period of the origins of Italian literature he was one of the +most characteristic writers. + + + The religious drama. + +The religious movement in Umbria was followed by another literary +phenomenon, that of the religious drama. In 1258 an old hermit, Raniero +Fasani, leaving the cavern in which he had lived for many years, +suddenly appeared at Perugia. These were very sad times for Italy. The +quarrels in the cities, the factions of the Ghibellines and the Guelphs, +the interdicts and excommunications issued by the popes, the reprisals +of the imperial party, the cruelty and tyranny of the nobles, the +plagues and famines, kept the people in constant agitation, and spread +abroad mysterious fears. The commotion was increased in Perugia by +Fasani, who represented himself as sent by God to disclose mysterious +visions, and to announce to the world terrible visitations. Under the +influence of fear there were formed "Compagnie di Disciplinanti," who, +for a penance, scourged themselves till they drew blood, and sang +"Laudi" in dialogue in their confraternities. These "Laudi," closely +connected with the liturgy, were the first example of the drama in the +vulgar tongue of Italy. They were written in the Umbrian dialect, in +verses of eight syllables, and of course they have not any artistic +value. Their development, however, was rapid. As early as the end of the +same 13th century we have the _Devozioni del Giovedi e Venerdi Santo_, +which have some dramatic elements in them, though they are still +connected with the liturgical office. Then we have the representation +_di un Monaco che ando al servizio di Dio_ ("of a monk who entered the +service of God"), in which there is already an approach to the definite +form which this kind of literary work assumed in the following +centuries. + + + Tuscan poetry. + +In the 13th century Tuscany was peculiarly circumstanced both as regards +its literary condition and its political life. The Tuscans spoke a +dialect which most closely resembled the mother-tongue, Latin--one which +afterwards became almost exclusively the language of literature, and +which was already regarded at the end of the 13th century as surpassing +the others; "Lingua Tusca magis apta est ad literam sive literaturam": +thus writes Antonio da Tempo of Padua, born about 1275. Being very +little or not at all affected by the Germanic invasion, Tuscany was +never subjected to the feudal system. It had fierce internal struggles, +but they did not weaken its life; on the contrary, they rather gave it +fresh vigour and strengthened it, and (especially after the final fall +of the Hohenstaufens at the battle of Benevento in 1266) made it the +first province of Italy. From 1266 onwards Florence was in a position to +begin that movement of political reform which in 1282 resulted in the +appointment of the Priori delle Arti, and the establishment of the Arti +Minori. This was afterwards copied by Siena with the Magistrato dei +Nove, by Lucca, by Pistoia, and by other Guelph cities in Tuscany with +similar popular institutions. In this way the gilds had taken the +government into their hands, and it was a time of both social and +political prosperity. It was no wonder that literature also rose to an +unlooked-for height. In Tuscany, too, there was some popular love +poetry; there was a school of imitators of the Sicilians, their chief +being Dante of Majano; but its literary originality took another +line--that of humorous and satirical poetry. The entirely democratic +form of government created a style of poetry which stood in the +strongest antithesis to the medieval mystic and chivalrous style. Devout +invocation of God or of a lady came from the cloister and the castle; in +the streets of the cities everything that had gone before was treated +with ridicule or biting sarcasm. Folgore of San Gimignano laughs when in +his sonnets he tells a party of Sienese youths what are the occupations +of every month in the year, or when he teaches a party of Florentine +lads the pleasures of every day in the week. Cene della Chitarra laughs +when he parodies Folgore's sonnets. The sonnets of Rustico di Filippo +are half fun and half satire; laughing and crying, joking and satire, +are all to be found in Cecco Angiolieri of Siena, the oldest "humorist" +we know, a far-off precursor of Rabelais, of Montaigne, of Jean Paul +Richter, of Sydney Smith. But another kind of poetry also began in +Tuscany. Guittone d' Arezzo made art quit chivalrous for national +motives, Provencal forms for Latin. He attempted political poetry, and, +although his work is full of the strangest obscurities, he prepared the +way for the Bolognese school. In the 13th century Bologna was the city +of science, and philosophical poetry appeared there. Guido Guinicelli +was the poet after the new fashion of the art. In him the ideas of +chivalry are changed and enlarged; he sings of love and, together with +it, of the nobility of the mind. The reigning thought in Guinicelli's +Canzoni is nothing external to his own subjectivity. His speculative +mind, accustomed to wandering in the field of philosophy, transfuses its +lucubrations into his art. Guinicelli's poetry has some of the faults of +the school of Guittone d'Arezzo: he reasons too much; he is wanting in +imagination; his poetry is a product of the intellect rather than of the +fancy and the heart. Nevertheless he marks a great development in the +history of Italian art, especially because of his close connexion with +Dante's lyric poetry. + + + Allegorical poetry. + +But before we come to Dante, certain other facts, not, however, +unconnected with his history, must be noticed. In the 13th century, +there were several poems in the allegorical style. One of these is by +Brunetto Latini, who, it is well known, was attached by ties of strong +affection to Alighieri. His _Tesoretto_ is a short poem, in +seven-syllable verses, rhyming in couplets, in which the author +professes to be lost in a wilderness and to meet with a lady, who is +Nature, from whom he receives much instruction. We see here the vision, +the allegory, the instruction with a moral object--three elements which +we shall find again in the _Divina Commedia_. Francesco da Barberino, a +learned lawyer who was secretary to bishops, a judge, a notary, wrote +two little allegorical poems--the _Documenti d' amore_ and _Del +reggimento e dei costumi delle donne_. Like the _Tesoretto_, these poems +are of no value as works of art, but are, on the other hand, of +importance in the history of manners. A fourth allegorical work was the +_Intelligenza_, by some attributed to Dino Compagni, but probably not +his, and only a version of French poems. + + + Prose in 13th century. + +While the production of Italian poetry in the 13th century was abundant +and varied, that of prose was scanty. The oldest specimen dates from +1231, and consists of short notices of entries and expenses by Mattasala +di Spinello dei Lambertini of Siena. In 1253 and 1260 there are some +commercial letters of other Sienese. But there is no sign of literary +prose. Before we come to any, we meet with a phenomenon like that we +noticed in regard to poetry. Here again we find a period of Italian +literature in French. Halfway on in the century a certain Aldobrando or +Aldobrandino (it is not known whether he was of Florence or of Siena) +wrote a book for Beatrice of Savoy, countess of Provence, called _Le +Regime du corps_. In 1267 Martino da Canale wrote in the same "langue +d'oil" a chronicle of Venice. Rusticiano of Pisa, who was for a long +while at the court of Edward I. of England, composed many chivalrous +romances, derived from the Arthurian cycle, and subsequently wrote the +travels of Marco Polo, which may perhaps have been dictated by the great +traveller himself. And finally Brunetto Latini wrote his _Tesoro_ in +French. + +Next in order to the original compositions in the langue d'oil come the +translations or adaptations from the same. There are some moral +narratives taken from religious legends; a romance of Julius Caesar; +some short histories of ancient knights; the _Tavola rotonda_; +translations of the _Viaggi_ of Marco Polo and of the _Tesoro_ of +Latini. At the same time there appeared translations from Latin of moral +and ascetic works, of histories and of treatises on rhetoric and +oratory. Up to very recent times it was still possible to reckon as the +most ancient works in Italian prose the _Cronaca_ of Matteo Spinello da +Giovenazzo, and the _Cronaca_ of Ricordano Malespini. But now both of +them have been shown to be forgeries of a much later time. Therefore the +oldest prose writing is a scientific book--the _Composizione del mondo_ +by Ristoro d' Arezzo, who lived about the middle of the 13th century. +This work is a copious treatise on astronomy and geography. Ristoro was +superior to the other writers of the time on these subjects, because he +seems to have been a careful observer of natural phenomena, and +consequently many of the things he relates were the result of his +personal investigations. There is also another short treatise, _De +regimine rectoris_, by Fra Paolino, a Minorite friar of Venice, who was +probably bishop of Pozzuoli, and who also wrote a Latin chronicle. His +treatise stands in close relation to that of Egidio Colonna, _De +regimine principum_. It is written in the Venetian dialect. + +The 13th century was very rich in tales. There is a collection called +the _Cento Novelle antiche_, which contains stories drawn from Oriental, +Greek and Trojan traditions, from ancient and medieval history, from the +legends of Brittany, Provence and Italy, and from the Bible, from the +local tradition of Italy as well as from histories of animals and old +mythology. This book has a distant resemblance to the Spanish collection +known as _El Conde Lucanor_. The peculiarity of the Italian book is that +the stories are very short, and that they seem to be mere outlines to be +filled in by the narrator as he goes along. Other prose novels were +inserted by Francesco Barberino in his work _Del reggimento e dei +costumi delle donne_, but they are of much less importance than the +others. On the whole the Italian novels of the 13th century have little +originality, and are only a faint reflection of the very rich legendary +literature of France. Some attention should be paid to the _Lettere_ of +Fra Guittone d'Arezzo, who wrote many poems and also some letters in +prose, the subjects of which are moral and religious. Love of antiquity, +of the traditions of Rome and of its language, was so strong in Guittone +that he tried to write Italian in a Latin style, and it turned out +obscure, involved and altogether barbarous. He took as his special model +Seneca, and hence his prose assumed a bombastic style, which, according +to his views, was very artistic, but which in fact was alien to the true +spirit of art, and resulted in the extravagant and grotesque. + + + New Tuscan School of lyric poetry. + +2. _The Spontaneous Development of Italian Literature._--In the year +1282, the year in which the new Florentine constitution of the "Arti +minori" was completed, a period of literature began that does not belong +to the age of first beginnings, but to that of development. With the +school of Lapo Gianni, of Guido Cavalcanti, of Cino da Pistoia and Dante +Alighieri, lyric poetry became exclusively Tuscan. The whole novelty and +poetic power of this school, which really was the beginning of Italian +art, consist in what Dante expresses so happily-- + + "Quando + Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo + Ch' ei detta dentro, vo significando"-- + +that is to say, in a power of expressing the feelings of the soul in the +way in which love inspires them, in an appropriate and graceful manner, +fitting form to matter, and by art fusing one with the other. The Tuscan +lyric poetry, the first true Italian art, is pre-eminent in this +artistic fusion, in the spontaneous and at the same time deliberate +action of the mind. In Lapo Gianni the new style is not free from some +admixture of the old associations of the Siculo-Provencal school. He +wavered as it were between two manners. The empty and involved +phraseology of the Sicilians is absent, but the poet does not always rid +himself of their influence. Sometimes, however, he draws freely from his +own heart, and then the subtleties and obscurities disappear, and his +verse becomes clear, flowing and elegant. + + + Guido Cavalcanti. + +Guido Cavalcanti was a learned man with a high conception of his art. He +felt the value of it, and adapted his learning to it. Cavalcanti was +already a good deal out of sympathy with the medieval spirit; he +reflected deeply on his own work, and from this reflection he derived +his poetical conception. His poems may be divided into two +classes--those which portray the philosopher, "il sottilissimo +dialettico," as Lorenzo the Magnificent called him, and those which are +more directly the product of his poetic nature imbued with mysticism and +metaphysics. To the first set belongs the famous poem _Sulla natura +d'amore_, which in fact is a treatise on amorous metaphysics, and was +annotated later in a learned way by the most renowned Platonic +philosophers of the 15th century, such as Marsilius Ficinus and others. +In other poems of Cavalcanti's besides this we see a tendency to +subtilize and to stifle the poetic imagery under a dead weight of +philosophy. But there are many of his sonnets in which the truth of the +images and the elegance and simplicity of the style are admirable, and +make us feel that we are in quite a new period of art. This is +particularly felt in Cavalcanti's _Ballate_, for in them he pours +himself out ingenuously and without affectation, but with an invariable +and profound consciousness of his art. Far above all the others for the +reality of the sorrow and the love displayed, for the melancholy longing +expressed for the distant home, for the calm and solemn yearning of his +heart for the lady of his love, for a deep subjectivity which is never +troubled by metaphysical subtleties, is the ballata composed by +Cavalcanti when he was banished from Florence with the party of the +Bianchi in 1300, and took refuge at Sarzana. + + + Cino da Pistoia. + +The third poet among the followers of the new school was Cino da +Pistoia, of the family of the Sinibuldi. His love poems are so sweet, so +mellow and so musical that they are only surpassed by Dante. The pains +of love are described by him with vigorous touches; it is easy to see +that they are not feigned but real. The psychology of love and of sorrow +nearly reaches perfection. + + + Dante (1265-1321). + +As the author of the _Vita nuova_, the greatest of all Italian poets, +Dante also belongs to the same lyric school. In the lyrics of the _Vita +nuova_ (so called by its author to indicate that his first meeting with +Beatrice was the beginning for him of a life entirely different from +that he had hitherto led) there is a high idealization of love. It seems +as if there were in it nothing earthly or human, and that the poet had +his eyes constantly fixed on heaven while singing of his lady. +Everything is supersensual, aerial, heavenly, and the real Beatrice is +always gradually melting more and more into the symbolical one--passing +out of her human nature and into the divine. Several of the lyrics of +the _Canzoniere_ deal with the theme of the "new life"; but all the +love poems do not refer to Beatrice, while other pieces are +philosophical and bridge over to the _Convito_. + +The work which made Dante immortal, and raised him above all other men +of genius in Italy, was his _Divina Commedia_. An allegorical meaning is +hidden under the literal one of this great epic. Dante travelling +through Hell, Purgatory and Paradise, is a symbol of mankind aiming at +the double object of temporal and eternal happiness. By the forest in +which the poet loses himself is meant the civil and religious confusion +of society, deprived of its two guides, the emperor and the pope. The +mountain illuminated by the sun is universal monarchy. The three beasts +are the three vices and the three powers which offered the greatest +obstacles to Dante's designs: envy is Florence, light, fickle and +divided by the Bianchi and Neri; pride is the house of France; avarice +is the papal court; Virgil represents reason and the empire. Beatrice is +the symbol of the supernatural aid without which man cannot attain the +supreme end, which is God. + +But the merit of the poem does not lie in the allegory, which still +connects it with medieval literature. What is new in it is the +individual art of the poet, the classic art transfused for the first +time into a Romance form. Dante is above all a great artist. Whether he +describes nature, analyzes passions, curses the vices or sings hymns to +the virtues, he is always wonderful for the grandeur and delicacy of his +art. Out of the rude medieval vision he has made the greatest work of +art of modern times. He took the materials for his poem from theology, +from philosophy, from history, from mythology--but more especially from +his own passions, from hatred and love; and he has breathed the breath +of genius into all these materials. Under the pen of the poet, the dead +come to life again; they become men again, and speak the language of +their time, of their passions. Farinata degli Uberti, Boniface VIII., +Count Ugolino, Manfred, Sordello, Hugh Capet, St Thomas Aquinas, +Cacciaguida, St Benedict, St Peter, are all so many objective creations; +they stand before us in all the life of their characters, their +feelings, their habits. + +Yet this world of fancy in which the poet moves is not only made living +by the power of his genius, but it is changed by his consciousness. The +real chastizer of the sins, the rewarder of the virtues, is Dante +himself. The personal interest which he brings to bear on the historical +representation of the three worlds is what most interests us and stirs +us. Dante remakes history after his own passions. Thus the _Divina +Commedia_ can fairly be called, not only the most life-like drama of the +thoughts and feelings that moved men at that time, but also the most +clear and spontaneous reflection of the individual feelings of the poet, +from the indignation of the citizen and the exile to the faith of the +believer and the ardour of the philosopher. The _Divina Commedia_ fixed +and clearly defined the destiny of Italian literature, to give artistic +lustre, and hence immortality, to all the forms of literature which the +middle ages had produced. Dante begins the great era of the Renaissance. + + + Petrarch (1304-1374). + +Two facts characterize the literary life of Petrarch--classical research +and the new human feeling introduced into his lyric poetry. Nor are +these two facts separate; rather is the one the result of the other. The +Petrarch who travelled about unearthing the works of the great Latin +writers helps us to understand the Petrarch who, having completely +detached himself from the middle ages, loved a real lady with a human +love, and celebrated her in her life and after her death in poems full +of studied elegance. Petrarch was the first humanist, and he was at the +same time the first lyric poet of the modern school. His career was long +and tempestuous. He lived for many years at Avignon, cursing the +corruption of the papal court; he travelled through nearly the whole of +Europe; he corresponded with emperors and popes; he was considered the +first man of letters of his time; he had honours and riches; and he +always bore about within him discontent, melancholy and incapacity for +satisfaction--three characteristics of the modern man. + +His _Canzoniere_ is divided into three parts--the first containing the +poems written during Laura's lifetime, the second the poems written +after her death, the third the _Trionfi_. The one and only subject of +these poems is love; but the treatment is full of variety in conception, +in imagery and in sentiment, derived from the most varied impressions of +nature. Petrarch's love is real and deep, and to this is due the merit +of his lyric verse, which is quite different, not only from that of the +Provencal troubadours and of the Italian poets before him, but also from +the lyrics of Dante. Petrarch is a psychological poet, who dives down +into his own soul, examines all his feelings, and knows how to render +them with an art of exquisite sweetness. The lyrics of Petrarch are no +longer transcendental like Dante's, but on the contrary keep entirely +within human limits. In struggles, in doubts, in fears, in +disappointments, in griefs, in joys, in fact in everything, the poet +finds material for his poetry. The second part of the _Canzoniere_ is +the more passionate. The _Trionfi_ are inferior; it is clear that in +them Petrarch tried to imitate the _Divina Commedia_, but never came +near it. The _Canzoniere_ includes also a few political poems--a canzone +to Italy, one supposed to be addressed to Cola di Rienzi and several +sonnets against the court of Avignon. These are remarkable for their +vigour of feeling, and also for showing that Petrarch had formed the +idea of _Italianita_ better even than Alighieri. The Italy which he +wooed was different from any conceived by the men of the middle ages, +and in this also he was a precursor of modern times and of modern +aspirations. Petrarch had no decided political idea. He exalted Cola di +Rienzi, invoked the emperor Charles IV., praised the Visconti; in fact, +his politics were affected more by impressions than by principles; but +above all this reigned constantly the love of Italy, his ancient and +glorious country, which in his mind is reunited with Rome, the great +city of his heroes Cicero and Scipio. + + + Boccaccio (1313-1375). + +Boccaccio had the same enthusiastic love of antiquity and the same +worship for the new Italian literature as Petrarch. He was the first, +with the help of a Greek born in Calabria, to put together a Latin +translation of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. His vast classical +learning was shown specially in the work _De genealogia deorum_, in +which he enumerates the gods according to genealogical trees constructed +on the authority of the various authors who wrote about the pagan +divinities. This work marked an era in studies preparatory to the +revival of classical learning. And at the same time it opened the way +for the modern criticism, because Boccaccio in his researches, and in +his own judgment was always independent of the authors whom he most +esteemed. The _Genealogia deorum_ is, as A. H. Heeren said, an +encyclopaedia of mythological knowledge; and it was the precursor of the +great humanistic movement which was developed in the 15th century. +Boccaccio was also the first historian of women in his _De claris +mulieribus_, and the first to undertake to tell the story of the great +unfortunate