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diff --git a/39690-0.txt b/39690-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c5a8727 --- /dev/null +++ b/39690-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,902 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords + +Author: Cynthia A. Hoover + +Release Date: May 13, 2012 [EBook #39690] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + + CYNTHIA A. HOOVER + + DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS + NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY + + + _Harpsichords and Clavichords_ + + + SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS + CITY OF WASHINGTON + 1969 + + + _Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617_ (_see pages 22-25_) + _Photo: Robert Lautman_ + + _For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing + Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents_ + + + + +_Harpsichords and Clavichords_ + + +The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important +types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the 15th through the +18th centuries. By the 19th century, the piano had become the most +important domestic keyboard instrument. + +In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian +harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the +Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the series of concerts +sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments. Models showing how the +sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit. + +A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in _A Checklist of +Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution_ (Washington, 1967), +which is available from the Division of Musical Instruments, Smithsonian +Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. + + + + +_Harpsichords_ + + +The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and the spinet, +have strings that are _plucked_. The harpsichord is wing-shaped, most +virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal. + +When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is raised so that a +quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the +string. When the key is released, the jack falls back into place, the +pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking +it. A felt damper (inserted in a slit at the top of the jack) touches +the string to stop the sound. + +Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century English spinet. +The second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that +its quill is just about to pluck the string. Note that the quill has +lifted the string above its rest position. + +Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic +nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing +or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys. Rather, the dynamic +level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of +strings plucked (many harpsichords have three sets of strings: two sets +tuned in unison [8′] and a third tuned an octave higher [4′]), by +varying the location of the plucking point, and by muting the strings +with felt or leather pads. + +The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general +outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard, the length and +material of the strings, and the type of case construction. The case +must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet +light enough to allow the sound to resonate. + +[Illustration: 1. Harpsichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman._] + +Among the Smithsonian’s extensive keyboard collection are fine examples +of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in +harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian, English, and French. + + + + +_Flemish Harpsichords_ + + +Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern Europe during the +16th and 17th centuries. The earliest examples of harpsichords had only +one keyboard and one or two sets of 8′ strings. The progressive Flemish +makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an +octave higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch and +more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords were +largely derived from the Flemish style. + + +Virginal, _1620; made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp One manual; +Range C/E-c³ (apparent); 1×8′_ + +[Illustration: 2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.] + +[Illustration: 4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_] + +[Illustration: 5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_] + +Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are still highly +prized. Although simply painted on the exterior, the case of this +virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic Ruckers style. +Block-printed papers cover the interior of the case; the inside of +the lid bears a Latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers +and arabesques. Figure 4 illustrates a detail of the block printing, and +of the keys. The arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from +several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts. + +This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear. When the +C key is pressed, the note sounded is F, a fourth above. + + +_Short-Octave Tuning_ + +Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not +often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice +of short-octave tuning was adopted. + +Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be E, +the range was actually extended down to C. (The notation C/E indicates +this arrangement.) + +[Illustration: NORMAL TUNING] + +[Illustration: SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING] + +A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th centuries would +be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is tuned down to C (I); F♯ (2) +tuned to D (II); and G♯ (3) tuned to E (III). + + +Harpsichord, _1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp Two manuals; +Range FF-f³; 2×8v, 1×4′, lute_ + +Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken harpsichord has a +heavy case, two keyboards or manuals, and two 8′ choirs and one 4′ +choir. It also has a lute stop, whose jacks, very close to the nut, +pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone. + +[Illustration: 6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + +[Illustration: 7. Front view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + +[Illustration: 8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_] + +[Illustration: 10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_] + + + + +_Italian Harpsichords_ + + +Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two +jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction than those +made in northern Europe—the sides of the case were only about an eighth +of an inch thick. These fragile instruments were usually placed in +heavier, often elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the +harpsichord could be removed. + + +Harpsichord, _1693; maker unknown, Italy One manual; Range GG-c³ (no +GG♯); 2×8′_ + +The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen in this +large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is missing; however, as +was common practice, the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest +and highest keys. + +The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal _basso continuo_ keyboard +instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations. Its +clean, crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a +polyphonic musical texture. + +[Illustration: 11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument +in outer case.] + +[Illustration: 12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 13. Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + + +Harpsichord, _1694; made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy One-manual: Range +C-c³ (no C♯); 2×8′, 1×4′_ + +This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian harpsichord +with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison +choirs. It is possible that the third set was added to this instrument +sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers. + +Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures 14 and 16 +show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and +details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of Italian +instruments. + +[Illustration: 14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer +case.] + +[Illustration: 16. DeQuoco harpsichord: +View of instrument removed from outer case.] + +[Illustration: 17. DeQuoco harpsichord: +Inscription on wrest plank.] + +[Illustration: 18. DeQuoco harpsichord: +Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + + +Virginal, _1617; made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona One manual; +Range C/E-f³; 1×8′_ + +The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest +means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal virginal has six split +keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme. + +[Illustration: 21. Tuning scheme.] + +Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers Virginal) +in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections. The +back section is tuned to the apparent accidental, the front section to +the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the back section of the bottom +split key is tuned F♯, the front section is tuned D; the back section of +the second lowest split key is tuned A♭, the front section is tuned E. + +Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic +tuning—that is, both D♭ and E♭, G♯ and A♭. In the meantone system of +tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of the time, scales distant from +the key of C were often out of tune. To improve the intonation of these +scales, some makers divided some of the accidental keys to provide +alternate tunings. + +[Illustration: 19. Boni virginal: Full view.] + +[Illustration: 20. Boni virginal: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 21. Boni virginal: View of keyboard. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + + + + +_English Harpsichords_ + + +In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord making. The +two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss +immigrants who first apprenticed with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish +harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to England. In America, where +English culture was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman +harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood. + +The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were veneered in +walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and rested on trestle stands. The +usual range was five octaves: FF-f³ for harpsichords; GG-g³ for +spinets (and organs). In general, the sound produced on an English +harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from +other European centers. + + +Spinet, _about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London One manual; Range +GG-g³; 1×8′_ + +The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular domestic +keyboard instrument in England and America during the 18th century and +was mentioned in many American diaries and inventories of that time. The +spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that +could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ. + +The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century +gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass hinges, one of many +examples of the beautiful hardware used by English builders. This +instrument is quilled with crow quill, the most common material used for +plectra at that time. A detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in +Figure 1. + +[Illustration: 22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.] + +[Illustration: 23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + + +Harpsichord, _about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London Two manuals; +Range FF-f³ (no FF♯); 2×8′, 1×4′, lute, buff_ + +Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand. From left +to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate the following +registers: _lute_, _octave_ (4′), _buff_ (muting the second unison by +pressing soft leather pads against the strings), _first unison_ (8′), +and _second unison_ (8′). The lute stop plays from the upper manual, the +first unison from both manuals, and the remaining stops from the lower +manual. + +Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration. The name +batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not original to the +instrument. The date of the instrument is based on the serial number 144 +stamped on the lower keyboard. From all records it appears Shudi would +have built an instrument with that serial number in 1743. + +[Illustration: 25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.] + +[Illustration: 26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.] + + + + +_French Harpsichords_ + + +Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French +harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of the +Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat Conservatoire +classrooms. + +French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet family and +Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing Ruckers +harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of +18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction or _ravalement_ +were the extension of compass (usually from C-c³ to FF-f³), +enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often replacement of +keyboards, jacks, and registers. + +Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs, +typical French harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their +lightness of touch. Later 18th-century developments included a fourth +register called _peau de buffle_ (plectra of soft chamois-type leather) +and knee levers to operate the registers. + + +Harpsichord, _1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris Two manuals; Range +FF-f³; 2×8′, 1×4v, buff, shove coupler_ + +In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few +remaining French harpsichords. The builder’s name is known from the +design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials “B” and “S”; +also, the name “Benoist Stehlin” is inscribed on two of the jacks. The +1760 date is painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of +Stehlin’s workshop and house made at the time of his death in 1774 lists +a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along with several other +instruments in various stages of completion. Figures 28 and 30 show the +instrument before its restoration. + +[Illustration: 28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.] + +This instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation +laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments in 1968. Typical of +most French instruments, it is equipped with a shove coupler, which +enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by +shoving the upper keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position, +wooden uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends of +the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual +keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed. + +[Illustration: 29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.] + +[Illustration: 30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.] + + + + +_Clavichords_ + + +Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the piano, +through variation of finger pressure. In both, the strings are struck—by +metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the +piano. + +In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the +player’s right and are damped (stopped from vibrating) by strips of +cloth on the left. The metal hammer (tangent) mounted in the end of the +key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player +presses the key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into +two segments—the segment on the right being free to vibrate, the segment +on the left being damped by the cloth. When the key is released, the +cloth damps the entire string. + +Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key (middle c). The +tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has +struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position. The damping +cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen. + +Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces tones, +though limited in volume, that are very expressive and even capable of +vibrato (_Bebung_). Because it lacks carrying power, the clavichord +historically was a solo or practice instrument, for it could not be +heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice. + +[Illustration: 31. Clavichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + + +Fretted Clavichord, _about 1700; maker unknown, Germany_ + +Unfretted Clavichord, _18th century; maker unknown, Germany_ + +The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested +upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier instruments was about four +octaves. By the 18th century the range had been expanded to five +octaves. + +The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were +unfretted or _bundfrei_. Many smaller and earlier clavichords were +fretted (_gebunden_), having some strings that would produce more than +one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys. + +Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail. Tangents +on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same strings to produce the notes +e♭ and e. Some other fretted notes shown in the picture include: keys 18 +and 19 (f and f♯), keys 20 and 21 (g and g♯]), keys 23 and 24 (b♭ and +b), and keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c♯). Figure 31 is also a detail +from this clavichord. + +The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36, in unrestored +condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became +standard in Germany by the mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp +Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions. + +[Illustration: 32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting. +_Photo: Robert Lautman_.] + +[Illustration: 33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.] + +[Illustration: 34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.] + +[Illustration: 35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.] + +[Illustration: 36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.] + +By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more +expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders +added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian +swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the +harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough +dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable +of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power. + +Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the +change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the +domestic instruments they knew best—the harpsichord and clavichord—as +the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was +developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the +grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation +between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the +square piano resembled those of the clavichord. + +By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument +capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most +important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few +clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived +by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century. + + + + +_Selected Bibliography_ + + +BOALCH, DONALD. _Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord_. London: +George Ronald, 1955. + +HIRT, FRANZ JOSEF. _Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus_. Olten, Switzerland: +Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955. + +HUBBARD, FRANK. _Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing_. Boston: Tuner’s +Supply, Inc., 1963. + +HUBBARD, FRANK. _Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making_. Cambridge, +Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965. + +JAMES, PHILIP. _Early Keyboard Instruments_. London: Peter Davies, 1930. + +RIPIN, EDWIN M. “The Early Clavichord,” _Musical Quarterly_, 53(4) +(October 1967): 518-538. + +RUSSELL, RAYMOND. _The Harpsichord and the Clavichord_. London: Faber +and Faber, 1959. + +SHORTRIDGE, JOHN D. “Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th +Centuries.” _United States National Museum Bulletin_, 225 (15): 93-107, +1960. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. 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