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+Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords
+
+Author: Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+Release Date: May 13, 2012 [EBook #39690]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+   CYNTHIA A. HOOVER
+
+   DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
+   NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+   _Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+   SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
+   CITY OF WASHINGTON
+   1969
+
+
+   _Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617_ (_see pages 22-25_)
+   _Photo: Robert Lautman_
+
+   _For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+    Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents_
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important
+types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the 15th through the
+18th centuries. By the 19th century, the piano had become the most
+important domestic keyboard instrument.
+
+In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian
+harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the
+Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the series of concerts
+sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments. Models showing how the
+sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit.
+
+A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in _A Checklist of
+Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution_ (Washington, 1967),
+which is available from the Division of Musical Instruments, Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560.
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and the spinet,
+have strings that are _plucked_. The harpsichord is wing-shaped, most
+virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal.
+
+When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is raised so that a
+quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the
+string. When the key is released, the jack falls back into place, the
+pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking
+it. A felt damper (inserted in a slit at the top of the jack) touches
+the string to stop the sound.
+
+Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century English spinet.
+The second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that
+its quill is just about to pluck the string. Note that the quill has
+lifted the string above its rest position.
+
+Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic
+nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing
+or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys. Rather, the dynamic
+level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of
+strings plucked (many harpsichords have three sets of strings: two sets
+tuned in unison [8′] and a third tuned an octave higher [4′]), by
+varying the location of the plucking point, and by muting the strings
+with felt or leather pads.
+
+The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general
+outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard, the length and
+material of the strings, and the type of case construction. The case
+must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet
+light enough to allow the sound to resonate.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Harpsichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman._]
+
+Among the Smithsonian’s extensive keyboard collection are fine examples
+of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in
+harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian, English, and French.
+
+
+
+
+_Flemish Harpsichords_
+
+
+Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern Europe during the
+16th and 17th centuries. The earliest examples of harpsichords had only
+one keyboard and one or two sets of 8′ strings. The progressive Flemish
+makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an
+octave higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch and
+more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords were
+largely derived from the Flemish style.
+
+
+Virginal, _1620; made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp One manual;
+Range C/E-c³ (apparent); 1×8′_
+
+[Illustration: 2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are still highly
+prized. Although simply painted on the exterior, the case of this
+virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic Ruckers style.
+Block-printed papers cover the interior of the case; the inside of
+the lid bears a Latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers
+and arabesques. Figure 4 illustrates a detail of the block printing, and
+of the keys. The arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from
+several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts.
+
+This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear. When the
+C key is pressed, the note sounded is F, a fourth above.
+
+
+_Short-Octave Tuning_
+
+Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not
+often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice
+of short-octave tuning was adopted.
+
+Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be E,
+the range was actually extended down to C. (The notation C/E indicates
+this arrangement.)
+
+[Illustration: NORMAL TUNING]
+
+[Illustration: SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING]
+
+A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th centuries would
+be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is tuned down to C (I); F♯ (2)
+tuned to D (II); and G♯ (3) tuned to E (III).
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp Two manuals;
+Range FF-f³; 2×8v, 1×4′, lute_
+
+Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken harpsichord has a
+heavy case, two keyboards or manuals, and two 8′ choirs and one 4′
+choir. It also has a lute stop, whose jacks, very close to the nut,
+pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone.
+
+[Illustration: 6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 7. Front view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+
+
+
+_Italian Harpsichords_
+
+
+Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two
+jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction than those
+made in northern Europe—the sides of the case were only about an eighth
+of an inch thick. These fragile instruments were usually placed in
+heavier, often elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the
+harpsichord could be removed.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1693; maker unknown, Italy One manual; Range GG-c³ (no
+GG♯); 2×8′_
+
+The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen in this
+large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is missing; however, as
+was common practice, the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest
+and highest keys.
+
+The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal _basso continuo_ keyboard
+instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations. Its
+clean, crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a
+polyphonic musical texture.
+
+[Illustration: 11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument
+in outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1694; made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy One-manual: Range
+C-c³ (no C♯); 2×8′, 1×4′_
+
+This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian harpsichord
+with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison
+choirs. It is possible that the third set was added to this instrument
+sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers.
+
+Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures 14 and 16
+show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and
+details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of Italian
+instruments.
+
+[Illustration: 14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer
+case.]
+
+[Illustration: 16. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+View of instrument removed from outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Inscription on wrest plank.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Virginal, _1617; made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona One manual;
+Range C/E-f³; 1×8′_
+
+The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest
+means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal virginal has six split
+keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme.
+
+[Illustration: 21. Tuning scheme.]
+
+Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers Virginal)
+in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections. The
+back section is tuned to the apparent accidental, the front section to
+the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the back section of the bottom
+split key is tuned F♯, the front section is tuned D; the back section of
+the second lowest split key is tuned A♭, the front section is tuned E.
+
+Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic
+tuning—that is, both D♭ and E♭, G♯ and A♭. In the meantone system of
+tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of the time, scales distant from
+the key of C were often out of tune. To improve the intonation of these
+scales, some makers divided some of the accidental keys to provide
+alternate tunings.
+
+[Illustration: 19. Boni virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. Boni virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. Boni virginal: View of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+
+
+_English Harpsichords_
+
+
+In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord making. The
+two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss
+immigrants who first apprenticed with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish
+harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to England. In America, where
+English culture was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman
+harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood.
+
+The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were veneered in
+walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and rested on trestle stands. The
+usual range was five octaves: FF-f³ for harpsichords; GG-g³ for
+spinets (and organs). In general, the sound produced on an English
+harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from
+other European centers.
+
+
+Spinet, _about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London One manual; Range
+GG-g³; 1×8′_
+
+The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular domestic
+keyboard instrument in England and America during the 18th century and
+was mentioned in many American diaries and inventories of that time. The
+spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that
+could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ.
+
+The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century
+gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass hinges, one of many
+examples of the beautiful hardware used by English builders. This
+instrument is quilled with crow quill, the most common material used for
+plectra at that time. A detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in
+Figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: 22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.]
+
+[Illustration: 23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London Two manuals;
+Range FF-f³ (no FF♯); 2×8′, 1×4′, lute, buff_
+
+Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand. From left
+to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate the following
+registers: _lute_, _octave_ (4′), _buff_ (muting the second unison by
+pressing soft leather pads against the strings), _first unison_ (8′),
+and _second unison_ (8′). The lute stop plays from the upper manual, the
+first unison from both manuals, and the remaining stops from the lower
+manual.
+
+Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration. The name
+batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not original to the
+instrument. The date of the instrument is based on the serial number 144
+stamped on the lower keyboard. From all records it appears Shudi would
+have built an instrument with that serial number in 1743.
+
+[Illustration: 25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.]
+
+[Illustration: 26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+
+
+
+_French Harpsichords_
+
+
+Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French
+harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of the
+Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat Conservatoire
+classrooms.
+
+French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet family and
+Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing Ruckers
+harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of
+18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction or _ravalement_
+were the extension of compass (usually from C-c³ to FF-f³),
+enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often replacement of
+keyboards, jacks, and registers.
+
+Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs,
+typical French harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their
+lightness of touch. Later 18th-century developments included a fourth
+register called _peau de buffle_ (plectra of soft chamois-type leather)
+and knee levers to operate the registers.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris Two manuals; Range
+FF-f³; 2×8′, 1×4v, buff, shove coupler_
+
+In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few
+remaining French harpsichords. The builder’s name is known from the
+design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials “B” and “S”;
+also, the name “Benoist Stehlin” is inscribed on two of the jacks. The
+1760 date is painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of
+Stehlin’s workshop and house made at the time of his death in 1774 lists
+a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along with several other
+instruments in various stages of completion. Figures 28 and 30 show the
+instrument before its restoration.
