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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: The Hansa Towns</p> +<p>Author: Helen Zimmern</p> +<p>Release Date: May 10, 2012 [eBook #39664]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HANSA TOWNS***</p> +<p> </p> +<h3>E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Melissa McDaniel,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3> +<p> </p> +<hr class="full" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center b13"><i>The Story of the Nations.</i></p> + +<p class="center p4 b20">THE HANSA TOWNS.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/hanse001a.jpg" width="100" height="118" alt="Logo" /> +</div> + +<div class="ad p6"> +<p class="center">THE STORY OF THE NATIONS.</p> +<hr class="poem" /> + +<p class="center"><i>Large Crown 8vo, Cloth, Illustrated, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>s.</i><br /> +<i>Presentation Edition, Gilt Edges, 5s. 6d.</i></p> + +<p>1. <b>ROME.</b> <span class="smcap">Arthur Gilman</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p>2. <b>THE JEWS.</b> Prof. <span class="smcap">J. K. Hosmer</span>.</p> + +<p>3. <b>GERMANY.</b> Rev. <span class="smcap">S. Baring-Gould</span>, +M.A.</p> + +<p>4. <b>CARTHAGE.</b> Prof. <span class="smcap">A. J. Church</span>.</p> + +<p>5. <b>ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE.</b> Prof. +<span class="smcap">J. P. Mahaffy</span>.</p> + +<p>6. <b>THE MOORS IN SPAIN.</b> <span class="smcap">Stanley +Lane-Poole.</span></p> + +<p>7. <b>ANCIENT EGYPT.</b> Canon <span class="smcap">Rawlinson</span>.</p> + +<p>8. <b>HUNGARY.</b> Prof. <span class="smcap">A. Vambéry</span>.</p> + +<p>9. <b>THE SARACENS.</b> <span class="smcap">A. Gilman</span>, M.A.</p> + +<p>10. <b>IRELAND.</b> Hon. <span class="smcap">Emily Lawless</span>.</p> + +<p>11. <b>CHALDÆA.</b> <span class="smcap">Z. A. Ragozin.</span></p> + +<p>12. <b>THE GOTHS.</b> <span class="smcap">Henry Bradley.</span></p> + +<p>13. <b>ASSYRIA.</b> <span class="smcap">Z. A. Ragozin.</span></p> + +<p>14. <b>TURKEY.</b> <span class="smcap">Stanley Lane-Poole.</span></p> + +<p>15. <b>HOLLAND.</b> Prof. <span class="smcap">J. E. Thorold +Rogers</span>.</p> + +<p>16. <b>MEDIÆVAL FRANCE.</b> Prof. +<span class="smcap">Gustave Masson</span>.</p> + +<p>17. <b>PERSIA.</b> <span class="smcap">S. G. W. Benjamin.</span></p> + +<p>18. <b>PHŒNICIA.</b> Canon <span class="smcap">Rawlinson</span>.</p> + +<p>19. <b>MEDIA.</b> <span class="smcap">Z. A. Ragozin.</span></p> + +<p>20. <b>THE HANSA TOWNS.</b> By <span class="smcap">Helen +Zimmern</span>.</p> + +<hr class="poem" /> +<p class="center"> +London:<br /> +T. FISHER UNWIN, 26, Paternoster Square, E.C.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter p10"><a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a> +<img src="images/frontis.jpg" width="338" height="550" alt="VIEW OF HAMBURG." /> +<p class="caption">VIEW OF HAMBURG.</p> +</div> + +<h1 class="p6">THE<br /> +HANSA TOWNS</h1> + +<p class="center p4"><span class="s07">BY</span><br /> +HELEN ZIMMERN<br /> +<span class="s07">AUTHOR OF "A LIFE OF LESSING," "HEROIC TALES FROM FIRDUSI," ETC.</span></p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<p class="center p4">London<br /> +<span class="b12">T. FISHER UNWIN</span><br /> +26 PATERNOSTER SQUARE</p> + +<p class="center">NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br /> +<span class="s05">MDCCCLXXXIX</span></p> + +<p class="p6 center"> +Entered at Stationers' Hall<br /> +<span class="smcap">By T. FISHER UNWIN</span></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Copyright by G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1889</span><br /> +(For the United States of America).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_VII" id="Page_VII"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<h3 class="p4">PREFACE.</h3> + +<hr class="l15" /> + +<p>In bringing before the public what I believe to be +the first History of the Hanseatic League, it gives +me pleasure to think that the impetus to write it +came from the United States. The work was suggested +to me by my valued friend, Mr. G. H. Putnam, +of New York, a citizen of the country in which the +principle of federation is best understood and most +thoroughly carried out. The Hansa was one of the +earliest representatives of that federal spirit which +will, beyond doubt, some day help to solve many +of the heavy and grievous problems with which we +of the Old World are struggling; but that day is +not yet, and meantime we have much to learn both +from the successes and failures of the past.</p> + +<p>I have, of course, assumed in my readers some +knowledge of German History, such as they can +derive from Professor Bryce's inimitable "Holy +Roman Empire," or from Baring-Gould's "Story of +Germany," one of the earlier volumes of this series.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, I desire to express my very cordial +thanks to Dr. Otto Benecke, Keeper of the State +Archives of the city of Hamburg, and to my uncle, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_VIII" id="Page_VIII">viii</a></span> +Dr. Carl Leo, Syndic of the same town, for the +generosity with which they have accorded me valuable +assistance in the preparation of this volume. I +have further to thank Miss L. Toulmin Smith for +help in revision of the MS., and for many useful +suggestions. To my sister, Miss Alice Zimmern, +and to Dr. Richard Garnett, of the British Museum, +I am indebted for aid in proof-reading.</p> + +<p><span class="left65">HELEN ZIMMERN.</span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Florence</span>,<br /> +<span class="i2"><i>March 1, 1889</i>.</span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_IX" id="Page_IX"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<h3 class="p4">CONTENTS.</h3> + +<hr class="l5" /> +<table summary="Table of Contents"> +<col width="5%" /> +<col width="85%" /> +<col width="10%" /> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"> </td><td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Preface</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_VII">vii</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2" class="tdl"><span class="smcap">Proem</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc"><i>PERIOD I.</i></td><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">I.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Dawn of a Great Trade Guild</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_11">11</a>-<a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl">Teutonic Merchants, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>—Travelling in Early Times, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>—Origin +of the Guilds, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">II.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Federation</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl">The Story of "Winetha," <a href="#Page_23">23</a>—The Island of Gothland, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>—"Salt +Kolberg," <a href="#Page_27">27</a>—Unhansing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">III.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Foreign Trade</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl">Social Conditions, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>—Enslavement of the Middle Class, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>—Italian +Influences, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>—Burgher Home Rule, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>—League +of the Baltic Towns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>—The Title "Hansa," <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">IV.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Hansa Fights</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl">The Herring Fisheries, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>—Waldemar, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>—The First Attack, +<a href="#Page_53">53</a>—Sack of Wisby, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>—Copenhagen Plundered, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>—Punishment +of Wittenborg, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>—The Cologne Federation, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>—Growing +Strength of the League, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>—Flight of Waldemar, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>—Treaty +of Stralsund, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>—A Curious Chapter in History, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_X" id="Page_X">x</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc"><i>PERIOD II.</i></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc"> +THE HISTORY OF THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE, +FROM 1370 TO THE PUBLIC PEACE OF 1495, +DECREED IN GERMANY BY MAXIMILIAN I. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">I.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Lübeck Receives an Imperial Visitor</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Hesitation of Lübeck, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>—Procession from St. Gertrude's +Chapel, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>—Lübeck Hospitality, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>—Records of the Visit, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">II.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Towns in the Fourteenth Century</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a>-<a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +The Ban of the Hansa, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>—Submission of Brunswick, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>—Prominence +of the Cities, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>—Population of Lübeck, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>—Characteristics +of the Germans, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>—Independence of the +Towns, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>—The Maritime Ports, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>—Exports of the Hansa, +<a href="#Page_97">97</a>—Conditions of Trade, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>—Specie, Credit, and Bills, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>—The +Extent of Mediæval Trade, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>—The Churches and +Religious Buildings, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>—Hanseatic Architecture and Art, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>—Science +and Literature, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>—The May Emperor, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>—Customs, +Restrictions, and Regulations, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>—Luxury in Dress, +<a href="#Page_119">119</a>—The Town Council, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>—The Town-hall, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>—Mediæval +Patriotism, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">III.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Victual Brothers</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Plunder of Bergen, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>—Stortebeker, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>—Simon of Utrecht, +<a href="#Page_131">131</a>—Execution of Stortebeker, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">IV.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Factory of Bergen</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +History of Bergen, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>—Shoemaker's Alley, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>—Constitution +of the Factory, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>—Barbarous Practices, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XI" id="Page_XI">xi</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">V.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Hanseatic Commerce with Denmark, +Sweden, and Russia</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_148">148</a>-<a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Skânoe and Falsterbo, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>—The Pious Brotherhood of +Malmö, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>—The Hansa at Novgorod, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>—The Court of St. +Peter, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>—Furs, Metals, Honey, and Wax, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>—The Lombards +<i>versus</i> the Hansa, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>—Ivan the Terrible Sacks Novgorod, +<a href="#Page_161">161</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VI.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Commerce of the League with the +Netherlands and Southern Europe</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +The Flemish Trade Guilds, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>—Hansa Factory at Bruges, +<a href="#Page_167">167</a>—Suspension of Trade with Flanders, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>—Trade with +Antwerp, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>—Relations with France, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>—The Hansa in +Portugal and Italy, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>—Italian Culture in South Germany, +<a href="#Page_177">177</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VII.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Steelyard in London</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +The Hanseatic Rothschilds, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>—Hanseatics Hated by the +People, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>—Rupture with England, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>—The Key to the +City's Commerce, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>—Description of the Steelyard, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>—Inner +Life of the Factory, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>—The English Conciliated, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>—Depôts +throughout England, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>—The Hansa's Part in +Ceremonies, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>—Religion of the English Hanseatics, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VIII.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Organization of the Hanseatic League</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_202">202</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +The Diets, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>—Minutes of the Diet's Proceedings, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc"><i>PERIOD III.</i></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE HANSA.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Decay of the Feudal System, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>—The Thirty Years' War, +<a href="#Page_215">215</a>. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XII" id="Page_XII">xii</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">I.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Storm Clouds</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_235">235</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Charles V. of Germany, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>—Gustavus Appeals to Lübeck, +<a href="#Page_223">223</a>—Cruelty of Christian II., <a href="#Page_225">225</a>—Gustavus Lands in +Sweden, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>—Lübeck Aids Gustavus, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>—Christian II. +deposed, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>—Christian II. Abjures Lutheranism, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>—Christian's +Memory, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">II.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">King Frederick and King Gustavus Vasa</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_239">239</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +"Put not thy trust in Princes," <a href="#Page_237">237</a>—Gustavus Quarrels +with Lübeck, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">III.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Wullenweber</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +The Religious Movement, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>—Lübeck Espouses Lutheranism, +<a href="#Page_243">243</a>—Max Meyer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>—Capture of Spanish Ships, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>—Christopher +of Oldenburg, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>—Congress at Hamburg, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>—Wullenweber's +Projects, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>—Disorder in Lübeck, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>—Hostilities +in Denmark, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>—Escape of Max Meyer, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>—Battle +of Assens, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>—Cologne's Reproach, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>—Nicholas +Brömse, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>—Resignation of Wullenweber, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>—Imprisonment +of Wullenweber, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>—The Rack, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>—Unfair Trial, +<a href="#Page_277">277</a>—Execution of Wullenweber, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">IV.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Hansa Loses its Colonies</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Emancipation of Sweden, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>—New Route to Russia, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>—History +of Livonia, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>—Livonia Repudiates the Hansa, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>—Ivan +Seizes Livonia, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>—Stupefaction of Germany, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>—War +Against Sweden, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>—Warning of the Duke of Alva, +<a href="#Page_299">299</a>—Bornholm Ceded to Denmark, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>—Embassy to the +Muscovite Court, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>—The League Dissolves, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>. + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XIII" id="Page_XIII">xiii</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">V.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The League in the Netherlands</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Causes of Failure in the West, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>—Dissension Among the +Towns, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>—Depôt Established at Antwerp, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>—Dangerous +Innovations, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>—General Insecurity of Commerce, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>—Insubordination +of the Hanseatics, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>—The Antwerp Factory +in Danger, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>—Trade with the Low Countries, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VI.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The End of the Hansa's Dominion in +England</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_324">324</a>-<a href="#Page_353">353</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Restrictions on the English Trade, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>—Complaints of the +Londoners, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>—Trade Regulations Broken, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>—Queen +Mary Favours the Hansa, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>—English Grievances, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>—Negotiations +with Elizabeth, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>—Internal Disunion, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>—The +Steelyard Insubordinate, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>—Hamburg Adjusts its +Policy, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>—The Good Old Privileges, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>—Conservative +Lübeck, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>—Seizure of Hanseatic Vessels, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>—Expulsion +of Hanseatics from England, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>—The Steelyard Property, +<a href="#Page_353">353</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VII.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Thirty Years' War Kills the League</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_354">354</a>-<a href="#Page_364">364</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>—Wallenstein's Project, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>—Imperial +Graciousness, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>—The War Storm Breaks, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>. +</td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdc">VIII.