in his _De casibus virorum illustrium_. He continued and +perfected former geographical investigations in his interesting book _De +montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis, et paludibus, +et de nominibus maris_, for which he made use of Vibius Sequester, but +which contains also many new and valuable observations. Of his Italian +works his lyrics do not come anywhere near to the perfection of +Petrarch's. His sonnets, mostly about love, are quite mediocre. His +narrative poetry is better. Although now he can no longer claim the +distinction long conceded to him of having invented the octave stanza +(which afterwards became the metre of the poems of Boiardo, of Ariosto +and of Tasso), yet he was certainly the first to use it in a work of +some length and written with artistic skill, such as is his _Teseide_, +the oldest Italian romantic poem. The _Filostrato_ relates the loves of +Troiolo and Griseida (Troilus and Cressida). It may be that Boccaccio +knew the French poem of the Trojan war by Benoit de Sainte-More; but the +interest of the Italian work lies in the analysis of the passion of +love, which is treated with a masterly hand. The _Ninfale fiesolano_ +tells the love story of the nymph Mesola and the shepherd Africo. The +_Amorosa Visione_, a poem in triplets, doubtless owed its origin to the +_Divina Commedia_. The _Ameto_ is a mixture of prose and poetry, and is +the first Italian pastoral romance. + +The _Filocopo_ takes the earliest place among prose romances. In it +Boccaccio tells in a laborious style, and in the most prolix way, the +loves of Florio and Biancafiore. Probably for this work he drew +materials from a popular source or from a Byzantine romance, which +Leonzio Pilato may have mentioned to him. In the _Filocopo_ there is a +remarkable exuberance in the mythological part, which damages the +romance as an artistic work, but which contributes to the history of +Boccaccio's mind. The _Fiammetta_ is another romance, about the loves of +Boccaccio and Maria d'Aquino, a supposed natural daughter of King +Robert, whom he always called by this name of Fiammetta. + +The Italian work which principally made Boccaccio famous was the +_Decamerone_, a collection of a hundred novels, related by a party of +men and women, who had retired to a villa near Florence to escape from +the plague in 1348. Novel-writing, so abundant in the preceding +centuries, especially in France, now for the first time assumed an +artistic shape. The style of Boccaccio tends to the imitation of Latin, +but in him prose first took the form of elaborated art. The rudeness of +the old _fabliaux_ gives place to the careful and conscientious work of +a mind that has a feeling for what is beautiful, that has studied the +classic authors, and that strives to imitate them as much as possible. +Over and above this, in the _Decamerone_, Boccaccio is a delineator of +character and an observer of passions. In this lies his novelty. Much +has been written about the sources of the novels of the _Decamerone_. +Probably Boccaccio made use both of written and of oral sources. Popular +tradition must have furnished him with the materials of many stories, +as, for example, that of Griselda. + +Unlike Petrarch, who was always discontented, preoccupied, wearied with +life, disturbed by disappointments, we find Boccaccio calm, serene, +satisfied with himself and with his surroundings. Notwithstanding these +fundamental differences in their characters, the two great authors were +old and warm friends. But their affection for Dante was not equal. +Petrarch, who says that he saw him once in his childhood, did not +preserve a pleasant recollection of him, and it would be useless to deny +that he was jealous of his renown. The _Divina Commedia_ was sent him by +Boccaccio, when he was an old man, and he confessed that he never read +it. On the other hand, Boccaccio felt for Dante something more than +love--enthusiasm. He wrote a biography of him, of which the accuracy is +now unfairly depreciated by some critics, and he gave public critical +lectures on the poem in Santa Maria del Fiore at Florence. + + + Imitators of the Commedia. + +Fazio degli Uberti and Federigo Frezzi were imitators of the _Divina +Commedia_, but only in its external form. The former wrote the +_Dittamondo_, a long poem, in which the author supposes that he was +taken by the geographer Solinus into different parts of the world, and +that his guide related the history of them. The legends of the rise of +the different Italian cities have some importance historically. Frezzi, +bishop of his native town Foligno, wrote the _Quadriregio_, a poem of +the four kingdoms--Love, Satan, the Vices and the Virtues. This poem has +many points of resemblance with the _Divina Commedia_. Frezzi pictures +the condition of man who rises from a state of vice to one of virtue, +and describes hell, the limbo, purgatory and heaven. The poet has Pallas +for a companion. + + + Novelists. + +Ser Giovanni Fiorentino wrote, under the title of _Pecorone_, a +collection of tales, which are supposed to have been related by a monk +and a nun in the parlour of the monastery of Forli. He closely imitated +Boccaccio, and drew on Villani's chronicle for his historical stories. +Franco Sacchetti wrote tales too, for the most part on subjects taken +from Florentine history. His book gives a life-like picture of +Florentine society at the end of the 14th century. The subjects are +almost always improper; but it is evident that Sacchetti collected all +these anecdotes in order to draw from them his own conclusions and moral +reflections, which are to be found at the end of every story. From this +point of view Sacchetti's work comes near to the _Monalisationes_ of +the middle ages. A third novelist was Giovanni Sercambi of Lucca, who +after 1374 wrote a book, in imitation of Boccaccio, about a party of +people who were supposed to fly from a plague and to go travelling about +in different Italian cities, stopping here and there telling stories. +Later, but important, names are those of Massuccio Salernitano (Tommaso +Guardato), who wrote the _Novellino_, and Antonio Cornazzano whose +_Proverbii_ became extremely popular. + + + The chroniclers. + +It has already been said that the Chronicles formerly believed to have +been of the 13th century are now regarded as forgeries of later times. +At the end of the 13th century, however, we find a _chronicle_ by Dino +Compagni, which, notwithstanding the unfavourable opinion of it +entertained especially by some German writers, is in all probability +authentic. Little is known about the life of Compagni. Noble by birth, +he was democratic in feeling, and was a supporter of the new ordinances +of Giano della Bella. As prior and gonfalonier of justice he always had +the public welfare at heart. When Charles of Valois, the nominee of +Boniface VIII., was expected in Florence, Compagni, foreseeing the evils +of civil discord, assembled a number of citizens in the church of San +Giovanni, and tried to quiet their excited spirits. His chronicle +relates the events that came under his own notice from 1280 to 1312. It +bears the stamp of a strong subjectivity. The narrative is constantly +personal. It often rises to the finest dramatic style. A strong +patriotic feeling and an exalted desire for what is right pervade the +book. Compagni is more an historian than a chronicler, because he looks +for the reasons of events, and makes profound reflections on them. +According to our judgment he is one of the most important authorities +for that period of Florentine history, notwithstanding the not +insignificant mistakes in fact which are to be found in his writings. On +the contrary, Giovanni Villani, born in 1300, was more of a chronicler +than an historian. He relates the events up to 1347. The journeys that +he made in Italy and France, and the information thus acquired, account +for the fact that his chronicle, called by him _Istorie fiorentine_, +comprises events that occurred all over Europe. What specially +distinguishes the work of Villani is that he speaks at length, not only +of events in politics and war, but also of the stipends of public +officials, of the sums of money used for paying soldiers and for public +festivals, and of many other things of which the knowledge is very +valuable. With such an abundance of information it is not to be wondered +at that Villani's narrative is often encumbered with fables and errors, +particularly when he speaks of things that happened before his own time. +Matteo was the brother of Giovanni Villani, and continued the chronicle +up to 1363. It was again continued by Filippo Villani. Gino Capponi, +author of the _Commentari dell' acquisto di Pisa_ and of the narration +of the _Tumulto dei ciompi_, belonged to both the 14th and the 15th +centuries. + + + Ascetic writers. + +The _Divina Commedia_ is ascetic in its conception, and in a good many +points of its execution. To a large extent similar is the genius of +Petrarch; yet neither Petrarch nor Dante could be classified among the +pure ascetics of their time. But many other writers come under this +head. St Catherine of Siena's mysticism was political. She was a really +extraordinary woman, who aspired to bring back the Church of Rome to +evangelical virtue, and who has left a collection of letters written in +a high and lofty tone to all kinds of people, including popes. She joins +hands on the one side with Jacopone of Todi, on the other with +Savonarola. Hers is the strongest, clearest, most exalted religious +utterance that made itself heard in Italy in the 14th century. It is not +to be thought that precise ideas of reformation entered into her head, +but the want of a great moral reform was felt in her heart. And she +spoke indeed _ex abundantia cordis_. Anyhow the daughter of Jacopo +Benincasa must take her place among those who from afar off prepared the +way for the religious movement which took effect, especially in Germany +and England, in the 16th century. + +Another Sienese, Giovanni Colombini, founder of the order of Jesuati, +preached poverty by precept and example, going back to the religious +idea of St Francis of Assisi. His letters are among the most remarkable +in the category of ascetic works in the 14th century. Passavanti, in his +_Specchio della vera penitenza_, attached instruction to narrative. +Cavalca translated from the Latin the _Vite dei santi padri_. Rivalta +left behind him many sermons, and Franco Sacchetti (the famous novelist) +many discourses. On the whole, there is no doubt that one of the most +important productions of the Italian spirit of the 14th century was the +religious literature. + + + Comic poetry. + +In direct antithesis with this is a kind of literature which has a +strong popular element. Humorous poetry, the poetry of laughter and +jest, which as we saw was largely developed in the 13th century, was +carried on in the 14th by Bindo Bonichi, Arrigo di Castruccio, Cecco +Nuccoli, Andrea Orgagna, Filippo de' Bardi, Adriano de' Rossi, Antonio +Pucci and other lesser writers. Orgagna was specially comic; Bonichi was +comic with a satirical and moral purpose. Antonio Pucci was superior to +all of them for the variety of his production. He put into triplets the +_chronicle_ of Giovanni Villani (_Centiloquio_), and wrote many +historical poems called _Serventesi_, many comic poems, and not a few +epico-popular compositions on various subjects. A little poem of his in +seven cantos treats of the war between the Florentines and the Pisans +from 1362 to 1365. Other poems drawn from a legendary source celebrate +the _Reina d' Oriente_, _Apollonio di Tiro_, the _Bel Gherardino_, &c. +These poems, meant to be recited to the people, are the remote ancestors +of the romantic epic, which was developed in the 16th century, and the +first representatives of which were Boiardo and Ariosto. + + + Political and amatory poetry. + + Histories in verse. + +Many poets of the 14th century have left us political works. Of these +Fazio degli Uberti, the author of _Dittamondo_, who wrote a _Serventese_ +to the lords and people of Italy, a poem on Rome, a fierce invective +against Charles IV. of Luxemburg, deserves notice, and Francesco di +Vannozzo, Frate Stoppa and Matteo Frescobaldi. It may be said in general +that following the example of Petrarch many writers devoted themselves +to patriotic poetry. From this period also dates that literary +phenomenon known under the name of Petrarchism. The Petrarchists, or +those who sang of love, imitating Petrarch's manner, were found already +in the 14th century. But others treated the same subject with more +originality, in a manner that might be called semi-popular. Such were +the _Ballate_ of Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, of Franco Sacchetti, of +Niccolo Soldanieri, of Guido and Bindo Donati. Ballate were poems sung +to dancing, and we have very many songs for music of the 14th century. +We have already stated that Antonio Pucci versified Villani's +_Chronicle_. This instance of versified history is not unique, and it is +evidently connected with the precisely similar phenomenon offered by the +"vulgar Latin" literature. It is enough to notice a chronicle of Arezzo +in terza rima by Gorello de' Sinigardi, and the history, also in terza +rima, of the journey of Pope Alexander III. to Venice by Pier de' +Natali. Besides this, every kind of subject, whether history, tragedy or +husbandry, was treated in verse. Neri di Landocio wrote a life of St +Catherine; Jacopo Gradenigo put the gospels into triplets; Paganino +Bonafede in the _Tesoro dei rustici_ gave many precepts in agriculture, +beginning that kind of Georgic poetry which was fully developed later by +Alamanni in his _Coltivazione_, by Girolamo Baruffaldi in the +_Canapajo_, by Rucellai in the _Api_, by Bartolommeo Lorenzi in the +_Coltivazione dei monti_, by Giambattista Spolverini in the +_Coltivazione del riso_, &c. + + + Drama. + +There cannot have been an entire absence of dramatic literature in Italy +in the 14th century, but traces of it are wanting, although we find them +again in great abundance in the 15th century. The 14th century had, +however, one drama unique of its kind. In the sixty years (1250 to 1310) +which ran from the death of the emperor Frederick II. to the expedition +of Henry VII., no emperor had come into Italy. In the north of Italy, +Ezzelino da Romano, with the title of imperial vicar, had taken +possession of almost the whole of the March of Treviso, and threatened +Lombardy. The popes proclaimed a crusade against him, and, crushed by +it, the Ezzelini fell. Padua then began to breathe again, and took to +extending its dominion. There was living at Padua Albertino Mussato, +born in 1261, a year after the catastrophe of the Ezzelini; he grew up +among the survivors of a generation that hated the name of the tyrant. +After having written in Latin a history of Henry VII. he devoted himself +to a dramatic work on Ezzelino, and wrote it also in Latin. The +_Eccerinus_, which was probably never represented on the stage, has been +by some critics compared to the great tragic works of Greece. It would +probably be nearer the truth to say that it has nothing in common with +the works of Aeschylus; but certainly the dramatic strength, the +delineation of certain situations, and the narration of certain events +are very original. Mussato's work stands alone in the history of Italian +dramatic literature. Perhaps this would not have been the case if he had +written it in Italian. + +In the last years of the 14th century we find the struggle that was soon +to break out between the indigenous literary tradition and the reviving +classicism already alive in spirit. As representatives of this struggle, +of this antagonism, we may consider Luigi Marsilio and Coluccio +Salutati, both learned men who spoke and wrote Latin, who aspired to be +humanists, but who meanwhile also loved Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, +and felt and celebrated in their writings the beauty of Italian +literature. + + + Graeco-Latin learning. + +3. _The Renaissance._--A great intellectual movement, which had been +gathering for a long time, made itself felt in Italy in the 15th +century. A number of men arose, all learned, laborious, indefatigable, +and all intent on one great work. Such were Niccolo Niccoli, Giannozzo +Manetti, Palla Strozzi, Leonardo Bruni, Francesco Filelfo, Poggio +Bracciolini, Carlo d'Arezzo, Lorenzo Valla. Manetti buried himself in +his books, slept only for a few hours in the night, never went out of +doors, and spent his time in translating from Greek, studying Hebrew, +and commenting on Aristotle. Palla Strozzi sent into Greece at his own +expense to search for ancient books, and had Plutarch and Plato brought +for him. Poggio Bracciolini went to the Council of Constance, and found +in a monastery in the dust-hole Cicero's _Orations_. He copied +Quintilian with his own hand, discovered Lucretius, Plautus, Pliny and +many other Latin authors. Guarino went through the East in search of +codices. Giovanni Aurispa returned to Venice with many hundreds of +manuscripts. What was the passion that excited all these men? What did +they search after? What did they look to? These Italians were but +handing on the solemn tradition which, although partly latent, was the +informing principle of Italian medieval history, and now at length came +out triumphant. This tradition was that same tenacious and sacred memory +of Rome, that same worship of its language and institutions, which at +one time had retarded the development of Italian literature, and now +grafted the old Latin branch of ancient classicism on the flourishing +stock of Italian literature. All this is but the continuation of a +phenomenon that has existed for ages. It is the thought of Rome that +always dominates Italians, the thought that keeps appearing from Boetius +to Dante Alighieri, from Arnold of Brescia to Cola di Rienzi, which +gathers strength with Petrarch and Boccaccio, and finally becomes +triumphant in literature and life--in life, because the modern spirit is +fed on the works of the ancients. Men come to have a more just idea of +nature: the world is no longer cursed or despised; truth and beauty join +hands; man is born again; and human reason resumes its rights. +Everything, the individual and society, are changed under the influence +of new facts. + + + New social conditions. + +First of all there was formed a human individuality, which was wanting +in the middle ages. As J. Burckhardt has said, the man was changed into +the individual. He began to feel and assert his own personality, which +was constantly attaining a fuller realization. As a consequence of this, +the idea of fame and the desire for it arose. A really cultured class +was formed, in the modern meaning of the word, and the conception was +arrived at (completely unknown in former times) that the worth of a man +did not depend at all on his birth but on his personal qualities. Poggio +in his dialogue _De nobilitate_ declares that he entirely agreed with +his interlocutors Niccolo Niccoli and Lorenzo de' Medici in the opinion +that there is no other nobility but that of personal merit. External +life was growing more refined in all particulars; the man of society was +created; rules for civilized life were made; there was an increasing +desire for sumptuous and artistic entertainments. The medieval idea of +existence was turned upside down; men who had hitherto turned their +thoughts exclusively to heavenly things, and believed exclusively in the +divine right, now began to think of beautifying their earthly existence, +of making it happy and gay, and returned to a belief in their human +rights. This was a great advance, but one which carried with it the +seeds of many dangers. The conception of morality became gradually +weaker. The "fay ce que vouldras" of Rabelais became the first principle +of life. Religious feeling was blunted, was weakened, was changed, +became pagan again. Finally the Italian of the Renaissance, in his +qualities and his passions, became the most remarkable representative of +the heights and depths, of the virtues and faults, of humanity. +Corruption was associated with all that is most ideal in life; a +profound scepticism took hold of people's minds; indifference to good +and evil reached its highest point. + + + Literary dangers of Latinism. + +Besides this, a great literary danger was hanging over Italy. Humanism +threatened to submerge its youthful national literature. There were +authors who laboriously tried to give Italian Latin forms, to do again, +after Dante's time, what Guittone d'Arezzo had so unhappily done in the +13th century. Provincial dialects tried to reassert themselves in +literature. The great authors of the 14th century, Dante, Petrarch, +Boccaccio, were by many people forgotten or despised. + + + Influence of Florence. + +It was Florence that saved literature by reconciling the classical +models to modern feeling, Florence that succeeded in assimilating +classical forms to the "vulgar" art. Still gathering vigour and elegance +from classicism, still drawing from the ancient fountains all that they +could supply of good and useful, it was able to preserve its real life, +to keep its national traditions, and to guide literature along the way +that had been opened to it by the writers of the preceding century. At +Florence the most celebrated humanists wrote also in the vulgar tongue, +and commented on Dante and Petrarch, and defended them from their +enemies. Leone Battista Alberti, the learned Greek and Latin scholar, +wrote in the vernacular, and Vespasiano da Bisticci, whilst he was +constantly absorbed in Greek and Latin manuscripts, wrote the _Vite di +uomini illustri_, valuable for their historical contents, and rivalling +the best works of the 14th century in their candour and simplicity. +Andrea da Barberino wrote the beautiful prose of the _Reali di Francia_, +giving a colouring of "romanita" to the chivalrous romances. Belcari and +Benivieni carry us back to the mystic idealism of earlier times. + + + Lorenzo de' Medici. + +But it is in Lorenzo de' Medici that the influence of Florence on the +Renaissance is particularly seen. His mind was formed by the ancients: +he attended the class of the Greek Argyropulos, sat at Platonic +banquets, took pains to collect codices, sculptures, vases, pictures, +gems and drawings to ornament the gardens of San Marco and to form the +library afterwards called by his name. In the saloons of his Florentine +palace, in his villas at Careggi, Fiesole and Ambra, stood the wonderful +chests painted by Dello with stories from Ovid, the Hercules of +Pollajuolo, the Pallas of Botticelli, the works of Filippino and +Verrocchio. Lorenzo de' Medici lived entirely in the classical world; +and yet if we read his poems we only see the man of his time, the +admirer of Dante and of the old Tuscan poets, who