+
+[Illustration: 28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+This instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation
+laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments in 1968. Typical of
+most French instruments, it is equipped with a shove coupler, which
+enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by
+shoving the upper keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position,
+wooden uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends of
+the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual
+keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed.
+
+[Illustration: 29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.]
+
+[Illustration: 30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+
+
+
+_Clavichords_
+
+
+Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the piano,
+through variation of finger pressure. In both, the strings are struck—by
+metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the
+piano.
+
+In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the
+player’s right and are damped (stopped from vibrating) by strips of
+cloth on the left. The metal hammer (tangent) mounted in the end of the
+key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player
+presses the key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into
+two segments—the segment on the right being free to vibrate, the segment
+on the left being damped by the cloth. When the key is released, the
+cloth damps the entire string.
+
+Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key (middle c). The
+tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has
+struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position. The damping
+cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen.
+
+Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces tones,
+though limited in volume, that are very expressive and even capable of
+vibrato (_Bebung_). Because it lacks carrying power, the clavichord
+historically was a solo or practice instrument, for it could not be
+heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice.
+
+[Illustration: 31. Clavichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Fretted Clavichord, _about 1700; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+Unfretted Clavichord, _18th century; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested
+upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier instruments was about four
+octaves. By the 18th century the range had been expanded to five
+octaves.
+
+The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were
+unfretted or _bundfrei_. Many smaller and earlier clavichords were
+fretted (_gebunden_), having some strings that would produce more than
+one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys.
+
+Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail. Tangents
+on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same strings to produce the notes
+e♭ and e. Some other fretted notes shown in the picture include: keys 18
+and 19 (f and f♯), keys 20 and 21 (g and g♯]), keys 23 and 24 (b♭ and
+b), and keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c♯). Figure 31 is also a detail
+from this clavichord.
+
+The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36, in unrestored
+condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became
+standard in Germany by the mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp
+Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions.
+
+[Illustration: 32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more
+expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders
+added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian
+swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the
+harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough
+dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable
+of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.
+
+Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the
+change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the
+domestic instruments they knew best—the harpsichord and clavichord—as
+the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was
+developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the
+grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation
+between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the
+square piano resembled those of the clavichord.
+
+By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument
+capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most
+important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few
+clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived
+by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+_Selected Bibliography_
+
+
+BOALCH, DONALD. _Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord_. London:
+George Ronald, 1955.
+
+HIRT, FRANZ JOSEF. _Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus_. Olten, Switzerland:
+Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing_. Boston: Tuner’s
+Supply, Inc., 1963.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making_. Cambridge,
+Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.
+
+JAMES, PHILIP. _Early Keyboard Instruments_. London: Peter Davies, 1930.
+
+RIPIN, EDWIN M. “The Early Clavichord,” _Musical Quarterly_, 53(4)
+(October 1967): 518-538.
+
+RUSSELL, RAYMOND. _The Harpsichord and the Clavichord_. London: Faber
+and Faber, 1959.
+
+SHORTRIDGE, JOHN D. “Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th
+Centuries.”‮ _United States National Museum Bulletin_, 225 (15): 93-107,
+1960.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
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+Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords
+
+Author: Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+Release Date: May 13, 2012 [EBook #39690]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+   CYNTHIA A. HOOVER
+
+   DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
+   NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+   _Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+   SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
+   CITY OF WASHINGTON
+   1969
+
+
+   _Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617_ (_see pages 22-25_)
+   _Photo: Robert Lautman_
+
+   _For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+    Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents_
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important
+types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the 15th through the
+18th centuries. By the 19th century, the piano had become the most
+important domestic keyboard instrument.
+
+In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian
+harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the
+Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the series of concerts
+sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments. Models showing how the
+sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit.
+
+A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in _A Checklist of
+Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution_ (Washington, 1967),
+which is available from the Division of Musical Instruments, Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560.
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and the spinet,
+have strings that are _plucked_. The harpsichord is wing-shaped, most
+virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal.
+
+When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is raised so that a
+quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the
+string. When the key is released, the jack falls back into place, the
+pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking
+it. A felt damper (inserted in a slit at the top of the jack) touches
+the string to stop the sound.
+
+Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century English spinet.
+The second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that
+its quill is just about to pluck the string. Note that the quill has
+lifted the string above its rest position.
+
+Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic
+nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing
+or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys. Rather, the dynamic
+level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of
+strings plucked (many harpsichords have three sets of strings: two sets
+tuned in unison [8'] and a third tuned an octave higher [4']), by
+varying the location of the plucking point, and by muting the strings
+with felt or leather pads.
+
+The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general
+outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard, the length and
+material of the strings, and the type of case construction. The case
+must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet
+light enough to allow the sound to resonate.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Harpsichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman._]
+
+Among the Smithsonian's extensive keyboard collection are fine examples
+of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in
+harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian, English, and French.
+
+
+
+
+_Flemish Harpsichords_
+
+
+Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern Europe during the
+16th and 17th centuries. The earliest examples of harpsichords had only
+one keyboard and one or two sets of 8' strings. The progressive Flemish
+makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an
+octave higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch and
+more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords were
+largely derived from the Flemish style.
+
+
+Virginal, _1620; made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp One manual;
+Range C/E-c^3 (apparent); 1�8'_
+
+[Illustration: 2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are still highly
+prized. Although simply painted on the exterior, the case of this
+virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic Ruckers style.
+Block-printed papers cover the interior of the case; the inside of
+the lid bears a Latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers
+and arabesques. Figure 4 illustrates a detail of the block printing, and
+of the keys. The arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from
+several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts.
+
+This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear. When the
+C key is pressed, the note sounded is F, a fourth above.
+
+
+_Short-Octave Tuning_
+
+Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not
+often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice
+of short-octave tuning was adopted.
+
+Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be E,
+the range was actually extended down to C. (The notation C/E indicates
+this arrangement.)
+
+[Illustration: NORMAL TUNING]
+
+[Illustration: SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING]
+
+A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th centuries would
+be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is tuned down to C (I); F-sharp
+(2) tuned to D (II); and G-sharp (3) tuned to E (III).
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp Two manuals;
+Range FF-f^3; 2�8v, 1�4', lute_
+
+Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken harpsichord has a
+heavy case, two keyboards or manuals, and two 8' choirs and one 4'
+choir. It also has a lute stop, whose jacks, very close to the nut,
+pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone.
+
+[Illustration: 6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 7. Front view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+
+
+
+_Italian Harpsichords_
+
+
+Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two
+jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction than those
+made in northern Europe--the sides of the case were only about an eighth
+of an inch thick. These fragile instruments were usually placed in
+heavier, often elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the
+harpsichord could be removed.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1693; maker unknown, Italy One manual; Range GG-c^3 (no
+GG-sharp); 2�8'_
+
+The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen in this
+large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is missing; however, as
+was common practice, the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest
+and highest keys.
+
+The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal _basso continuo_ keyboard
+instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations. Its
+clean, crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a
+polyphonic musical texture.
+
+[Illustration: 11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument
+in outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1694; made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy One-manual: Range
+C-c^3 (no C-sharp); 2�8', 1�4'_
+
+This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian harpsichord
+with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison
+choirs. It is possible that the third set was added to this instrument
+sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers.
+
+Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures 14 and 16
+show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and
+details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of Italian
+instruments.
+
+[Illustration: 14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer
+case.]
+
+[Illustration: 16. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+View of instrument removed from outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Inscription on wrest plank.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Virginal, _1617; made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona One manual;
+Range C/E-f^3; 1�8'_
+
+The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest
+means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal virginal has six split
+keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme.