</td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Survivors</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_378">378</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td> </td><td class="tdl"> +"Sic transit gloria mundi," <a href="#Page_369">369</a>—Napoleon and the Three +Cities, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>—Note, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>. +</td></tr> + +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Epilogue</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XV" id="Page_XV">xv</a></span></p> + +<h3 class="p4">LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3> +<hr class="l15" /> +<table summary="List of Illustrations"> +<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>VIEW OF HAMBURG</td><td class="tdr"><i><a href="#frontis">Frontispiece</a></i></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>IMPERIAL CROWN OF GERMANY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>PIRATES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>NORMAN VESSEL FROM BAYEUX TAPESTRY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>HIGHROAD</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>ITINERANT MERCHANTS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo36">36</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SALTERS' HALL, FRANKFORT</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>MEDIÆVAL CITY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>ROBBER KNIGHTS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, COLOGNE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo62">62</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, TANGERMUNDE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SHIPPING HOUSE, LÜBECK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>GROCERS' HALL, BREMEN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, BRUNSWICK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>MÜHLENTHOR, STARGARD</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>BURGHERS AT TABLE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo110b">91</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>GERMAN TRADE LIFE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo94">94</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XVI" id="Page_XVI">xvi</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RENSLAU GATE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>CROSSBOW</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>HOHE-THOR, DANZIG</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo108">108</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>HOLSTENTHOR, LÜBECK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>CHILDREN'S SPORTS</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo115">115</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>DOMESTIC MUSIC</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>MIDDLE-CLASS OCCUPATIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH +CENTURY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo122">122</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SHIP-BUILDING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo128">128</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>HELIGOLAND</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>TOMB OF SIMON OF UTRECHT, HAMBURG</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo135">135</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>JUSTICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo142">142</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SHIP AT THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SEAL OF NOVGOROD</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>STADT-HAUS, BRUGES</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo164">164</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RHINE BOAT, COLOGNE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo167">167</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>THE PIED PIPER'S HOUSE, HAMELIN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo172">172</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>FONTEGO DEI TEDESCHI, VENICE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo176">176</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>THE STEELYARD, LONDON</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo180">180</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>BARDI PALACE, FLORENCE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>STEELYARD WHARF, LONDON</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo187">187</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>THE TRIUMPH OF RICHES, BY HOLBEIN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo197">197</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SEAL OF LÜBECK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo205">205</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>PETERSEN-HAUS, NUREMBURG</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo207">207</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>CHARLES V.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo218">218</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XVII" id="Page_XVII">xvii</a></span></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>CHRISTIAN II.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>HENRY VIII.</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo249">249</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SCENE BEFORE A JUDGE</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo273">273</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>THE RACK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo281">281</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>THE HANSA FACTORY, ANTWERP</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo313">313</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>SIR THOMAS GRESHAM</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo327">327</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, MÜNSTER</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo363">363</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, LÜBECK</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo367">367</a></td></tr> +<tr> +<td>RATH-HAUS, BREMEN</td><td class="tdr"><a href="#illo373">373</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="l15" /> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +[Of the architectural views reproduced in this volume some have been +copied from prints in the British Museum, others from drawings and +photographs in possession of the authoress, and the remainder from +various German authorities. The illustrations of German life and +manners are taken from Otto Henne am Rhyn's "Cultur Geschichte des +deutschen Volkes," to the publisher of which volume our best thanks +are due.</p> + +<p> +<span class="smcap left65">T. Fisher Unwin</span>,<br /> +<span class="smcap left65">G. P. Putnam's Sons</span>.]</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_XIX" id="Page_XIX"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/mapa-550.jpg" width="550" height="392" alt="Dominion of the Hansa" /> +<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Dominion of the Hansa</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">XIII-XV Centuries</span><br /> +T. FISHER UNWIN, 26, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON, E.C.</p> +<a href="images/mapa-1000.jpg">View larger image</a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<h2>STORY OF THE HANSA TOWNS.</h2> + +<hr class="l15" /> + +<h3 class="p4">PROEM.</h3> + +<p>There is scarcely a more remarkable chapter in +history than that which deals with the trading alliance +or association known as the Hanseatic League. The +League has long since passed away, having served its +time and fulfilled its purpose. The needs and circumstances +of mankind have changed, and new +methods and new instruments have been devised for +carrying on the commerce of the world. Yet, if +the League has disappeared, the beneficial results +of its action survive to Europe, though they have +become so completely a part of our daily life that we +accept them as matters of course, and do not stop to +inquire into their origin. To us moderns it seems +but natural that there should be security of intercourse +between civilized nations, that highways should +be free from robbers, and the ocean from pirates. +The mere notion of a different state of things appears +strange to us, and yet things were very different not +so many hundred years ago.</p> + +<p>In the feudal times the conditions of life on the +continent of Europe seem little short of barbarous. +The lands were owned not only by the kings who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span> +ruled them with an iron despotism, but were possessed +besides by innumerable petty lordlings and +princelets, who on their part again exercised a rule +so severe and extortionate that the poor people who +groaned under it were in a condition little removed +from slavery. Nay, they were often not even treated +with the consideration that men give their slaves, upon +whom, as their absolute goods and chattels, they set a +certain value. And it was difficult for the people to +revolt and assert themselves, for however disunited +might be their various lords, in case of a danger that +threatened their universal power, they became friends +closer than brothers, and would aid each other faithfully +in keeping down the common folk. Hand in +hand with princes and lords went the priests, themselves +often worldly potentates as well as spiritual +rulers, and hence the very religion of the carpenter's +son, which had overspread the civilized world in +order to emancipate the people and make men of all +nations and degrees into one brotherhood, was—not +for the first time in its history—turned from its +appointed course and used as an instrument of +coercion and repression.</p> + +<p>Such briefly was the celebrated feudal system—a +system whose initial idea that the rich man should +protect the poor, that the lord should be as a father +to his vassals, is wise and good, but which in practice +proved itself untenable. Even to-day, after many +centuries and generations, the only European nations +that have wholly succeeded in casting off the feudal +yoke are those in whose history an entirely subversive +revolution, like the French, has taken place. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span> +others, notwithstanding years of struggle and revolt, +not only its memory, but some of its customs, still +survive; for systems and institutions die hard, and +continue to exercise mischievous power long after their +original force is spent. To this survival can be traced +a large number of the evils that are agitating contemporary +Europe; for example, the wretched state of +Ireland.</p> + +<p>That the people of Germany, the country with +which we have chiefly to deal in treating of the +Hanseatic League, was not wholly enslaved and +crushed out of all individual existence by the state +of things that reigned from the Baltic to the Alps in +the early years of its history is due to the two great +factors of memory and heredity. Memory, because +when Tacitus, that most dramatic of historians, +wrote his famous book on Germany, one of the chief +points he noted in this land was that there existed an +equality among the freeborn, an absence of rank and +concentration of power. Heredity, because a love of +individual freedom appears as an inherent quality in +the Teutonic race from their first appearance in historic +legend.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p>"Though the mills of God grind slowly</p> +<p class="i1">Yet they grind exceeding small,"</p> +</div> + +<p>sings the poet, and all the ages have confirmed the +experience that might is not suffered to be right for +ever, that vengeance falls and justice asserts itself, +even though the wrong be not righted, or the evil +avenged for many a long year after the sin has +been committed.</p> + +<p>"Whom the gods would destroy they first strike +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span> +with madness," says the Latin proverb. It was so +with the ambitious rulers of Germany. They were +not content to be sovereigns of their own empire, +they desired also to hold in their hand the reins +of Italy; the bestowal of the title Holy Roman +Emperor by the Pope Leo III. upon Charlemagne +moved their longing and cupidity, so that gradually +they grew more occupied with the business of the fair +peninsula, "the garden of the Empire," as Dante calls +it, than with the condition of their own ruder and +sterner fatherland. Added to this they took to fighting +among themselves, being +divided into two rival factions +which elected opposing +rulers, the result being that +often no one knew who was +head or who was subject.</p> + +<div class="figleft"><a name="illo4" id="illo4"></a> +<img src="images/illo4.jpg" width="250" height="233" alt="IMPERIAL CROWN OF GERMANY." /> +<p class="caption">IMPERIAL CROWN OF GERMANY.</p> +</div> + +<p>Frederick Barbarossa was +the last to uphold the real +authority and power of Germany. +He was a true hero +of romance, one of the +noblest expressions of the mediæval character. When +he died the real empire fell. What remained was but a +semblance and a ruin, and it is little wonder that Germany +plunged henceforth into yet greater anarchy, invented +the legend that peace and prosperity would not +return to her until Frederick Red Beard should come +back to rule, that giant among men, falsely reported +dead, but who, in truth, was merely resting, sunk in +enchanted sleep among the mountains of Bavaria. +There he was waiting the hour when the ravens +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5</a></span> +should cease to hover around the cloud-capped peak +to emerge surrounded by the trusty Crusaders who +shared his slumbers and restore to Germany the +golden age of peace and strength.</p> + +<p>It is claimed by some that Barbarossa has so returned, +that he came back as recently as 1870, but +whether this be fact or no does not concern us here. +What does concern us is, that in the reign of Frederick +Barbarossa we find mentioned, for the first time as a +power in the State, a few of the many German cities +that had arisen under the fostering protection of +Henry the Fowler. Barbarossa found it useful to +encourage the growth of that third estate so needful +to the healthy existence of the body politic. Thus +he could pit them against the nobles when it pleased +him to harass his sometime allies; he could also +draw from them the moneys that are the sinews of +war. In return for such loyal aid the emperor freely +granted municipal institutions, rights and privileges, +exemptions and favours, little realizing that in so +doing he was creating in his own land that very spirit +of independence, that breath of modern individual +freedom, to quench which he was spending his best +years and strength beyond the barrier Alps.</p> + +<p>The policy therefore of the "imperial knights" and +"knightly emperors" who preceded and followed +Frederick, while in one way it tended to destroy the +unity of Germany as a political state, in the other +was the means by which the cities of Germany, as +well as those of Northern Italy, acquired that remarkable +independence, that rapid, splendid commercial +and intellectual development that raised them to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">6</a></span> +condition of almost autonomous communities, and +made them the wonder, glory, and pride of the +Middle Ages. Citizens and burghers became freemen, +and enjoyed the privileges that fell to this lot. +Hence men loved to crowd into the towns, and these +grew up and flourished apace, until they acquired +such power and assumed such proportions as their +first promoters little contemplated.</p> + +<p>It was the Lombard league of cities that broke the +might of the Holy Roman Emperors, as the rulers +of Germany loved to style themselves, as they styled +themselves, indeed, long after the Empire, to quote +Voltaire, was neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an +Empire.</p> + +<p>Ignominiously driven forth from Italy, the German +kings at last turned their steps homeward, where they +looked to reign with their old strength and might, +even though the range of their rule had been circumscribed. +They came back to find that long absences, +internal and external feuds, pretenders and usurpers, +had so weakened their prestige that their subjects had +learnt to trust to themselves rather than to their +sovereign heads. And when they did return, at last, +it was to find themselves confronted with such +another league of cities, as had wrecked their power +abroad, a federation founded for mutual protection +and defence, under whose ægis alone could peace or +shelter be found.</p> + +<p>This was the irony of fate indeed. To be sovereigns +of the world, the German emperors had staked +their national existence; staked and lost.</p> + +<p>On a murky and disturbed horizon had arisen a brilliant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7</a></span> +star, the star of municipal liberty, helping men +to hope for and aspire towards those better things, to +which it alone could lead them. The political anarchy +of Germany, increased by forty years' interregnum, +not only had given birth but strength to the confederation +of cities directed against the brigandage of the +princes and nobles, which we first meet with under the +name of Hansa, in the year 1241, at a time when both +the Papal and Imperial thrones were vacant, when in +France St. Louis wielded the sceptre and was strengthening +the power of nobles and the church; when in +England Henry III. had enraged the barons by his +fondness for foreign favourites, and when that outburst +was preparing which led to the formation of a popular +faction and upraised the patriot, Simon de Montfort; +a time, in short, when the long struggle even now +waging between the people and their rulers was first +begun in modern Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter p2"><a name="illo7" id="illo7"></a> +<img src="images/illo7.jpg" width="220" height="109" alt="COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE." /> +<p class="caption">COIN OF CHARLEMAGNE.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a></span></p> + +<h2 class="p6">PERIOD I.</h2> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>I.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE DAWN OF A GREAT TRADE GUILD.</h3> + +<p>Whether it be that our forefathers were not so +prompt to put pen to paper as we are, or that they +purposely avoided written words and inclined to +silence from motives of that combined prudence and +love of mystery-making that distinguished the Middle +Ages, the fact remains that of the real origin and +founding of that great federation of industry and +intelligence known to after-years as the Hanseatic +League, we have no accurate knowledge.</p> + +<p>We see the tree in full growth, with its widespreading +boughs and branches; of the modest seedling +whence it sprung we are in ignorance. We only know +most surely that some such seed there must have been, +and in this case may with certainty infer that the main +causes of this unique combination were the alliance of +the North German cities among themselves, and the +protective and social alliances formed by German +merchants who met in foreign parts.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that there must have been much commerce, +and that it must have played an important part +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span> +before either of these circumstances could have arisen. +Therefore in order fully to understand the importance +and bearing of the League we must begin our story +earlier than its history proper would seem to warrant; +only thus can we thoroughly comprehend why the +Hanseatic alliance in fostering its own interests, in +aggrandizing and enriching itself, was working also +for all humanity, since it created and enlarged the +idea of public right, and thus sowed the seeds of +principles then novel, but on which our modern +civilization is largely founded and with which we +are now so familiar that it is difficult to realize how +matters could ever have been otherwise. Can we +grasp, for example, a state of things when wrecking +was considered a legitimate occupation; when the +merchandise thus thrown on land became the possession +of the strand dwellers and the ship's crew their +legitimate slaves; when barons who deemed themselves +noblemen lay in wait within their strong castles +to pounce on luckless traders, and either deprived them +wholly of their wares or levied black mail under the +name of toll; in short, when humanity towards the +weak and unfortunate was a word of empty sound? +Yet so strongly is the love of enterprise implanted in +the Northman's breast that even these obstacles did +not deter him from the desire to enlarge his experience +and to widen the field of his energies. He +was the kinsman of those adventurous Angles and +Saxons who had not feared to cross the boisterous +German Ocean and to subjugate Great Britain to +themselves; in his veins ran the blood of those +Normans, the scourge and terror of European coasts, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span> +against whom the peoples knew no better protection +than the prayer addressed to Heaven in their despair—"<i>A +furore Normanrorum libera nos Domine</i>," a clause +that survived in their litanies some time after the +cause was no longer to be feared.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo13" id="illo13"></a> +<img src="images/illo13.jpg" width="415" height="550" alt="PIRATES." /> +<p class="caption">PIRATES.