takes inspiration from +the popular muse, and who succeeds in giving to his poetry the colours +of the most pronounced realism as well as of the loftiest idealism, who +passes from the Platonic sonnet to the impassioned triplets of the +_Amori di Venere_, from the grandiosity of the _Salve_ to _Nencia_ and +to _Beoni_, from the _Canto carnascialesco_ to the _Lauda_. The feeling +of nature is strong in him--at one time sweet and melancholy, at another +vigorous and deep, as if an echo of the feelings, the sorrows, the +ambitions of that deeply agitated life. He liked to look into his own +heart with a severe eye, but he was also able to pour himself out with +tumultuous fulness. He described with the art of a sculptor; he +satirized, laughed, prayed, sighed, always elegant, always a Florentine, +but a Florentine who read Anacreon, Ovid and Tibullus, who wished to +enjoy life, but also to taste of the refinements of art. + + + Poliziano. + +Next to Lorenzo comes Poliziano, who also united, and with greater art, +the ancient and the modern, the popular and the classical style. In his +_Rispetti_ and in his _Ballate_ the freshness of imagery and the +plasticity of form are inimitable. He, a great Greek scholar, wrote +Italian verses with dazzling colours; the purest elegance of the Greek +sources pervaded his art in all its varieties, in the _Orfeo_ as well as +the _Stanze per la giostra_. + + + The Academies. + +As a consequence of the intellectual movement towards the Renaissance, +there arose in Italy in the 15th century three academies, those of +Florence, of Naples and of Rome. The Florentine academy was founded by +Cosmo I. de' Medici. Having heard the praises of Platonic philosophy +sung by Gemistus Pletho, who in 1439 was at the council of Florence, he +took such a liking for those opinions that he soon made a plan for a +literary congress which was especially to discuss them. Marsilius +Ficinus has described the occupations and the entertainments of these +academicians. Here, he said, the young men learnt, by way of pastime, +precepts of conduct and the practice of eloquence; here grown-up men +studied the government of the republic and the family; here the aged +consoled themselves with the belief in a future world. The academy was +divided into three classes: that of patrons, who were members of the +Medici family; that of hearers, among whom sat the most famous men of +that age, such as Pico della Mirandola, Angelo Poliziano, Leon Battista +Alberti; that of disciples, who were youths anxious to distinguish +themselves in philosophical pursuits. It is known that the Platonic +academy endeavoured to promote, with regard to art, a second and a more +exalted revival of antiquity. The Roman academy was founded by Giulio +Pomponio Leto, with the object of promoting the discovery and the +investigation of ancient monuments and books. It was a sort of religion +of classicism, mixed with learning and philosophy. Platina, the +celebrated author of the lives of the first hundred popes, belonged to +it. At Naples, the academy known as the Pontaniana was instituted. The +founder of it was Antonio Beccadelli, surnamed Il Panormita, and after +his death the head was Il Pontano, who gave his name to it, and whose +mind animated it. + + + Romantic poetry. + +Romantic poems were the product of the moral scepticism and the artistic +taste of the 15th century. Italy never had any true epic poetry in its +period of literary birth. Still less could it have any in the +Renaissance. It had, however, many poems called _Cantari_, because they +contained stories that were sung to the people; and besides there were +romantic poems, such as the _Buovo d' Antona_, the _Regina Ancroja_ and +others. But the first to introduce elegance and a new life into this +style was Luigi Pulci, who grew up in the house of the Medici, and who +wrote the _Morgante Maggiore_ at the request of Lucrezia Tornabuoni, +mother of Lorenzo the Magnificent. The material of the _Morgante_ is +almost completely taken from an obscure chivalrous poem of the 15th +century recently discovered by Professor Pio Rajna. On this foundation +Pulci erected a structure of his own, often turning the subject into +ridicule, burlesquing the characters, introducing many digressions, now +capricious, now scientific, now theological. Pulci's merit consists in +having been the first to raise the romantic epic which had been for two +centuries in the hands of story-tellers into a work of art, and in +having united the serious and the comic, thus happily depicting the +manners and feelings of the time. With a more serious intention Matteo +Boiardo, count of Scandiano, wrote his _Orlando innamorato_, in which he +seems to have aspired to embrace the whole range of Carlovingian +legends; but he did not complete his task. We find here too a large vein +of humour and burlesque. Still the Ferrarese poet is drawn to the world +of romance by a profound sympathy for chivalrous manners and +feelings--that is to say, for love, courtesy, valour and generosity. A +third romantic poem of the 15th century was the _Mambriano_ by Francesco +Bello (Cieco of Ferrara). He drew from the Carlovingian cycle, from the +romances of the Round Table, from classical antiquity. He was a poet of +no common genius, and of ready imagination. He showed the influence of +Boiardo, especially in something of the fantastic which he introduced +into his work. + + + Drama. + +The development of the drama in the 15th century was very great. This +kind of semi-popular literature was born in Florence, and attached +itself to certain popular festivities that were usually held in honour +of St John the Baptist, patron saint of the city. The _Sacra +Rappresentazione_ is in substance nothing more than the development of +the medieval _Mistero_ ("mystery-play"). Although it belonged to popular +poetry, some of its authors were literary men of much renown. It is +enough to notice Lorenzo de' Medici, who wrote _San Giovanni e Paolo_, +and Feo Belcari, author of the _San Panunzio_, the _Abramo ed Isac_, &c. +From the 15th century, some element of the comic-profane found its way +into the _Sacra Rappresentazione_. From its Biblical and legendary +conventionalism Poliziano emancipated himself in his _Orfeo_, which, +although in its exterior form belonging to the sacred representations, +yet substantially detaches itself from them in its contents and in the +artistic element introduced. + + + Pastoral poetry. + +From Petrarch onwards the eclogue was a kind of literature that much +pleased the Italians. In it, however, the pastoral element is only +apparent, for there is nothing really rural in it. Such is the _Arcadia_ +of Jacopo Sannazzaro of Naples, author of a wearisome Latin poem _De +Partu Virginis_, and of some piscatorial eclogues. The _Arcadia_ is +divided into ten eclogues, in which the festivities, the games, the +sacrifices, the manners of a colony of shepherds are described. They are +written in elegant verses, but it would be vain to look in them for the +remotest feeling of country life. On the other hand, even in this style, +Lorenzo de' Medici was superior. His _Nencia da Barberino_, as a modern +writer says, is as it were the new and clear reproduction of the popular +songs of the environs of Florence, melted into one majestic wave of +octave stanzas. Lorenzo threw himself into the spirit of the bare +realism of country life. There is a marked contrast between this work +and the conventional bucolic of Sannazzaro and other writers. A rival of +the Medici in this style, but always inferior to him, was Luigi Pulci in +his _Beca da Dicomano_. + + + Lyric poetry. + +The lyric love poetry of this century was unimportant. In its stead we +see a completely new style arise, the _Canto carnascialesco_. These were +a kind of choral songs, which were accompanied with symbolical +masquerades, common in Florence at the carnival. They were written in a +metre like that of the ballate; and for the most part they were put into +the mouth of a party of workmen and tradesmen, who, with not very chaste +allusions, sang the praises of their art. These triumphs and masquerades +were directed by Lorenzo himself. At eventide there set out into the +city large companies on horseback, playing and singing these songs. +There are some by Lorenzo himself, which surpass all the others in their +mastery of art. That entitled _Bacco ed Arianna_ is the most famous. + + + Religious reaction. Savonarola. + +Girolamo Savonarola, who came to Florence in 1489, arose to fight +against the literary and social movement of the Renaissance. Some have +tried to make out that Savonarola was an apostle of liberty, others that +he was a precursor of the Reformation. In truth, however, he was neither +the one nor the other. In his struggle with Lorenzo de' Medici, he +directed his attack against the promoter of classical studies, the +patron of pagan literature, rather than against the political tyrant. +Animated by mystic zeal, he took the line of a prophet, preaching +against reading voluptuous authors, against the tyranny of the Medici, +and calling for popular government. This, however, was not done from a +desire for civil liberty, but because Savonarola saw in Lorenzo and his +court the greatest obstacle to that return to Catholic doctrine which +was his heart's desire; while he thought this return would be easily +accomplished if, on the fall of the Medici, the Florentine republic +should come into the hands of his supporters. There may be more justice +in looking on Savonarola as the forerunner of the Reformation. If he was +so, it was more than he intended. The friar of Ferrara never thought of +attacking the papal dogma, and always maintained that he wished to +remain within the church of Rome. He had none of the great aspirations +of Luther. He only repeated the complaints and the exhortations of St +Catherine of Siena; he desired a reform of manners, entirely of manners, +not of doctrine. He prepared the ground for the German and English +religious movement of the 16th century, but unconsciously. In the +history of Italian civilization he represents retrogression, that is to +say, the cancelling of the great fact of the Renaissance, and return to +medieval ideas. His attempt to put himself in opposition to his time, to +arrest the course of events, to bring the people back to the faith of +the past, the belief that all the social evils came from a Medici and a +Borgia, his not seeing the historical reality, as it was, his aspiring +to found a republic with Jesus Christ for its king--all these things +show that Savonarola was more of a fanatic than a thinker. Nor has he +any great merit as a writer. He wrote Italian sermons, hymns (laudi), +ascetic and political treatises, but they are roughly executed, and only +important as throwing light on the history of his ideas. The religious +poems of Girolamo Benivieni are better than his, and are drawn from the +same inspirations. In these lyrics, sometimes sweet, always warm with +religious feeling, Benivieni and with him Feo Belcari carry us back to +the literature of the 14th century. + + + Histories, &c. + +History had neither many nor very good students in the 15th century. Its +revival belonged to the following age. It was mostly written in Latin. +Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo wrote the history of Florence, Gioviano Pontano +that of Naples, in Latin. Bernardino Corio wrote the history of Milan in +Italian, but in a rude way. + +Leonardo da Vinci wrote a treatise on painting, Leon Battista Alberti +one on sculpture and architecture. But the names of these two men are +important, not so much as authors of these treatises, but as being +embodiments of another characteristic of the age of the +Renaissance--versatility of genius, power of application along many and +varied lines, and of being excellent in all. Leonardo was an architect, +a poet, a painter, an hydraulic engineer and a distinguished +mathematician. Alberti was a musician, studied jurisprudence, was an +architect and a draughtsman, and had great fame in literature. He had a +deep feeling for nature, an almost unique faculty of assimilating all +that he saw and heard. Leonardo and Alberti are representatives and +almost a compendium in themselves of all that intellectual vigour of the +Renaissance age, which in the 16th century took to developing itself in +its individual parts, making way for what has by some been called the +golden age of Italian literature. + +4. _Development of the Renaissance._--The fundamental characteristic of +the literary epoch following that of the Renaissance is that it +perfected itself in every kind of art, in particular uniting the +essentially Italian character of its language with classicism of style. +This period lasted from about 1494 to about 1560; and, strange to say, +this very period of greater fruitfulness and literary greatness began +from the year 1494, which with Charles VIII.'s descent into Italy marked +the beginning of its political decadence and of foreign domination over +it. But this is not hard to explain. All the most famous men of the +first half of the 16th had been educated in the preceding century. +Pietro Pomponazzi was born in 1462, Marcello Virgilio Adriani in 1464, +Castiglione in 1468, Machiavelli in 1469, Bembo in 1470, Michelangelo +Buonarroti and Ariosto in 1474, Nardi in 1476, Trissino in 1478, +Guicciardini in 1482. Thus it is easy to understand how the literary +activity which showed itself from the end of the 15th century to the +middle of the following one was the product of the political and social +conditions of the age in which these minds were formed, not of that in +which their powers were displayed. + + + History. + +Niccolo Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini were the chief +originators of the science of history. Machiavelli's principal works +are the _Istorie fiorentine_, the _Discorsi sulla prima deca di Tito +Livio_, the _Arte della guerra_ and the _Principe_. His merit consists +in having been the creator of the experimental science of politics--in +having observed facts, studied histories and drawn consequences from +them. His history is sometimes inexact in facts; it is rather a +political than an historical work. The peculiarity of Machiavelli's +genius lay, as has been said, in his artistic feeling for the treatment +and discussion of politics in and for themselves, without regard to an +immediate end--in his power of abstracting himself from the partial +appearances of the transitory present, in order more thoroughly to +possess himself of the eternal and inborn kingdom, and to bring it into +subjection to himself. + +Next to Machiavelli both as an historian and a statesman comes Francesco +Guicciardini. Guicciardini was very observant, and endeavoured to reduce +his observations to a science. His _Storia d' Italia_, which extends +from the death of Lorenzo de' Medici to 1534, is full of political +wisdom, is skilfully arranged in its parts, gives a lively picture of +the character of the persons it treats of, and is written in a grand +style. He shows a profound knowledge of the human heart, and depicts +with truth the temperaments, the capabilities and the habits of the +different European nations. Going back to the causes of events, he +looked for the explanation of the divergent interests of princes and of +their reciprocal jealousies. The fact of his having witnessed many of +the events he related, and having taken part in them, adds authority to +his words. The political reflections are always deep; in the _Pensieri_, +as G. Capponi[3] says, he seems to aim at extracting through +self-examination a quintessence, as it were, of the things observed and +done by him--thus endeavouring to form a political doctrine as adequate +as possible in all its parts. Machiavelli and Guicciardini may be +considered, not only as distinguished historians, but as originators of +the science of history founded on observation. + +Inferior to them, but still always worthy of note, were Jacopo Nardi (a +just and faithful historian and a virtuous man, who defended the rights +of Florence against the Medici before Charles V.), Benedetto Varchi, +Giambattista Adriani, Bernardo Segni; and, outside Tuscany, Camillo +Porzio, who related the _Congiura de' baroni_ and the history of Italy +from 1547 to 1552, Angelo di Costanza, Pietro Bembo, Paolo Paruta and +others. + + + Romantic epic. Ariosto (1474-1533). + +Ariosto's _Orlando furioso_ was a continuation of Boiardo's +_Innamorato_. His characteristic is that he assimilated the romance of +chivalry to the style and models of classicism. Ariosto was an artist +only for the love of his art; his sole aim was to make a romance that +should please the generation in which he lived. His Orlando has no grave +and serious purpose; on the contrary it creates a fantastic world, in +which the poet rambles, indulging his caprice, and sometimes smiling at +his own work. His great desire is to depict everything with the greatest +possible perfection; the cultivation of style is what occupies him most. +In his hands the style becomes wonderfully plastic to every conception, +whether high or low, serious or sportive. The octave stanza reached in +him the highest perfection of grace, variety and harmony. + + + Heroic epic. + +Meanwhile, side by side with the romantic, there was an attempt at the +historical epic. Gian Giorgio Trissino of Vicenza composed a poem called +_Italia liberata dai Goti_. Full of learning and of the rules of the +ancients, he formed himself on the latter, in order to sing of the +campaigns of Belisarius; he said that he had forced himself to observe +all the rules of Aristotle, and that he had imitated Homer. In this +again, we see one of the products of the Renaissance; and, although +Trissino's work is poor in invention and without any original poetical +colouring, yet it helps one to understand better what were the +conditions of mind in the 16th century. + + + Lyric poetry. + +Lyric poetry was certainly not one of the kinds that rose to any great +height in the 16th century. Originality was entirely wanting, since it +seemed in that century as if nothing better could be done than to copy +Petrarch. Still, even in this style there were some vigorous poets. +Monsignore Giovanni Guidiccioni of Lucca (1500-1541) showed that he had +a generous heart. In fine sonnets he gave expression to his grief for +the sad state to which his country was reduced. Francesco Molza of +Modena (1489-1544), learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew, wrote in a +graceful style and with spirit. Giovanni della Casa (1503-1556) and +Pietro Bembo (1470-1547), although Petrarchists, were elegant. Even +Michelangelo Buonarroti was at times a Petrarchist, but his poems bear +the stamp of his extraordinary and original genius. And a good many +ladies are to be placed near these poets, such as Vittoria Colonna +(loved by Michelangelo), Veronica Gambara, Tullia d' Aragona, Giulia +Gonzaga, poetesses of great delicacy, and superior in genius to many +literary men of their time. + + + Tragedy. + +The 16th century had not a few tragedies, but they are all weak. The +cause of this was the moral and religious indifference of the Italians, +the lack of strong passions and vigorous characters. The first to occupy +the tragic stage was Trissino with his _Sofonisba_, following the rules +of the art most scrupulously, but written in sickly verses, and without +warmth of feeling. The _Oreste_ and the _Rosmunda_ of Giovanni Rucellai +were no better, nor Luigi Alamanni's _Antigone_. Sperone Speroni in his +Canace and Giraldi Cintio in his _Orbecche_ tried to become innovators +in tragic literature, but they only succeeded in making it grotesque. +Decidedly superior to these was the _Torrismondo_ of Torquato Tasso, +specially remarkable for the choruses, which sometimes remind one of the +chorus of the Greek tragedies. + + + Comedy. + +The Italian comedy of the 16th century was almost entirely modelled on +the Latin comedy. They were almost always alike in the plot, in the +characters of the old man, of the servant, of the waiting-maid; and the +argument was often the same. Thus the _Lucidi_ of Agnolo Firenzuola, and +the _Vecchio amoroso_ of Donato Giannotti were modelled on comedies by +Plautus, as were the _Sporta_ by Gelli, the _Marito_ by Dolce, and +others. There appear to be only three writers who should be +distinguished among the many who wrote comedies--Machiavelli, Ariosto +and Giovan Maria Cecchi. In his _Mandragora_ Machiavelli, unlike all the +others, composed a comedy of character, creating types which seem living +even now, because they were copied from reality seen with a finely +observant eye. Ariosto, on the other hand, was distinguished for his +picture of the habits of his time, and especially of those of the +Ferrarese nobles, rather than for the objective delineation of +character. Lastly, Cecchi left in his comedies a treasure of spoken +language, which nowadays enables us in a wonderful way to make ourselves +acquainted with that age. The notorious Pietro Aretino might also be +included in the list of the best writers of comedy. + + + Burlesque and satire. + +The 15th century was not without humorous poetry; Antonio Cammelli, +surnamed the Pistoian, is specially deserving of notice, because of his +"pungent _bonhomie_," as Sainte-Beuve called it. But it was Francesco +Berni who carried this kind of literature to perfection in the 16th +century. From him the style has been called "bernesque" poetry. In the +"Berneschi" we find nearly the same phenomenon that we already noticed +with regard to _Orlando furioso_. It was art for art's sake that +inspired and moved Berni to write, as well as Anton Francesco Grazzini, +called Il Lasca, and other lesser writers. It may be said that there is +nothing in their poetry; and it is true that they specially delight in +praising low and disgusting things and in jeering at what is noble and +serious. Bernesque poetry is the clearest reflection of that religious +and moral scepticism which was one of the characteristics of Italian +social life in the 16th century, and which showed itself more or less in +all the works of that period, that scepticism which stopped the +religious Reformation in Italy, and which in its turn was an effect of +historical conditions. The Berneschi, and especially Berni himself, +sometimes assumed a satirical tone. But theirs could not be called true +satire. Pure satirists, on the other hand, were Antonio Vinciguerra, a +Venetian, Lodovico Alamanni and Ariosto, the last superior to the others +for the Attic elegance of his style, and for a certain frankness, +passing into malice, which is particularly interesting when the poet +talks of himself. + + + Didactic works. + +In the 16th century there were not a few didactic works. In his poem of +the _Api_ Giovanni Rucellai approaches to the perfection of Virgil. His +style is clear and light, and