+
+[Illustration: 21. Tuning scheme.]
+
+Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers Virginal)
+in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections. The
+back section is tuned to the apparent accidental, the front section to
+the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the back section of the bottom
+split key is tuned F-sharp, the front section is tuned D; the back section of
+the second lowest split key is tuned A-flat, the front section is tuned E.
+
+Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic
+tuning--that is, both D-flat and E-flat, G-sharp and A-flat. In the
+meantone system of tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of the time,
+scales distant from the key of C were often out of tune. To improve the
+intonation of these scales, some makers divided some of the accidental
+keys to provide alternate tunings.
+
+[Illustration: 19. Boni virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. Boni virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. Boni virginal: View of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+
+
+_English Harpsichords_
+
+
+In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord making. The
+two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss
+immigrants who first apprenticed with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish
+harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to England. In America, where
+English culture was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman
+harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood.
+
+The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were veneered in
+walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and rested on trestle stands. The
+usual range was five octaves: FF-f^3 for harpsichords; GG-g^3 for
+spinets (and organs). In general, the sound produced on an English
+harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from
+other European centers.
+
+
+Spinet, _about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London One manual; Range
+GG-g^3; 1�8'_
+
+The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular domestic
+keyboard instrument in England and America during the 18th century and
+was mentioned in many American diaries and inventories of that time. The
+spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that
+could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ.
+
+The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century
+gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass hinges, one of many
+examples of the beautiful hardware used by English builders. This
+instrument is quilled with crow quill, the most common material used for
+plectra at that time. A detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in
+Figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: 22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.]
+
+[Illustration: 23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London Two manuals;
+Range FF-f^3 (no FF-sharp); 2�8', 1�4', lute, buff_
+
+Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand. From left
+to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate the following
+registers: _lute_, _octave_ (4'), _buff_ (muting the second unison by
+pressing soft leather pads against the strings), _first unison_ (8'),
+and _second unison_ (8'). The lute stop plays from the upper manual, the
+first unison from both manuals, and the remaining stops from the lower
+manual.
+
+Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration. The name
+batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not original to the
+instrument. The date of the instrument is based on the serial number 144
+stamped on the lower keyboard. From all records it appears Shudi would
+have built an instrument with that serial number in 1743.
+
+[Illustration: 25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.]
+
+[Illustration: 26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+
+
+
+_French Harpsichords_
+
+
+Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French
+harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of the
+Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat Conservatoire
+classrooms.
+
+French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet family and
+Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing Ruckers
+harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of
+18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction or _ravalement_
+were the extension of compass (usually from C-c^3 to FF-f^3),
+enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often replacement of
+keyboards, jacks, and registers.
+
+Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs,
+typical French harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their
+lightness of touch. Later 18th-century developments included a fourth
+register called _peau de buffle_ (plectra of soft chamois-type leather)
+and knee levers to operate the registers.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris Two manuals; Range
+FF-f^3; 2�8', 1�4v, buff, shove coupler_
+
+In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few
+remaining French harpsichords. The builder's name is known from the
+design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials "B" and "S";
+also, the name "Benoist Stehlin" is inscribed on two of the jacks. The
+1760 date is painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of
+Stehlin's workshop and house made at the time of his death in 1774 lists
+a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along with several other
+instruments in various stages of completion. Figures 28 and 30 show the
+instrument before its restoration.
+
+[Illustration: 28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+This instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation
+laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments in 1968. Typical of
+most French instruments, it is equipped with a shove coupler, which
+enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by
+shoving the upper keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position,
+wooden uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends of
+the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual
+keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed.
+
+[Illustration: 29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.]
+
+[Illustration: 30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+
+
+
+_Clavichords_
+
+
+Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the piano,
+through variation of finger pressure. In both, the strings are struck--by
+metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the
+piano.
+
+In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the
+player's right and are damped (stopped from vibrating) by strips of
+cloth on the left. The metal hammer (tangent) mounted in the end of the
+key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player
+presses the key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into
+two segments--the segment on the right being free to vibrate, the segment
+on the left being damped by the cloth. When the key is released, the
+cloth damps the entire string.
+
+Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key (middle c). The
+tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has
+struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position. The damping
+cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen.
+
+Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces tones,
+though limited in volume, that are very expressive and even capable of
+vibrato (_Bebung_). Because it lacks carrying power, the clavichord
+historically was a solo or practice instrument, for it could not be
+heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice.
+
+[Illustration: 31. Clavichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Fretted Clavichord, _about 1700; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+Unfretted Clavichord, _18th century; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested
+upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier instruments was about four
+octaves. By the 18th century the range had been expanded to five
+octaves.
+
+The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were
+unfretted or _bundfrei_. Many smaller and earlier clavichords were
+fretted (_gebunden_), having some strings that would produce more than
+one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys.
+
+Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail. Tangents
+on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same strings to produce the notes
+e-flat and e. Some other fretted notes shown in the picture include:
+keys 18 and 19 (f and f-sharp), keys 20 and 21 (g and g-sharp]), keys 23
+and 24 (b-flat and b), and keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c-sharp). Figure
+31 is also a detail from this clavichord.
+
+The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36, in unrestored
+condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became
+standard in Germany by the mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp
+Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions.
+
+[Illustration: 32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more
+expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders
+added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian
+swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the
+harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough
+dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable
+of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.
+
+Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the
+change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the
+domestic instruments they knew best--the harpsichord and clavichord--as
+the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was
+developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the
+grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation
+between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the
+square piano resembled those of the clavichord.
+
+By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument
+capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most
+important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few
+clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived
+by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+_Selected Bibliography_
+
+
+BOALCH, DONALD. _Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord_. London:
+George Ronald, 1955.
+
+HIRT, FRANZ JOSEF. _Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus_. Olten, Switzerland:
+Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing_. Boston: Tuner's
+Supply, Inc., 1963.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making_. Cambridge,
+Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.
+
+JAMES, PHILIP. _Early Keyboard Instruments_. London: Peter Davies, 1930.
+
+RIPIN, EDWIN M. "The Early Clavichord," _Musical Quarterly_, 53(4)
+(October 1967): 518-538.
+
+RUSSELL, RAYMOND. _The Harpsichord and the Clavichord_. London: Faber
+and Faber, 1959.
+
+SHORTRIDGE, JOHN D. "Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th
+Centuries." _United States National Museum Bulletin_, 225 (15): 93-107,
+1960.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
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+
+Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords
+
+Author: Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+Release Date: May 13, 2012 [EBook #39690]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***
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+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and
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+</pre>
+
+
+<h4>CYNTHIA A. HOOVER</h4>
+
+<h5>DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<br />
+NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY</h5>
+
+<h1><i>Harpsichords and Clavichords</i></h1>
+
+<h4>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS<br />
+CITY OF WASHINGTON<br />
+1969</h4>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; border: 1px solid black;"><a name="i_cover" id="i_cover"></a><a href="images/cover_zoom.jpg"><img src="images/i_cover.jpg" width="500" height="535"
+alt="Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617." /></a></div>
+
+<p class="caption"><i>Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617</i> (<i>see pages 22-25</i>)<br />
+<i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i></p>
+
+<h5><i>For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office<br />
+Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents</i></h5>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><i>Harpsichords and Clavichords</i></h2>
+
+<p>The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most
+important types of stringed keyboard instruments used from
+the 15th through the 18th centuries. By the 19th century, the
+piano had become the most important domestic keyboard
+instrument.</p>
+
+<p>In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian
+harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on
+exhibit in the Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the
+series of concerts sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments.