</p> +</div> + +<p>Indeed it is not easy to distinguish the earliest +traders from corsairs. It would seem that as occasion +served they employed their long narrow rowing +ships to scour the ocean or to carry the produce of +the north, above all the much prized amber. It is +thought that they bore it down even to the Bay of +Biscay, nay, perhaps yet further within the Roman +Empire.</p> + +<p>Under the intelligent rule of Charles the Great the +activity of the Northman assumed a more pacific +character, and we meet with the idea of merchant +and trade guilds, though the latter were not much +encouraged by the emperor, who feared lest they +should contain in themselves elements of corporate +union and political revolt. But he fostered the +growth of cities; and in those days trade and commerce +filled up even more than at the present day the +daily life of a citizen. In the Middle Ages the expression +"merchant" (<i>mercator</i>, negotiator) was on +the Continent actually held as identical with townsman.</p> + +<p>It is curious that the early Teuton regarded +manual labour as unworthy a free man, but did not +extend this feeling to commerce, and trading became +more and more the occupation of the third estate. +We find them on horseback or in ships traversing +many regions to bring their wares to market and to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span> +enlarge their sphere of action, and gradually as their +numbers increased they would meet each other at the +various foreign ports, exchange news, perhaps even +wares, and hold together in that brotherly spirit that +men of one nation and one tongue are wont to feel +towards each other on foreign soil. Disputes and +difficulties with the natives must also have been of +frequent occurrence, for though the merchant, as +bringer of news and novelties, was usually a welcome +visitor at a time when intercourse between nations +can hardly be said to have existed, yet, on the other +hand, he had to reckon with the prejudice that regards +what is strange as equivalent to what is hostile. +Hence the merchants very naturally combined among +themselves at the different ports to protect their common +interests, and endeavoured by all means in their +power to enlist in their favour their own sovereigns +and those of the lands they visited.</p> + +<p>Thus in the lawbook of London, under the reign +of Ethelred II. the Unready (978), we come across +the phrase, "the people of the Emperor have been +judged worthy of the good laws, like to ourselves." +This phrase meant that, in cases of wrong done to the +foreigner by the native, the foreigner should enjoy +the protection of the native laws as though he were +a citizen, instead of being treated as heretofore like +an alien. "The people of the Emperor" meant in +this case the Teutonic merchants who traded on the +banks of the Thames long before the German cities +had combined to form their famous league, long +before they had founded their factories in Russia, +Scandinavia, and Flanders. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></p> + +<p>London was their earliest foreign settlement, and +already in the tenth century we find that the Germans +enjoyed the same rights when their ships entered +British ports as those possessed by the English. In +return for this they had at Easter and Christmas to +make a donation of two pieces of grey and one of +brown cloth, ten pounds of pepper, five pairs of +men's gloves, and two barrels of vinegar. The fact +that they thus paid toll in kind and not in money is +entirely in accordance with the ancient usage of +guilds and corporations, and the conditions of mediæval +tenures. Gloves as tokens of good faith and +submission, and pepper, probably because of its +rarity as an Eastern product, were forms of payment +frequent in early days.</p> + +<p>After this first mention we find that year by year +the privileges of the German were extended in +England. The kings desired that they should be +treated as subjects and friends, and after Henry the +Lion had married a daughter of Henry II. of +England, the alliance grew yet closer. Thus special +privileges were accorded to them with regard to the +sale of Rhine wine, of the importation of which into +Great Britain we now hear for the first time. It is +evident that the commerce of England was largely in +the hands of these foreigners, a circumstance the +more remarkable when we consider that the English +have now for some centuries been the great traders of +the world.</p> + +<p>What hindered the rise of the British in early days +was the feudal system against which the Germans +had rebelled. It was a system incompatible with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span> +burgher life, with independent industry and enterprise. +For many years the English trade was practically +restricted to the exportation of wool, skins, lead, and +tin. For where there is no middle class there can be +no real commerce, and this fact explains the widespread +power of the German merchants in England. +The lessons they learnt here they carried farther afield; +appearing now as the vanguard of civilization, now +as the pioneers of Christianity, everywhere as traders +desirous to fill their coffers, bearing in mind the +maxim that "union is strength," and clinging closely +to one another for mutual protection and defence. +We must remember that travelling in the tenth, +eleventh, and twelfth centuries was not what it is to-day. +Dangers lurked on all sides for the bold mariner +who ventured forth in ships of small size devoid of +compass, load-line, chart, and chronometer. It was +slow work to make headway under the difficulties put +in the mariner's path by the elements alone, such as +the darkness of night, fogs and storms, shoals, quicksands, +and rocks, to say nothing of the peril from +pirates. The fact, too, that, owing to the want of +maps, they kept as close as possible to land, increased +the risks they ran. Arrived at his destination, the +trader would often have to wait long ere he could find +a purchaser for his wares, for in those days the merchant +himself carried his wares to market; there +were no commission agents at the various ports; there +were no posts, nor was the art of remitting money +understood. In the stormy winter-time, moreover, +neither sailors nor merchants cared to venture upon +the ocean; and owing to the brevity of the northern +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span> +summer it often became needful for them to pass the +bad season at whatever place they happened to be. +Indeed the hazards connected with a winter voyage +were so great, that in the very earliest days of union +it was determined by common consent that no merchants +should send their ships to sea after St. Martin's +Day (November 11th), and that they should endeavour +as far as possible to be in port by Michaelmas +(September 29th). "To sail after Martinmas is +to tempt God," writes an old chronicler. With the +11th of November the winter season commenced for +the Baltic trading fleet.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough a similar custom obtains in +Greece to this day. The Greek coasters do not sail +on the seas from December 6th till after the New +Year; during this time the ocean is hallowed for new +trips.<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> The Hanseatics, of course, had to extend the +time of exemption in the northern seas. In the +year 1391 a Hanseatic Diet ordained that no Hanseatic +merchant should sail forth from a western to +an eastern, or from an eastern to a western harbour +between Martinmas and Candlemas (November 11th-February +2nd). The climatic conditions of certain +ports obliged this rule to be extended to St. Peter +in Cathedra (February 22nd), if they were carrying +"precious goods."</p> + +<p>It is amusing, however, to find in the older records +an exceptional clause to the effect that herrings and +beer, two of the most important exports of the coast +towns, could not possibly be subjected to these restrictions. +The herring, that much prized fasting dish, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span> +to the preparation and distribution of which the Hansa +attached such value, had necessarily to be despatched +before February 22nd in order that it might arrive at +its destination before Lent. A no less important +reason determined the transport of beer, which was +brewed in most of the export towns, and which might +easily spoil in a more advanced season of the year. +These reasons caused the cities to decide that a ship +laden with beer, herrings, or dried cod, might go to +sea on St. Nicholas Day (December 6th) if it were +ready laden by that date.</p> + +<p>But this was the exception. The rule was for the +trader to winter wherever he happened to be. In +the long, cheerless evenings men liked to associate +with compatriots who spoke the same tongue, and +had the same interests and customs. These men +of the Middle Ages were specially distinguished +by their social instincts. They were bound together +also by the element of a common religion, by the +desire to worship together, to fulfil, perchance, some +holy vow made in an hour of great danger, to +bury, with the familiar rites of his own Church and +country, some less fortunate comrade who had expired +on foreign soil. Thus were formed those Guilds, or +Hanse, as they were called, of merchants on alien +soil, clustering, as a rule, around a church erected by +them, and having besides a general living and storehouse +for the safe custody of their goods. There is +nothing strange in the fact that such settlements should +have been formed; what is strange is the power they +acquired in the course of time, until at last, in some +places, they dictated terms to the natives of the country; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span> +nay, they even made and unmade their rulers, until +in the end their sway extended from Bergen in the +north to Venice in the south, from Novgorod and +Smolensk in the east to York and London in the +west.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo20" id="illo20"></a> +<img src="images/illo20.jpg" width="550" height="331" alt="NORMAN VESSEL FROM BAYEUX TAPESTRY." /> +<p class="caption">NORMAN VESSEL FROM BAYEUX TAPESTRY.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>II.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">FEDERATION.</h3> + +<p>The free ocean, owned by no king or ruler, has +from earliest times been the highroad of nations, and +in the life and movement of the last eighteen hundred +years the Baltic takes a scarcely less important place +than the lovelier, more poetical, and oft-sung Mediterranean. +Even to-day it is more frequented than most +of the seas; the traffic through the Sound being second +to that of no other strait.</p> + +<p>The Baltic has had its singers too. We need only +turn to the strong, rugged Norse Saga to find that sea +extolled as the nurse of mighty heroes, or the scene of +giant combats; and the wilder element that pervades +these heroic tales is in keeping with the rugged iron-bound +coasts that skirt its waters, which do not invite +the cooing of idyls, nor lap the fantasy in luscious +dreams. Here all is stern life and movement; here +man must fight hand to hand with nature if he would +extort from her even the bare necessities for his daily +nourishment.</p> + +<p>The contrast between the North and the South is +nowhere more strikingly seen than in the different +characteristics of the two seas, and the races they have +produced. Nor could these characteristics be better +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span> +illustrated than by a comparison between the great +commercial Republics of Italy and the Hanseatic +federation of Germany. The former, though individually +great, never became a corporate body. +Jealousy and rivalry were ever rife among them, +and in the end they destroyed themselves. Where +nature is kind men can better afford to be cruel, and +need not hold together in such close union. Thus it +was here.</p> + +<p>But if the Baltic is at a disadvantage compared with +the Mediterranean in climate as well as in size, it +is not inferior in wealth and variety of its produce. +Mighty rivers, watering many lands discharge themselves +into its bosom, and produce upon their banks +rich and needful products, such as wheat and wool. +In the earth are hidden costly metallic treasures, while +the sea itself is a well of opulence from the number +and diversity of the fish that breed in its waters.</p> + +<p>It has been well said that since the days of the +Hansa, possession of the Baltic and dominion of the +sea are synonymous terms. The Hansa, the Dutch, +and the English have necessarily played the first <i>rôle</i> +in the Baltic trade. But the trade dates from an +even earlier time. Thanks to coins accidently +dropped, and after long years unearthed, we learn +that by way of the Volga the Northmen brought +to their distant home the treasures of the far East—spices, +pearls, silks, furs, and linen garments; and +that following the course of the Dwina, the Dnieper, +and the Oder, they found their way to Constantinople, +the Black Sea, and even the Caspian.</p> + +<p>Canon Adam, of Bremen, a chronicler of the eleventh +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span> +century, in one of those farragoes of fact and fiction +in which our forefathers read history, tells of a great +trading city at the month of the Oder, "Julin, the +greatest town of heathen Europe."<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> "It is a famed +meeting-place for the barbarians and Greeks<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> of the +neighbourhood, inhabited by Slavs and other barbarians. +Saxons, too, may live there if they do not +declare themselves Christians; for the town is rich in +the wares of all Eastern peoples, and contains much +that is charming and precious."</p> + +<p>This town of Winetha, of whose exact site we +are no longer sure, since it has been destroyed by the +encroachment of the Baltic, was, and is still, a favourite +theme of song and legend with German writers. It is +fabled that it was destroyed like Sodom and Gomorrha, +because of its sins; for its inhabitants had grown hard +and proud and disdainful, trusting in wealth, and despising +God. On fine and calm days mariners can, it +is said, behold the city, with its silver ramparts, its +marble columns, its stirring, richly-dressed population, +leading, beneath the ocean, the life which they led +while their city was still on firm ground. Every Good +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> +Friday this splendid city, with its towers, palaces, and +walls, is permitted to rise from the ocean, and sun +itself in the daylight, to be again submerged on Easter +Day, by this annual fall recalling to all who might else +forget it the severe justice of God.</p> + +<p>The extract given above from the old writer impresses +on us a fact we must bear well in mind, namely, +that the Baltic mainland littoral at the time the +Teutonic merchants began to ply their trade upon its +coast was not a German possession, but inhabited +and owned by a Slavonic people, who clung to their +pagan creed long after their neighbours in the East +and West had become converted to the new religion. +And, as usual to this day, it was the trader who preceded +the missionary, and gave the natives the first +idea of a different code of ethics and morality. In +the missionary's track, as at this day, followed the +soldier, enforcing by the sword the arguments that +reason had failed to inculcate. It was thus that German +merchants had founded on Slavonic soil the +various cities and ports that were later to be the pride +and strength of the Hanseatic Union. Nor did they +rest content with the coast that bounded their own +lands. They traversed the narrow ocean, touching +Finland, Sweden, and Russia, and they established on +the isle of Gothland an emporium, which, in the first +Christian centuries, became the centre of the Baltic +trade, and in which "people of divers tongues," as an +old writer calls these visitors, met to exchange their +products.</p> + +<p>A glance at the map will show why this island +assumed such importance. At a time when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span> +mariner was restricted to short passages, not liking for +long to lose sight of the shore, this spot naturally +made a most favourable halting-place on the road to +Finland, Livonia, or Sweden. It is evident from the +chronicles that the Germans soon acquired and exercised +great power in this island, and that they were +accorded special privileges. Thus Pope Honorius II. +granted them his protection for their town and harbour +of Wisby, in acknowledgment of the part they had +played in the conversion of the pagan nations.</p> + +<p>There are many testimonies to the ancient wealth +and commercial importance of the island of Gothland; +among them the amount of Roman, Byzantine, +Anglo-Saxon, and German coins still found on its +soil, as also the number of ruined churches, many +of them of great size and architectural beauty, dotted +over its area. To this day the island, impoverished +and depopulated, owns a church to every six hundred +inhabitants. The churches have fallen into sad +decay, but yet remain to testify of past prosperity +and glory.</p> + +<p>As the number of travelling merchants from +various cities increased on its shores, it was natural +that they should hold together more and more in a tacit +offensive and defensive alliance against the aliens, +and that when they returned home from their voyages +they should speak of the mutual benefits rendered +and the help that lay in union. Some influential persons +among them doubtless brought pressure to bear upon +the rulers and magistracies of the various cities to +give their informal union an official character. Thus +much is certain, that after a time the merchants from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span> +various cities who traded with the Baltic had united +into a federation having a common seal and conforming +to a common law, so that by the middle of the +thirteenth century the Hanseatic League was practically +consolidated, although this name for the association +only occurs later.</p> + +<p>So far, however, the Union only exercised rights +abroad. It was from Wisby also that the reaction was +to come for union at home; but this was a little +later, when its strength was well matured and +established.</p> + +<p>What really, in the first instance, led the Germans +from their inland towns to the shores of the Baltic +was the desire to benefit by the great wealth that lay +hidden in its waters in the form of fish, which could +be obtained in return for the mere labour of fishing. +At a time when all Europe was Catholic, or of the +Greek Church, and fasts as well as feasts strictly +observed, the sale of fish was an important industry, +and, above all, of salted fish, since our forefathers +were ignorant of the art of preserving these creatures +fresh by means of ice. Now, from the beginning of +the twelfth century until the beginning of the fifteenth, +when they once more altered their course, each spring +and autumn the migratory fish, and especially that +most prolific and valued of fish, the herring, came +in great shoals to the shores of Scania,<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> the isle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span> +of Rügen, and the coasts of Pomerania, tempting +the inhabitants of the strand and near inland hamlets +out on to the waters to secure these treasures. Nor +had nature herewith ceased her bounties. At certain +points of the littoral there were salt springs, in +which the precious draught could at once be pickled; +and it is certain that the art of preserving the gifts +of the ocean from decay was familiar to the Slav +inhabitants of these districts long before it was known +to those of the German Ocean. Already, in the +eleventh century, "salt Kolberg" was famed as an +emporium for salted herrings; and the words of a +Polish poem of rejoicing at a victory won over its +inhabitants in 1105 are extant to this day. It has +more historical than literary value. "Formerly," so +jubilantly sang the conquerors of the harbour, "they +brought us salt and stinking fish, now our sons bring +them to us fresh and quivering."</p> + +<p>Salted herrings became an acknowledged form of +tax or tribute, as also a medium of exchange for +inland produce, and it was the value of these small +fish that really first roused the cupidity of the inland +dweller and caused them to compete with and finally +oust the pagan Slav. And Wisby for a time was +their great emporium, whence they extended their +power, founding among other towns Novgorod on +the Lake of Olm. It was to Wisby that association +dues were paid; it was in Wisby that common +money was deposited. They were kept in the German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span> +Church of Our Lady Maria Teutonicorum. For the +churches in those times were buildings as much secular +as religious, being not only places of worship, but +also banks, storehouses, market-places, and sanctuaries. +Four aldermen, selected from important cities of the +League, namely, Wisby, Lübeck, Soest, and Dortmund, +had each a key to the common treasure. The rules laid +down in common council, over which these aldermen +presided, and whose execution they enforced, were +stringent in the extreme. For example, according to +an old principle of Teutonic laws, a city was made +responsible if a trader suffered malignant shipwreck +or was robbed of his goods within its domain, and +if these things occurred they were bound to help the +sufferers to recover their goods or safety.