he adds interest to his book by frequent +allusions to the events of the time. But of the didactic works that +which surpasses all the others in importance is Baldassare Castiglione's +_Cortigiano_, in which he imagines a discussion in the palace of the +dukes of Urbino between knights and ladies as to what are the gifts +required in a perfect courtier. This book is valuable as an illustration +of the intellectual and moral state of the highest Italian society in +the first half of the 16th century. + + + Fiction. + +Of the novelists of the 16th century, the two most important were Anton +Francesco Grazzini and Matteo Bandello--the former as playful and +bizarre as the latter is grave and solemn. As part of the history of the +times, we must not forget that Bandello was a Dominican friar and a +bishop, but that notwithstanding his novels were very loose in subject, +and that he often holds up the ecclesiastics of his time to ridicule. + + + Translations. + +At a time when admiration for qualities of style, the desire for +classical elegance, was so strong as in the 16th century, much attention +was naturally paid to translating Latin and Greek authors. Among the +very numerous translations of the time those of the _Aeneid_ and of the +_Pastorals_ of Longus the Sophist by Annibal Caro are still famous; as +are also the translations of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ by Giovanni Andrea +dell' Anguillare, of Apuleius's _Golden Ass_ by Firenzuola, and of +Plutarch's _Lives_ and _Moralia_ by Marcello Adriani. + + + Tasso (1544-1595). + +The historians of Italian literature are in doubt whether Tasso should +be placed in the period of the highest development of the Renaissance, +or whether he should form a period by himself, intermediate between that +and the one following. Certainly he was profoundly out of harmony with +the century in which he lived. His religious faith, the seriousness of +his character, the deep melancholy settled in his heart, his continued +aspiration after an ideal perfection, all place him as it were outside +the literary epoch represented by Machiavelli, by Ariosto, by Berni. As +Carducci has well said, Tasso "is the legitimate heir of Dante +Alighieri: he believes, and reasons on his faith by philosophy; he +loves, and comments on his love in a learned style; he is an artist, and +writes dialogues of scholastic speculation that would fain be Platonic." +He was only eighteen years old when, in 1562, he tried his hand at epic +poetry, and wrote _Rinaldo_, in which he said that he had tried to +reconcile the Aristotelian rules with the variety of Ariosto. He +afterwards wrote the _Aminta_, a pastoral drama of exquisite grace. But +the work to which he had long turned his thoughts was an heroic poem, +and that absorbed all his powers. He himself explains what his intention +was in the three _Discorsi_ written whilst he was composing the +_Gerusalemme_: he would choose a great and wonderful subject, not so +ancient as to have lost all interest, nor so recent as to prevent the +poet from embellishing it with invented circumstances; he meant to treat +it rigorously according to the rules of the unity of action observed in +Greek and Latin poems, but with a far greater variety and splendour of +episodes, so that in this point it should not fall short of the romantic +poem; and finally, he would write it in a lofty and ornate style. This +is what Tasso has done in the _Gerusalemme liberata_, the subject of +which is the liberation of the sepulchre of Jesus Christ in the 11th +century by Godfrey of Bouillon. The poet does not follow faithfully all +the historical facts, but sets before us the principal causes of them, +bringing in the supernatural agency of God and Satan. The _Gerusalemme_ +is the best heroic poem that Italy can show. It approaches to classical +perfection. Its episodes above all are most beautiful. There is profound +feeling in it, and everything reflects the melancholy soul of the poet. +As regards the style, however, although Tasso studiously endeavoured to +keep close to the classical models, one cannot help noticing that he +makes excessive use of metaphor, of antithesis, of far-fetched conceits; +and it is specially from this point of view that some historians have +placed Tasso in the literary period generally known under the name of +"Secentismo," and that others, more moderate in their criticism, have +said that he prepared the way for it. + + + The Secentismo. + +5. _Period of Decadence._--From about 1559 began a period of decadence +in Italian literature. The Spanish rule oppressed and corrupted the +peninsula. The minds of men were day by day gradually losing their +force; every high aspiration was quenched. No love of country could any +longer be felt when the country was enslaved to a stranger. The +suspicious rulers fettered all freedom of thought and word; they +tortured Campanella, burned Bruno, made every effort to extinguish all +high sentiment, all desire for good. Cesare Balbo says, "if the +happiness of the masses consists in peace without industry, if the +nobility's consists in titles without power, if princes are satisfied by +acquiescence in their rule without real independence, without +sovereignty, if literary men and artists are content to write, paint and +build with the approbation of their contemporaries, but to the contempt +of posterity, if a whole nation is happy in ease without dignity and the +tranquil progress of corruption,--then no period ever was so happy for +Italy as the hundred and forty years from the treaty of Cateau Cambresis +to the war of the Spanish succession." This period is known in the +history of Italian literature as the Secentismo. Its writers, devoid of +sentiment, of passion, of thoughts, resorted to exaggeration; they tried +to produce effect with every kind of affectation, with bombast, with the +strangest metaphors, in fact, with what in art is called mannerism, +"barocchism." The utter poverty of the matter tried to cloak itself +under exuberance of forms. It seemed as if the writers vied with one +another as to who could best burden his art with useless metaphors, with +phrases, with big-sounding words, with affectations, with hyperbole, +with oddities, with everything that could fix attention on the outer +form and draw it off from the substantial element of thought. + + + Marini. + +At the head of the school of the "Secentisti" comes Giovan Battista +Marini of Naples, born in 1569, especially known by a poem called _L' +Adone_. His aim was to excite wonder by novelties; hence the most +extravagant metaphors, the most forced antitheses, the most far-fetched +conceits, are to be found in his book. It was especially by antitheses +that he thought he could produce the greatest effect. Sometimes he +strings them together one after the other, so that they fill up whole +stanzas without a break. Achillini of Bologna followed in Marini's +steps. He had less genius, however, and hence his peculiarities were +more extravagant, becoming indeed absolutely ridiculous. In general, we +may say that all the poets of the 17th century were more or less +infected with "Marinism." Thus Alessandro Guidi, although he does not +attain to the exaggeration of his master, is emptily bombastic, +inflated, turgid, while Fulvio Testi is artificial and affected. Yet +Guidi as well as Testi felt the influence of another poet, Gabriello +Chiabrera, born at Savona in 1552. In him the Secentismo took another +character. Enamoured as he said he was of the Greeks, he made new +metres, especially in imitation of Pindar, treating of religious, moral, +historical and amatory subjects. It is easy to understand that a +Pindaric style of poetry in the 17th century in Italy could not but end +in being altogether artificial, without anything of those qualities +which constitute the greatness of the Greek poet. Chiabrera, though +elegant enough in form, proves empty of matter, and, in his vain attempt +to hide this vacuity, has recourse to poetical ornaments of every kind. +These again, in their turn, become in him a fresh defect. Nevertheless, +Chiabrera's school, in the decadence of the 17th century, marks an +improvement; and sometimes he showed that he had lyrical capacities, +which in better literary surroundings would have brought forth excellent +fruit. When he sings, for example, of the victories of the Tuscan +galleys against the Turks and the pirates of the Mediterranean, he rises +to grand imagery, and seems quite another poet. + +Filicaja the Florentine has a certain lyric _elan_, particularly in the +songs about Vienna besieged by the Turks, which seems to raise him more +than the others above the vices of the time; but even in him we see +clearly the rhetorical artifice and the falseness of the conceits. And +in general all the lyric poetry of the 17th century may be said to have +had the same defects, but in different degrees--defects which may be +summed up as absence of feeling and exaggeration of form. There was no +faith; there was no love; and thus art became an exercise, a pastime, a +luxury, for a servile and corrupt people. + + + The Arcadia. + +The belief then arose that it would be sufficient to change the form in +order to restore literature, in forgetfulness that every reform must be +the effect of a change in social and moral conditions. Weary of the +bombastic style of the 17th century, full of conceits and antithesis, +men said--let us follow an entirely different line, let us fight the +turgid style with simplicity. In 1690 the "Academy of Arcadia" was +instituted. Its founders were Giovan Maria Crescimbeni and Gian Vincenzo +Gravina. The Arcadia was so called because its chief aim and intention +were to imitate in literature the simplicity of the ancient shepherds, +who were fabulously supposed to have lived in Arcadia in the golden age. +As the "Secentisti" erred by an overweening desire for novelty, which +made them always go beyond the truth, so the Arcadians proposed to +themselves to return to the fields of truth, always singing of subjects +of pastoral simplicity. This was obviously nothing else than the +substitution of a new artifice for the old one; and they fell from +bombast into effeminacy, from the hyperbolical into the petty, from the +turgid into the over-refined. The Arcadia was a reaction against +Secentismo, but a reaction which, reversing the movement of that earlier +epoch, only succeeded in impoverishing still further and completely +withering up the literature. The poems of the "Arcadians" fill many +volumes, and are made up of sonnets, madrigals, canzonets and blank +verse. The one who most distinguished himself among the sonneteers was +Felice Zappi. Among the authors of songs Paolo Rolli was illustrious. +Innocenzo Frugoni was more famous than all the others, a man of fruitful +imagination but of shallow intellect, whose wordy verses nobody now +reads. + + + Symptoms of revival. Scientific prose. + +Whilst the political and social conditions in Italy in the 17th century +were such as to make it appear that every light of intelligence, all +spirit of liberty, was extinguished, there appeared in the peninsula, by +that law of reaction which in great part governs human events, some +strong and independent thinkers, such as Bernardino Telesio, Giordano +Bruno, Tommaso Campanella, Lucilio Vanini, who turned philosophical +inquiry into fresh channels, and opened the way for the scientific +conquests of Galileo Galilei, the great contemporary of Descartes in +France and of Bacon in England. Galileo was not only a great man of +science, but also occupied a conspicuous place in the history of +letters. A devoted student of Ariosto, he seemed to transfuse into his +prose the qualities of that great poet--a clear and frank freedom of +expression, a wonderful art of knowing how to say everything with +precision and ease, and at the same time with elegance. Galileo's prose +is in perfect antithesis to the poetry of his time. Perhaps it is the +best prose that Italy has ever had; it is clear, goes straight to the +point, is without rhetorical ornaments and without vulgar slips, +artistic without appearing to be so. + +Another symptom of revival, a sign of rebellion against the vileness of +Italian social life, is given us in satire and in particular in that of +Salvator Rosa and Alessandro Tassoni. Salvator Rosa, born in 1615, near +Naples, was a painter, a musician and a poet. As a poet he showed that +he felt the sad condition of his country, showed that he mourned over +it, and gave vent to his feeling (as another satire-writer, Giuseppe +Giusti, said) in _generosi rabbuffi_. His exhortation to Italian poets +to turn their thoughts to the miseries of their country as a subject for +their song--their country languishing under the tyrant's hands--certain +passages where he deplores the effeminacy of Italian habits, a strong +apostrophe against Rome, make Salvator Rosa a precursor of the patriotic +literature which inaugurated the revival of the 18th century. Tassoni, +a man really quite exceptional in this century, was superior to Rosa. He +showed independent judgment in the midst of universal servility, and his +_Secchia Rapita_ proved that he was an eminent writer. This is an heroic +comic poem, which is at the same time an epic and a personal satire. He +was bold enough to attack the Spaniards in his _Filippiche_, in which he +urged Duke Carlo Emanuele of Savoy to persist in the war against them. + + + New Political conditions. + +6. _The Revival in the 18th Century._--Having for the most part freed +itself from the Spanish dominion in the 18th century, the political +condition of Italy began to improve. Promoters of this improvement, +which was shown in many civil reforms, were Joseph II., Leopold I. and +Charles I. The work of these princes was copied from the philosophers, +who in their turn felt the influence of a general movement of ideas, +which was quietly working in many parts of Europe, and which came to a +head in the French encyclopedists. + + + Historical works. + +Giambattista Vico was a token of the awakening of historical +consciousness in Italy. In his _Scienza nuova_ he applied himself to the +investigation of the laws governing the progress of the human race, and +according to which events are developed. From the psychological study of +man he endeavoured to infer the "comune natura delle nazioni," i.e. the +universal laws of history, or the laws by which civilizations rise, +flourish and fall. + +From the same scientific spirit which animated the philosophical +investigation of Vico, there was born a different kind of investigation, +that of the sources of Italian civil and literary history. Lodovico +Antonio Muratori, after having collected in one entire body (_Rerum +Italicarum scriptores_) the chronicles, the biographies, the letters and +the diaries of Italian history from 500 to 1500, after having discussed +the most obscure historical questions in the _Antiquitates Italicae +medii aevi_, wrote the _Annali d' Italia_, minutely narrating facts +derived from authentic sources. Muratori's associates in his historical +researches were Scipione Maffei of Verona and Apostolo Zeno of Venice. +In his _Verona illustrata_ the former left, not only a treasure of +learning, but an excellent specimen of historical monograph. The latter +added much to the erudition of literary history, both in his +_Dissertazioni Vossiane_ and in his notes to the _Biblioteca dell' +eloquenza italiana_ of Monsignore Giusto Fontanini. Girolamo Tiraboschi +and Count Giovanni Maria Mazzuchelli of Brescia devoted themselves to +literary history. + + + Social science. + +While the new spirit of the times led men to the investigation of +historical sources, it also led them to inquire into the mechanism of +economical and social laws. Francesco Galiani wrote on currency; Gaetano +Filangieri wrote a _Scienza della legislazione_. Cesare Beccaria, in his +treatise _Dei delitti e delle pene_, made a contribution to the reform +of the penal system and promoted the abolition of torture. + + + Satire: Parini. + +The man in whom above all others the literary revival of the 18th +century was most conspicuously embodied was Giuseppe Parini. He was born +in a Lombard village in 1729, was mostly educated at Milan, and as a +youth was known among the Arcadian poets by the name of Darisbo +Elidonio. Even as an Arcadian, however, Parini showed signs of departing +from the common type. In a collection of poems that he published at +twenty-three years of age, under the name of Ripano Eupilino, there are +some pastoral sonnets in which the poet shows that he had the faculty of +taking his scenes from real life, and also some satirical pieces in +which he exhibits a spirit of somewhat rude opposition to his own times. +These poems are perhaps based on reminiscences of Berni, but at any rate +they indicate a resolute determination to assail boldly all the literary +conventionalities that surrounded the author. This, however, was only +the beginning of the battle. Parini lived in times of great social +prostration. The nobles and the rich, all given up to ease and to silly +gallantry, consumed their lives in ridiculous trifles or in shameless +self-indulgence, wasting themselves on immoral "Cicisbeismo," and +offering the most miserable spectacle of feebleness of mind and +character. It was against this social condition that Parini's muse was +directed. Already, improving on the poems of his youth, he had proved +himself an innovator in his lyrics, rejecting at once Petrarchism, +Secentismo and Arcadia, the three maladies that had weakened Italian art +in the centuries preceding his own, and choosing subjects taken from +real life, such as might help in the instruction of his contemporaries. +In the _Odi_ the satirical note is already heard. But it came out more +strongly in the poem _Del giorno_, in which he imagines himself to be +teaching a young Milanese patrician all the habits and ways of gallant +life; he shows up all its ridiculous frivolities, and with delicate +irony unmasks the futilities of aristocratic habits. Dividing the day +into four parts, the Mattino, the Mezzogiorno, the Vespero, the Notte, +by means of each of these he describes the trifles of which they were +made up, and the book thus assumes a social and historical value of the +highest importance. Parini, satirizing his time, fell back upon truth, +and finally made art serve the purpose of civil morality. As an artist, +going straight back to classical forms, aspiring to imitate Virgil and +Dante, he opened the way to the fine school that we shall soon see rise, +that of Alfieri, Foscolo and Monti. As a work of art, the _Giorno_ is +wonderful for the Socratic skill with which that delicate irony is +constantly kept up by which he seems to praise what he effectually +blames. The verse has new harmonies; sometimes it is a little hard and +broken, not by accident, but as a protest against the Arcadian monotony. +Generally it flows majestically, but without that Frugonian droning that +deafens the ears and leaves the heart cold. + + + Gozzi; Baretti. + +Gasparo Gozzi's satire was less elevated, but directed towards the same +end as Parini's. In his _Osservatore_, something like Addison's +_Spectator_, in his _Gazzetta veneta_, in the _Mondo morale_, by means +of allegories and novelties he hit the vices with a delicate touch, and +inculcated a practical moral with much good sense. Gozzi's satire has +some slight resemblance in style to Lucian's. It is smooth and light, +but withal it does not go less straight to its aim, which is to point +out the defects of society and to correct them. Gozzi's prose is very +graceful and lively. It only errs by its overweening affectation of +imitating the writers of the 14th century. Another satirical writer of +the first half of the 18th century was Giuseppe Baretti of Turin. In a +journal called the _Frusta letteraria_ he took to lashing without mercy +the works which were then being published in Italy. He had learnt much +by travelling; and especially his long stay in England had contributed +to give an independent character to his mind, and made him judge of men +and things with much good sense. It is true that his judgments are not +always right, but the _Frusta letteraria_ was the first book of +independent criticism directed particularly against the Arcadians and +the pedants. + + + Dramatic reform. + +Everything tended to improvement, and the character of the reform was to +throw off the conventional, the false, the artificial, and to return to +truth. The drama felt this influence of the times. Apostolo Zeno and +Metastasio (the Arcadian name for Pietro Trapassi, a native of Rome) had +endeavoured to make "melodrama and reason compatible." The latter in +particular succeeded in giving fresh expression to the affections, a +natural turn to the dialogue and some interest to the plot; and if he +had not fallen into constant unnatural over-refinement and unseasonable +mawkishness, and into frequent anachronisms, he might have been +considered as the first dramatic reformer of the 18th century. That +honour belongs to Carlo Goldoni, a Venetian. He found comedy either +entirely devoted to classical imitation or given up to extravagance, to +_coups de theatre_, to the most boisterous succession of unlikely +situations, or else treated by comic actors who recited impromptu on a +given subject, of which they followed the outline. In this old popular +form of comedy, with the masks of pantaloon, of the doctor, of +harlequin, of Brighella, &c., Goldoni found the strongest obstacles to +his reform. But at last he conquered, creating the comedy of character. +No doubt Moliere's example helped him in this. Goldoni's characters are +always true, but often a little superficial. He studied nature, but he +did not plunge into psychological depths. In most of his creations, the +external rather than the internal part is depicted. In this respect he +is much inferior to Moliere. But on the other hand he surpasses him in +the liveliness of the dialogue, and in the facility with which he finds +his dramatic situations. Goldoni wrote much, in fact too much (more than +one hundred and fifty comedies), and had no time to correct, to polish, +to perfect his works, which are all rough cast. But for a comedy of +character we must go straight from Machiavelli's _Mandragora_ to him. +Goldoni's dramatic aptitude is curiously illustrated by the fact that he +took nearly all his types from Venetian society, and yet managed to give +them an inexhaustible variety. A good many of his comedies were written +in Venetian dialect, and these are perhaps the best. + + + Patriotic literature and return to classicism. + +The ideas that were making their way in French society in the 18th +century, and afterwards brought about the Revolution of 1789, gave a +special direction to Italian literature of the second half of the 18th +century. Love of ideal liberty, desire for