+Models showing how the sound is produced on these
+instruments are also on exhibit.</p>
+
+<p>A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in
+<i>A Checklist of Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution</i>
+(Washington, 1967), which is available from the Division of
+Musical Instruments, Smithsonian Institution, Washington ,D.C. 20560.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Harpsichords</i></p>
+
+<p>The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and
+the spinet, have strings that are <i>plucked</i>. The harpsichord is
+wing-shaped, most virginals and spinets are either rectangular
+or polygonal.</p>
+
+<p>When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is
+raised so that a quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack
+tongue plucks the string. When the key is released, the jack
+falls back into place, the pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum
+to pass the string without plucking it. A felt damper (inserted
+in a slit at the top of the jack) touches the string to stop the
+sound.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century
+English spinet. The second jack from the left on the front row
+has been raised so that its quill is just about to pluck the
+string. Note that the quill has lifted the string above its rest
+position.</p>
+
+<p>Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of
+dynamic nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly
+altered by increasing or lessening the impact of fingers on the
+keys. Rather, the dynamic level and quality of sound can be
+changed by varying the number of strings plucked (many harpsichords
+have three sets of strings: two sets tuned in unison [8&#8242;]
+and a third tuned an octave higher [4&#8242;]), by varying the location
+of the plucking point, and by muting the strings with felt
+or leather pads.</p>
+
+<p>The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span>general outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard,
+the length and material of the strings, and the type of case
+construction. The case must be strong enough to counteract the
+tension of the strings and yet light enough to allow the sound to
+resonate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_005c" id="i_005c"></a><img src="images/i_005.jpg" width="500" height="381"
+alt="Harpsichord action." />
+<p class="caption">1. Harpsichord action. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>Among the Smithsonian&#8217;s extensive keyboard collection are
+fine examples of harpsichords that represent several of the major
+national trends in harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian,
+English, and French.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Flemish Harpsichords</i></p>
+
+<p>Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern
+Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. The earliest
+examples of harpsichords had only one keyboard and one or
+two sets of 8&#8242; strings. The progressive Flemish makers added
+a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an octave
+higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch
+and more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords
+were largely derived from the Flemish style.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Virginal, <i>1620</i>; <i>made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp</i>
+<i>One manual</i>; <i>Range C/E-c<sup>3</sup> (apparent)</i>; <i>1&times;8</i>&#8242;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_006" id="i_006"></a><img src="images/i_006.jpg" width="500" height="209"
+alt="2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_007" id="i_007"></a><img src="images/i_007.jpg" width="500" height="611"
+alt="3. Ruckers virginal: Full view." />
+
+<p class="caption">3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">8</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_008a" id="i_008a"></a><img src="images/i_008a.jpg" width="500" height="306"
+alt="Ruckers virginal: 4. Detail of keyboard." />
+
+<p class="caption">4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard.<br />
+<i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_008b" id="i_008b"></a><img src="images/i_008b.jpg" width="500" height="343"
+alt="Ruckers virginal: 5. View of soundboard and lid." />
+
+<p class="caption">5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid.<br />
+<i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are
+still highly prized. Although simply painted on the exterior,
+the case of this virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic
+Ruckers style. Block-printed papers cover the interior
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span>
+of the case; the inside of the lid bears a Latin motto and the
+soundboard is painted with flowers and arabesques. Figure 4
+illustrates a detail of the block printing, and of the keys. The
+arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from several
+layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts.</p>
+
+<p>This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might
+appear. When the C key is pressed, the note sounded is F,
+a fourth above.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Short-Octave Tuning</i></p>
+
+<p>Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard
+were not often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th
+centuries, the practice of short-octave tuning was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument
+appears to be E, the range was actually extended down to
+C. (The notation C/E indicates this arrangement.)</p>
+
+<table summary="tuning">
+<tr>
+<td class="center"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="i_009a" id="i_009a"></a><img src="images/i_009a.jpg" width="250" height="114"
+alt="NORMAL TUNING" /></div></td>
+<td class="center"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="i_009b" id="i_009b"></a><img src="images/i_009b.jpg" width="250" height="114"
+alt="SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING" /></div></td>
+</tr><tr>
+<td class="center"><small>NORMAL TUNING</small></td>
+<td class="center"><small>SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING</small></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th
+centuries would be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is
+tuned down to C (I); F<sup>&#9839;</sup> (2) tuned to D (II); and G<sup>&#9839;</sup> (3)
+tuned to E (III).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Harpsichord, <i>1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp
+Two manuals; Range FF-f<sup>3</sup>; 2&times;8&#8242;, 1&times;4&#8242;, lute</i></p>
+
+<p>Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken
+harpsichord has a heavy case, two keyboards or manuals,
+and two 8&#8242; choirs and one 4&#8242; choir. It also has a lute stop,
+whose jacks, very close to the nut, pluck one set of unison
+strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_010" id="i_010"></a><img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="500" height="475"
+alt="Dulcken harpsichord: 6. Full view." />
+<p class="caption">6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_011" id="i_011"></a><img src="images/i_011.jpg" width="500" height="609"
+alt="Dulcken harpsichord: 7. Front view." />
+<p class="caption">7. Dulcken harpsichord: Front view. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i_012" id="i_012"></a><img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="300" height="819"
+alt="Dulcken harpsichord: 8. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_013a" id="i_013a"></a><img src="images/i_013a.jpg" width="500" height="276"
+alt="Dulcken harpsichord: 9. Detail of keyboards." />
+<p class="caption">9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_013b" id="i_013b"></a><img src="images/i_013b.jpg" width="500" height="347"
+alt="Dulcken harpsichord: 10. Detail of soundboard." />
+<p class="caption">10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Italian Harpsichords</i></p>
+
+<p>Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings
+and two jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction
+than those made in northern Europe&mdash;the sides of
+the case were only about an eighth of an inch thick. These
+fragile instruments were usually placed in heavier, often
+elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the harpsichord
+could be removed.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Harpsichord, <i>1693; maker unknown, Italy
+One manual; Range GG-c<sup>3</sup> (no GG<sup>&#9839;</sup>); 2&times;8</i>&#8242;</p>
+
+<p>The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen
+in this large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is
+missing; however, as was common practice, the maker marked
+the date on the tail of the lowest and highest keys.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal <i>basso continuo</i>
+keyboard instrument because it blends well in instrumental
+combinations. Its clean, crisp sound also allows individual
+lines to emerge clearly from a polyphonic musical texture.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_015" id="i_015"></a><img src="images/i_015.jpg" width="500" height="494"
+alt="11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument in outer case." />
+<p class="caption">11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument in outer case.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i_016" id="i_016"></a><img src="images/i_016.jpg" width="300" height="673"
+alt="Italian harpsichord (1693): 12. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_017" id="i_017"></a><img src="images/i_017.jpg" width="500" height="630"
+alt="13. Detail of keyboard." />
+<p class="caption">13. Italian harpsichord (1693): Detail of keyboard. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Harpsichord, 1694; <i>made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy
+One-manual: Range C-c<sup>3</sup> (no C<sup>&#9839;</sup>); 2&times;8&#8242;, 1&times;4</i>&#8242;</p>
+
+<p>This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian
+harpsichord with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher
+than the two unison choirs. It is possible that the third set
+was added to this instrument sometime after it was constructed
+with two unison registers.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures
+14 and 16 show the restored harpsichord removed from its
+heavy outer case and details of the handsome keyboard and
+moldings typical of Italian instruments.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i_018" id="i_018"></a><img src="images/i_018.jpg" width="300" height="693"
+alt="14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_019" id="i_019"></a><img src="images/i_019.jpg" width="500" height="493"
+alt="15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer case." />
+<p class="caption">15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer case.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_020a" id="i_020a"></a><img src="images/i_020a.jpg" width="500" height="180"
+alt="DeQuoco harpsichord: 16. View of instrument removed from outer case." />
+<p class="caption">16. DeQuoco harpsichord: View of instrument removed from outer case.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_020b" id="i_020b"></a><img src="images/i_020b.jpg" width="500" height="259"
+alt="DeQuoco harpsichord: 17. Inscription on wrest plank." />
+<p class="caption">17. DeQuoco harpsichord: Inscription on wrest plank.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_021" id="i_021"></a><img src="images/i_021.jpg" width="500" height="586"
+alt="DeQuoco harpsichord: 18. Detail of keyboard." />
+<p class="caption">18. DeQuoco harpsichord: Detail of keyboard. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Virginal, 1617; <i>made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona
+One manual; Range C/E-f<sup>3</sup>; 1&times;8</i>&#8242;</p>
+
+<p>The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in
+homes of modest means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal
+virginal has six split keys which represent a complicated
+tuning scheme.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_022" id="i_022"></a><img src="images/i_022.jpg" width="500" height="131"
+alt="Tuning scheme." /></div>
+
+<p>Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers
+Virginal) in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two
+sections. The back section is tuned to the apparent accidental,
+the front section to the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the
+back section of the bottom split key is tuned F<sup>&#9839;</sup>, the front
+section is tuned D; the back section of the second lowest split
+key is tuned A<sup>&#9837;</sup>, the front section is tuned E.</p>
+
+<p>Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic
+tuning&mdash;that is, both D<sup>&#9839;</sup> and E<sup>&#9837;</sup>, G<sup>&#9839;</sup> and A<sup>&#9837;</sup>. In the
+meantone system of tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of
+the time, scales distant from the key of C were often out of tune.