</p> + +<p>That it was not always an easy task for the towns +to execute this command may be gathered from the +fact that in the earliest times even the Church looked +on flotsam and jetsam as its legitimate dues; indeed, +the revenues of some monasteries and churches were +distinctly founded on this. Even Papal authority, +even excommunication in later days, could not for a +long while break the force of a barbarous and cruel +custom. All the booty the waves cast on the shore +was designated by the well-sounding term of <i>strandgut</i> +(property of the shore), and was regarded as a gift +from Providence. The dwellers on the Baltic shore +held so naïve a belief with respect to this matter +that in their daily prayers they innocently asked God +to give them a good harvest of <i>strandgut</i>.</p> + +<p>Lübeck in 1287, demanding from Reval, on the +basis of its treaties, the restitution of stranded property, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> +is told frankly by the governor of the city that +"however many and long and large letters they may +send him across the seas," yet his vassals would hold +to the rights of their land, and "if," he adds, "on your +letters or your prayers your goods are restored to +you, I will suffer my right eye to be put out."</p> + +<p>Still by steady persistence the German cities got +their will, and of course they exercised it first on +members of their union. The defaulting city had to +pay a fine of something like two to three hundred +pounds of our money to the common fund of the +Union, and, in event of a recurrence, was threatened +with expulsion from the community. This punishment +was called <i>unhansing</i>, and it was inflicted several +times, and was only atoned for by the heaviest penalties +not only of money tributes, but often of pilgrimages +to some distant sacred shrine, to wipe out the disgrace +that the city had drawn down, not on itself alone, +but also on its brethren of the League, by the fact +that there could be such a black sheep among them.</p> + +<p>Such, briefly, was the empire that, by the middle +of the thirteenth century, was exercised by a community +of German men of commerce, who had their +seat of control, not at home, but on a foreign soil. +Such, briefly, was the rise of these powerful merchants +who not only dared to dictate terms to distant cities, +but were absolutely obeyed. Such, briefly, was the +transformation of bands of pirates and adventurous +traders into a peace-loving and industrious association.</p> + +<p>Let us now take a rapid glance at what had +occurred meantime in the Holy Roman Empire and +the towns.</p> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/griff.jpg" width="450" height="106" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>III.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">FOREIGN TRADE.</h3> + +<p>It is of importance to the study of the Hanseatic +confederation to remember that the settlements made +by the German merchants in their various foreign and +distant ports, though permanent in themselves, were +inhabited almost exclusively by a floating and ever-changing +population. True, the traders who had done +good business in this spot would return season after +season. But they did not form an established colony, +they did not take up their permanent abode abroad, +and hence the connection with their native towns was +never broken; they remained ever in touch with +home. Now the pettiest trader of one of the German +cities enjoyed in the Steelyard in London, in the +St. Peter's Court of Novgorod, in the factory of +Bergen, in the church of Wisby, and many other +places, a measure of personal freedom, a number +of privileges such as were frequently absolutely denied +him in his fatherland, or doled out grudgingly by +his territorial lord.</p> + +<p>When the merchants had first appeared abroad +they were protected more or less by their suzerains. +Thus Barbarossa had given them the assistance of +his strong name, and extorted for them certain important +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span> +privileges from the King of England. The +same holds good with regard to the Duke of Saxony. +But as the emperors grew to care less and less for +purely German affairs, as the Saxon ducal power was +broken, as the German-speaking lands became the +camp of anarchy, confusion, and lordlessness, where +rightful and unlawful sovereigns quarrelled with each +other, where ruler fought ruler, noble robbed noble, +where, in short, the game of "devil take the hindmost" +was long played with great energy, the towns that +had silently and gradually been acquiring much independent +strength, perceived that if they would save +their prosperity, nay, their very existence, they must +take up a firm position against the prevailing social +conditions.</p> + +<p>Founded upon trade, with trade as their vital +element, it was natural that traders also should +have a mighty voice in the councils of these towns. +The councillors indeed were chosen chiefly from +among the leading merchants, most of whom had +been abroad at some time or other of their career, +and tasted the sweets of wider liberty. None of +these were insensible to the pressure put upon them +by their returning fellow citizens that they should +struggle in their common interests to maintain a +position of strength at home, a position which could +not fail to increase the security of their settlements +abroad. For owing to this long period of political +chaos, the merchants abroad noticed or fancied that +the name of the Holy Roman Empire no longer +carried the same weight as formerly; that to +threaten those who overstepped their licenses towards +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span> +them with the empire's power had ceased to +have any serious effect. Yet unless there was +some real power at their back, how, at this lawless +time, could the Germans feel sure that the treaties +they had made with the aliens would be upheld? +Well then, urged the foreign traders, what our +emperors cannot or will not do for us, busy as they +are with Italian matters, or with self-destruction, we +must do for ourselves.</p> + +<p>And quietly, unobtrusively, but very securely, they +formed among themselves that mutual offensive and +defensive alliance of whose exact date and origin +we are ignorant, but of whose great power in later +times the world was to stand in awe and admiration. +The purpose of the union was to uphold the respect +for the German name abroad by a strong association +of cities willing and able, if need were, to enforce its +demands by force of arms.</p> + +<p>Mutual protection, moreover, was needed as much, +if not more, at home. The highroads, never too safe +from plundering barons, had grown yet less so during +the lawless and fighting period that followed the fall +of the Hohenstauffen dynasty. These, too, must be +guarded, or how could merchandize be brought from +place to place. Peace and security of property, being +the very corner-stones of commerce, did the merchant +seek above all to secure, and since nothing in this +life can be obtained without a struggle, these cities +had to fight hard, not only with moral force, but often +with the sword, in order to extort from their rulers +these elementary rights of civilization.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo33" id="illo33"></a> +<img src="images/illo33.jpg" width="500" height="326" alt="HIGHROAD." /> +<p class="caption">HIGHROAD.</p> +</div> + +<p>Thus the Hansa from its earliest origin, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span> +organized for the ends of peace, was from its commencement +and throughout its existence a militant +body, ever watchful to punish infringement of its +rights, ever ready to extend its authority, ever prompt +to draw the sword, or send forth its ships against +offenders.</p> + +<p>It is indeed a significant fact, that never once in +the whole course of its history did it draw the sword +aggressively, or against its own members. In its +domestic disputes it never needed to exercise other +than moral pressure. But the cities as they grew in +power almost assumed the proportions of small +democracies, and it is well-known that democracies, +save for purposes of self-defence, are not +so ready to rush into wars as monarchies. War is +the pastime of kings and statesmen; of men who +have nothing to lose, and perchance much to gain +in this pursuit; of men who do not stake life and +limb, health and home and trade. The wars waged +by the Hansa were never in one single instance +aggressive. Like all confederations, whose life nerve +is commerce, the Hansa ever sought to avoid war, +and only seized the sword as <i>ultima ratio</i>. It is +noteworthy that its ships were designated in its acts +as "peace ships" (<i>Friedenschiffe</i>), and even the forts +it built for protection were described as "peace +burgs" (<i>Friedeburgen</i>).</p> + +<p>The germ of manly independence once awakened +in the burghers grew apace, and as they felt the +benefits of this new spirit they learnt that with it +they could cow their would-be despotic lordlings, and +exact from them respect and even aid. Cologne was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span> +the first among the older cities to emancipate itself. +It is hard for us to realize the enslavement of the +middle class in former days. For example, a +merchant might not wear arms, no luxury, but an +absolute necessity in those wild times. Frederick +Barbarossa permitted him to carry a sword, but in order +that there might be no confusion of social castes, he +decreed that "the travelling merchant shall not gird +his sword, but attach it to his saddle, or lay it on his +cart, so that he may not wound the innocent, but yet +may protect himself against robbers." The inference +in this clause, that only a member of the third estate +would be likely to hurt an innocent person, is amusing +in its <i>naïveté</i>. As for the peasant, if he were found +with arms upon him, a lance or a sword, he had to +suffer severe punishment. The knightly weapon was +broken across the back of any serf who dared to +carry it.</p> + +<p>A further instance of want of personal liberty in +Barbarossa's days is shown by his contempt for +commerce and for the trader's knowledge of the +commercial value of his goods. Thus he decreed +that a merchant selling his wares in camp must offer +them at the price fixed by the field-marshal, and if +the owner asked more than was deemed just by this +functionary, who probably knew as much of the value +of goods as his trusty lance, he lost not only his +market rights and his wares, but was whipped into +the bargain, his head shorn and his cheek branded +with a red-hot iron. At home his choice of dwelling-houses, +of trade, even of marriage was interfered +with. Is it astonishing, then, that with so little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span> +personal liberty at home, so much abroad, the townsmen +aspired to change this state of things, and aided +by political events did change them, and rapidly too?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo36" id="illo36"></a> +<img src="images/illo36.jpg" width="550" height="484" alt="ITINERANT MERCHANTS." /> +<p class="caption">ITINERANT MERCHANTS.</p> +</div> + +<p>Nor was it only the merchants returning from +abroad who stirred the legitimate longings of their +stay-at-home brethren. A liberating influence came +from yet another side; from that very land of +Italy, for whose sake the German rulers had suffered +their own country to endure neglect. Travelling +Italian merchants on their road to Flanders passed +through Central Germany, and as they halted in +the cities they would recount in the long evenings +those travellers' tales eagerly listened to in days when +reading for the most part was an unknown accomplishment, +and when all information was acquired by +ear.</p> + +<div class="poem"> +<p class="o1">"... I spoke of most disastrous chances;</p> +<p>Of moving accidents by flood and field;</p> + +<hr class="poem" /> + +<p>And portance in my travel's history:</p> +<p>Wherein of antres vast and deserts idle;</p> +<p>Rough quarries, rocks, and hills whose heads touch heaven</p> +<p>It was my hint to speak."<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p> +</div> + +<p>These Lombards told of the prosperity of their +cities and the liberties they enjoyed, narrations that +sounded like fairy tales in the ears of the Northmen. +And when the Crusades broke out, and many of +them saw with their own eyes the glories of the +southern cities, when German merchants who had +followed in the train of the emperor's Roman campaign +returned, confirming all they had heard from +the Italians about commercial liberties and privileges, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span> +their determination not to be left behind was +strengthened.</p> + +<p>Freiburg (Free City) was the first town founded as +the outcome of the new liberty, an enlightened prince +lending his help and means to that end.</p> + +<p>Further individual aid was given to the new idea +of personal liberty for all conditions of men by an +apostle of freedom, Arnold of Brescia. This eloquent +pupil of the French monk Abelard, the enlightened +philosopher, the lover of Heloïse, himself a +priest, was the most powerful opponent of the clerical +ideas in the twelfth century, which tried to keep +down the people in order that through their ignorance +and dependence they might be ruled with absolute +and unquestioned sway—ideas by no means wholly +extinct to this day among this class of men. Banished +by the Pope as a political and ecclesiastical heretic, +Arnold fled to Southern Germany, where he preached +his doctrines to eager ears, and roused an enthusiasm +that laid the train for a later Church reformation, and +helped towards the development of a new social state. +He awakened or fostered the thought of personal +liberty, a liberty not only consistent with corporate +union, but part and parcel of the same; a condition +alone worthy a rational human being, who, while +doing whatever pleases him best, never loses sight of +the fact that he has only a right to follow this desire +so long as his liberty does not trench upon that of his +neighbour and brother man.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" ><a name="illo39" id="illo39"></a> +<img src="images/illo39.jpg" width="308" height="550" alt="SALTERS' HALL, FRANKFORT" /> +<p class="caption">SALTERS' HALL, FRANKFORT<br /> +(<i>From an engraving in the British Museum.</i></p> +</div> + +<p>John Stuart Mill had not yet defined the meaning +of the much abused term, liberty; Madame Roland +had not yet ejaculated upon the scaffold her true and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span> +piteous cry, "Liberty! what crimes are committed in +thy name!" but Arnold of Brescia understood the +meaning of the word, and what was equally important, +he made his hearers understand it too. He did +not merely preach vague doctrines, he preached sound +political economy and social ethics.</p> + +<p>And thus the Germans learnt from the Italians +both the true meaning of liberty and the virtue of +municipal institutions, which latter had, in the first +instance, sprung up in Lombardy from a Germanic +root; its essential features being a free choice of +the civic rulers from the fittest elements, a right to +govern themselves, and if need be to form alliances, +and the right to tax themselves. Further, they learnt +to recognize the principle that the final decision should +not rest with one person, but with the mass of the +inhabitants. This autonomy in all inner affairs, +founded on Italian models, became in the course of +several generations the most cherished possession of +all those German cities whence sprang the Hanseatic +League. There was, however, this difference that, +unlike the Lombard cities, the Germans ever acknowledged +the supremacy of the emperor, and never +developed either into complete oligarchies or democracies, +though in their statutes when they were at the +height of their power, it was distinctly stated that +decisions in important matters did not rest "with the +general council, but with the people."</p> +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo41" id="illo41"></a> +<img src="images/illo41.jpg" width="550" height="388" alt="MEDIÆVAL CITY" /> +<p class="caption">MEDIÆVAL CITY.<br /> +(<i>From a drawing by Albert Dürer.</i>)</p> +</div> +<p>In the thirteenth century municipal privileges grew +and extended, for though the townsfolk were supposed +only to elect their own magistrates under the +sanction of the bailiffs of their respective territorial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span> +lords, these functionaries, who generally lived in a +strong castle within the city or just upon its walls, +became only too ready to be bribed into compliance +with the burgher will as the distresses of the empire +caused their lords to require more and more of the +hard cash and other solid assistance which the rapid +progress of the cities in wealth could furnish. Of course +circumstances were not the same in all places. In +many there was open warfare between the lordlings +and the townsmen, and many a sacked and gutted +castle remained to testify to the successes of the +third estate.</p> + +<p>As the baronial strongholds were razed, the towns +built up on their sites strong citadels, walls, and +moats, which they defended by a burgher militia +hardened to fatigue, brave, determined; who not +only dared to face the resentment of the barons, but +often extorted from them by force what they could +not up to that date buy from them or obtain as a +meed of justice. It was no infrequent event in the +thirteenth century for a town to be besieged by its +territorial lord; and these sieges, like that of Troy, +would last many years, for the art of reducing strong +places was but little developed, and wars, even +if they lasted longer, were less terribly destructive +than in our day.</p> + +<p>The cities, having the wealth, were most frequently +the victors, and it would even come about that as terms +of peace their enemy would hire himself out to his vassals +as the legal and bound defender of his own subjects, +for a stated number of years. Further, the cities often +bought from these princelings the lands outside their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span> +walls; the forests, mines, brine springs, even the highroads +and streams, thus drawing into their power anything +that might assist in diminishing the danger from +all that could impede their commerce. They would +also ask the cession of villages, of tolls; next the right +to coin money. In a word, they made use of every +means that came in their way, in accordance with +local and momentary circumstances, to extend and +consolidate their power.</p> + +<p>What wonder that the burghers feeling their +strength and seeing the weakness of the empire +turned its dissensions and disorders to profit, and +began to make among themselves, quietly and unostentatiously, +alliances for maintaining peace in their +immediate vicinities, for keeping the roads cleared of +robbers, for opposing the black mail levied by their +feudal lords, and anything else that offended against +"the common freedom of the merchant."</p> + +<p>Curiously enough such alliances were in direct +contravention of the existing laws of the German +Empire. At the Diet held in Worms, 1231, the +princes had expressed marked disapproval of such +leagues, in which they clearly recognized a dangerous +rival power. But the cities seemed little troubled by +this interdict. They, on their part, recognized that +the time had come for a firm union, and adhesion of +the weak against the strong, and more and more, as +they saw that the empire threatened from within and +from without was visibly falling asunder. For what +respect could be felt for a crown which was at last +actually put up for sale to the highest bidder, and +acquired by the rich but otherwise impotent brother +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span> +of the English Henry III., Duke Richard of Cornwall?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo44" id="illo44"></a> +<img src="images/illo44.jpg" width="550" height="497" alt="ROBBER KNIGHTS. (From Fritoch.)" /> +<p class="caption">ROBBER KNIGHTS. (From Fritoch.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The towns of the Rhine were the first to form themselves +into an alliance, a fact that can scarcely surprise +us when we remember how thickly set is that lovely +river with the now ruined strongholds of what erst +were robber lords. And the Baltic towns were not +slow to follow in their wake, forming a League "for +the benefit of the common merchant." These cities +even settled the contingent which each town had +to place at their common disposal, a great stone +of possible stumbling being skilfully avoided by a +phrase which occurs in a contract of 1296: "If the +fight goes against a prince who is lord of one of the +cities, this city shall not furnish men, but only give +money." The Rhenish section alone was able to +put into the field some eleven hundred crossbowmen +and six hundred stout galleys; no mean army in those +days.</p> + +<p>In a word, the times were out of joint, and the +people had to help themselves, and did so. Sprung +from modest sources, having its origin in true neighbourly +feeling, what was at first a mere association of +merchants had developed into an association of cities. +The banner under which they had grouped themselves +bore the device "freedom for the common +merchant at home and abroad," and this device +became the elastic but durable bond, which, keeping +them together, made them a mighty power. Its +very elasticity was the cause of its strength, giving it +that facility of expansion and freedom from rigidity +which in more modern times has made the glory and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span> +the might of England, whose constitution is distinguished +by a like principle of flexibility.