equality, hatred of tyranny, +created in Italy a literature which aimed at national objects, seeking +to improve the condition of the country by freeing it from the double +yoke of political and religious despotism. But all this was associated +with another tendency. The Italians who aspired to a political +redemption believed that it was inseparable from an intellectual +revival, and it seemed to them that this could only be effected by a +reunion with ancient classicism--in other words, by putting themselves +in more direct communication with ancient Greek and Latin writers. This +was a repetition of what had occurred in the first half of the 15th +century. The 17th century might in fact be considered as a new Italian +Middle Age without the hardness of that iron time, but corrupted, +enervated, overrun by Spaniards and French, an age in which previous +civilization was cancelled. A reaction was necessary against that period +of history, and a construction on its ruins of a new country and a new +civilization. There had already been forerunners of this movement; at +the head of them the revered Parini. Now the work must be completed, and +the necessary force must once more be sought for in the ancient +literature of the two classic nations. + + + Alfieri (1749-1803). + +Patriotism and classicism then were the two principles that inspired the +literature which began with Alfieri. He worshipped the Greek and Roman +idea of popular liberty in arms against the tyrant. He took the subjects +of his tragedies almost invariably from the history of these nations, +made continual apostrophes against the despots, made his ancient +characters talk like revolutionists of his time; he did not trouble +himself with, nor think about, the truth of the characters; it was +enough for him that his hero was Roman in name, that there was a tyrant +to be killed, that liberty should triumph in the end. But even this did +not satisfy Alfieri. Before his time and all about him there was the +Arcadian school, with its foolish verbosity, its empty abundance of +epithets, its nauseous pastoralizing on subjects of no civil importance. +It was necessary to arm the patriotic muse also against all this. If the +Arcadians, not excluding the hated Metastasio, diluted their poetry with +languishing tenderness, if they poured themselves out in so many words, +if they made such set phrases, it behoved the others to do just the +contrary--to be brief, concise, strong, bitter, to aim at the sublime as +opposed to the lowly and pastoral. Having said this, we have told the +good and evil of Alfieri. He desired a political reform by means of +letters; he saved literature from Arcadian vacuities, leading it towards +a national end; he armed himself with patriotism and classicism in order +to drive the profaners out of the temple of art. But in substance he was +rather a patriot than an artist. In any case the results of the new +literary movement were copious. + + + Foscolo. + +Ugo Foscolo was an eager patriot, who carried into life the heat of the +most unbridled passion, and into his art a rather rhetorical manner, but +always one inspired by classical models. The _Lettere di Jacopo Ortis_, +inspired by Goethe's _Werther_, are a love story with a mixture of +patriotism; they contain a violent protest against the treaty of Campo +Formio, and an outburst from Foscolo's own heart about an unhappy +love-affair of his. His passions were sudden and violent; they came to +an end as abruptly as they began; they were whirlwinds that were over in +a quarter of an hour. To one of these passions _Ortis_ owed its origin, +and it is perhaps the best, the most sincere, of all his writings. Even +in it he is sometimes pompous and rhetorical, but much less so than he +is, for example, in the lectures _Dell' origine e dell' ufficio della +letteratura_. On the whole, Foscolo's prose is turgid and affected, and +reflects the character of the man who always tried to pose, even before +himself, in dramatic attitudes. This was indeed the defect of the +Napoleonic epoch; there was a horror of anything common, simple, +natural; everything must be after the model of the hero who made all the +world gaze with wonder at him; everything must assume some heroic shape. +In Foscolo this tendency was excessive; and it not seldom happened that, +in wishing to play the hero, the exceptional man, the little Napoleon of +ladies' drawing-rooms, he became false and bad, false in his art, bad in +his life. The _Sepolcri_, which is his best poem, was prompted by high +feeling, and the mastery of versification shows wonderful art. Perhaps +it is to this mastery more than to anything else that the admiration the +_Sepolcri_ excites is due. There are most obscure passages in it, as to +the meaning of which it would seem as if even the author himself had not +formed a clear idea. He left incomplete three hymns to the Graces, in +which he sang of beauty as the source of courtesy, of all high qualities +and of happiness. Here again what most excites our admiration is the +harmonious and easy versification. Among his prose works a high place +belongs to his translation of the _Sentimental Journey_ of Sterne, a +writer by whom one can easily understand how Foscolo should have been +deeply affected. He went as an exile to England, and died there. He +wrote for English readers some _Essays_ on Petrarch and on the texts of +the _Decamerone_ and of Dante, which are remarkable for the time at +which they were written, and which may be said to have initiated a new +kind of literary criticism in Italy. Foscolo is still greatly admired, +and not without reason. His writings stimulate the love of fatherland, +and the men that made the revolution of 1848 were largely brought up on +them. + + + Monti. + +If in Foscolo patriotism and classicism were united, and formed almost +one passion, so much cannot be said of Vincenzo Monti, in whom the +artist was absolutely predominant. Yet Monti was a patriot too, but in +his own way. He had no one deep feeling that ruled him, or rather the +mobility of his feelings is his characteristic; but each of these was a +new form of patriotism, that took the place of an old one. He saw danger +to his country in the French Revolution, and wrote the _Pellegrino +apostolico_, the _Bassvilliana_ and the _Feroniade_; Napoleon's +victories caused him to write the _Prometeo_ and the _Musagonia_; in his +_Fanatismo_ and his _Superstizione_ he attacked the papacy; afterwards +he sang the praises of the Austrians. Thus every great event made him +change his mind, with a readiness which might seem incredible, but is +yet most easily explained. Monti was above everything an artist; art was +his real, his only passion; everything else in him was liable to change, +that alone was persistent. Fancy was his tyrant, and under its rule he +had no time to reason and to see the miserable aspect of his political +tergiversation. It was an overbearing deity that moved him, and at its +dictation he wrote. Pius VI., Napoleon, Francis II., were to him but +passing shadows, to which he hardly gives the attention of an hour; that +which endures, which is eternal to him, is art alone. It were unjust to +accuse Monti of baseness. If we say that nature in giving him one only +faculty had made the poet rich and the man poor, we shall speak the +truth. But the poet was indeed rich. Knowing little Greek, he succeeded +in making a translation of the _Iliad_ which is remarkable for its +Homeric feeling, and in his _Bassvilliana_ he is on a level with Dante. +In fine, in him classical poetry seemed to revive in all its florid +grandeur. + + + Niccolini. + +Monti was born in 1754, Foscolo in 1778; four years later still was born +another poet of the same school, Giambattista Niccolini. In literature +he was a classicist; in politics he was a Ghibelline, a rare exception +in Guelph Florence, his birthplace. In translating or, if the +expression is preferred, imitating Aeschylus, as well as in writing the +_Discorsi sulla tragedia greca_, and on the _Sublime e Michelangelo_, +Niccolini displayed his passionate devotion to ancient literature. In +his tragedies he set himself free from the excessive rigidity of +Alfieri, and partly approached the English and German tragic authors. He +nearly always chose political subjects, striving to keep alive in his +compatriots the love of liberty. Such are _Nabucco_, _Antonio +Foscarini_, _Giovanni da Procida_, _Lodovico il Moro_, &c. He assailed +papal Rome in _Arnaldo da Brescia_, a long tragic piece, not suited for +acting, and epic rather than dramatic. Niccolini's tragedies show a rich +lyric vein rather than dramatic genius. At any rate he has the merit of +having vindicated liberal ideas, and of having opened a new path to +Italian tragedy. + + + Historians. + +The literary period we are dealing with had three writers who are +examples of the direction taken by historical study. It seems strange +that, after the learned school begun by Muratori, there should have been +a backward movement here, but it is clear that this retrogression was +due to the influence of classicism and patriotism, which, if they +revived poetry, could not but spoil history. Carlo Botta, born in 1766, +was a spectator of French spoliation in Italy and of the overbearing +rule of Napoleon. Hence, excited by indignation, he wrote a _History of +Italy from 1789 to 1814_; and later on he continued Guicciardini's +_History_ up to 1789. He wrote after the manner of the Latin authors, +trying to imitate Livy, putting together long and sonorous periods in a +style that aimed at being like Boccaccio's, caring little about that +which constitutes the critical material of history, only intent on +declaiming his academic prose for his country's benefit. Botta wanted to +be classical in a style that could no longer be so, and hence he failed +completely to attain his literary goal. His fame is only that of a man +of a noble and patriotic heart. Not so bad as the two histories of Italy +is that of the _Guerra dell' indipendenza americana_. + +Close to Botta comes Pietro Colletta, a Neapolitan born nine years after +him. He also in his _Storia del reame di Napoli dal 1734 al 1825_ had +the idea of defending the independence and liberty of Italy in a style +borrowed from Tacitus; and he succeeded rather better than Botta. He has +a rapid, brief, nervous style, which makes his book attractive reading. +But it is said that Pietro Giordani and Gino Capponi corrected it for +him. Lazzaro Papi of Lucca, author of the _Commentari della rivoluzione +francese dal 1789 al 1814_, was not altogether unlike Botta and +Colletta. He also was an historian in the classical style, and treats +his subject with patriotic feeling; but as an artist he perhaps excels +the other two. + + + The Purists. + +At first sight it seems unnatural that, whilst the most burning +political passions were raging, and whilst the most brilliant men of +genius in the new classical and patriotic school were at the height of +their influence, a question should have arisen about "purism" of +language. Yet the phenomenon can be easily accounted for. Purism is +another form of classicism and patriotism. In the second half of the +18th century the Italian language was specially full of French +expressions. There was great indifference about fitness, still more +about elegance of style. Prose then was to be restored for the sake of +national dignity, and it was believed that this could not be done except +by going back to the writers of the 14th century, to the "aurei +trecentisti," as they were called, or else to the classics of Italian +literature. One of the promoters of the new school was Antonio Cesari of +Verona, who republished ancient authors, and brought out a new edition, +with additions, of the _Vocabolario della Crusca_. He wrote a +dissertation _Sopra lo stato presente della lingua italiana_, and +endeavoured to establish the supremacy of Tuscan and of the three great +writers Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio. And in accordance with that +principle he wrote several books, taking pains to copy the "trecentisti" +as closely as possible. But patriotism in Italy has always had something +municipal in it; so to this Tuscan supremacy, proclaimed and upheld by +Cesari, there was opposed a Lombard school, which would know nothing of +Tuscan, and with Dante's _De vulgari eloquio_ returned to the idea of +the "lingua illustre." This was an old question, largely and bitterly +argued in the Cinquecento (16th century) by Varchi, Muzio, Castelvetro, +Speroni and others. Now the question came up again quite fresh, as if no +one had ever discussed it before. At the head of the Lombard school were +Monti and his son-in-law Count Giulio Perticari. This gave Monti an +occasion to write _Proposta di alcune correzioni ed aggiunte al +vocabolario della Crusca_, in which he attacked the Tuscanism of the +_Crusca_, but in a graceful and easy style, such in fact as to form a +prose that is one of the most beautiful in Italian literature. Perticari +on the other hand, with a very inferior intellect, narrowed and +exasperated the question in two treatises, _Degli scrittori del +Trecento_ and _Dell' amor patrio di Dante_, in which, often disguising +or altering the facts, he only makes confusion where there was none. +Meantime, however, the impulse was given. The dispute about language +took its place beside literary and political disputes, and all Italy +took part in it--Basilio Puoti at Naples, Paolo Costa in the Romagna, +Marc' Antonio Parenti at Modena, Salvatore Betti at Rome, Giovanni +Gherardini in Lombardy, Luigi Fornaciari at Lucca, Vincenzo Nannucci at +Florence. + + + Giordani. + +A patriot, a classicist and a purist all at once was Pietro Giordani, +born in 1774; he was almost a compendium of the literary movement of the +time. His whole life was a battle fought for liberty. Most learned in +Greek and Latin authors, and in the Italian trecentisti, he only left a +few writings behind him, but they were carefully elaborated in point of +style, and his prose was in his time considered wonderful. Now it is +looked on as too majestic, too much laboured in phrases and conceits, +too far from nature, too artificial. Giordani closes the literary epoch +of the classicists. + + + Manzoni. + +7. _Nineteenth Century and After._--At this point the contemporary +period of literature begins. It has been said that the first impulse was +given to it by the romantic school, which had as its organ the +_Conciliatore_ established in 1818 at Milan, and on the staff of which +were Silvio Pellico, Lodovico di Breme, Giovile Scalvini, Tommaso +Grossi, Giovanni Berchet, Samuele Biava and lastly Alessandro Manzoni. +It need not be denied that all these men were influenced by the ideas +that, especially in Germany, at the beginning of the 19th century +constituted the movement called Romanticism. Nevertheless, in Italy the +course of literary reform took another direction. There is no doubt that +the real head of the reform, or at least its most distinguished man, was +Alessandro Manzoni. He formulated in a letter of his the objects of the +new school, saying that it aspired to try and discover and express "il +vero storico" and "il vero morale," not only as an end, but as the +widest and eternal source of the beautiful. And it is precisely realism +in art that characterizes Italian literature from Manzoni onwards. The +_Promessi Sposi_ is the one of his works that has made him immortal. No +doubt the idea of the historical novel came to him from Sir Walter +Scott, but he succeeded in something more than an historical novel in +the narrow meaning of that word; he created an eminently realistic work +of art. The romance disappears; no one cares for the plot, which +moreover is of very little consequence. The attention is entirely fixed +on the powerful objective creation of the characters. From the greatest +to the least they have a wonderful verisimilitude; they are living +persons standing before us, not with the qualities of one time more than +another, but with the human qualities of all time. Manzoni is able to +unfold a character in all particulars, to display it in all its aspects, +to follow it through its different phases. He is able also to seize one +moment, and from that moment to make us guess all the rest. Don Abbondio +and Renzo are as perfect as Azzeccagarbugli and Il Sarto. Manzoni dives +down into the innermost recesses of the human heart, and draws thence +the most subtle psychological reality. In this his greatness lies, which +was recognized first by his companion in genius, Goethe. As a poet too +he had gleams of genius, especially in the Napoleonic ode, _Il Cinque +Maggio_, and where he describes human affections, as in some stanzas of +the _Inni_ and in the chorus of the _Adelchi_. But it is on the +_Promessi Sposi_ alone that his fame now rests. + + + Leopardi. + +The great poet of the age was Leopardi, born thirteen years after +Manzoni at Recanati, of a patrician family, bigoted and avaricious. He +became so familiar with Greek authors that he used afterwards to say +that the Greek mode of thought was more clear and living to his mind +than the Latin or even the Italian. Solitude, sickness, domestic +tyranny, prepared him for profound melancholy. From this he passed into +complete religious scepticism, from which he sought rest in art. +Everything is terrible and grand in his poems, which are the most +agonizing cry in modern literature, uttered with a solemn quietness that +at once elevates and terrifies us. But besides being the greatest poet +of nature and of sorrow, he was also an admirable prose writer. In his +_Operette morali_--dialogues and discourses marked by a cold and bitter +smile at human destinies which freezes the reader--the clearness of +style, the simplicity of language and the depth of conception are such +that perhaps he is not only the greatest lyrical poet since Dante, but +also one of the most perfect writers of prose that Italian literature +has had. + + + Political literature. + +As realism in art gained ground, the positive method in criticism kept +pace with it. From the manner of Botta and Colletta history returned to +its spirit of learned research, as is shown in such works as the +_Archivio storico italiano_, established at Florence by Giampietro +Vieusseux, the _Storia d' Italia nel medio evo_ by Carlo Troya, a +remarkable treatise by Manzoni himself, _Sopra alcuni punti della storia +longobardica in Italia_, and the very fine history of the _Vespri +siciliani_ by Michele Amari. But alongside of the great artists Leopardi +and Manzoni, alongside of the learned scholars, there was also in the +first half of the 19th century a patriotic literature. To a close +observer it will appear that historical learning itself was inspired by +the love of Italy. Giampietro Vieusseux had a distinct political object +when in 1820 he established the monthly review _Antologia_. And it is +equally well known that his _Archivio storico italiano_ (1842) was, +under a different form, a continuation of the _Antologia_, which was +suppressed in 1833 owing to the action of the Russian government. +Florence was in those days the asylum of all the Italian exiles, and +these exiles met and shook hands in Vieusseux's rooms, where there was +more literary than political talk, but where one thought and one only +animated all minds, the thought of Italy. + +The literary movement which preceded and was contemporary with the +political revolution of 1848 may be said to be represented by four +writers--Giuseppe Giusti, Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi, Vincenzo +Gioberti and Cesare Balbo. Giusti wrote epigrammatic satires in popular +language. In incisive phrase he scourged the enemies of Italy; his +manner seemed very original, but it really was partly imitated from +Beranger. He was a telling political writer, but a mediocre poet. +Guerrazzi had a great reputation and great influence, but his historical +novels, though read with ferverish avidity before 1848, are now almost +forgotten. Gioberti, a powerful polemical writer, had a noble heart and +a great mind; his philosophical works are now as good as dead, but the +_Primato morale e civile degli Italiani_ will last as an important +document of the times, and the _Gesuita moderno_ will live as the most +tremendous indictment ever written against the Jesuits. Balbo was an +earnest student of history, and made history useful for politics. Like +Gioberti in his first period, Balbo was zealous for the civil papacy, +and for a federation of the Italian states presided over by it. His +_Sommario della storia d' Italia_ is an excellent epitome. (A. Ba.) + + + Contemporary literature. + +After the year 1850 political literature becomes less important, one of +the last poets distinguished in this _genre_ being Francesco dall' +Ongaro, with his _stornelli politici_. For details as to the works of +recent writers, reference may be made to the separate biographical +articles, and here a summary must suffice. Giovanni Prati and Aleardo +Aleardi continue romantic traditions. The dominating figure of this +later period, however, is Giosue Carducci, the opponent of the Romantics +and restorer of the ancient metres and spirit, who, great as a poet, was +scarcely less distinguished as a literary critic and historian. Other +classical poets are Giuseppe Chiarini, Domenico Guoli, Arturo Graf, +Guido Mazzoni and Giovanni Marradi, of whom the two last named may +perhaps be regarded as special disciples of Carducci, while another, +Giovanni Pascoli, best known by his _Myricae_ and _Poemetti_, only began +as such. Enrico Panzacchi (b. 1842) was at heart still a romantic. +Olindo Guerrini (who wrote under the pseudonym of Lorenzo Stecchetti) is +the chief representative of _veriomo_ in poetry, and, though his early +works obtained a _succes de scandale_, he is the author of many lyrics +of intrinsic value. Alfredo Baccelli and Mario Rapisardi are epic poets +of distinction. Felice Cavallotti is the author of the stirring _Marcia +de Leonida_. Among dialect writers, the great Roman poet Giuseppe +Gioachino Belli has found numerous successors, such as Renato Fucini +(Pisa), Berto Barbarini (Verona) and Cesare Pascarella (Rome). Among the +women poets, Ada Negri, with her socialistic _Fatalita_ and _Tempeste_, +has achieved a great reputation; and others, such as Vittoria Aganoor, +A. Brunacci-Brunamonti and Annie Vivanti, are highly esteemed in Italy. + +Among the dramatists, Pietro Cossa in tragedy, Gherardi del Testa, +Ferdinando Martini and Paolo Ferrari in comedy, represent the older +schools. More modern methods were adopted by Giuseppe Giacosa and +Gerolamo Rovetta. + +In fiction, the historical romance has fallen into disfavour, though +Emilio de Marchi has written some good examples in this genre. The novel +of intrigue was cultivated by Anton Giulio Barrili and Salvatore Farina, +the psychological novel by Enrico Annibale Butti, the realistic local +tale by Giovanni Verga, the mystic philosophical novel by Antonio +Fogazzaro. Edmondo de Amicis, perhaps the most widely read of all modern +Italians, has written acceptable fiction, though his moral works and +travels are more generally known. Of the women novelists, Matilde Serao +and Grazia Deledda have become deservedly popular. + +Gabriele d' Annunzio has produced original work in poetry, drama and +fiction, of extraordinary quality. He began with some lyrics which were +distinguished no less by their exquisite beauty of form than by their +licence, and these characteristics reappeared in a long series of poems, +plays and novels. D' Annunzio's position as a man of the widest literary +and artistic culture is undeniable, and even his sternest critics admit +his mastery of the Italian tongue, based on a thorough knowledge of +Italian literature from the earliest times. But with all his genius, his +thought is unhealthy and his pessimism depressing; the beauty of his +work is the beauty of decadence. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the more aesthetic accounts of Italian + literature, those of Emiliano Giudici (Florence, 1855) and Francesco + de Sanctis (Naples, 1870) are still the best. Two histories of real + scientific value were interrupted by the death of the authors: that of + Adolfo Bartoli (Florence, 1879-1899) breaking off in the 14th century, + and that of Gaspary (Berlin, 1884-1889; English version, so far only + down to the death of Dante, London, 1901) breaking off before Tasso (a + completion being undertaken by Wendriner). Bartoli's article in the + 9th edition of this encyclopaedia has been reproduced, with some + slight revision, above. Among the many recent Italian works, the most + important is the elaborate series of volumes contributing the _Storia + lett. d' Italia scritta da una societa di professori_ (1900 sqq.): + Giussani, _Lett. romana_; Novati, _Origini della lingua_; Zingarelli, + _Dante_; Volpi, _Il Trecento_; Rossi, _Il Quattrocento_; Flamini, _Il + Cinquecento_; Belloni, _Il Seicento_; Concari, _Il Settecento_; + Mazzoni, _L' Ottocento_. Each volume has a full bibliography. + Important German works, besides Gaspary, are those of Wilse and + Percopo (illustrated; Leipzig, 1899), and of Casini (in Grober's + _Grundr. der rom. Phil._, Strassburg, 1896-1899). English students are + referred to Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_ (especially, but not + exclusively, vols. iv. and v.; new ed., London, 1902), and to R. + Garnett's _History of Italian Literature_ (London, 1898). (H. O.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Giesebrecht, _De litterarum studiis apud Italos primis + mediaevi saeculis_ (Berlin, 1845.) + + [2] See Gaspary, _Die sicilianische Dichterschule des 13ten + Jahrhunderts_ (Berlin, 1878). + + [3] _Storia della repubblica di Firenze_ (Florence, 1876). + + + + +ITALIAN WARS (1848-1870), a generic name for the series of wars for +Italian unity which began with the Milan insurrection of the 18th of +March 1848 and closed with the capture of Rome by the Italians on the +20th of September 1870. For their Italian political interest see ITALY: +_History_. The present article deals with certain campaigns of +distinctively military importance, viz. 1848-49, 1859 and 1866, in the +first and third of which the centre of gravity of the nationalist +movement was the Piedmontese regular army, and in the second the French +army commanded by Napoleon III. On the other side the Austrian army was +throughout the basis of the established order of things, settled at the +Congress of Vienna on the theory that Italy was "a geographical +expression." Side by side with these regular armies, each of which was a +special type, there fought national levies of widely varying kinds, and +thus practically every known form of military service, except the fully +organized "nation in arms" (then peculiar to Prussia) made its +appearance in the field. Further, these wars constitute the greater part +of European military history between Waterloo and Koniggratz--a +bridge--if a broken one--between Napoleon and Moltke. They therefore +present a considerable technical interest, wholly apart from their +historical importance and romantic interest. + + +AUSTRO-SARDINIAN WAR OF 1848-1849 + +From about 1846 the spirit of revolt against foreign domination had +gathered force, and two years later, when Europe was on the verge of a +revolutionary outburst, the struggle for Italian unity was initiated by +the insurrection at Milan. At this moment the Austrian army in Lombardy, +practically a highly-trained force of long-service professional +soldiers, was commanded by Radetzky, one of the greatest generals in +Austrian history. Being, however, virtually an army of occupation, it +was broken up into many garrisons, and in all was not more than 70,000 +strong, so that after five days' fighting in the streets of Milan, +Radetzky did as Wellington had proposed to do in 1817 when his army of +occupation in France was threatened by a national rising, and withdrew +to a concentration area to await reinforcements. This area was the +famous Quadrilateral, marked by the fortresses of Mantua, Verona, +Peschiera and Legnago, and there, in the early days of April, the +scattered fractions of the Austrians assembled. Lombardy and Venetia had +followed the example of Milan, and King Charles Albert of Sardinia, +mobilizing the Piedmontese army in good time, crossed the frontier, with +45,000 regulars two days after the Austrians had withdrawn from Milan. +Had the insurrectionary movements and the advance of the Piedmontese +been properly co-ordinated, there can be little doubt that some, at any +rate, of the Austrian detachments would have been destroyed or injured +in their retreat, but as it was they escaped without material losses. +The blow given to Austrian prestige by the revolt of the great cities +was, however, so severe that the whole peninsula rallied to Charles +Albert. Venice, reserving a garrison for her own protection, set on foot +an improvised army 11,000 strong on the mainland; some 5000 Lombards and +9000 insurgents from the smaller duchies gathered on both sides of the +Po; 15,000 Papal troops under Durando and 13,000 Neapolitans under the +old patriot general Pepe moved up to Ferrara and Bologna respectively, +and Charles Albert with the Piedmontese advanced to the Mincio at the +beginning of April. His motley command totalled 96,000 men, of whom, +however, only half were thoroughly trained and disciplined troops. The +reinforcements available in Austria were about 25,000 disciplined troops +not greatly inferior in quality to Radetzky's own veterans. Charles +Albert could call up 45,000 levies at a few weeks' notice, and +eventually all the resources of the patriot party. + + The regular war began in the second week of April on the Mincio, the + passages of which river were forced and the Austrian advanced troops + driven back on the 8th (action of Goito) and 9th. Radetzky maintained + a careful defensive, and the king's attempts to surprise Peschiera + (14th) and Mantua (19th) were unsuccessful. But Peschiera was closely + invested, though it was not forced to capitulate until the end of May. + Meantime the Piedmontese army advanced towards Verona, and, finding + Radetzky with a portion of his army on their left flank near + Pastrengo, swung northward and drove him over the Adige above Verona, + but on turning towards Verona they were checked (action of Pastrengo + 28th-30th April and battle of Santa Lucia di Verona, 6th May). + + Meantime the Austrian reinforcements assembled in Carniola under an + Irish-born general, Count Nugent von Westmeath (1777-1862) and entered + Friuli. Their junction with the field marshal was in the last degree + precarious, every step of their march was contested by the levies and + the townsmen of Venetia. The days of rifled artillery were not yet + come, and a physical obstacle to the combined movements of trained + regulars and a well-marked line of defence were all that was necessary + to convert even medieval walled towns into centres of effective + resistance. When the spirit of resistance was lacking, as it had been + for example in 1799 (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), the importance of + the walled towns corresponded simply to their material strength, which + was practically negligible. But throughout the campaign of 1848-1849, + the essential moral conditions of defence being present, the Austrians + were hampered by an endless series of minor sieges, in which the + effort expended was out of all proportion to the success achieved. + + + Radetzky in the Quadrilateral. + + Nugent, however, pressed on, though every day weakened by small + detachments, and, turning rather than overpowering each obstacle as it + was encountered, made his way slowly by Belluno to Vicenza and Treviso + and joined Radetzky at Verona on the 25th of May. The latter then for + a moment took the offensive, passing around the right flank of the + loyal army by way of Mantua (actions of Curtatone, 29th May, and + Goito, 30th May), but, failing of the success he expected he turned + swiftly round and with 30,000 men attacked the 20,000 Italians (Papal + troops, volunteers, Neapolitans) under Durando, who had established + themselves across his line of communication at Vicenza, drove them + away and reoccupied Vicenza (9th June), where a second body of + reinforcements from Trent, clearing the Brenta valley (Val Sugana) as + they advanced, joined him, the king meanwhile being held in check by + the rest of Radetzky's army. + + After beating down resistance in the valleys of the Brenta and Piave, + the field marshal returned to Verona. Charles Albert had now some + 75,000 men actually in hand on the line of high ground, S. + Giustina-Somma Campagna, and made the mistake of extending + inordinately so as to cover his proposed siege of Mantua. Napoleon, + fifty years before on the same ground (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), + had only with great difficulty solved this same problem by the + economical grouping and resolute handling of his forces, and Charles + Albert, setting out his forces _en cordon_, was weak at all points of + his long front of 45 m. Thus Radetzky, gathering his forces opposite + the king's centre (Sona, Somma Campagna), was able to break it (23rd + July). The Piedmontese, however, fell back steadily, and 25,000 of + them collected at Villafranca, whence on the 24th they + counter-attacked and regained the heights at Custozza and Somma + Campagna that they had lost. Radetzky, however, took the offensive + again next morning and having succeeded in massing half of his army + opposite to one quarter of the Piedmontese, was completely victorious + (first battle of Custozza, 24th-25th July). Pursuing vigorously, the + Austrians drove the king over the Mincio (action of Volta, 26th-27th), + the Chiese, the Adda and the Ticino into his own dominions, Milan + being reoccupied without fighting. The smaller bands of patriots were + one after the other driven over the borders or destroyed. Venice alone + held out to the end. Besieged by land and water, and bombarded as + well, she prolonged her resistance until October 1849, long after the + war had everywhere else come to an end. + +The first campaign for unity had ended in complete failure, thanks to +the genius of Radetzky and the thorough training, mobility and handiness +of his soldiers. During the winter of 1848-1849--for, to avoid +unnecessary waste of his precious veterans, Radetzky let the Piedmontese +army retire unmolested over the Ticino--Charles Albert took energetic +measures to reorganize, refit and augment his army. But his previous +career had not fitted him to meet the crisis. With aspirations for unity +he sympathized, and to that ideal he was soon to sacrifice his throne, +but he had nothing in common with the distinctively revolutionary party, +with whom circumstances had allied him. Radicalism, however, was a more +obvious if a less real force than nationalism, and Charles Albert made +it a fatal concession in appointing the Polish general Albert +Chrzanowski (1788-1861) his principal adviser and commander-in-chief--an +appointment that alienated the generals and the army, while scarcely +modifying the sentiments of distrust with which the Liberal party +regarded the king.[1] + + + Campaign of Novara. + + In March the two main armies were grouped in the densely intersected + district between Milan, Vercelli and Pavia (see sketch map below), + separated by the Ticino, of which the outposts of either side watched + the passages. Charles Albert had immediately in hand 65,000 men, some + 25,000 more being scattered in various detachments to right and left. + Radetzky disposed of 70,000 men for field operations, besides + garrisons. The recovery of Milan, the great city that had been the + first to revolt, seemed to the Italians the first objective of the + campaign. It was easier indeed to raise the whole country in arms than + to crush the field-marshal's regulars, and it was hoped that Radetzky + would, on losing Milan, either retire to Lodi and perhaps to Mantua + (as in 1848), or gather his forces for battle before Milan. Radetzky + himself openly announced that he would take the offensive, and the + king's plans were framed to meet this case also. Two-thirds of the + army, 4 divisions, were grouped in great depth between Novara, + Galliate and Castelnuovo. A little to the right, at Vespolate and + Vigevano, was one division under Durando, and the remaining division + under Ramorino was grouped opposite Pavia with orders to take that + place if possible, but if Radetzky advanced thence, to fall back + fighting either on Mortara or Lomello,[2] while the main body + descended on the Austrian flank. The grouping both of Ramorino and of + the main body--as events proved in the case of the latter--cannot be + seriously criticized, and indeed one is almost tempted to assume that + Chrzanowski considered the case of Radetzky's advance on Mortara more + carefully than that of his own advance on Milan. But the seething + spirit of revolt did not allow the army that was Italy's hope to stand + still at a foreign and untried general's dictation and await + Radetzky's coming. On the 19th of March orders were issued to the main + body for the advance on Milan and on the 20th one division, led by the + king himself, crossed the Ticino at San Martino. + + But no Austrians were encountered, and such information as was + available indicated that Radetzky was concentrating to his left on the + Pavia-Lodi road. Chrzanowski thereupon, abandoning (if indeed he ever + entertained) the idea of Radetzky's retirement and his own triumphal + march on Milan, suspended the advance. His fears were justified, for + that evening he heard that Ramorino had abandoned his post and taken + his division across the Po. After the war this general was shot for + disobedience, and deservedly, for the covering division, the fighting + flank-guard on which Chrzanowski's defensive-offensive depended, was + thus withdrawn at the moment when Radetzky's whole army was crossing + the Ticino at Pavia and heading for Mortara.[3] + + The four Austrian corps began to file across the Ticino at noon on the + 20th, and by nightfall the heads of Radetzky's columns were at + Zerbolo, Gambolo and La Cava, the reserve at Pavia, a flank-guard + holding the Cava-Casatisma road over the Po against the contingency of + Ramorino's return, and the two brigades that had furnished the + outposts along the Ticino closing on Bereguardo. + + + Action of Mortara. + + Chrzanowski, however, having now to deal with a foreseen case, gave + his orders promptly. To replace Ramorino, the 1st division was ordered + from Vespolate through Mortara to Trumello; the 2nd division from + Cerano to push south on Vigevano; the reserve from Novara to Mortara; + the remainder to follow the 2nd division. Had the 1st division been + placed at Mortara instead of Vespolate in the first instance the story + of the campaign might have been very different, but here again, though + to a far less culpable degree, a subordinate general's default + imperilled the army. Durando (21st March), instead of pushing on as + ordered to Trumello to take contact with the enemy, halted at Mortara. + The reserve also halted there and deployed west of Mortara to guard + against a possible attack from San Giorgio. The Sardinian advanced + guard on the other road reached Borgo San Siro, but there met and was + driven back by Radetzky's II. corps under Lieut. Field Marshal d' + Aspre (1789-1850), which was supported by the brigades that now + crossed at Bereguardo. But the Italians were also supported, the + Austrians made little progress, and by nightfall the Sardinian II., + III. and IV. divisions had closed up around Vigevano. Radetzky indeed + intended his troops on the Vigevano road to act simply as a defensive + flank-guard and had ordered the rest of his army by the three roads, + Zerbolo-Gambolo, Gropello-Trumello and Lomello-San Giorgio, to + converge on Mortara. The rearmost of the two corps on the Gambolo road + (the I.) was to serve at need as a support to the flank-guard, and, + justly confident in his troops, Radetzky did not hesitate to send a + whole corps by the eccentric route of Lomello. And before nightfall an + important success had justified him, for the II. corps from Gambolo, + meeting Durando outside Mortara had defeated him before the Sardinian + reserve, prematurely deployed on the other side of the town, could + come to his assistance. The remaining corps of Radetzky's army were + still short of Mortara when night came, but this could hardly be well + known at the royal headquarters, and, giving up the slight chances of + success that a counterstroke from Vigevano on Mortara offered, + Chrzanowski ordered a general concentration on Novara. This was + effected on the 22nd, on which day Radetzky, pushing out the II. corps + towards Vespolate, concentrated the rest at Mortara. That the Italians + had retired was clear, but it was not known whither, and, precisely as + Napoleon had done before Marengo (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), he + sent one corps to seize the king's potential line of retreat, + Novara-Vercelli, kept one back at Mortara--ready, it may be presumed, + to grapple an enemy coming from Vigevano--and engaged the other three + in a single long column, widely spaced out, on the Novara road. Thus + it came about that on the 23rd d' Aspre's II. corps encountered + Charles Albert's whole army long before the III. and Reserve could + join it. The battle of Novara was, nevertheless, as great an event in + the history of the Imperial-Royal Army as Marengo in that of the + French. + + + Novara. + + First the II. corps, and then the II. and III. together attacked with + the utmost resolution, and as the hours went by more and more of the + whitecoats came on the field until at last the IV. corps, swinging + inward from Robbio, came on to the flank of the defence. This was no + mere strategical triumph; the Austrians, regiment for regiment, were + more than a match for the Italians and the result was decisive. + Charles Albert abdicated, and the young Victor Emmanuel II., his + successor, had to make a hasty armistice. + +After Novara, the first great struggle for Italian unity was no more +than a spasmodic, if often desperate, struggle of small bodies of +patriots and citizens of walled towns to avert the inevitable. The +principal incidents in the last phase were the siege of Venice, the sack +of Brescia by the merciless Haynau and the capture of Rome by a French +expeditionary corps under General Oudinot. + + +THE ITALIAN WAR OF 1859 + +The campaign of Magenta and Solferino took place ten years later. +Napoleon III., himself an ex-_carbonaro_, and the apostle of the theory +of "nationalities," had had his attention and his ambitions drawn +towards the Italian problem by the attempt upon his life by Orsini. The +general political horizon was by no means clear at the end of 1858, and +on the 1st of January 1859 the emperor of the French publicly expressed +to the Austrian ambassador his regret that "our relations are not so +good as heretofore." This was regarded by all concerned as a prelude to +war, and within a short time a treaty and a marriage-contract allied +Sardinia with the leading European power. In the smaller Italian states, +as before, the governments were on the side of Austria and the +"settlement of 1815," and the peoples on that of United Italy. The +French still maintained a garrison in Rome to support the pope. The +thorny question of the temporal power _versus_ the national movement was +not yet in the foreground, and though Napoleon's support of the former +was later to prove his undoing, in 1859 the main enemy was Austria and +the paramount factor was the assistance of 200,000 French regulars in +solving the immediate problem. + +The Sardinian army, reconstituted by La Marmora with the definite object +of a war for union and rehabilitated by its conduct in the Crimea, was +eager and willing. The French army, proud of its reputation as the +premier army in the world, and composed, three-fourths of it, of +professional soldiers whose gospel was the "Legend," welcomed a return +to the first Napoleon's battle-grounds, while the emperor's ambitions +coincided with his sentiments. Austria, on the other hand, did not +desire war. Her only motive of resistance was that it was impossible to +cede her Italian possessions in face of a mere threat. To her, even more +than to France and infinitely more than to Italy, the war was a +political war, a "war with a limited aim" or "stronger form of +diplomatic note"; it entirely lacked the national and personal spirit of +resistance which makes even a passive defence so powerful. + +Events during the period of tension that preceded the actual declaration +of war were practically governed by these moral conditions. Such +advantages as Austria possessed at the outset could only be turned to +account, as will presently appear, by prompt action. But her army system +was a combination of conscription and the "nation in arms," which for +the diplomatic war on hand proved to be quite inadequate. Whereas the +French army was permanently on a two-thirds war footing (400,000 peace, +600,000 war), that of Austria required to be more than doubled on +mobilization by calling in reservists. Now, the value of reservists is +always conditioned by the temper of the population from which they come, +and it is more than probable that the indecision of the Austrian +government between January and April 1859 was due not only to its desire +on general grounds to avoid war, but also, and perhaps still more, to +its hopes of averting it by firmness, without having recourse to the +possibly dangerous expedient of a real mobilization. A few years before +the method of "bluffing" had been completely successful against Prussia. +But the Prussian reservist of 1850 did not want to fight, whereas the +French soldier of 1859 desired nothing more ardently. + + + Mobilization. + +In these conditions the Austrian preparations were made sparingly, but +with ostentation. The three corps constituting the Army of Italy +(commanded since Radetzky's death in 1858 by Feldzeugmeister Count Franz +Gyulai (1798-1863)), were maintained at war efficiency, but not at war +strength (corps averaging 15,000). Instead, however, of mobilizing them, +the Vienna government sent an army corps (III.) from Vienna at peace +strength in January. This was followed by the II. corps, also at peace +strength, in February, and the available field force, from that point, +could have invaded Piedmont at once.