+To improve the intonation of these scales, some makers divided
+some of the accidental keys to provide alternate tunings.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_023" id="i_023"></a><img src="images/i_023.jpg" width="500" height="457"
+alt="19. Boni virginal: Full view." />
+<p class="caption">19. Boni virginal: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_024" id="i_024"></a><img src="images/i_024.jpg" width="500" height="190"
+alt="Boni virginal: 20. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">Boni virginal: 20. Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_025" id="i_025"></a><img src="images/i_025.jpg" width="500" height="366"
+alt="21. View of key board." />
+<p class="caption">21. Boni virginal: View of key board. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>English Harpsichords</i></p>
+
+<p>In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord
+making. The two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman
+and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss immigrants who first apprenticed
+with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish harpsichord maker who had
+also emigrated to England. In America, where English culture
+was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman
+harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood.</p>
+
+<p>The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were
+veneered in walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and
+rested on trestle stands. The usual range was five octaves:
+FF-f<sup>3</sup> for harpsichords; GG-g<sup>3</sup> for spinets (and organs).
+In general, the sound produced on an English harpsichord is
+more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from other
+European centers.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Spinet, <i>about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London
+One manual; Range GG-g<sup>3</sup>; 1&times;8&#8242;</i></p>
+
+<p>The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular
+domestic keyboard instrument in England and America
+during the 18th century and was mentioned in many American
+diaries and inventories of that time. The spinet often served
+as the keyboard instrument for the household that could not
+afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ.</p>
+
+<p>The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century
+gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass
+hinges, one of many examples of the beautiful hardware used
+by English builders. This instrument is quilled with crow quill,
+the most common material used for plectra at that time. A
+detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in Figure 1.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px; width: 500px; border: 1px solid black;"><a name="i_027" id="i_027"></a><img src="images/i_027.jpg" width="500" height="508"
+alt="22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard." /></div>
+<p class="caption">22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_028a" id="i_028a"></a><img src="images/i_028a.jpg" width="500" height="188"
+alt="Hitchcock spinet: 23. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_028b" id="i_028b"></a><img src="images/i_028b.jpg" width="500" height="259"
+alt="Hitchcock spinet: 24. Top view." />
+<p class="caption">24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Harpsichord, <i>about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London
+Two manuals; Range FF-f<sup>3</sup> (no FF<sup>&#9839;</sup>; 2&times;8&#8242;, 1&times;4&#8242;, lute, buff</i></p>
+
+<p>Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand.
+From left to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate
+the following registers: <i>lute</i>, <i>octave</i> (4&#8242;), <i>buff</i> (muting the second
+unison by pressing soft leather pads against the strings), <i>first
+unison</i> (8&#8242;), and <i>second unison</i> (8&#8242;). The lute stop plays from the
+upper manual, the first unison from both manuals, and the
+remaining stops from the lower manual.</p>
+
+<p>Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration.
+The name batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not
+original to the instrument. The date of the instrument is based
+on the serial number 144 stamped on the lower keyboard.
+From all records it appears Shudi would have built an
+instrument with that serial number in 1743.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_029" id="i_029"></a><img src="images/i_029.jpg" width="500" height="175"
+alt="25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards." />
+<p class="caption">25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i_030" id="i_030"></a><img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="300" height="690"
+alt="Shudi harpsichord: 26. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_031" id="i_031"></a><img src="images/i_031.jpg" width="500" height="534"
+alt="Shudi harpsichord: 27. Full view." />
+<p class="caption">27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>French Harpsichords</i></p>
+
+<p>Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French
+harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of
+the Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat
+Conservatoire classrooms.</p>
+
+<p>French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet
+family and Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing
+Ruckers harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative
+tastes of 18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction
+or <i>ravalement</i> were the extension of compass (usually from C-c<sup>3</sup>
+to FF-f<sup>3</sup>), enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often
+replacement of keyboards, jacks, and registers.</p>
+
+<p>Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or
+fluted legs, typical French harpsichords had two manuals and
+were praised for their lightness of touch. Later 18th-century
+developments included a fourth register called <i>peau de buffle</i>
+(plectra of soft chamois-type leather) and knee levers to operate
+the registers.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Harpsichord, <i>1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris
+Two manuals; Range FF-f<sup>3</sup>; 2&times;8&#8242;, 1&times;4&#8242;, buff, shove coupler</i></p>
+
+<p>In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one
+of the few remaining French harpsichords. The builder&#8217;s
+name is known from the design on the soundboard rose which
+includes the initials &#8220;B&#8221; and &#8220;S&#8221;; also, the name &#8220;Benoist
+Stehlin&#8221; is inscribed on two of the jacks. The 1760 date is
+painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of
+Stehlin&#8217;s workshop and house made at the time of his death
+in 1774 lists a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along
+with several other instruments in various stages of completion.