</p> + +<p>A naïve North German chronicler of the thirteenth +century telling of the various alliances formed, writes: +"But the matter did not please the princes, knights, +and robbers, especially not those who for ever put +forth their hands for booty; they said it was shameful +that merchants should rule over high-born and noble +men." Undaunted, however, by such objections, the +cities continued to form alliances, to make contracts +among themselves until these contracts assumed the +extent, dignity, and importance of those made by the +towns with their foreign settlements.</p> + +<p>Thus, by slow degrees, cautiously, but very surely, +the Hanseatic League took its origin, and thus it grew +until it became an independent popular force, a state +within a state. Like everything that the Christian +Middle Ages called into life, the <i>Vehmgericht</i> (Vehmic +Tribunal), Gothic architecture, the knightly orders, it +bore strongly the impress of individuality.</p> + +<p>The origin of the name of Hansa is wrapped +in some mystery. The word is found in Ulfila's +Gothic translation of the Bible, as signifying a +society, a union of men, particularly in the sense of +combatants. He applies it to the band of men who +came to capture Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemane. +Later on Hansa occurs as a tax on commercial transactions, +and also as the sum, a very low one, which +the various cities paid as their entrance fee into the +association.</p> + +<p>But our League did not yet officially bear that title; +it acquired it from the date of its first great war with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span> +Waldemar of Denmark and the peace of Stralsund +(1370). Then it won name and rank at the point of +the sword, and after this it came to be classed among +the most redoubted powers of the period, being thus +by no means the first, and probably not the last, +example of the lift given to civilization by so barbarous +a thing as the powder cart.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_pair.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/flowers.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>IV.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE HANSA FIGHTS.</h3> + +<p>Whoever looks on the old Schütting at Lübeck, +the building whence the herring fishers were wont to +start upon their voyages, and notes its armorial +bearings, three herrings upon a plain gold shield, +should go back mentally a few centuries and call +to mind the fact that the badge of this fish is the +emblem of a might which many a time set forth from +this spot bent upon commerce or needful warfare, +and which for generations exercised great power over +Northern Europe.</p> + +<p>The district of Scania, which forms the southernmost +portion of the present land of Sweden, was +until 1658 almost exclusively the property of Denmark. +The Danes, a turbulent and maritime people, +had in the early times of our era been converted to +Christianity at the point of the sword by the +emperors of Germany, and during the 10th and 11th +centuries these emperors exercised a recognized +suzerainty over the Danish kings. Hence German +traders easily obtained privileges among a people +who were by no means inclined to commerce themselves, +but who welcomed none the less eagerly the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span> +products that the strangers brought, above all, the +heady ale brewed by the Easterlings.</p> + +<p>But as the might of the empire declined and the +Danes had grown strong, thanks to wise rulers, the +people grew restive under the restrictions imposed +upon them, and tried to secure their independence. +Under Waldemar the Great (1157 to 1182), the +country had acquired an important position, which +his successors strengthened. This increase of might +coincided with the German depression and with the +change of course at spawning time that the herring +suddenly took in the twelfth century.</p> + +<p>Strange that a little fish should have had such great +power over mankind; yet it is not going beyond the +strict truth to state that the mysterious wanderings of +the herring determined throughout several centuries +the whole course of northern commerce. During the +Middle Ages, upon the appearance of the herring +now on this coast and now on that, the wealth and +prosperity of the whole districts depended. Herring +fishing became a branch of industry that decided the +fate of nations. To it the Hansa owes a large portion +of its riches and its power; in the herring fisheries, +when in the year 1425 the fish began to spawn in the +German Ocean, the Netherlands found the foundation +stone of their wealth and dignity. Indeed, it was +said later, with scant exaggeration, that Amsterdam +was built upon herrings.</p> + +<p>Now, as masters of the Belt and the Sound, the +Danes were able, if they chose, greatly to harass the +Hanseatic traders and fishermen. For many years +they had not put forth their power, or rather the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span> +Hanseatic towns, with the diplomatic astuteness that +greatly distinguished them, had averted the possibility +of such danger by wise concessions of tributes and +privileges. Still disputes would arise, things did not +always go off peaceably, and in 1227 the Hansa towns +won their first military laurels, defeating the Danes in +the battle of Bornhöved and permanently weakening +the power of their troublesome neighbours in Northern +Germany.</p> + +<p>A few years later Lübeck, almost unassisted, +threatened in its independence by the Danish king, +won a great naval victory over its neighbours; and +gained yet another in 1249, when Eric II. had +ventured to attack some of its ships upon the open +seas. On this occasion the merchant townsmen even +seized and sacked Copenhagen and planted their flag +in Zealand.</p> + +<p>It was no very easy position which the Baltic cities +(for it was they who were chiefly threatened) had to +maintain against the Danish kings as the power of the +latter increased. For with their power, their rapacity +and cupidity increased also, and this made them look +on the rich commercial towns with a longing desire +to absorb them into their own possessions. These, +though extensive, were poor, and their inhabitants +neither industrious nor prosperous. Further, the +Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes were in constant +feud with one another, and each of these states turned +an eye of greed towards the flourishing Baltic cities, +whose possession they coveted. The two Scandinavian +powers, in particular, constantly harassed the +German merchants by their scanty comprehension +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span> +of treaty rights, their breaches of faith, and it was +not easy work for the cities to steer clear between the +three kingdoms, that were now at deadly feud with +one another, now convulsed by civil wars, now united +in a policy of rapine.</p> + +<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the quarrels, +jealousies, and feuds that agitated these kingdoms +during the early years of the fourteenth century; to +note in detail the trouble they caused to the Hanseatic +traders, and the need they awoke among them of +holding together in as close an alliance at home as +they had hitherto done abroad. It was necessary to be +ever wakeful and mistrustful; and to watch jealously +for the faintest signs of an infringement of privileges.</p> + +<p>In 1326 a lad of some twelve summers, whose +memory was destined to be handed down to posterity +as that of a hero of romance, ascended the throne +of Denmark. In allusion to the famous fable about +the election of a king of the frogs, an old writer +speaks of this event as a choice by the frogs of the +stork as ruler instead of the log. For Waldemar, as +he was called, proved indeed no log and no puppet in +the hands of his ambitious barons. As a mere youth +he gave evidence of his strength and determination, +and under his ægis Denmark acquired great wealth +and consideration, and would have attained to yet +more had not Waldemar, with mistaken judgment, +drawn the reins too tight, until from a wise ruler he +became a despot. It was his aim and policy to +nationalize his country, to drive away the foreigners +who utilized it for their warlike and commercial +ends. He found it small and distracted with dissensions; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span> +after twenty years' rule he could point to +marked success and change, for he had made Denmark +respected and feared at home and abroad. +History knows him as Waldemar III.,<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> story and song +as Waldemar Atterdag, a nickname that well expresses +the salient points of his character. For the +name of Atterdag, which means "there is yet another +day," refers to the king's constant habit of using +this expression in the sense that if to-day a goal is +not reached, it is not therefore unattainable, that a +man must wait, never despair, and never lose sight of +his aim.</p> + +<p>And Waldemar for his part never did. He pursued +his purposes with a strenuousness and a patience, +which contrasted favourably with the vacillating attitude +of his princely northern contemporaries, and +which was only matched and finally surpassed by the +same strenuous and patient policy on the part of the +Baltic towns, and especially on the part of Lübeck, +their astute and diplomatic leader.</p> + +<p>Nor was it only good aims that the king followed +with such persistence. He was an implacable, a +relentless enemy, who never forgot an injury, and who +waited with cruel calmness the day of vengeance.</p> + +<p>In Waldemar's state policy there often appeared +mixed motives; considerations of the most personal +character were blended with care for the welfare of +his state, and when one should alone have been considered, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span> +both frequently played a part. It was this +that led to his ultimate ruin; like too many clever +people he overreached himself. Therefore, while the +early years of his reign were really a blessing to distracted +and impoverished Denmark, of the latter part +a contemporary chronicler complains that—</p> + +<p>"In the times of Waldemar, every tradition of our +ancestors, all paternal laws, all the freedom of the +Danish Church was abolished. The rest of the soldier, +the merchant, the peasant, was so curtailed, that in the +whole kingdom no time remained to eat, to repose, to +sleep, no time in which the people were not driven to +work by the bailiffs and servants of the king, at the +risk of losing his royal favour, their lives, and their +goods." In a word, Waldemar worked his subjects +hard, and even the most patriotic singers cannot present +him as a wholly attractive figure. He is rather +a character to be feared than loved.</p> + +<p>The Hansa was not slow to recognize this. It +saw that it was face to face with a man whom no +obstacles could deter, to whom even treaty obligations +were not sacred, and who was liable to be swayed by +incalculable caprice. That it was right in its estimate +and its fears Waldemar was not slow to make +known, so soon as his power at home was fully +secured.</p> + +<p>The first attack upon the Hansa towns was made +by the Danish king in the shape of interference with +their fishing rights on Scania, breaking the contracts +which his predecessors, and even he himself, had +made, and demanding extortionate fees for the renewal +of the time-honoured privileges. Diplomatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span> +negotiations were entered upon, but Waldemar befooled +the deputies from the cities, wasting their +time with idle discussion of irrelevant matters, and +refusing to come to a real agreement. After long +and fruitless debate the ambassadors of the Hansa +towns departed home anxious and discouraged. +Ten weeks after their return the cities were startled +by the terrible news that Waldemar, in a time of +perfect peace, without previous warning or declaration +of war, had suddenly invaded the island of Gothland, +and seized, sacked, and plundered the rich city of +Wisby, the northern emporium of the Hansa's wealth.</p> + +<p>Such a blow was aimed not only at Wisby, but +at all the Hanseatic towns; from that moment diplomatic +negotiations with Waldemar were no more to +be thought of. This act meant war; war at all costs +and at all risks.</p> + +<p>"In the year of Christ 1361 King Waldemar of +Denmark collected a great army, and said unto them +that he would lead them whither there was gold and +silver enough, and where the pigs eat out of silver +troughs. And he led them to Gothland, and made +many knights in that land, and struck down many +people, because the peasants were unarmed and unused +to warfare. He set his face at once towards Wisby. +They came out of the town towards him, and gave +themselves up to the mercy of the king, since they +well saw that resistance was impossible. In this +manner he obtained the land, and took from the +burghers of the town great treasures in gold and +silver, after which he went his ways."</p> + +<p>Thus the contemporary chronicler of the Franciscans +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span> +of St. Catherine at Lübeck. By a skilful <i>coup +de main</i> Waldemar had indeed made himself master +of Gothland, then under Swedish suzerainty, and of +the wealthy city of Wisby. His aim had been booty, +and he had it in rich measure in the shape of gold, of +fur, and silver vessels.</p> + +<p>Legend tells that the year previous to the attack +Waldemar had visited Gothland disguised as a merchant, +securing the love of a goldsmith's daughter, +whose father held an influential position in Wisby, and +who, in her loving trustfulness revealed to him the +strength and weakness of the island and town, thus +helping him to secure the spot that was rightly +regarded as the key to the three northern realms.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants, unprepared, unarmed, had been +unable to offer much resistance. It was a terribly +bloody fight this that raged outside the walls of +Wisby; the site of it is marked to this day by a +cross erected on the spot where 1,800 Gothlanders +fell.</p> + +<p>"Before the gates of Wisby the Goths fell under +the hands of the Danes,"<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> runs the inscription.</p> + +<p>As was the custom among the conquerors of olden +days, Waldemar, it is related, entered the city, not by +means of the gates that had been forcibly surrendered +to him, but by a breach he specially had made for +this purpose in the town walls. The gap too is shown +to this hour.</p> + +<p>When he had plundered to his heart's content, +aided in his finding of the treasure by his lady love, +after he had added to his titles of King of the Danes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span> +and Slavs, that of the King of Gothland, Waldemar +proceeded to return home in his richly laden ships. +But it was decreed that he should not bring his booty +to port. A great storm arose in mid-ocean. It was +with difficulty that the king escaped with his life; his +ships were sunk, his coveted hoards buried in the +waves.</p> + +<p>There are still shown at Wisby the two fine twelve-sectioned +rose windows of St. Nicholas' Church, in which, +according to tradition, there once burned two mighty +carbuncles that served as beacons to light the seamen +safely into harbour in the day of the town's prosperity. +These stones, it is said, were torn from their place and +carried off by Waldemar. The Gothland mariner +still avers that on certain clear nights he can see the +great carbuncles of St. Nicholas' Church gleaming +from out the deep.</p> + +<p>As for Waldemar's lady love, whom it is said he +abandoned as soon as his purpose was attained, she +was seized on by the infuriated townspeople and +buried alive in one of the turrets of the city walls, +known to this day as the "Virgin Tower."</p> + +<p>It is difficult to decide whether Waldemar foresaw +the full danger and bearing of his high-handed step; +whether he knew what it meant to plunder a city like +Wisby, one of the strongest arms of the Hansa. He +had certainly thrown the gauntlet down to the towns; +he was quickly to learn that the power which some +years ago had successfully beaten his predecessors +had but grown in strength since that date.</p> + +<p>On the first news of Waldemar's treachery, the +Baltic cities laid an embargo on all Danish goods, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span> +then called together a hasty council in which it was +decreed that until further notice all intercourse with +Denmark should be forbidden on pain of death and +loss of property. Then they put themselves into +communication with Norway and Sweden in order in +the event of a war to secure the alliance of these +countries, an assistance that was the more readily +promised because their sovereigns were at feud with +Waldemar. To defray the war costs it was determined +to levy a poundage tax on all Hanseatic +exported goods.</p> + +<p>A fleet was got ready with all possible speed, and +when everything was in order, the towns sent a herald +to Waldemar with a formal declaration of war.</p> + +<p>In May, 1362, their ships appeared in the Sound, +and brilliant success at first attended their arms. +Copenhagen was plundered, its church bells carried +to Lübeck as the victor's booty. At Scania the cities +looked to meet their northern allies, in order in conjunction +with them to take possession of the Danish +strongholds on the mainland. Here, however, disappointment +awaited them. Whether lack of money +or fear had deterred the northern kings from keeping +their word is unknown; at any rate, they did not put +in an appearance with their armies.</p> + +<p>The Burgomaster of Lübeck, Johann Wittenborg, +who commanded the Hanseatic fleet, saw himself +forced to use the men he had on board for the land +attack. He held himself the more justified in doing +this since he deemed he had so thoroughly routed the +Danes, that from the side of the sea there was nothing +to be feared. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span></p> + +<p>This decision was rash, and Wittenborg was to +atone for it with his life. Already it seemed as if the +stronghold Helsingborgs was in his hands—he had +been besieging it sixteen days with great catapults—when +Waldemar suddenly appeared with his fleet upon +the Scanian coast, surprised the Hansa vessels that +had been left with but a feeble crew, and carried off +twelve of the best ships, and most of their provisions +and weapons. The consequence was that Wittenborg +saw himself obliged to return with the remnant of his +army to Lübeck.</p> + +<p>He found the city embittered against him in the +highest degree for his defeat; though it saw that +the main guilt of the disastrous end of the war +lay with the faithless northern kings. The stern free +city deemed it right, not only towards itself, but also +to its sister towns, to punish heavily the unsuccessful +leader. Wittenborg had hardly landed ere he was +arrested, chained, and thrown into a dungeon. Here +he dragged out a weary year of imprisonment. In +vain some of the cities pleaded his cause, in vain his +friends tried to obtain his deliverance. Lübeck was +a stern mistress, who knew no mercy, and could brook +no ill success. In her dictionary, as in that of youth, +according to Richelieu in Bulwer's play, there might +be no such word as "fail." Wittenborg had, of course, +been at once deprived of his burgomagisterial honours; +a year after his defeat his head publicly fell under the +executioner's axe in the market-place of Lübeck. +Burial in the councillors' church was denied him. +He was laid to rest in the cloisters of the Dominicans +the spot where all criminals were interred in Lübeck +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span> +during the Middle Ages; the spot where, down to +our own era, all criminals passing that way to +execution received from the pious monks a soothing +drink as last farewell to life. Further, Wittenborg's +name is absent from the record of the burgomasters; +an omission in this place, which doubtless has the +same meaning as the absence of Marino Falieri's +portrait among the long row of Doges in the +Venetian Palace.</p> + +<p>The election of a burgomaster as leader of the +troops is quite in character with the spirit of those +times. Such trade warriors are not uncommon in the +history of the Hansa. Within the roomy stone hall +that served as entry and store-room to those ancient +dwelling-houses, it was usual to see helmet, armour, +and sword hanging up above stores of codfish, +barrels of herrings, casks of beer, bales of cloth, or +what not besides.</p> + +<p>To this day the stranger is shown in the marketplace +at Lübeck the stone on which Wittenborg sat +before his execution, and in the collection of antiquities +is the chair of torture in which he was borne +thither. So sternly did the Hansa punish.</p> + +<p>There exists an entirely unauthenticated fable that +Wittenborg had betrayed his trust in return for a +dance with the Queen of Denmark, promising her as +a reward the island of Bornholm. That the fable had +some currency is proved by the fact that for a long +while there survived in Lübeck the expression, "He +is dancing away Bornholm," when some one light-heartedly +did an unjustifiable deed. The story has +given one of the younger German poets, Geibel, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span> +theme for a famous ballad. Further, it was fabled +that twice a year the Burgomaster and council of +Lübeck solemnly drank Hippokras out of silver cups +made from Wittenborg's confiscated property, repeating +the while a Low German distich that reminded +them of their stern duty and their predecessor's sad +fate. Modern accurate research, pitiless in the +destruction of picturesque legends has discovered +that these cups were not made till the sixteenth +century, and were paid for by a tax levied on Bornholm, +then in rebellion.