[4] The initial military situation +was indeed all in favour of Austria. Her mobilization was calculated to +take ten weeks, it is true, but her concentration by rail could be much +more speedily effected than that of the French, who had either to cross +the Alps on foot or to proceed to Genoa by sea and thence by one line of +railway to the interior. Further, the demands of Algeria, Rome and other +garrisons, the complicated political situation and the consequent +necessity of protecting the French coasts against an English attack,[5] +and still more the Rhine frontier against Prussia and other German +states (a task to which the greatest general in the French army, +Pelissier, was assigned), materially reduced the size of the army to be +sent to Italy. But the Austrian government held its hand, and the +Austrian commander, apparently nonplussed by the alternation of +quiescence and boldness at Vienna, asked for full mobilization and +turned his thoughts to the Quadrilateral that had served Radetzky so +well in gaining time for the reserves to come up. March passed away +without an advance, and it was not until the 5th of April that the +long-deferred order was issued from Vienna to the reservists to join the +II., III., V., VII. and VIII. corps in Italy. And, after all, Gyulai +took the field, at the end of April, with most of his units at +three-quarters of their war strength.[6] On the side of the allies the +Sardinians mobilized 5 infantry and 1 cavalry divisions, totalling +64,000, by the third week in April. A few days later Austria sent an +ultimatum to Turin. This was rejected on the 26th, war being thereupon +declared. As for the French, the emperor's policy was considerably in +advance of his war minister's preparations. The total of about 130,000 +men (all that could be spared out of 500,000) for the Italian army was +not reached until operations were in progress; and the first troops only +entered Savoy or disembarked in Genoa on the 25th and 26th of April. + + + Austrian movements. + +Thus, long as the opening had been delayed, there was still a period +after both sides had resolved on and prepared for war, during which the +Austrians were free to take the offensive. Had the Austrians crossed the +frontier instead of writing an ultimatum on the 19th of April, they +would have had from a week to a fortnight to deal with the Sardinians. +But even the three or four days that elapsed between the declaration and +the arrival of the first French soldiers were wasted. Vienna ordered +Gyulai to take the offensive on the 27th, but it was not until the 30th +that the Austrian general crossed the Ticino. His movements were +unopposed, the whole of the Sardinian army having concentrated (by +arrangement between La Marmora and Marshal Canrobert) in a flank +position between Casale and Alessandria, where it covered Turin +indirectly and Genoa, the French disembarkation port, directly. +Gyulai's left was on the 2nd of May opposite the allied centre, and his +right stretched as far as Vercelli.[7] On the 3rd he planned a +concentric attack on King Victor Emmanuel's position, and parts of his +scheme were actually put into execution, but he suspended it owing to +news of the approach of the French from Genoa, supply difficulties +(Radetzky, the inheritor of the 18th-century traditions, had laid it +down that the soldier must be well fed and that the civilian must not be +plundered, conditions which were unfavourable to mobility) and the heavy +weather and the dangerous state of the rivers. + +[Illustration: Map.] + + + Austrians grouped at Mortara. + +Gyulai then turned his attention to the Sardinian capital. Three more +days were spent in a careful flank march to the right, and on the 8th of +May the army (III., V. and VII.) was grouped about Vercelli, with +outposts 10-14 m. beyond the Sesia towards Turin, reserves (II. and +VIII.) round Mortara, and a flank-guard detached from Benedek's VIII. +corps watching the Po. The extreme right of the main body skirmished +with Garibaldi's volunteers on the edge of the Alpine country. The Turin +scheme was, however, soon given up. Bivouacs, cancelled orders and +crossings of marching columns all contributed to exhaust the troops +needlessly. On the 9th one corps (the V.) had its direction and +disposition altered four times, without any change in the general +situation to justify this. In fact, the Austrian headquarters were full +of able soldiers, each of whom had his own views on the measures to be +taken and a certain measure of support from Vienna--Gyulai, Colonel Kuhn +his chief of staff, and Feldzeugmeister Hess, who had formerly played +Gneisenau to Radetzky's Blucher. But what emerges most clearly from the +movements of these days is that Gyulai himself distrusted the offensive +projects he had been ordered to execute, and catching apparently at some +expression of approval given by the emperor, had determined to imitate +Radetzky in "a defensive based on the Quadrilateral." His immediate +intention, on abandoning the advance on Turin was to group his army +around Mortara and to strike out as opportunity offered against the +heads of the allied columns wherever they appeared. Meantime, the IX. +corps had been sent to Italy, and the I. and XI. were mobilizing. These +were to form the I. Army, Gyulai's the II. The latter was by the 13th of +May grouped in the Lomellina, one third (chiefly VII. corps) spread by +brigades fanwise from Vercelli along the Sesia and Po to Vaccarizza, two +thirds massed in a central position about Mortara. There was still no +information of the enemy's distribution, except what was forwarded from +Vienna or gathered by the indefatigable Urban's division, which moved +from Milan to Biella, thence to Brescia and Parma, and back to Lombardy +in search of revolutionary bands, and the latter's doings in the nature +of things could not afford any certain inferences as to the enemy's +regular armies. + +On the side of the allies, the Piedmontese were grouped on the 1st of +May in the fortified positions selected for them by Canrobert about +Valenza-Casale-Alessandria. The French III. corps arrived on the 2nd and +3rd and the IV. corps on the 7th at Alessandria from Genoa. Unhampered +by Gyulai's offensive, though at times and places disquieted by his +minor reconnaissances, the allies assembled until on the 16th the French +were stationed as follows: I. corps, Voghera and Pontecurone, II., Sale +and Bassignana, III., Tortona, IV., Valenza, Guard, Alessandria, and the +king's army between Valenza and Casale. The V. French corps under Prince +Napoleon had a political mission in the duchies of middle Italy; one +division of this corps, however, followed the main army. On the eve of +the first collision the emperor Napoleon, commanding in chief, had in +hand about 100,000 French and about 60,000 Sardinian troops (not +including Garibaldi's enlisted volunteers or the national guard). +Gyulai's II. Army was nominally of nearly equal force to that of the +allies, but in reality it was only about 106,000 strong in combatants. + + + Montebello. + +The first battle had no relation to the strategy contemplated by the +emperor, and was still less a part of the defence scheme framed by +Gyulai. The latter, still pivoting on Mortara, had between the 14th and +19th drawn his army somewhat to the left, in proportion as more and more +of the French came up from Genoa. He had further ordered a +reconnaissance in force in the direction of Voghera by a mixed corps +drawn from the V., Urban's division and the IX. (the last belonging to +the I. Army). The saying that "he who does not know what he wants, yet +feels that he must do something, appeases his conscience by a +reconnaissance in force," applies to no episode more forcibly than to +the action of Montebello (20th May) where Count Stadion, the commander +of the V. corps, not knowing what to reconnoitre, engaged disconnected +fractions of his available 24,000 against the French division of Forey +(I. corps), 8000 strong, and was boldly attacked and beaten, with a loss +of 1400 men against Forey's 700. + + + Flank march of the Allies. + +Montebello had, however, one singular result: both sides fell back and +took defensive measures. The French headquarters were already +meditating, if they had not actually resolved upon, a transfer of all +their forces from right to left, to be followed by a march on Milan (a +scheme inspired by Jomini). But the opening of the movement was +suspended until it became quite certain that Stadion's advance meant +nothing, while Gyulai (impressed by Forey's aggressive tactics) +continued to stand fast, and thus it was not until the 28th that the +French offensive really began.[8] The infantry of the French III. corps +was sent by rail from Pontecurone to Casale, followed by the rest of the +army, which marched by road. To cover the movement D'Autemarre's +division of Prince Napoleon's corps (V.) was posted at Voghera and one +division of the king's army remained at Valenza. The rest of the +Piedmontese were pushed northward to join Cialdini's division which was +already at Vercelli. The emperor's orders were for Victor Emmanuel to +push across the Sesia and to take post at Palestro on the 30th to cover +the crossing of the French at Vercelli. This the king carried out, +driving back outlying bodies of the enemy in spite of a stubborn +resistance and the close and difficult character of the country. Hearing +of the fighting, Gyulai ordered the recapture of Palestro by the II. +corps, but the Sardinians during the night strengthened their positions +and the attack (31st) was repulsed with heavy loss. These two initial +successes of the allies, the failures in Austrian tactics and leadership +which they revealed, and the fatigues and privation to which indifferent +staff work had exposed his troops, combined to confirm Gyulai in his now +openly expressed intention of "basing his defensive on the +Quadrilateral." And indeed his only alternatives were now to fall back +or to concentrate on the heads of the French columns as soon as they had +passed the Sesia about Vercelli. Faithful to his view of the situation +he adopted the former course (1st June). The retreat began on the 2nd, +while the French were still busied in closing up. Equally with the +Austrians, the French were the victims of a system of marching and +camping that, by requiring the tail of the columns to close up on the +head every evening, reduced the day's net progress to 6 or 7 m., +although the troops were often under arms for fourteen or fifteen hours. +The difference between the supreme commands of the rival armies lay not +in the superior generalship of one or the other, but in the fact that +Napoleon III. as sovereign knew what he wanted and as general pursued +this object with much energy, whereas Gyulai neither knew how far his +government would go nor was entire "master in his own house." + + + Austrian retreat. + + French advance to the Ticino. + +The latter became very evident in his retreat. Kuhn, the chief of staff, +who was understood to represent the views of the general staff in +Vienna, had already protested against Gyulai's retrograde movement, and +on the 3rd Hess appeared from Vienna as the emperor's direct +representative and stopped the movement. It was destined to be resumed +after a short interval, but meanwhile the troops suffered from the +orders and counter-orders that had marked every stage in the Austrian +movements and were now intensified instead of being removed by higher +intervention. Meanwhile (June 1-2) the allies had regrouped themselves +east of the Sesia for the movement on Milan. The IV. corps, driving out +an Austrian detachment at Novara, established itself there, and was +joined by the II. and Guard. The king's army, supported by the I. and +III. corps, was about Vercelli, with cavalry far out to the front +towards Vespolate. From Novara, the emperor, who desired to give his +troops a rest-day on the 2nd, pushed out first a mixed reconnaissance +and then in the afternoon two divisions to seize the crossing of the +Ticino, Camou's of the Guard on Turbigo, Espinasse's of the II. corps on +San Martino. Further the whole of the Vercelli group was ordered to +advance on the 3rd to Novara and Galliate, where Napoleon would on the +4th have all his forces, except one division, beyond Gyulai's right and +in hand for the move on Milan. The division sent to Turbigo bridged the +river and crossed in the night of the 2nd/3rd, that at San Martino (on +the main road) occupied the bridge-head and also the river bridge +itself, though the latter was damaged. Espinasse's division here was +during the night replaced by a Guard division and went to join a growing +assembly of troops under General MacMahon, which established itself at +Turbigo and Robecchetto on the morning of the 3rd. Lastly, in order to +make sure that no attack was impending from the direction of Mortara, +Napoleon sent General Niel with a mixed reconnoitring force thither, +which returned without meeting any Austrian forces--fortunately for +itself, if the fate of the "reconnaissance in force" at Montebello +proves anything. + + The centre of gravity was now at Buffalora, a village on the main + Milan road at the point where it crosses the Naviglio Grande. Here, on + the night of the 1st, Count Clam-Gallas, commanding the Austrian I. + corps (which had just arrived in Italy and was to form part of the + future I. Army) had posted a division, with a view to occupying the + bridge-head of San Martino. On inspecting the latter Clam-Gallas + concluded that it was indefensible, and, ordering the San Martino road + and railway bridges to be destroyed (an order which was only + partially executed), he called on Gyulai for support, sent out + detachments to the right against the French troops reported at + Turbigo, and prepared to hold his ground at Buffalora. On receipt of + Clam-Gallas's report at the Austrian headquarters, Hess ordered the + resumption of the retreat that he had countermanded, but it was + already late and many of the troops did not halt for the night till + midnight, June 3rd/4th. Gyulai promised them the 4th as a rest-day, + but fortune ordered it otherwise. This much at least was in favour of + the Austrians, that when the troops at last reached their assigned + positions four-fifths of them were within 12 m. of the battlefield. + But, as before, the greater part of the army was destined to be + chained to "supporting positions" well back from the battlefield. + + + Battle of Magenta. + + When day broke on the 4th, the emperor of the French was still + uncertain as to Gyulai's whereabouts, and his intention was therefore + no more than to secure the passage of the Ticino and to place his army + on both sides of the river, in sufficient strength to make head + against Gyulai, whether the latter advanced from Mortara and Vigevano + or from Abbiategrasso. He therefore kept back part of the French army + and the whole of the Sardinian. But during the morning it became known + that Gyulai had passed the Ticino on the evening of the 3rd; and + Napoleon then ordered up all his forces to San Martino and Turbigo. + The battlefield of Magenta is easily described. It consists of two + level plateaux, wholly covered with vineyards, and between them the + broad and low-lying valley of the Ticino. This, sharply defined by the + bluffs of the adjoining plateaux, is made up of backwaters, channels, + water meadows and swampy woods. At Turbigo the band of low ground is + 1(1/2) m. wide, at Buffalora 2(1/2). Along the foot of the eastern or + Austrian bluffs between Turbigo and Buffalora runs the Grand Canal + (Naviglio Grande); this, however, cuts into the plateau itself at the + latter place and trending gradually inwards leaves a tongue of high + ground separate from the main plateau. The Novara-Milan road and + railway, crossing the Ticino by the bridge of San Martino, pass the + second obstacle presented by the canal by the New Bridges of Magenta, + the Old Bridge being 1000 yards south of these. The canal is bridged + at several points between Turbigo and Buffalora, and also at Robecco, + 1(1/2) m. to the (Austrian) left of the Old Bridge. Clam-Gallas's main + line of defence was the canal between Turbigo and the Old Bridge, + skirmishers being posted on the tongue of high ground in front of the + New Bridges, which were kept open for their retreat. He had been + joined by the II. corps and disposed of 40,000 men, 27,000 more being + at Abbiategrasso (2(1/2) m. S. of Robecco). Of his immediate command, + he disposed about 12,000 for the defence of the New Bridges, 12,000 + for that of Buffalora, 8000 at Magenta and 8000 at Robecco; all + bridges, except the New Bridges, were broken. Cavalry played no part + whatever, and artillery was only used in small force to fire along + roads and paths. + + Napoleon, as has been mentioned, spent the morning of the 4th in + ascertaining that Gyulai had repassed the Ticino. Being desirous + merely of securing the passage and having only a small force available + for the moment at San Martino, he kept this back in the hope that + MacMahon's advance from Turbigo on Magenta and Buffalora would + dislodge the Austrians. MacMahon advanced in two columns, 2 divisions + through Cuggiono and 1 through Inveruno. The former drove back the + Austrian outposts with ease, but on approaching Buffalora found so + serious a resistance that MacMahon broke off the fight in order to + close up and deploy his full force. Meantime, however, on hearing the + cannonade Napoleon had ordered forward Mellinet's division of the + Guard on the New Bridges and Buffalora. The bold advance of this + _corps d'elite_ carried both points at once, but the masses of the + allies who had been retained to meet a possible attack from Mortara + and Vigevano were still far distant and Mellinet was practically + unsupported. Thus the French, turning towards the Old Bridge, found + themselves (3.30 P.M.) involved in a close fight with some 18,000 + Austrians, and meantime Gyulai had begun to bring up his III. and VII. + corps towards Robecco and (with Hess) had arrived on the field + himself. The VII. corps, on its arrival, drove Mellinet back to and + over the New Bridges, but the French, now broken up into dense swarms + of individual fighters, held on to the tongue of high ground and + prevented the Austrians from destroying the bridges, while the + occupants of Buffalora similarly held their own, and beyond them + MacMahon, advancing through orchards and vineyards in a line of battle + 2 m. long, slowly gained ground towards Magenta. The III. Austrian + corps, meanwhile, arriving at Robecco spread out on both sides of the + canal and advanced to take the defenders of the New Bridges in rear, + but were checked by fresh French troops which arrived from San Martino + (4 P.M.). The struggle for the New and Old Bridges continued till 6 + P.M., more and more troops being drawn into the vortex, but at last + the Austrians, stubbornly defending each vineyard, fell back on + Magenta. But while nearly all the Austrian reinforcements from the + lower Ticino had successively been directed on the bridges, MacMahon + had only had to deal with the 8000 men who had originally formed the + garrison of Magenta. The small part of the reinforcing troops that had + been directed thither by Gyulai before he was aware of the situation, + had in consequence no active role defined in their orders and + (initiative being then regarded as a vice) they stood fast while + their comrades were beaten. But it was not until after sunset that the + thronging French troops at last broke into Magenta and the victory was + won. The splendid Austrian cavalry (always at a disadvantage in Italy) + found no opportunity to redress the balance, and their slow-moving and + over-loaded infantry, in spite of its devotion, was no match in broken + country for the swift and eager French. The forces engaged were 54,000 + French (one-third of the allied army) to 58,000 Austrians (about half + of Gyulai's total force). Thus the fears of Napoleon as regards an + Austrian attack from Mortara-Vigevano neutralized the bad distribution + of his opponent's force, and Magenta was a fair contest of equal + numbers. The victory of the French was palpably the consequence not of + luck or generalship but of specific superiority in the soldier. The + great result of the battle was therefore a conviction, shared by both + sides, that in future encounters nothing but exceptional good fortune + or skilful generalship could give the Austrians victory. The + respective losses were: French 4000 killed and wounded and 600 + missing, Austrians 5700 killed and wounded, 4500 missing. + + + Melegnano. + +While the fighting was prolonged to nightfall, the various corps of the +Austrian army had approached, and it was Gyulai's intention to resume +the battle next day with 100,000 men. But Clam-Gallas reported that the +I. and II. corps were fought out, and thereupon Gyulai resolved to +retreat on Cremona and Mantua, leaving the great road Milan-Brescia +unused, for the townsmen's patriotism was sharpened by the remembrance +of Haynau, "the Hyena of Brescia." Milan and Pavia were evacuated on the +5th, Hess departed to meet the emperor Francis Joseph (who was coming to +take command of the united I. and II. Armies), and although Kuhn was +still in favour of the offensive Gyulai decided that the best service he +could render was to deliver up the army intact to his sovereign on the +Mincio. On the 8th of June Napoleon and Victor Emmanuel made their +triumphal entry into Milan, while their corps followed up rather than +pursued the retreating enemy along the Lodi and Cremona roads. On the +same day, the 8th of June, the I. and II. French corps, under the +general command of Marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers, attacked an Austrian +rearguard (part of VIII. corps, Benedek) at the village of Melegnano. +MacMahon with the II. corps was to turn the right flank, the IV. the +left of the defenders, while Baraguay attacked in front. But MacMahon, +as at