+Figures 28 and 30 show the instrument before its restoration.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_033" id="i_033"></a><img src="images/i_033.jpg" width="500" height="575"
+alt="28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view." />
+<p class="caption">28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This instrument was restored to playing condition in the
+conservation laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments
+in 1968. Typical of most French instruments, it is equipped
+with a shove coupler, which enables the player to operate
+both manuals from the lower keyboard by shoving the upper
+keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position, wooden
+uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends
+of the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the
+upper manual keys to descend when the lower manual keys
+are pressed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_034" id="i_034"></a><img src="images/i_034.jpg" width="500" height="368"
+alt="29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose." />
+<p class="caption">29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"><a name="i_035" id="i_035"></a><img src="images/i_035.jpg" width="300" height="677"
+alt="30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Clavichords</i></p>
+
+<p>Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the
+piano, through variation of finger pressure. In both, the
+strings are struck&mdash;by metal tangents in the clavichord and
+by leather or felt hammers in the piano.</p>
+
+<p>In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard
+bridge on the player&#8217;s right and are damped (stopped from
+vibrating) by strips of cloth on the left. The metal hammer
+(tangent) mounted in the end of the key strikes the string
+and continues to touch it as long as the player presses the
+key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into
+two segments&mdash;the segment on the right being free to vibrate,
+the segment on the left being damped by the cloth. When
+the key is released, the cloth damps the entire string.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key
+(middle c). The tangent at the far end of the key lever has
+been raised so that it has struck the strings and has lifted
+them above rest position. The damping cloth on the left of
+this raised string can also be seen.</p>
+
+<p>Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces
+tones, though limited in volume, that are very expressive
+and even capable of vibrato (<i>Bebung</i>). Because it lacks carrying
+power, the clavichord historically was a solo or practice
+instrument, for it could not be heard in combination with
+other instruments or with the voice.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_037" id="i_037"></a><img src="images/i_037.jpg" width="500" height="413"
+alt="31. Clavichord action." />
+<p class="caption">31. Clavichord action. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Fretted Clavichord, <i>about 1700; maker unknown, Germany</i>
+Unfretted Clavichord, <i>18th century; maker unknown, Germany</i></p>
+
+<p>The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case
+which rested upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier
+instruments was about four octaves. By the 18th century the
+range had been expanded to five octaves.</p>
+
+<p>The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each
+key and were unfretted or <i>bundfrei</i>. Many smaller and earlier
+clavichords were fretted (<i>gebunden</i>), having some strings that
+would produce more than one pitch when struck at different
+points by adjacent keys.</p>
+
+<p>Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more
+detail. Tangents on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same
+strings to produce the notes e<sup>&#9837;</sup> and e. Some other fretted notes
+shown in the picture include: keys 18 and 19 (f and f<sup>&#9839;</sup>),
+keys 20 and 21 (g and g<sup>&#9839;</sup>), keys 23 and 24 (b<sup>&#9837;</sup> and b), and
+keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c<sup>&#9839;</sup>). Figure 31 is also a detail
+from this clavichord.</p>
+
+<p>The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36,
+in unrestored condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments
+that became standard in Germany by the mid-18th
+century and for which Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach wrote many
+solo keyboard compositions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_039" id="i_039"></a><img src="images/i_039.jpg" width="500" height="613"
+alt="32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting." />
+<p class="caption">32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting. <i>Photo: Robert Lautman</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_040a" id="i_040a"></a><img src="images/i_040a.jpg" width="500" height="359"
+alt="Fretted clavichord: 33. Full view." />
+<p class="caption">33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_040b" id="i_040b"></a><img src="images/i_040b.jpg" width="500" height="195"
+alt="Fretted clavichord: 43. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_041a" id="i_041a"></a><img src="images/i_041a.jpg" width="500" height="326"
+alt="Unfretted clavichord: 35. Full view." />
+<p class="caption">35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="i_041b" id="i_041b"></a><img src="images/i_041b.jpg" width="500" height="183"
+alt="Unfretted clavichord: 36. Plan view." />
+<p class="caption">36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong
+for a more expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles.
+Harpsichord builders added new stops, devised special leather
+plectra, and added Venetian swell effects and other innovations
+to alter the sound of the harpsichord. But no matter what
+they did, they could not produce enough dynamic gradation
+to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable of
+dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.</p>
+
+<p>Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created
+by the change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally
+to the domestic instruments they knew best&mdash;the harpsichord
+and clavichord&mdash;as the process of adaptation began. For this
+reason, as the pianoforte was developed and perfected, the
+general proportions and arrangement of the grand piano
+resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation
+between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other
+features of the square piano resembled those of the clavichord.</p>
+
+<p>By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an
+instrument capable of subtle changes between soft and loud,
+had become the most important domestic and concert keyboard
+instrument. After 1800 few clavichords or harpsichords
+were built or used until they were revived by early music
+enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Selected Bibliography</i></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Boalch, Donald</span>. <i>Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord</i>.
+London: George Ronald, 1955.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hirt, Franz Josef</span>. <i>Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus</i>.
+Olten, Switzerland: Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hubbard, Frank</span>. <i>Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing</i>.
+Boston: Tuner&#8217;s Supply, Inc., 1963.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hubbard, Frank</span>. <i>Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making</i>.
+Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">James, Philip</span>. <i>Early Keyboard Instruments</i>.
+London: Peter Davies, 1930.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ripin, Edwin M</span>. &#8220;The Early Clavichord,&#8221; <i>Musical Quarterly</i>,
+53(4) (October 1967): 518-538.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Russell, Raymond</span>. <i>The Harpsichord and the Clavichord</i>.
+London: Faber and Faber, 1959.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shortridge, John D</span>. &#8220;Italian Harpsichord-Building in the
+16th and 17th Centuries.&#8221; <i>United States National Museum
+Bulletin</i>, 225 (15): 93-107, 1960.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Harpsichords and Clavichords
+
+Author: Cynthia A. Hoover
+
+Release Date: May 13, 2012 [EBook #39690]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HARPSICHORDS AND CLAVICHORDS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Turgut Dincer, Joseph Cooper and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+   CYNTHIA A. HOOVER
+
+   DIVISION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
+   NATIONAL MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
+
+
+   _Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+   SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS
+   CITY OF WASHINGTON
+   1969
+
+
+   _Cover: Virginal by Giovanni Battista Boni, 1617_ (_see pages 22-25_)
+   _Photo: Robert Lautman_
+
+   _For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
+    Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 40 cents_
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords and Clavichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and the clavichord represent the two most important
+types of stringed keyboard instruments used from the 15th through the
+18th centuries. By the 19th century, the piano had become the most
+important domestic keyboard instrument.
+
+In this booklet are described a few of the restored Smithsonian
+harpsichords and clavichords that are occasionally on exhibit in the
+Hall of Musical Instruments or in use in the series of concerts
+sponsored by the Division of Musical Instruments. Models showing how the
+sound is produced on these instruments are also on exhibit.
+
+A complete list of the keyboard collection is found in _A Checklist of
+Keyboard Instruments at the Smithsonian Institution_ (Washington, 1967),
+which is available from the Division of Musical Instruments, Smithsonian
+Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560.
+
+
+
+
+_Harpsichords_
+
+
+The harpsichord and its smaller relatives, the virginal and the spinet,
+have strings that are _plucked_. The harpsichord is wing-shaped, most
+virginals and spinets are either rectangular or polygonal.
+
+When the harpsichord key is pressed, a wooden jack is raised so that a
+quill or leather plectrum inserted into the jack tongue plucks the
+string. When the key is released, the jack falls back into place, the
+pivoted tongue allowing the plectrum to pass the string without plucking
+it. A felt damper (inserted in a slit at the top of the jack) touches
+the string to stop the sound.
+
+Figure 1 shows the jack arrangement in an 18th century English spinet.
+The second jack from the left on the front row has been raised so that
+its quill is just about to pluck the string. Note that the quill has
+lifted the string above its rest position.
+
+Inherent in the design of a harpsichord is the limitation of dynamic
+nuance. The sound of a harpsichord is not greatly altered by increasing
+or lessening the impact of fingers on the keys. Rather, the dynamic
+level and quality of sound can be changed by varying the number of
+strings plucked (many harpsichords have three sets of strings: two sets
+tuned in unison [8'] and a third tuned an octave higher [4']), by
+varying the location of the plucking point, and by muting the strings
+with felt or leather pads.
+
+The tone of a keyboard instrument is also affected by its general
+outline, the material and thickness of the soundboard, the length and
+material of the strings, and the type of case construction. The case
+must be strong enough to counteract the tension of the strings and yet
+light enough to allow the sound to resonate.
+
+[Illustration: 1. Harpsichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman._]
+
+Among the Smithsonian's extensive keyboard collection are fine examples
+of harpsichords that represent several of the major national trends in
+harpsichord building: the Flemish, Italian, English, and French.
+
+
+
+
+_Flemish Harpsichords_
+
+
+Antwerp was the harpsichord-making center of northern Europe during the
+16th and 17th centuries. The earliest examples of harpsichords had only
+one keyboard and one or two sets of 8' strings. The progressive Flemish
+makers added a second keyboard and another set of strings, tuned an
+octave higher than the others, which allowed a wider range in pitch and
+more variety in sound. Later French and English harpsichords were
+largely derived from the Flemish style.