</p> + +<p>After the cruel defeat due to Wittenborg, the cities +concluded an armistice with Waldemar, an armistice +that might easily have been converted into a +permanent peace, for the towns were not eager to +fight. It was too great an interruption to trade. +Moreover, the war expenses had exceeded their calculations, +times were bad, harvests scant, food scarce, +and, to crown all, the Black Death had reappeared +in Europe and was devastating whole districts.</p> + +<p>But Waldemar had resolved to break entirely the +power of the Hansa. Once more he befooled it in +diplomatic negotiations, and in the midst of the truce +attacked its herring settlements at Scania, and captured +some merchant vessels that passed through the +Belt.</p> + +<p>The towns held council, Waldemar was offered +terms. Yet again he befooled them, and when he +soon after married his only child Margaret, celebrated +in history as the Semiramis of the North, to Hakon, +heir to the thrones of Sweden and Norway, thus preparing +the union of the three northern kingdoms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span> +under one crown, the towns, alarmed at the mere prospect, +felt that now or never they must secure their +independence.</p> + +<p>In November, 1367, deputies from the Baltic and +inland towns met in conclave in the large council +chamber of the Town Hall of Cologne, a meeting +that became the foundation act of the recognized and +open constitution of the Hanseatic League, and on +which account the hall still bears the name of Hansa +Room. It seems certain that here for the first time +was drawn up an Act, modified, renewed, altered +in course of time, but yet always the fundamental +basis of the League. There is no older Hanseatic +document than this of the congress known as the +Cologne Confederation, when the deputies of seventy-seven +towns met to declare most solemnly that +"because of the wrongs and injuries done by the +King of Denmark to the common German merchant, +the cities would be his enemies and help one another +faithfully." It was decided that such cities as were +too weak or too distant to help actively in the war, +should do so by the contribution of subsidies. It was +further enacted that such cities as would not join in +the war should be held as outside the League, with +whom its burghers and merchants should have nothing +more in common, neither buying from, nor selling to, +them, nor allowing them to enter their ports, or unlade +goods in their domains.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo62" id="illo62"></a> +<img src="images/illo62.jpg" width="362" height="550" alt="RATH-HAUS, COLOGNE." /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, COLOGNE.</p> +</div> + +<p>Waldemar was warned of what the cities had resolved +against him. He replied with an untranslatable +pun, in which he likened the Hansa to a flock of +geese, who deafened him with their cackle. Warned +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span> +once more, Waldemar threatened the cities that he +would complain of them to their spiritual and +temporal lords; among them the Pope and the +emperor. The cities had forestalled him. They had +sent copies of a letter, stating their grievances against +a king whom they denounced as "a tyrant and a +pirate," to some thirty spiritual and temporal lords. +In the letter to the emperor, Lübeck, whence all the +letters were dated, excused itself in particular for +not responding to Charles's recent invitation to join +his Roman expedition on the plea of its home difficulties, +while humbly giving thanks for the honour +done it by the offer. It also justified itself for not +paying during the past year to Waldemar a tax +decreed by Charles, since this king, it wrote, "seeks +to withdraw your town of Lübeck from the emperor +and the empire." It grieved to state that the +emperor lived too far off to shield by his arms his +weak and neglected flock in the northern region of +the empire. Therefore the emperor's most gracious +majesty must not take it amiss if the cities, with +God's help, did something towards their own protection.</p> + +<p>Worded with all the servile language of the period, +Lübeck yet in this letter made it pretty evident to +its supreme ruler that it meant to stand on its own +feet, as it knew too well how unsteady were its +sovereign's.</p> + +<p>Yet, again, Waldemar was warned of the growing +strength, the earnest purpose of the League, and this +time he seems to have been alarmed, for he tried to +detach from it many of its members, and to win them +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span> +over to his own cause. He received from the towns +with whom he opened negotiations, the following +reply, which proves how perfected and tightly +secured were already the reciprocal engagements of +the League.</p> + +<p>"The Hanseatic League," they said, "having +resolved on war, they must submit themselves to +that general resolution which bound them all."</p> + +<p>The cackling geese whom Waldemar had despised +seemed to have grown into formidable eagles overnight. +Lordlings and princes too, many of whom +had private injuries to avenge, had joined the League +or promised their support. The Hansa had set up a +rival and successful king in Sweden, and it now +proposed nothing less than to dismember Denmark, +and to distribute its provinces to its own friends and +allies. It did not desire to retain possession of it. +It was ever its policy to restrict actual possessions, +but to seek that these should be as far as possible in +the hands of friends who would grant it the concessions +and privileges needful for commerce. Thus +could be applied to it what a Roman said of the +peoples he subjugated, "I do not ask for gold; I only +desire to rule over those who have gold." With this +difference, however, that the Hansa, without wishing +to conquer provinces, wished to draw to itself whatever +profits could be found therein.</p> + +<p>It was on the Sunday of Quasimodo, April 16, +1368, that all the Hansa ships were to meet in the +Sound for a combined attack on Zealand. The +Easter days approached. All Northern Germany +awaited anxiously the moment for the decisive +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span> +combat to commence; when suddenly the cities +learnt that on Maundy Thursday Waldemar had +secretly fled from his dominions, alarmed by the +decision and strength shown by his enemies. In a +ship laden with much treasure he had landed on the +Pomeranian coasts to go further east and avoid the +impending squall, leaving a viceroy in his stead, +whom he authorized to conclude peace or carry on +war.</p> + +<p>Waldemar's cowardly attitude could not of course +alter that of the cities. In that same month of April +the war began and raged all the summer, the Hansa +meeting with but little resistance. With the winter +came a truce, after the fashion of those times, but in +the summer war was renewed and for two years +the Hansa ships harassed the Danish coasts and +waters, sacked their cities and plundered their +treasures. The treacherous attack on Wisby was +avenged with interest, and the war proved so profitable +to the League that it settled in congress that +it should continue until the Danes sued abjectly +for peace. Its leader was once more a Lübecker, +Brun Warendorf, the son of the Burgomaster. He +died in battle, but the memory of his gallant deeds +remains in the stately monument the town erected +to him in the choir of St. Mary's Church. Thus +Lübeck honoured those who contributed to her +honour.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo66" id="illo66"></a> +<img src="images/illo66.jpg" width="402" height="550" alt="RATH-HAUS, TANGERMUNDE." /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, TANGERMUNDE.</p> +</div> + +<p>By the close of 1369, Denmark was exhausted and +the people weary of war. They pleaded for peace. +On this the seventy-seven cities, whom Waldemar +had derided as geese, dictated their terms. It was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span> +indeed a peace such as few kings have signed in the +deepest degradation of their empire. For the term +of fifteen years they claimed two-thirds of the +revenues of Scania, the possession of its strongholds, +the free passage of the Sound, and the right +for the same fifteen years to veto the choice of a +Danish ruler, besides a number of other valuable +concessions and privileges; terms, in short, as humiliating +for Denmark as they were glorious for the +League. The last paragraph of this remarkable +Treaty of Stralsund, which put the Hansa in the +position of a first-class power, ran thus:</p> + +<p>"Our king, Waldemar, shall seal to the cities the +above terms of peace with his great seal, if he would +remain with his kingdom and not give it over to +another ruler. If it should be that our lord and +king; Waldemar, desires to abdicate his land of +Denmark during his lifetime, we will and shall not +suffer it, unless it be that the cities have given their +consent, and that he has sealed to them their privileges +with his great seal. Thus, too, it shall be if our +lord and king, Waldemar, be carried off by death, +which God forfend. Then, too, we will accept no +ruler but in council with the cities."</p> + +<p>It is evident from this paragraph that the Hansa +still mistrusted Waldemar, and feared he would by +some subterfuge evade the treaty obligations made +in his name by his appointed viceroy.</p> + +<p>And they had probably not gauged him falsely.</p> + +<p>It was further settled that Waldemar must sign this +document within sixteen months: if he did not do +so within this period, the Danish council and kingdom +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span> +would nevertheless be bound to keep its terms "even +if the king did not seal."</p> + +<p>But abject though these stipulations were, complete +as was the submission of Denmark to the League +which they implied, Waldemar signed them within +the appointed time. He saw that he was defeated, +friendless, and alone. In vain had he scoured the +mainland, and recounted his woes to all who would +listen, in vain had he begged or bribed for help against +his enemies. He had made himself too much hated, +and even those who promised aid failed at the last +to keep their word.</p> + +<p>With the signature of peace Waldemar also signed +away his position, nay, perhaps his life. Broken in +hope and spirits, his health gave way. Four years +later (1375) he died, after he had just appealed in +vain to the towns to restore to him his castles in +Scania.</p> + +<p>With the peace of Stralsund the German merchants +had established the supremacy of the Hansa +over Scandinavia, and laid the foundation for that +power over the northern kingdom, which, in the +words of King Gustavus Vasa, places "the three +good crowns at the mercy of the Hansa."</p> + +<p>Thus ended the Hansa's great war against the King +of Denmark—a war that marks an important era in +its history and development.</p> + +<p>The League henceforth took a changed position, +not only in its own fatherland, but in the face of all +Europe, for nothing succeeds like success. Flanders, +France, and England, had all to recognize that a new +power had arisen in the north of Germany. For the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span> +war had proved, not only how valiantly the League +could fight if need arose, but also how well organized it +was; how it held together for the common weal; how +it would be not only unwise, but dangerous to resist +its demands for trade privileges and concessions.</p> + +<p>A curious juxtaposition of events was afforded by +this chapter of history; a German emperor was busy +in the interests of Rome, striving to bring back the +Pope from his long exile at Avignon, and obtaining +dubious victories over the great Italian family of the +Visconti; while meantime a league of cities in his +own empire was carrying on a successful war against +the kings of the north, dethroning and defeating them. +And so far from raising a hand to aid them, the +emperor, on paper, at least, and by word and protestation, +was taking part with Waldemar against his +own subjects. A curious, a unique condition of +things truly.</p> + +<p>And herewith we have brought the history of our +League to the close of what is known as its first +period, dating from its origin to the peace concluded +with Denmark.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_vase.jpg" width="200" height="153" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a></span></p> +<h2 class="p6">PERIOD II.</h2> + +<p class="p2"><i>THE HISTORY OF THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE, FROM +1370 TO THE PUBLIC PEACE OF 1495, DECREED IN +GERMANY BY MAXIMILIAN I.</i></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>I.</b></p> +<h3 class="p4">LÜBECK RECEIVES AN IMPERIAL VISITOR.</h3> + +<p>The great war ended, the Hansa, in true merchant +spirit, instantly busied itself making up its +accounts. The poundage toll, instituted to cover +martial expenses, was at once abolished; credit +and debit carefully balanced. Examination of its +books showed that, notwithstanding the long duration +of the war, the Hansa had been as little a +pecuniary, as it had been a military, loser, in its +struggle against Waldemar's assumptions.</p> + +<p>While thus engaged, Lübeck was startled by the +intelligence that the Emperor, Charles IV., intended +to honour "his beloved free Imperial City of +Lübeck" by a personal visit. Since Frederick +Barbarossa no emperor had ever passed the city +gates, and the town councillors were probably not +far wrong when they perceived in this proposal a +tacit imperial acknowledgment of the Hansa's great +military victories, victories in which Lübeck had +played the part of leader. For twenty-eight years +Charles had worn the imperial crown, and all that +time his chief efforts had been directed towards +extending the power of his family, and the home influence +of the emperors. He was a shrewd and wily +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span> +old man, who saw the dangers Italy presented to the +empire, and wished to avoid them. At first, however, +he had no proper comprehension of the great +power that had sprung up within his own domains in +the shape of the Hanseatic League, nay, indeed, he +had sided against his subjects and with Waldemar. +But now the scales fell from his eyes, and he appreciated, +as all Europe did, the greatness and the +strength of the Hansa.</p> + +<p>Of course he did not admit this in words, yet there +is little doubt that he wished to gain the goodwill of +this League, and hoped thus to get from it both +pecuniary and military support for his dynastic plans.</p> + +<p>It was, however, "diamond cut diamond;" the +worthy councillors of Lübeck were no less shrewd +and wily than their imperial master. Needless to +say that, in accordance with the usage of the age, +they indulged in the most servile and hyperbolical +expressions of their joy and unworthiness to be so +honoured, but like true merchants they had a good +memory, and knew that Charles had not so long ago +pawned his coronation cloak and some of his tolls to +one of their federation, and they suspected in their +heart of hearts that ulterior motives were probably +not absent to account for this unwonted event. Still, +with the wisdom of the serpent, they let nothing of +this appear, either in their replies to Charles, or in +their treatment of him. Like their Lombard predecessors, +even when in open warfare against the +emperor's authority, they ever protested in words +their submission and fidelity to the imperial crown.</p> + +<p>It was in the autumn of 1375 that Charles the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span> +Fourth entered the gates of Lübeck as the city's +guest. It is a curious fact that his visit coincided +with the death of Waldemar on the island of +Zealand; but in those days of slow communication +the news did not reach the emperor till after the +festivities were over.</p> + +<p>On October 22nd, the Emperor, accompanied by +the Empress, the Archbishop of Cologne, prince-bishops, +dukes, earls, and suzerains many and +mighty, halted before the closed gates of Lübeck. +His suite, his armed retainers, and those of his +party, made such a numerous host that Lübeck +hesitated awhile ere opening its gates to so great +a multitude, not feeling wholly sure whether their +mission were indeed one of peace, or whether an +affectation of peace was meant to cover a deceitful +attack. For such things were not uncommon in +those days.</p> + +<p>After some preliminaries it was however decided to +let them all in. A halt had been made outside the +walls. Here was situated the Chapel of St. Gertrude, +patron saint of strangers. The chapel was the property +of the municipal council, and to obtain relics for it the +town had spent many sums of money. Among +other matters, they boasted of possessing some bones +of Thomas à Becket, and it is curious to note that +they sent over to England to buy these at the very +time Chaucer was superintendent of tolls in the +harbour of London, and was writing his immortal +"Canterbury Tales," in which he derides the +frauds constantly practised upon the purchasers of +such wares; as in his "Pardonere's Tale." Now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span> +Charles IV. had a great fancy for objects of this +nature; he was in the habit of making tours in his +kingdom in order to collect them, begging them +from churches or monasteries, and giving in return +privileges and sanctions. It is possible he also +had an eye to St. Thomas's bones, but among the +rich booty he took with him from Lübeck, we find no +mention of such relics.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo76" id="illo76"></a> +<img src="images/illo76.jpg" width="350" height="550" alt="SHIPPING HOUSE, LÜBECK." /> +<p class="caption">SHIPPING HOUSE, LÜBECK.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was before St. Gertrude's Chapel, then, that +Charles and his great suite halted, and here he and +his empress put on their imperial robes previous to +entering the city. This done, they were greeted by a +procession that came forth from the gates to welcome +them. It consisted of the temporal and spiritual +lords of the town, the leading men, and the most +lovely and notable of its women. They carried before +them a crucifix and a casket containing relics. Both +the emperor and his consort kissed these with great +fervour. Then two stately horses, richly caparisoned, +were brought before them, upon which they mounted. +That of the emperor was led by two burgomasters, +that of the empress by two town councillors. Eight +young patricians carried a baldachino of rich stuffs +over the heads of the imperial pair. In front of the +emperor rode a councillor, bearing aloft on a pole +the keys of the city; while he was flanked by two +imperial dukes, carrying respectively the sword and +the sceptre of the empire. In front of the empress +rode the archbishop, bearing the imperial globe. +Behind followed all the nobles, the suite, the men-at-arms.</p> + +<p>Such was the procession that moved from St. Gertrude's +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span> +Chapel on the morning of October 22nd. In +the space between the outer and inner walls of the +city the women of Lübeck awaited them ready to +greet the guests with cheers and song and waving +kerchiefs. It was through the stately Burg Thor that +the great train passed and entered the streets of the +city, gaily decked out with arras and banners and +verdure to bid them welcome. They rode the whole +length of the town, through the Breite Strasse, to the +sound of fife and drum, and then made for the cathedral. +Here they halted, dismounted, and entered. A +solemn thanksgiving service was held, and the choir +sang the Introitus for the feast of the Epiphany: "Ecce +advenit Dominator Dominus" ("Behold the Lord, the +Ruler is come"), and then the second verse of the +Seventy-second Psalm, "Give the king Thy judgments, +O God." After this the party once more re-formed, +and rode along the Königstrasse, till they came to +the house that was to harbour the imperial guests.</p> + +<p>Contemporary chroniclers tell us that all along the +route of the procession and both by night and day +the sounds of military and sacred music never ceased. +Night was as light as day, thanks to the general +illumination prescribed by the council; a prescription +that, in a city thus overcrowded by a martial +train and by curious spectators from far and near, +was as much a matter of safety as of compliment to +its guests. In those times street-lighting was an +unknown luxury, and nocturnal brawls of constant +occurrence.</p> + +<p>The house where Charles halted exists to this day, +as also that where the empress lodged. They are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span> +both corner-houses and boast gables, which according +to contemporary writers was an indication of an +aristocratic building. The lodging of the empress +was opposite to that of the emperor, and a covered +way was built across the street to connect them. +Such road-bridges, springing from the projecting +gable windows, were not unusual things in the +harrow streets of those times. The condition of the +unpaved roads made them requisite, as these could +not be crossed on foot with safety or cleanliness.