Magenta, deployed into a formal line of battle before closing on +the village, and his progress through the vineyards was correspondingly +slow. The IV. corps was similarly involved in intricate country, but +Baraguay, whose corps had not been present at Magenta, was burning to +attack, and being a man _aussi dur a ses soldats qu'a lui-meme_, he +delivered the frontal attack about 6 P.M. without waiting for the +others. This attack, as straightforward, as brusque, and as destitute of +tactical refinements as that of the Swiss on that very ground in 1515 +(Marignan), was carried out, without "preparation," by Bazaine's +division _a la baionnette_. Benedek was dislodged, but retreated safely, +having inflicted a loss of over 1000 men on the French, as against 360 +in his own command. + +After Melegnano, as after Magenta, contact with the retiring enemy was +lost, and for a fortnight the story of the war is simply that of a +triumphal advance of the allies and a quiet retirement and +reorganization of the Austrians. Up to Magenta Napoleon had a +well-defined scheme and executed it with vigour. But the fierceness of +the battle itself had not a little effect on his strange dreamy +character, and although it was proved beyond doubt that under reasonable +conditions the French must win in every encounter, their emperor turned +his attention to dislodging rather than to destroying the enemy. War +clouds were gathering elsewhere--on the Rhine above all. The simple +brave promise to free Italy "from the Alps to the Adriatic" became +complicated by many minor issues, and the emperor was well content to +let his enemy retire and to accelerate that retirement by manoeuvre as +far as might be necessary. He therefore kept on the left of his +adversary's routes as before, and about the 20th of June the whole +allied army (less Cialdini's Sardinian division, detached to operate on +the fringe of the mountain country) was closely grouped around +Montechiaro on the Chiese. It now consisted of 107,000 French and 48,000 +Sardinians (combatants only). + + + Austrians on the Mincio. + +The Austrians had disappeared into the Quadrilateral, where the emperor +Francis Joseph assumed personal command, with Hess as his chief of +staff. Gyulai had resigned the command of the II. Army to Count Schlick, +a cavalry general of 70 years of age. The I. Army was under Count +Wimpffen. But this partition produced nothing but evil. The imperial +headquarters still issued voluminous detailed orders for each corps, and +the intervening army staff was a cause not of initiative or of +simplification, but of unnecessary delay. The direction of several +armies, in fact, is only feasible when general directions (_directives_ +as they are technically called) take the place of orders. All the +necessary conditions for working such a system--uniformity of training, +methods and doctrine in the recipients, abstention from interference in +details by the supreme command--were wanting in the Austrian army of +1859. The I. Army consisted of the III., IX. and XI. corps with one +cavalry division and details, 67,000 in all; the II. Army of the I., V., +VII. and VIII. corps, one cavalry division and details or 90,000 +combatants--total 160,000, or practically the same force as the allies. +The emperor had made several salutary changes in the administration, +notably an order to the infantry to send their heavy equipment and +parade full-dress into the fortresses, which enormously lightened the +hitherto overburdened infantryman. At this moment the political omens +were favourable, and gathering the impression from his outpost reports +that the French were in two halves, separated by the river Chiese, the +young emperor at last accepted Hess's advice to resume the offensive, in +view of which Gyulai had left strong outposts west of the Mincio, when +the main armies retired over that river, and had maintained and +supplemented the available bridges. + +[Illustration: Map of Solferino.] + +The possibility of such a finale to the campaign had been considered but +dismissed at the allied headquarters, where it was thought that if the +Austrians took the offensive it would be on their own side, not the +enemy's, of the Mincio and in the midst of the Quadrilateral. Thus the +advance of the French army on the 24th was simply to be a general move +to the line of the Mincio, preparatory to forcing the crossings, coupled +with the destruction of the strong outpost bodies that had been left by +the Austrians at Solferino, Guidizzolo, &c. The Austrians, who advanced +over the Mincio on the 23rd, also thought that the decisive battle would +take place on the third or fourth day of their advance. Thus, although +both armies moved with all precautions as if a battle was the immediate +object, neither expected a collision, and Solferino was consequently a +pure encounter-battle. + + + Battle of Solferino. + + Speaking generally, the battlefield falls into two distinct halves, + the hilly undulating country, of which the edge (almost everywhere + cliff-like) is defined by Lonato, Castiglione, Cavriana and Volta, and + the plain of Medole and Guidizzolo. The village of Solferino is within + the elevated ground, but close to the edge. Almost in the centre of + the plateau is Pozzolengo, and from Solferino and Pozzolengo roads + lead to crossing places of the Mincio above Volta (Monzambano-Salionze + and Valeggio). These routes were assigned to the Piedmontese (44,000) + and the French left wing (I., II. and Guard, 57,000), the plain to the + III. and IV. corps and 2 cavalry divisions (50,000). On the other side + the Austrians, trusting to the defensive facilities of the plateau, + had directed the II. Army and part of the I. (86,000) into the plain, + 2 corps of the I. Army (V. and I.) on Solferino-Cavriana (40,000), and + only the VIII. corps (Benedek), 25,000 strong, into the heart of the + undulating ground. One division was sent from Mantua towards Marcaria. + Thus both armies, though disposed in parallel lines, were grouped in + very unequal density at different points in these lines. + + The French orders for the 24th were--Sardinian army on Pozzolengo, I. + corps Esenta to Solferino, II. Castiglione to Cavriana, IV. with two + cavalry divisions, Carpenedolo to Guidizzolo, III. Mezzane to Medole + by Castel Goffredo; Imperial Guard in reserve at Castiglione. On the + other side the VIII. corps from Monzambano was to reach Lonato, the + remainder of the II. Army from Cavriana, Solferino and Guidizzolo to + Esenta and Castiglione, and the I. Army from Medole, Robecco and + Castel Grimaldo towards Carpenedolo. At 8 A.M. the head of the French + I. corps encountered several brigades of the I. Army in advance of + Solferino. The fighting was severe, but the French made no progress. + MacMahon advancing on Guidizzolo came upon a force of the Austrians at + Casa Morino and (as on former occasions) immediately set about + deploying his whole corps in line of battle. Meanwhile masses of + Austrian infantry became visible on the edge of the heights near + Cavriana and the firing in the hills grew in intensity. Marshal + MacMahon therefore called upon General Niel on his right rear to + hasten his march. The latter had already expelled a small body of the + Austrians from Medole and had moved forward to Robecco, but there more + Austrian masses were found, and Niel, like MacMahon, held his hand + until Canrobert (III. corps) should come up on his right. But the + latter, after seizing Castel Goffredo, judged it prudent to collect + his corps there before actively intervening. Meantime, however, + MacMahon had completed his preparations, and capturing Casa Morino + with ease, he drove forward to a large open field called the Campo di + Medole; this, aided by a heavy cross fire from his artillery and part + of Niel's, he carried without great loss, Niel meantime attacking Casa + Nuova and Robecco. But the Austrians had not yet developed their full + strength, and the initial successes of the French, won against + isolated brigades and battalions, were a mere prelude to the real + struggle. Meanwhile the stern Baraguay d'Hilliers had made ceaseless + attacks on the V. corps at Solferino, where, on a steep hill + surmounted by a tower, the Austrian guns fired with great effect on + the attacking masses. It was not until after midday, and then only + because it attacked at the moment when, in accordance with an often + fatal practice of those days, the Austrian V. corps was being relieved + and replaced by the I., that Forey's division of the I. corps, + assisted by part of the Imperial Guard, succeeded in reaching the + hill, whereupon Baraguay stormed the village and cemetery of Solferino + with the masses of infantry that had gradually gathered opposite this + point. By 2 P.M. Solferino was definitively lost to the Austrians. + + During this time MacMahon had taken, as ordered, the direction of + Cavriana, and was by degrees drawn into the fighting on the heights. + Pending the arrival of Canrobert--who had been alarmed by the reported + movement of an Austrian force on his rear (the division from Mantua + above mentioned) and having given up his cavalry to Niel was unable to + explore for himself--Niel alone was left to face the I. Army. But + Count Wimpffen, having been ordered at 11 to change direction towards + Castiglione, employed the morning in redistributing his intact troops + in various "mutually supporting positions," and thus the forces + opposing Niel at Robecco never outnumbered him by more than 3 to 2. + Niel, therefore, attacking again and again and from time to time + supported by a brigade or a regiment sent by Canrobert, not only held + his own but actually captured Robecco. About the same time MacMahon + gained a foothold on the heights between Solferino and Cavriana, and + as above mentioned, Baraguay had stormed Solferino and the tower hill. + The greater part of the II. Austrian Army was beaten and in retreat on + Valeggio before 3 P.M. But the Austrian emperor had not lost hope, and + it was only a despairing message from Wimpffen, who had suffered least + in the battle, that finally induced him to order the retreat over the + Mincio. On the extreme right Benedek and the VIII. corps had fought + successfully all day against the Sardinians, this engagement being + often known by the separate name of the battle of San Martino. On the + left Wimpffen, after sending his despondent message, plucked up heart + afresh and, for a moment, took the offensive against Niel, who at + last, supported by the most part of Canrobert's corps, had reached + Guidizzolo. In the centre the Austrian rearguard held out for two + hours in several successive positions against the attacks of MacMahon + and the Guard. But the battle was decided. A violent storm, the + exhaustion of the assailants, and the firm countenance of Benedek, + who, retiring from San Martino, covered the retreat of the rest of the + II. Army over the Mincio, precluded an effective pursuit. + + The losses on either side had been: Allies, 14,415 killed and wounded + and 2776 missing, total 17,191; Austrians, 13,317 killed and wounded, + 9220 missing, total 22,537. The heaviest losses in the French army + were in Niel's corps (IV.), which lost 4483, and in Baraguay + d'Hilliers' (I.), which lost 4431. Of the total of 17,191, 5521 was + the share of the Sardinian army, which in the battle of San Martino + had had as resolute an enemy, and as formidable a position to attack, + as had Baraguay at Solferino. On the Austrian side the IX. corps, + which bore the brunt of the fighting on the plain, lost 4349 and the + V. corps, that had defended Solferino, 4442. Solferino, in the first + instance an encounter-battle in which each corps fought whatever enemy + it found in its path, became after a time a decisive trial of + strength. In the true sense of the word, it was a soldier's battle, + and the now doubly-proved superiority of the French soldier being + reinforced by the conviction that the Austrian leaders were incapable + of neutralizing it by superior strategy, the war ended without further + fighting. The peace of Villafranca was signed on the 11th of July. + + +THE CAMPAIGN OF 1866 + +In the seven years that elapsed between Solferino and the second battle +of Custozza the political unification of Italy had proceeded rapidly, +although the price of the union of Italy had been the cession of Savoy +and Nice to Napoleon III. Garibaldi's irregulars had in 1860 overrun +Sicily, and regular battles, inspired by the same great leader, had +destroyed the kingdom of Naples on the mainland (Volturno, 1st-2nd +October 1860). At Castelfidardo near Ancona on the 18th of September in +the same year Cialdini won another victory over the Papal troops +commanded by Lamoriciere. In 1866, then, Italy was no longer a +"geographical expression," but a recognized kingdom. Only Rome and +Venetia remained of the numerous, disunited and reactionary states set +up by the congress of Vienna. The former, still held by a French +garrison, was for the moment an unattainable aim of the liberators, but +the moment for reclaiming Venetia, the last relic of the Austrian +dominions in Italy, came when Austria and Prussia in the spring of 1866 +prepared to fight for the hegemony of the future united Germany (see +SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). + +The new Italian army, formed on the nucleus of the Sardinian army and +led by veterans of Novara and Solferino, was as strong as the whole +allied army of 1859, but in absorbing so many recruits it had +temporarily lost much of its efficiency. It was organized in four corps, +of which one, under Cialdini, was detached from the main body. +Garibaldi, as before, commanded a semi-regular corps in the Alpine +valleys, but being steadily and skilfully opposed by Kuhn, Gyulai's +former chief of staff, he made little or no progress during the brief +campaign, on which indeed his operations had no influence. The main +Austrian army, still the best-trained part of the emperor's forces, had +been, up to the verge of the war, commanded by Benedek, but Benedek was +induced to give up his place to the archduke Albert, and to take up the +far harder task of commanding against the Prussians in Bohemia. It was +in fact a practically foregone conclusion that in Italy the Austrians +would win, whereas in Bohemia it was more than feared that the Prussians +would carry all before them. But Prussia and Italy were allied, and +whatever the result of a battle in Venetia, that province would have to +be ceded in the negotiations for peace with a victorious Prussia. Thus +on the Austrian side the war of 1866 in Italy was, even more than the +former war, simply an armed protest against the march of events. + + + Second Battle of Custozza. + +The part of Hess in the campaign of Solferino was played with more +success in that of Custozza by Major-General Franz, Freiherr von John +(1815-1876). On this officer's advice the Austrian army, instead of +remaining behind the Adige, crossed that river on the 23rd of June and +took up a position on the hills around Pastrengo on the flank of the +presumed advance of Victor Emmanuel's army. The latter, crossing the +Mincio the same day, headed by Villafranca for Verona, part of it in the +hills about Custozza, Somma-Campagna and Castelnuovo, partly on the +plain. The object of the king and of La Marmora, who was his adviser, +was by advancing on Verona to occupy the Austrian army (which was only +about 80,000 strong as against the king's 120,000), while Cialdini's +corps from the Ferrara region crossed the lower Po and operated against +the Austrian rear. The archduke's staff, believing that the enemy was +making for the lower Adige in order to co-operate directly with +Cialdini's detachment, issued orders for the advance on the 24th so as +to reach the southern edge of the hilly country, preparatory to +descending upon the flank of the Italians next day. However, the latter +were nearer than was supposed, and an encounter-battle promptly began +for the possession of Somma-Campagna and Custozza. The king's army was +unable to use its superior numbers and, brigade for brigade, was much +inferior to its opponents. The columns on the right, attempting in +succession to debouch from Villafranca in the direction of Verona, were +checked by two improvised cavalry brigades under Colonel Pulz, which +charged repeatedly, with the old-fashioned cavalry spirit that Europe +had almost forgotten, and broke up one battalion after another. In the +centre the leading brigades fought in vain for the possession of +Custozza and the edge of the plateau, and on the left the divisions that +had turned northward from Valeggio into the hills were also met and +defeated. About 5 P.M. the Italians, checked and in great disorder, +retreated over the Mincio. The losses were--Austrians, 4600 killed and +wounded and 1000 missing; Italians, 3800 killed and wounded and 4300 +missing. The archduke was too weak in numbers to pursue, his losses had +been considerable, and a resolute offensive, in the existing political +conditions, would have been a mere waste of force. The battle necessary +to save the honour of Austria had been handsomely won. Ere long the bulk +of the army that had fought at Custozza was transported by rail to take +part in defending Vienna itself against the victorious Prussians. One +month later Cialdini with the re-organized Italian army, 140,000 strong, +took the field again, and the 30,000 Austrians left in Venetia retreated +to the Isonzo without engaging. + +In spite of Custozza and of the great defeat sustained by the Italian +navy at the hands of Tegetthof near Lissa on the 20th of July, Venetia +was now liberated and incorporated in the kingdom of Italy, and the +struggle for unity, that had been for seventeen years a passionate and +absorbing drama, and had had amongst its incidents Novara, Magenta, +Solferino and the Garibaldian conquest of the Two Sicilies, ended in an +anti-climax. + +Three years later the cards were shuffled, and Austria, France and Italy +were projecting an offensive alliance against Prussia. This scheme came +to grief on the Roman question, and the French chassepot was used for +the first time in battle against Garibaldi at Mentana, but in 1870 +France was compelled to withdraw her Roman garrison, and with the assent +of their late enemy Austria, the Italians under Cialdini fought their +way into Rome and there established the capital of united Italy. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The war of 1848-49 has been somewhat neglected by + modern military historians, but the following are useful: _Der Feldzug + der osterr. Armee in Italien 1848-49_ (Vienna, 1852); Gavenda, + _Sammlung aller Armeebefehle u.s.w. mit Bezug auf die Hauptmomente des + Krieges_ 1848-49; Major H. Kunz, _Feldzuge des F. M. Radetzki in + Oberitalien_ (Berlin, 1900), and Major Adams, _Great Campaigns_. Both + the French and the Austrian governments issued official accounts + (_Campagne de Napoleon III en Italie 1859_, _Der Krieg in Italien + 1859_) of the war of 1859. The standard critical work is _Der + italienische Feldzug 1859_ by the German general staff (practically + dictated by Moltke). Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen, who had + many friends in the Austrian army, deals with the Magenta campaign in + vol. i. of his _Letters on Strategy_. General Silvestre's _Etude sur + la campagne de 1859_ was published in 1909. In English, Col. H. C. + Wylly, _Magenta and Solferino_ (1906), and in German General Cammerer, + _Magenta_, and Major Kunz, _Von Montebello bis Solferino_ should be + consulted. + + For the Italian campaign of 1866 see the Austrian official history, + _Osterreichs Kampfe 1866_ (French translation), and the Italian + official account, _La Campagna del 1866_, of which the volume dealing + with Custozza was published in 1909. A short account is given in Sir + H. Hozier's _Seven Weeks' War_, and tactical studies in v. Verdy's + _Custozza_ (tr. Henderson), and Sir Evelyn Wood, _Achievements of + Cavalry_. (C. F. A.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Several of the French generals--Lamoriciere, Bedeau, Changarnier + and others--who had been prominent in Algeria and in the 1848 + revolution in France had been invited to take the command, but had + declined it. + + [2] Students of Napoleonic strategy will find it interesting to + replace Ramorino by, say, Lannes, and to post Durando at + Mortara-Vigevano instead of Vespolate-Vigevano, and from these + conditions to work out the probable course of events. + + [3] Ramorino's defence was that he had received information that the + Austrians were advancing on Alessandria by the south bank of the Po. + But Alessandria was a fortress, and could be expected to hold out for + forty-eight hours; moreover, it could easily have been succoured by + way of Valenza if necessary. + + [4] The Sardinians, at peace strength, had some 50,000 men, and + during January and February the government busied itself chiefly with + preparations of supplies and armament. Here the delay in calling out + the reserves was due not to their possible ill-will, but to the + necessity of waiting on the political situation. + + [5] The Volunteer movement in England was the result of this crisis + in the relations of England and France. + + [6] As far as possible Italian conscripts had been sent elsewhere and + replaced by Austrians. + + [7] The movements of the division employed in policing Lombardy + (Urban's) are not included here, unless specially mentioned. + + [8] The advantages and dangers of the flank march are well summarized + in Colonel H. C. Wylly's _Magenta and Solferino_, p. 65, where the + doctrinaire objections of Hamley and Rustow are set in parallel with + the common-sense views of a much-neglected English writer (Major + Adams, _Great Campaigns_) and with the clear and simple doctrine of + Moltke, that rested on the principle that strategy does not exist to + avoid but to give effect to tactics. The waste of time in execution, + rather than the scheme, is condemned by General Silvestre. + + + + +ITALIC, i.e. Italian, in Roman archaeology, history and law, a term +used, as distinct from Roman, of that which belongs to the races, +languages, &c., of the non-Roman parts of Italy (see ITALY, _Ancient +Languages and Peoples_). In architecture the Italic order is another +name for the Composite order (see ORDER). The term was applied to the +Pythagorean school of philosophy in Magna Graecia, and to an early Latin +version of the Bible, known also as _Itala_, which was superseded by the +Vulgate, but its special technical use is of a particular form of type, +in which the letters slope to the right. This is used, in present-day +printing, chiefly to emphasize words or phrases, to indicate words or +sentences in a foreign language, or to mark the titles of books, &c. 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