+
+
+Virginal, _1620; made by Andreas Ruckers, Antwerp One manual;
+Range C/E-c^3 (apparent); 1x8'_
+
+[Illustration: 2. Ruckers virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 3. Ruckers virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 4. Ruckers virginal: Detail of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 5. Ruckers virginal: View of soundboard and lid.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+Instruments built by the famous Ruckers family were and are still highly
+prized. Although simply painted on the exterior, the case of this
+virginal is decorated on the inside in characteristic Ruckers style.
+Block-printed papers cover the interior of the case; the inside of
+the lid bears a Latin motto and the soundboard is painted with flowers
+and arabesques. Figure 4 illustrates a detail of the block printing, and
+of the keys. The arcades on the end of the keys appear to be cut from
+several layers of leather which were then applied to the key fronts.
+
+This instrument is tuned a fourth higher than it might appear. When the
+C key is pressed, the note sounded is F, a fourth above.
+
+
+_Short-Octave Tuning_
+
+Since chromatic notes in the lowest octave of the keyboard were not
+often needed in the music of the 16th and 17th centuries, the practice
+of short-octave tuning was adopted.
+
+Although the lowest note on a short-octave instrument appears to be E,
+the range was actually extended down to C. (The notation C/E indicates
+this arrangement.)
+
+[Illustration: NORMAL TUNING]
+
+[Illustration: SHORT-OCTAVE TUNING]
+
+A typical short-octave instrument of the 16th and 17th centuries would
+be tuned in the following manner: E (1) is tuned down to C (I); F-sharp
+(2) tuned to D (II); and G-sharp (3) tuned to E (III).
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1745; made by Johann Daniel Dulcken, Antwerp Two manuals;
+Range FF-f^3; 2x8v, 1x4', lute_
+
+Typical of northern European instruments, the Dulcken harpsichord has a
+heavy case, two keyboards or manuals, and two 8' choirs and one 4'
+choir. It also has a lute stop, whose jacks, very close to the nut,
+pluck one set of unison strings to produce a pungent, nasal tone.
+
+[Illustration: 6. Dulcken harpsichord: Full view.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 7. Front view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 8. Dulcken harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 9. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of keyboards.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+[Illustration: 10. Dulcken harpsichord: Detail of soundboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_]
+
+
+
+
+_Italian Harpsichords_
+
+
+Typical Italian harpsichords had two choirs of unison strings and two
+jacks for each key. They were of much lighter construction than those
+made in northern Europe--the sides of the case were only about an eighth
+of an inch thick. These fragile instruments were usually placed in
+heavier, often elaborately decorated, outer cases from which the
+harpsichord could be removed.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1693; maker unknown, Italy One manual; Range GG-c^3 (no
+GG-sharp); 2x8'_
+
+The typical construction of Italian harpsichords can be seen in this
+large Italian instrument. The original nameboard is missing; however, as
+was common practice, the maker marked the date on the tail of the lowest
+and highest keys.
+
+The Italian harpsichord serves as an ideal _basso continuo_ keyboard
+instrument because it blends well in instrumental combinations. Its
+clean, crisp sound also allows individual lines to emerge clearly from a
+polyphonic musical texture.
+
+[Illustration: 11. Italian harpsichord (1693): Full view of instrument
+in outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 12. Italian harpsichord (1693): Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 13. Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1694; made by Nicolaus DeQuoco, Italy One-manual: Range
+C-c^3 (no C-sharp); 2x8', 1x4'_
+
+This instrument is one of the few examples of an Italian harpsichord
+with a third set of strings tuned an octave higher than the two unison
+choirs. It is possible that the third set was added to this instrument
+sometime after it was constructed with two unison registers.
+
+Figure 15 shows the instrument before restoration; Figures 14 and 16
+show the restored harpsichord removed from its heavy outer case and
+details of the handsome keyboard and moldings typical of Italian
+instruments.
+
+[Illustration: 14. DeQuoco harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 15. DeQuoco harpsichord: Full view of instrument in outer
+case.]
+
+[Illustration: 16. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+View of instrument removed from outer case.]
+
+[Illustration: 17. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Inscription on wrest plank.]
+
+[Illustration: 18. DeQuoco harpsichord:
+Detail of keyboard. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Virginal, _1617; made by Giovanni Battista Boni, Cortona One manual;
+Range C/E-f^3; 1x8'_
+
+The smaller virginals and spinets were commonly found in homes of modest
+means, as well as in royal courts. This polygonal virginal has six split
+keys which represent a complicated tuning scheme.
+
+[Illustration: 21. Tuning scheme.]
+
+Keys 1-2: This is a system of short-octave tuning (see Ruckers Virginal)
+in which the two lowest accidentals are split into two sections. The
+back section is tuned to the apparent accidental, the front section to
+the short octave. Thus, on the Boni, the back section of the bottom
+split key is tuned F-sharp, the front section is tuned D; the back section of
+the second lowest split key is tuned A-flat, the front section is tuned E.
+
+Keys 3-6: The top four keys are split to provide for enharmonic
+tuning--that is, both D-flat and E-flat, G-sharp and A-flat. In the
+meantone system of tuning, which was the prevailing tuning of the time,
+scales distant from the key of C were often out of tune. To improve the
+intonation of these scales, some makers divided some of the accidental
+keys to provide alternate tunings.
+
+[Illustration: 19. Boni virginal: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 20. Boni virginal: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 21. Boni virginal: View of keyboard.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+
+
+_English Harpsichords_
+
+
+In the 18th century, London became a center of harpsichord making. The
+two most important makers, Jacob Kirckman and Burkat Shudi, were Swiss
+immigrants who first apprenticed with Hermann Tabel, a Flemish
+harpsichord maker who had also emigrated to England. In America, where
+English culture was highly regarded, Thomas Jefferson owned a Kirckman
+harpsichord, Francis Hopkinson a Shudi and Broadwood.
+
+The heavy cases of the typical English instruments were veneered in
+walnut, mahogany, and later satinwood, and rested on trestle stands. The
+usual range was five octaves: FF-f^3 for harpsichords; GG-g^3 for
+spinets (and organs). In general, the sound produced on an English
+harpsichord is more thick and lush than the sound of instruments from
+other European centers.
+
+
+Spinet, _about 1710; made by Thomas Hitchcock, London One manual; Range
+GG-g^3; 1x8'_
+
+The spinet, a member of the harpsichord family, was a popular domestic
+keyboard instrument in England and America during the 18th century and
+was mentioned in many American diaries and inventories of that time. The
+spinet often served as the keyboard instrument for the household that
+could not afford or did not have room for the harpsichord or organ.
+
+The Hitchcock family supplied many spinets for early 18th-century
+gentility. Note in Figure 24 the handsome brass hinges, one of many
+examples of the beautiful hardware used by English builders. This
+instrument is quilled with crow quill, the most common material used for
+plectra at that time. A detail of the jacks and stringing is shown in
+Figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: 22. Hitchcock spinet: Full view and nameboard.]
+
+[Illustration: 23. Hitchcock spinet: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 24. Hitchcock spinet: Top view. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Harpsichord, _about 1743; made by Burkat Shudi, London Two manuals;
+Range FF-f^3 (no FF-sharp); 2x8', 1x4', lute, buff_
+
+Most of the stops on early harpsichords were changed by hand. From left
+to right, the stop knobs shown in Figure 25 operate the following
+registers: _lute_, _octave_ (4'), _buff_ (muting the second unison by
+pressing soft leather pads against the strings), _first unison_ (8'),
+and _second unison_ (8'). The lute stop plays from the upper manual, the
+first unison from both manuals, and the remaining stops from the lower
+manual.