</p> + +<p>For the space of eleven days Charles and his +train halted at Lübeck, and the town spared neither +cost nor trouble to entertain him right royally, and +to impress him with its wealth and importance. +Feasts, tournaments, rejoicings, followed upon one +another; time was not allowed to hang heavy upon +the emperor's hands. But neither was he allowed to +carry out his ulterior objects. With great politeness +and fulsome flattery Charles was made to understand +that the Hansa was sure of its own strength, +and since he had not helped it in the hour of +need, it did not propose to make great sacrifices to +assist him in his troubles. All however was done +with perfect courtesy, Charles even being permitted +on one occasion to be present at a meeting of the +municipal council when both sides exchanged pretty +compliments. He even went so far as to address +them as "Lords." With great modesty they disclaimed +this appellation. But the emperor insisted +on it: "You are lords," he said; "the oldest imperial +registers know that Lübeck is one of the five towns +that have had accorded to them in the imperial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span> +council the ducal rank, that they may take part in +the emperor's council and be present where is the +emperor."</p> + +<p>These five cities were Rome, Venice, Pisa, Florence, +and Lübeck.</p> + +<p>When Charles left Lübeck he was delighted with +the hospitality he had there received, but disappointed +in his political aims. It is certain, however, +that he rode out richer than he rode in; to this the +account books of the city bear testimony, of this the +taxpayers told a tale for many a long day. Indeed +the expenses incurred through this imperial visitor +were to lead later on to some serious riots of the +guilds against the municipality.</p> + +<p>It was through the <i>Mühlen Thor</i> that Charles +departed with his train and by order of the town +council this gate was walled up for ever behind him. It +was meant as a piece of subtle flattery to the emperor, +a suggestion that no mortal was worthy to step +where he had stepped,<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> but it is not out of keeping +with the astute sense of humour that distinguished +these commercial princes, that the act also covered +a secret satisfaction in having outwitted their imperial +guest and in being once more the victors in an +encounter with royalty. Certain it is that Charles' +visit proves that the Hanseatic League had reached +the apex of power, and that the city of Lübeck was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span> +regarded in Europe as the head of this organization. +Charles' visit was one of the proudest moments +in her story, and the memory survives in local +chronicles.</p> + +<p>It also survives in an old picture preserved until +quite recently in the house where he lodged, and now +removed to the rooms of the Municipal Antiquarian +Society. In this canvas we see the Emperor Charles +IV., seated on a large throne-like chair. On either +side of him is a leaded window. A carpet lies before +his feet bordered with black, red, and gold cords. +The emperor is clothed partly in imperial, partly in +episcopal robes: a not uncommon mode of representation +in those days. He wears his hair long, has +a long moustache, and his full beard is parted in the +middle, showing the costly clasp that closes his +mantle. His head is surrounded by a golden jewelled +crown, in his right hand he holds a long sword, in +his left the imperial globe. The subscription runs: +"Anno Dni. 1376 ipse Sevori Dn. Carolus quartus +imperator invictissimus decem diebus hac in domo +hospitatus est."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_jewel.jpg" width="200" height="151" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>II.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE TOWNS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</h3> + +<p>Our League had attained its maturity. As we +have seen from its origin and as we shall see until +its decadence, security and extension of commerce +was its one aim and solicitude. The Hanseatics +were at all times desirous to extend their markets +abroad, to obtain, if possible, the monopoly of trade, +and it must be admitted that they succeeded +admirably in achieving the end they had in view. +When we look back and consider the disorganized +state of the empire and the slight support they +received from their nominal liege lord, it seems +strange that they did not take this occasion to constitute +themselves also into a political union, forming +independent states after the pattern of the Italian +commercial republics. In general, the towns in +pursuing their policy took as little real notice of the +authority of the emperor, as the emperor of the +interests and doings of the towns.</p> + +<p>Even our shrewd Hansa merchants, it would seem, +were afraid outwardly to present a bold front to +their rulers, though secretly they defied them and +circumvented their laws. The very existence of the +federation was illegal, and in direct contravention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> +to one of the chief clauses of the Golden Bull, which +forbade all associations and unions within the +empire. It is no doubt on this account that the +Hansa, like the Venetian Republic, kept its organization +so secret. Even in its own day people were +but vaguely informed as to the working of its +government, and as to the number and extent of its +dominions.</p> + +<p>The very natural question arises now that our League +is mature, How many cities did it count in its federation? +but it cannot be answered with precision. Nay, +this question can receive no final reply in any period +of the Hansa's history. The towns that joined did +not always do so permanently, or were not able to +maintain their place, and to fulfil their duties. Often, +too, they proved restive and were "unhansed," and it +was no easy or inexpensive matter to be readmitted. +The ban of the Hansa was more potent than that of +pope or emperor. A town that fell under it lost its +commerce at one blow. Thus, for example, Bremen, +headstrong and stiff-necked, anxious to play an undue +part in the Hansa League, saw itself shut out in 1356, +because one of its burghers had traded with Flanders +at a time when such trading was forbidden. The +municipality, called upon to punish him, took his part, +with the result that for thirty years the town was "unhansed," +thirty miserable years, during which "the +city was impoverished, grass grew in its streets, and +hunger and desolation took up their abode in its +midst," so writes a contemporary eyewitness. Reinstated +at last, Bremen had to take up heavy responsibilities +in atonement for its misdeeds. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo84" id="illo84"></a> +<img src="images/illo84.jpg" width="309" height="550" alt="GROCERS' HALL, BREMEN." /> +<p class="caption">GROCERS' HALL, BREMEN.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span></p> + +<p>On another occasion Brunswick fell into the hands +of discontented artizans, who headed a revolt of +several towns against the League. A fulminating +decree was issued by the Hansa with the same +results as in the case of Bremen. Misery and +hunger in this case also proved persuasive, and at last, +after six years, this proscribed town was readmitted. +It had to send deputies to Lübeck, who craved pardon +in the most abject terms, and who had to accept the +most humiliating conditions. Besides questions of +internal management, the Brunswickers undertook to +build a votive chapel in the town in memory of their +bad behaviour, and to send pilgrims to Rome who +should crave the Papal pardon for the murders of +councillors committed by the rioters. Two burgomasters +of Brunswick, and eight of the chief citizens +walked humbly in procession, bare-headed, bare-footed, +carrying candles in their hands from the church of +our Lady at Lübeck, to the town hall, where in the +great council chamber of the League, before an +enormous crowd, they had publicly upon their knees +to confess their repentance for what unruly passion +had caused them to do, and to implore their confederates +to pardon them for the love of God, and the +honour of the Virgin Mary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo86" id="illo86"></a> +<img src="images/illo86.jpg" width="550" height="373" alt="RATH-HAUS, BRUNSWICK." /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, BRUNSWICK.</p> +</div> + +<p>More and more did Lübeck come to take the leading +place among the cities. Her laws ruled at the +Hansa diets. They were reckoned the wisest ever +framed by an autonomous community, and are still +quoted with respect. The right to use Lübeck law +was as eagerly craved by distant cities as the Greek +colonies craved the holy fire from native altars. No +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span> +wonder Lübeck's merchants loved to quote the proud +couplet:</p> + +<p class="center">"Was willst begehren mehr,<br /> +Als die alte Lübsche Ehr?"<br /> +("What more will you desire than the old Lübeck honour?")</p> + +<p>Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius +II., when travelling through Europe as Chancellor +of the Emperor Frederick III., visited Lübeck, and +writes of it as the town which surpasses all others in +the wealth and magnificence of its buildings and +churches. The same praise is echoed a little later by +a rare guest, the Metropolitan of Moscow, who passed +through Lübeck on his way to Florence, to be present +at the great church council held there by Eugene IV. +Æneas also visited Danzig, and says it was so well +equipped for land and sea warfare, that it could call +under arms at least 50,000 men.</p> + +<p>The prominence of the cities varied greatly. Circumstances +which at one time might be to their +advantage, might at another time prove adverse. +Thus Wisby, after its sacking by Waldemar, was the +victim of an accidental fire, which destroyed all that +the Dane had spared. In consequence it fell at once +from its position of importance, and its very site, once +the source of its strength, became the cause of its +downfall, for it proved a most convenient station to +pirates. Where the merchant had safely halted, he +was now in peril of life and goods.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo88" id="illo88"></a> +<img src="images/illo88.jpg" width="338" height="550" alt="MÜHLENTHOR, STARGARD." /> +<p class="caption">MÜHLENTHOR, STARGARD.</p> +</div> + +<p>To the question put at various times to the Hansa's +ambassadors "which are the Hansa's cities?" evasive +replies were given, either "those towns that fought the +Hansa's battles;" or a few were enumerated, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span> +list closed with a colossal etcetera, etcetera. For they +were not easily caught napping, these worthy burghers, +and had ever in view "the interests of the common +German merchants," which they feared might be +endangered by too much publicity. Still, they had +become a power that could not be hid, and seeing how +well they realized this in most respects, it is the more +curious that they did not avail themselves of their +chance of attaining political autonomy. The more +curious too, because, as a rule, the Hanseatics, like the +modern Italians, knew so well how to draw profit out of +all the dissensions and disorders that agitated Europe.</p> + +<p>It was indeed a vast dominion that stood under the +sway of the Hansa. In the course of less than a +hundred years there had arisen on the Baltic coast, +within the area of two hundred and fifty miles, no +fewer than fourteen cities of first-class importance, +not to name those that already existed there. Thus +the merchants held in their possession the mouths of +all the great Baltic rivers, on all of which they founded +harbours and depôts. Germany in that epoch evinced +a power of colonization which in its successes recalls +the most brilliant moments of the extension of Greek +life in the Mediterranean. In more modern times +only the North American soil has exercised an +attraction similar to that of the Baltic coasts, and has +shown an equal power of upraising cities within a +brief space of time. Many of the towns boasted a +far larger population than they have at this day. +Thus Lübeck in the fourteenth century counted eighty +thousand inhabitants, as against forty-eight thousand +in 1870. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span></p> + +<p>An interesting contemporary opinion on our merchants +is extant from the pen of a learned and travelled +Italian, Marino Sanudo, a pious Venetian, who set +forth early in the fourteenth century with a mission +to stir up the Christian world, and organize a new +Crusade, for Askelon, the last stronghold of the +Romish Church, had fallen into the hands of the unbelievers. +His first purpose was to gauge the fighting +power of the various European maritime states, for it +was a fleet rather than an army that was required. +In his journeyings he ventured as far north as the Baltic, +and thus reports in his letter to Pope John XXII.:</p> + +<p>"In Alemannia live many peoples that could prove +most useful to us.... I have seen with my own eyes +that these coasts of Alemannia are quite similar to +the Venetian. The inhabitants, strong of limb and +practised in arms, are mostly warriors; others well +skilled in dyke-making; besides, they are rich, and +what is yet more commendable, they show a warm +zeal for the affairs of the Holy Land."</p> + +<p>After enumerating other advantages to be gained +from these allies, he is however obliged to draw his +Holiness' attention to a serious drawback on their +part, namely, "that the Germans are enormous eaters, +which arouses anxiety in respect to supplies when the +fleet shall find itself in the hot regions."</p> + +<p>A love for feasting meets us repeatedly in +the old chronicle reports on the German merchants, +and shows that in those days there also held good +what Hawthorne has more recently expressed, that +the Germans need to refresh exhausted nature twice +as often as any other peoples. Then, as now, they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span> +were an upright, thorough, massive race, not made of +too fine a clay and wanting rather on the æsthetic +side; a want sure to strike the more finely strung +senses of an Italian.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo110b" id="illo110b"></a> +<img src="images/hansa110b.jpg" width="450" height="431" alt="BURGHERS AT TABLE." /> +<p class="caption">BURGHERS AT TABLE.</p> +</div> + +<p>It is certain that the fourteenth century was in +many respects the epoch when the Hansa cities +flourished most actively. Neither before nor after did +they have so many sided an importance for the whole +life of the German nation. It was a stirring period +in the history of the European continent; when the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span> +Minnesingers gave place to the Mastersingers; when +learning, hitherto stored up jealously in the monasteries +and the libraries of the princes, had found its +way out among burghers and laymen; when protectors +of art and science were more often simple +merchant princes than noble-born beggars. In a word, +it was an epoch when the middle class sprang into +full being, and took its due and proper place as a +link between the nobility and the common people.</p> + +<p>Towards bringing about this state of things the +Hansa had greatly contributed. If it failed to +emancipate itself entirely from the empire, it was +yet ever keenly desirous of emancipating itself from +its petty suzerains. Thus the burghers of Lübeck, +Cologne, Goslar, and other cities were early forbidden +to hold posts under the lord of the domain, +no matter how lucrative such posts might be. Wismar, +engaged on one occasion in a dispute with +the Dominican monks concerning the repair of +the town walls, and obliged to cede to these ecclesiastics +because the lord of the land was favourable +to the Church, carefully recorded the occasion in +its "town book," "in order," as it wrote, "that it +might remember the circumstance on some future +and more favourable occasion." "To pay them out" +is implied though not expressed in the phrase.</p> + +<p>With the same insistence and energy the towns +made good their claims when it was requisite to protect +the burgher in his commerce, this source of life to +all the cities. Formerly, it is true, the German merchants +had appeared in the foreign markets as "the +men of the emperor," but now the emperors had no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span> +longer might wherewith to back their right, and more +efficient protection was called for. This each found +in his own city. Hundreds and thousands of treaties +and letters of freedom attest to the fact that the towns +recognized their duties towards their citizens and +practised them most strenuously. Sometimes these +were written out in the name of a princeling, whose +signature it was always possible to buy for hard cash; +but as time went on the towns gradually took an entirely +independent stand, so that from France to the Russian +districts of Smolensk the whole continent was overspread +with a network of diplomatic and commercial +contracts eagerly supported and extended by the towns.</p> + +<p>The first thing sought for from the territorial lords, +was protection for person and property from the gang +of banditti who dwelt in every castle under the leadership +of some titled robber; then protection against the +cruel rights of wreckage and salvage, which declared +all such goods the property of the territorial lord; +further, release from imprisonment for debts and +other misdemeanours incurred within the jurisdiction +of the city and to be dealt with by itself alone; +assistance in obtaining payment of foreign debts; +freedom from the so-called "judgments of God" in +the form of torture, walking on red-hot irons, &c.; +regulation and diminution of local taxes and tolls on +the lading or unlading of vessels, the weighing of +merchandise; permission to fell wood to repair ships; +in a word, one and all of the necessary permits to +render more easy and profitable the intercourse between +towns and nations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo94" id="illo94"></a> +<img src="images/illo94.jpg" width="550" height="271" alt="GERMAN TRADE LIFE." /> +<p class="caption">GERMAN TRADE LIFE.</p> +</div> + +<p>In each foreign country the Hanseatics had always +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span> +their permanent settlement, known as the <i>Kontor</i>, +and for these they had early obtained a species of +autonomy that permitted them to exercise jurisdiction +according to their native laws over their own country +people. Defaulters were judged by Hanseatic rules, +and the "common merchant" found a help and +support against the foreigners among whom he for +the moment resided and with whom he traded.</p> + +<p>The shrewd towns knew well how to estimate the +value of such foreign settlements, and it is noteworthy +that they never accorded reciprocal rights. In +vain foreigners pleaded permission to found similar +settlements in the Hansa's dominions; the towns +always skilfully declined such requests. Thus in +Cologne foreign merchants were not allowed to reside +longer than six weeks at a stretch, and this only three +times in the year; therefore only eighteen weeks in all. +Similar and even more restrictive regulations prevailed +in the other cities.</p> + +<p>It is curious to note that, until the end of the +thirteenth century, it was chiefly the inland towns +who were the great traders, but when they needed for +their trade the highway of the ocean, gradually the +maritime ports had taken the place of importance. +One of the chief lines of sea traffic was that between +Bruges in Flanders and Northern Russia. On this +route hundreds of ships sailed annually, all owned by +the "Easterlings," as the Baltic merchants were called +to distinguish them from the inland traders. It was +not until the fifteenth century that we find Dutchmen, +Zealanders, and Frisians striving to come into serious +competition with the Hansa. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span></p> + +<p>A decree that no German merchant might go into +partnership with a Russian, Fleming, or Englishman, +no doubt aided greatly this exclusive possession of +the Baltic Sea. In Russia waterways led them as far +as Smolensk; and, later on, they penetrated even further +inland, by utilizing the roads that had been made +by the German knights whose seat of might was +Pomerania and Livonia. The Marienburg, the chief +house of the Order, proved a welcome halting station +for the merchant travellers, where they found safety +and shelter. Furs were largely obtained from the +inner districts of Russia. "They are plentiful as dung +there," writes the pious chronicler, Adam of Bremen; +adding, "for our damnation, as I believe, for <i>per fas et +nefas</i> we strive as hard to come into the possession +of a marten skin as if it were everlasting salvation." +According to him, it was from this cause and from +Russia "that the deadly sin of luxurious pride" had +overspread the West.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo97" id="illo97"></a> +<img src="images/illo97.jpg" width="184" height="450" alt="RENSLAU GATE." /> +<p class="caption">RENSLAU GATE.