+
+Figures 25 and 26 show the instrument before restoration. The name
+batten on which the date of 1747 appears is not original to the
+instrument. The date of the instrument is based on the serial number 144
+stamped on the lower keyboard. From all records it appears Shudi would
+have built an instrument with that serial number in 1743.
+
+[Illustration: 25. Shudi harpsichord: View of keyboards.]
+
+[Illustration: 26. Shudi harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 27. Shudi harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+
+
+
+_French Harpsichords_
+
+
+Although Paris claimed many harpsichord builders, few French
+harpsichords remain today. Many were destroyed at the time of the
+Revolution and later when firewood was needed to heat Conservatoire
+classrooms.
+
+French builders, the most famous among them the Blanchet family and
+Pascal Taskin, spent much of their time reconstructing Ruckers
+harpsichords to satisfy the musical and decorative tastes of
+18th-century France. Included in this reconstruction or _ravalement_
+were the extension of compass (usually from C-c^3 to FF-f^3),
+enlargement of the case and soundboard, and often replacement of
+keyboards, jacks, and registers.
+
+Housed in elegantly painted cases supported by cabriole or fluted legs,
+typical French harpsichords had two manuals and were praised for their
+lightness of touch. Later 18th-century developments included a fourth
+register called _peau de buffle_ (plectra of soft chamois-type leather)
+and knee levers to operate the registers.
+
+
+Harpsichord, _1760; made by Benoist Stehlin, Paris Two manuals; Range
+FF-f^3; 2x8', 1x4v, buff, shove coupler_
+
+In recent years the Smithsonian was fortunate to acquire one of the few
+remaining French harpsichords. The builder's name is known from the
+design on the soundboard rose which includes the initials "B" and "S";
+also, the name "Benoist Stehlin" is inscribed on two of the jacks. The
+1760 date is painted on the left side of the soundboard. An inventory of
+Stehlin's workshop and house made at the time of his death in 1774 lists
+a Ruckers harpsichord altered by Stehlin along with several other
+instruments in various stages of completion. Figures 28 and 30 show the
+instrument before its restoration.
+
+[Illustration: 28. Stehlin harpsichord: Full view.]
+
+This instrument was restored to playing condition in the conservation
+laboratory of the Division of Musical Instruments in 1968. Typical of
+most French instruments, it is equipped with a shove coupler, which
+enables the player to operate both manuals from the lower keyboard by
+shoving the upper keyboard away from him. In this pushed-back position,
+wooden uprights (dogs) attached to the upper surface of the far ends of
+the lower key levers couple the two manuals and cause the upper manual
+keys to descend when the lower manual keys are pressed.
+
+[Illustration: 29. Stehlin harpsichord: Detail of rose.]
+
+[Illustration: 30. Stehlin harpsichord: Plan view.]
+
+
+
+
+_Clavichords_
+
+
+Dynamic shadings are possible in the clavichord, as in the piano,
+through variation of finger pressure. In both, the strings are struck--by
+metal tangents in the clavichord and by leather or felt hammers in the
+piano.
+
+In the clavichord the strings extend over a soundboard bridge on the
+player's right and are damped (stopped from vibrating) by strips of
+cloth on the left. The metal hammer (tangent) mounted in the end of the
+key strikes the string and continues to touch it as long as the player
+presses the key. The tangent, while touching the string, divides it into
+two segments--the segment on the right being free to vibrate, the segment
+on the left being damped by the cloth. When the key is released, the
+cloth damps the entire string.
+
+Figure 31 shows a player depressing a clavichord key (middle c). The
+tangent at the far end of the key lever has been raised so that it has
+struck the strings and has lifted them above rest position. The damping
+cloth on the left of this raised string can also be seen.
+
+Known as early as the 15th century, the clavichord produces tones,
+though limited in volume, that are very expressive and even capable of
+vibrato (_Bebung_). Because it lacks carrying power, the clavichord
+historically was a solo or practice instrument, for it could not be
+heard in combination with other instruments or with the voice.
+
+[Illustration: 31. Clavichord action. _Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+
+Fretted Clavichord, _about 1700; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+Unfretted Clavichord, _18th century; maker unknown, Germany_
+
+The clavichord was usually housed in a rectangular case which rested
+upon a simple stand. The range of the earlier instruments was about four
+octaves. By the 18th century the range had been expanded to five
+octaves.
+
+The larger, later clavichords had separate strings for each key and were
+unfretted or _bundfrei_. Many smaller and earlier clavichords were
+fretted (_gebunden_), having some strings that would produce more than
+one pitch when struck at different points by adjacent keys.
+
+Figure 32 shows the fretted clavichord keyboard in more detail. Tangents
+on keys numbered 16 and 17 strike the same strings to produce the notes
+e-flat and e. Some other fretted notes shown in the picture include:
+keys 18 and 19 (f and f-sharp), keys 20 and 21 (g and g-sharp]), keys 23
+and 24 (b-flat and b), and keys 25 and 26 (middle c and c-sharp). Figure
+31 is also a detail from this clavichord.
+
+The Smithsonian clavichord shown in Figures 35 and 36, in unrestored
+condition, is typical of the large unfretted instruments that became
+standard in Germany by the mid-18th century and for which Carl Philipp
+Emanuel Bach wrote many solo keyboard compositions.
+
+[Illustration: 32. Fretted clavichord: Detail of fretting.
+_Photo: Robert Lautman_.]
+
+[Illustration: 33. Fretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 34. Fretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+[Illustration: 35. Unfretted clavichord: Full view.]
+
+[Illustration: 36. Unfretted clavichord: Plan view.]
+
+By the beginning of the 18th century the desire was strong for a more
+expressive keyboard instrument to use in ensembles. Harpsichord builders
+added new stops, devised special leather plectra, and added Venetian
+swell effects and other innovations to alter the sound of the
+harpsichord. But no matter what they did, they could not produce enough
+dynamic gradation to satisfy musical taste. The clavichord was capable
+of dynamic nuance, but it lacked carrying power.
+
+Instrument builders, seeking to satisfy the demands created by the
+change in sensibility and musical taste, turned naturally to the
+domestic instruments they knew best--the harpsichord and clavichord--as
+the process of adaptation began. For this reason, as the pianoforte was
+developed and perfected, the general proportions and arrangement of the
+grand piano resembled those of the harpsichord. Similarly, the relation
+between the keyboard and strings, the scaling, and other features of the
+square piano resembled those of the clavichord.
+
+By the beginning of the 19th century the pianoforte, an instrument
+capable of subtle changes between soft and loud, had become the most
+important domestic and concert keyboard instrument. After 1800 few
+clavichords or harpsichords were built or used until they were revived
+by early music enthusiasts at the end of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+_Selected Bibliography_
+
+
+BOALCH, DONALD. _Makers of the Harpsichord and Clavichord_. London:
+George Ronald, 1955.
+
+HIRT, FRANZ JOSEF. _Meisterwerke des Klavierbaus_. Olten, Switzerland:
+Urs Graf-Verlag, 1955.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Harpsichord Regulating and Repairing_. Boston: Tuner's
+Supply, Inc., 1963.
+
+HUBBARD, FRANK. _Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making_. Cambridge,
+Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965.
+
+JAMES, PHILIP. _Early Keyboard Instruments_. London: Peter Davies, 1930.
+
+RIPIN, EDWIN M. "The Early Clavichord," _Musical Quarterly_, 53(4)
+(October 1967): 518-538.
+
+RUSSELL, RAYMOND. _The Harpsichord and the Clavichord_. London: Faber
+and Faber, 1959.
+
+SHORTRIDGE, JOHN D. "Italian Harpsichord-Building in the 16th and 17th
+Centuries." _United States National Museum Bulletin_, 225 (15): 93-107,
+1960.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Harpsichords and Clavichords, by Cynthia A. Hoover
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