</p> +</div> + +<p>Wax, that played so large a part in mediæval religious +rites, and was required in great abundance, was +furnished by the "honey-trees" of the virgin Russian +forests. Leather, skins, tallow, and all species of fat, +were also among the chief products of Russia and the +exports of the Hansa. In return, they imported into +that empire the produce of the looms of Germany, +England, and Flanders, the fine Flemish cloths, the +coarser English and German. Silk, too, and linen +were valued goods. Important also were all manner +of worked metal objects, and such wares as town +industries manufacture. Beer, too, was a valued and +most profitable article of commerce. This drink was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span> +brewed in superior excellence in Northern Germany, +the hops being grown on the spot. Contemporary +writers tell how outside all the northern cities hop +gardens flourished. This beer was never wanting +at any carouse in the whole stretch of land from +Flanders to Finland; a heavy, heady beverage, which +would now be deemed unpalatable and indigestible. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span> +Some specimens are preserved to this day in the +Danzig <i>Topenbier</i> and the Brunswick <i>Mumme</i>. To +this thirst for ale Hamburg largely owes its prosperity. +For many long years it was the greatest beer-making +town of the North, boasting in the fourteenth century +no less than five hundred breweries.</p> + +<p>From Sweden the Hanseatics fetched copper and +iron; in many cases they had acquired the sole +possession of the mines. Scandinavia also furnished +skins, as well as the various forest products of wood, +potash, pitch, and tar. From Blekingen, as at this +day, the merchants brought granite, and from Gothland +and Bornholm limestone, both stones being +required for those building purposes for which the +native material of brick did not suffice. Already the +Baltic supplied the Netherlands with grain.</p> + +<p>The Hansa carried in return to Sweden, Finland, +and Russia the requirements of daily life, since these +countries possessed neither manufactures nor skilled +labour. Down to the altar shrines and the psalters of +the Church the merchants brought the evidences of +civilized workmanship to these lands. The very furs +they had taken thence were returned to their northern +homes; of course manipulated and worked up. Even +the English, more advanced in handicraft, submitted +to the same <i>régime</i>. It used to be said on the European +continent in those days: "We buy the fox skins from +the English for a groat, and re-sell them the foxes +tails for a guilder." With England indeed the +Hansa's intercourse was most active, as we shall show +more in detail later on.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo99" id="illo99"></a> +<img src="images/illo99.jpg" width="388" height="550" alt="CROSSBOW." /> +<p class="caption">CROSSBOW.</p> +</div> + +<p>Danzig owes almost all its splendour to the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> +trade. This city dealt largely in Austrian and +Hungarian products, which were distributed from out +its harbour. English crossbowmen received all the +wood for their bows from Austria by way of Danzig. +They were made from the yew tree, which was considered +especially adapted to this end.</p> + +<p>What the German merchant obtained as produce +from Russia, Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe, +not to mention the special productions of his own +towns, he distributed either at home or in the world-famed +markets of Bruges and London, for the Hansa +was then the only intermediary between East and +West. For more than three hundred years Bruges +maintained its place as the central market for the +whole of Europe this side the Alps. Here could be +met traders from all parts; the Lombard bankers +and money-changers, the Florentine, Spanish, Portuguese, +French, Basque, English, Scotch, North and +South Germans. It was from Bruges that the Baltic +merchant supplied his home and Northern Germany +with the products of the East, which the South +German had brought from Venice and over the Alpine +passes along the Rhine. In Bruges he could buy the +fruits of the Mediterranean, the silks of Florence, the +oils of Provence, the wines of Spain and Italy. These +meetings of merchants were wont to take place at +stated times, intercourse being thus made surer and +easier. This custom laid the foundation for those +annual fairs for the exchange of wares, of which one +yet survives in Germany in little diminished importance, +namely, the great fair of Leipzig, where all the +German publishers meet to exchange the intellectual +productions of the year. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span></p> + +<p>Another source of wealth to the cities arose from +the circumstance that they not only supplied the +requirements of the mass, but were also the purveyors +to the princes and the aristocracy. We find in their +books that these frequently owed them heavy sums +for furs, Flanders cloth, and choice wines. They were +also most often their bankers, for the towns and, +above all, Lübeck, the centre of cash transactions, +were held desirable places for money investments. +Even in the distant districts of Sweden people knew +no better mode of investing capital than to confide it +to Lübeck merchants.</p> + +<p>Of course the conditions of trade were vastly +different from those of to-day. Above all, the +merchant had to act more in person. Posts did not +exist, orders and contracts, therefore, could rarely +be made by letter, for it mostly required a special +messenger to carry these. It was hence almost the +rule that the merchant accompanied his wares "over +sea and sand," as the phrase went. For the sake of +greater security, and in order also to diminish expenses, +many would club together to charter a ship. +It was usual to interest the captains in the sales of the +wares, it being held advisable that every one on board +should have an advantage in bringing the goods safe +to land and in their profitable disposal. This custom +arose from the dangers that lurked from robbers, while +insurance of goods in transit was yet unknown. By +interesting captain and crew pecuniarily they were +less likely to throw the goods overboard in a storm, or +to allow pirates quietly to board and rob the vessels; +both matters of common occurrence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span></p> + +<p>If it was dangerous to travel by water, it was yet +far worse to travel by land. Not to mention that there +were few roads, that the mud often lay piled wheel +high, so that the strongest horses could not pull the +carts; the presence of robbers was a constant cause of +fear on the road. Many of these were, as we know, +the lordlings of the land in disguise, and hence they +naturally turned a deaf ear to the repeated petitions of +the merchants to keep the highways in better order. +Added to this, each lord had the right to demand toll +for the passing of his dominions and the toll stations +were often very close together. Thus, for example, +within a space of fifteen miles from Hamburg the +merchant encountered no less than nine. Fortunately +the tables of tolls in those days were not too complicated. +They were generally paid by waggon, or ship +load, regardless of contents.</p> + +<p>The Middle Ages were ignorant of protective taxes. +These impediments to the useful exchange of international +produce were reserved for the invention and +practice of our more enlightened centuries. It is +characteristic that the oath which played so great a +part in all mediæval transactions, social and political, +was also employed to settle the toll dues of the +traveller. A crucifix was held before him; on this he +swore that he was not defrauding, that the weight of +his wares, as stated by him, was accurate, and herewith +the transaction was completed. It was, however, +necessary to be most careful not to diverge from the +toll roads. If a merchant was found on a bye-road +his goods were confiscated and he himself imprisoned. +On this account, too, companionship was sought after, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span> +the leadership of some one familiar with the ground, +and hence merchants and merchandize generally +moved in caravans.</p> + +<p>It is worthy of note that all the trade of that time +was strictly legitimate, and what is known as real +merchant's business. Speculation hardly existed. +Commission and agency dues were not wholly unknown, +but happily there was not existent that +pernicious scourge of modern trade, the time bargains, +which permit merchandize to be sold a dozen times +over before it actually exists. It was honest, true +trade, which only sold what it could show. Therefore, +it could uphold and practise the axiom, "ware +for ware, or for cash." In certain districts, for example +Russia, barter was more common than money payments. +Credit was absolutely forbidden in certain +towns and in certain branches of trade. If credit +was allowed the borrower had to find a surety, +and to go surety was a grave matter, of which the +consequences might easily prove disastrous, entailing +loss of property and often of personal freedom.</p> + +<p>Payments were usually made in coined money, but +bar silver was also employed, especially in Russia, and +bills of exchange were not quite unknown. The bills +were payable as a rule either at Lübeck or Bruges. +Silver was the chief currency, but in the fourteenth +century Lübeck was permitted to coin gold. It made +guilders after the pattern of the Florentine ducats. +The gold to coin them with was bought at Bruges. +We must remember that money had a far higher value +in those days than in ours, and that if we want to +arrive at a just comparison with our own times, we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span> +must multiply the sums by seventy or seventy-five. +The most common form of reckoning was the Flemish, +<i>i.e.</i>, one pound, equal to twenty shillings at twelve +groats each; in a word, exactly the reckoning that has +survived in England to this day. The pound of +money was originally a weight. The best money was +that of Lübeck, and, above all, the English contracted +to be paid in pounds of the "Easterlings," their generic +name for the Baltic merchant. As a survival and +abbreviation of this phrase we in England say pound +sterling to this day. A bad light upon the morality +and conditions of the period is thrown by the fact that +the petty kings, seeing that their coins were often +refused and mistrusted, did not hesitate to coin and +give currency to false money bearing the imprint of +the League. We come across frequent bitter and +often useless complaints on this subject.</p> + +<p>Putting out capital at interest was not wholly unknown +in those days, notwithstanding the prohibitions +of the Church which, founded on the text in St. Luke +vi. 54, and the Fourteenth Psalm ("qui pecuniam non +debet ad usuram"), forbade all usury business. The +Jews early held this branch of trade in their hands. +Rates of interest varied from 6 to 10 per cent. +Loans, too, were made to princes, foreign and native, +and to cities, upon industrial enterprises. Wholly +erroneous is the notion that capital was inactive, kept +in a strong box or an old stocking. That great +riches were accumulated is proved by some of the old +wills and account books. Fortunes of a quarter of +a million were not unknown. A single merchant +would often own not only many farms in different and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span> +distant parts of the country, but whole villages and +townships. As for the men themselves, we encounter +them in every part of the continent, the artisan as +well as the merchant. Thus, for example, Germans +seem the favourite shoemakers; we hear of them in +this capacity as far off as Lisbon. Then, as now, they +were renowned as bakers, and no one knew better +how to salt and preserve herrings and cod-fish.</p> + +<p>In Livonia, Esthonia, Gothland, rich merchants +died whose nearest heirs had to be sought in far off +Westphalia. For instance: A worthy shoemaker +became burgher of Lübeck; then visited Rome and +San Jago di Compostella as a pilgrim, and afterwards +being named shoemaker to the German knights, had +as his chief debtor for goods supplied a cavalier who +fought in Sweden. Thus diverse, many-coloured, and +full of adventure were lives in those times, which we +are too often tempted to think sleepy and stay-at-home.</p> + +<p>It is difficult to gain an idea of the full extent and +nature of mediæval trade, but this too was far more +rich and varied than we suppose. Though there was +no activity outside Europe, still it can well stand +beside our modern commerce, and as regards honesty, +thoroughness of produce and workmanship, it unhappily +far eclipses it. Certainly the list of articles +imported and exported in their variety of needful and +needless objects, their luxury and magnificence, goes +far to disprove our notions of the greater simplicity +of life in the Middle Ages. For supply means +demand, and meant this yet more emphatically with +our practical forefathers. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span></p> + +<p>Apart from the evidences of figures and statistics, the +evidences of wealth and luxury can also be found in +the yet extant monuments of the time, and, above all, +in the churches. In the Middle Ages the one converging +point of ideal life was the Church. Everything +that went beyond the immediate practical needs +of daily existence, every form of charity, every endeavour +after culture, every striving of artistic and scientific +activity had in those days a religious foundation. +Imagination, too, came to the aid of this tendency in +the shape of the possible and probable dangers encountered +by "sea and sand," by the town traders. +Thus in 1401 we find merchants and shippers at +Lübeck founding "an eternal brotherhood and guild +to the honour of God, of Mary His beloved mother, +and all the saints; above all, the holy true helper in +need, St. Nicholas, that they may aid and comfort the +living and the dead, and all those who seek their +rightful livelihood on the water, many of whom, alas! +perish in water troubles, are thrown overboard or +expire in other ways, dying unconfessed and without +repentance; for on account of their agonies they could +feel neither remorse nor penitence for their sins, and +who have none who pray for them except the general +prayers."</p> + +<p>Such guilds were by no means rare. Legacies, too, +were left for similar ends, by which thousands of our +money were willed away: churches, monasteries, and +holy foundations of all kinds raised or aided to pray +for the benefit of the souls of the dead.</p> + +<p>Nor were distant pilgrimages unknown. The merchant +would go in person, combining business and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span> +religion on the road, or he would send a substitute, +who for a certain sum would visit Rome, the Holy +Land, San Jago in Spain, or Rocamadour in Guyenne. +Such pilgrims by profession were frequent. St. Peter, +St. James, after them St. John, then St. Nicholas and +St. Clement as patron saints of merchants, shippers +and fishermen, and among the women saints St. +Catherine, were the chosen objects of North German +piety. In no town was lacking a leper house, a refuge +for those troubled with that plague of the Middle +Ages, happily now almost unknown in Europe. +These were dedicated to the Holy Ghost and to St. +George, the slayer of dragons.</p> + +<p>Above all, worship was paid to the Virgin Mary. +All the municipal churches were dedicated to her. +There is not a town that has not its church of "Our +Lady." The municipal council were put under her +especial protection. To this day the so-called Beautiful +Door of the Mary Church at Danzig bears the +inscription in golden letters: "Queen of Heaven, pray +for us!"</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo108" id="illo108"></a> +<img src="images/illo108.jpg" width="550" height="451" alt="HOHE-THOR, DANZIG." /> +<p class="caption">HOHE-THOR, DANZIG.</p> +</div> + +<p>These churches and religious buildings of all kinds, +many of which survive to this day amid surroundings +to which they have grown strange, speak more eloquently +of the Hansa's might than piles of old parchment +records. All Scandinavia can show nothing to +compare with these architectural monuments, and we +can well comprehend that the Northman entering the +Elbe, the Trave, or other Baltic rivers, and seeing the +lighthouses, churches, and mighty buildings of the +towns, were awed by the Germans' wealth and power +and strength, much as we are impressed now-a-days +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> +when we first set eyes upon Eternal Rome. These +buildings resembled each other in externals; in each +we find the same tall graceful steeples rising into the +heavens, the same proud, defiant battlements and +turrets, the same high-gabled many storeyed, small-windowed +houses, the same tendency to employ bricks +as building materials, and to use coloured varieties as +ornamentation. Of this method of building and +decoration the Holstenthor of Lübeck is a well-preserved +example, as indeed these double gates to the +towns were also a characteristic feature. One, a round +tower, resembling greatly the Castel St. Angelo of +Rome, situated on the south side of Rostock, was so +strongly built that even the mechanical contrivances +of our days found it hard work to demolish it when +modern progress required its removal.</p> + +<p>Art was then almost exclusively the handmaiden of +religion, and hence it is also in the churches we have +to seek evidences of what the Hansa could produce in +this respect. Metal gravestones, rich bindings, cunning +iron work, attest its taste. Evidence of a +love of painting is found in many works now preserved +in museums of the pre-Holbein day. And, incredible +though it may seem, they were so famous for glass +painting that early in the fifteenth century men came +from Italy to Lübeck to learn perfection in the craft.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo110" id="illo110"></a> +<img src="images/illo110.jpg" width="349" height="550" alt="HOLSTENTHOR, LÜBECK." /> +<p class="caption">HOLSTENTHOR, LÜBECK.</p> +</div> + +<p>Of their domestic architecture little, unhappily, +remains to us, the practice of building with wood +having wrecked most of the cities. Such houses as +survive, however, testify to the national love of cunning +carvings and inscriptions of didactic purpose. +For it is the keynote of that time to express in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span> +artistic form its ardent faith and activity, and its +somewhat rough-and-ready philosophy. Theorizings +and abstractions were little understood. Thus in old +legal codes we see the punishments to be inflicted +pictorially portrayed. Contempt and mocking also +took tangible form, and the clergy were by no means +exempted from such satire. Notwithstanding all the +piety of the age, the people were ever on their guard +against the encroachments of the wily priests. The +deeds of Reynard the Fox—that favourite national +comic epic, so wholly in keeping with the Hansa spirit +of practical good sense and business cunning—was a +favourite theme for weaving into arras and carpet; +and it was common to give a distinct hit at the +clergy in the person of the sly beast.</p> + +<p>It was the custom to depict the Last Judgment in +the court of justice of each guildhall. That painted +in 1341 for Hamburg led to a long lawsuit before the +Papal Court at Avignon, because the local dean and +chapter saw in it personal allusions. Thus devoutness +did not impede the townspeople from rigidly retaining +their mental independence of view and action.</p> + +<p>Science and literature—such as those ages could +boast—were, like art, more or less pressed into the +service of the Church. The only exception is to be +found in the few popular folk-tales, all comic, like the +deeds of Eulenspiegel, and in the town chroniclers +who were in the pay of the municipal council; but +activity was not great in this latter domain. In most +cities, schools were attached to all the parishes, in +which the children of the wealthy classes learned +reading, writing, some arithmetic, singing, and a little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span> +Latin. These institutions were founded in defiance +of the priests, who loved to keep the people in the +darkness and enslavement of ignorance.</p> + +<p>Nearly all the merchants and many artizans could +read and write, even if they did not practise these +arts with great facility. Business letters were indited +either in Latin or German, for the latter tongue was +more widely diffused for commercial purposes than in +our day.</p> + +<p>But if the wealth of the towns led them to encourage +the gentler aspects of life, it also enabled +them to give expression to less refined tastes, and +refinement of taste was never a speciality of these +rather coarse-grained and boorish Teutons. The +Middle Ages were essentially a time of animal enjoyment +and license; the people loved life and all life +could offer on the material side. We come across +constant records of carouses and feasts, at which the +manners and customs were—to our ideas, at least—most +gross. No occasion for merry-making, which +meant largely eating and drinking, was allowed to +slip by unheeded. Nor were these occasions few, for +the Catholic Church, with its endless list of saints, +furnishes easy and constant excuses for holiday-making, +as we see to this day in Catholic countries.</p> + +<p>When guilds, corporations, or associations met for +convivial intercourse, this was pursued according to +established rules, some of which survive in the student +<i>corps</i> of German universities. Breaches of regulation +were punished by extra rations of beer that were paid +for by the delinquent. Entrance fees were defrayed +by giving a feast to all members. In short, they ate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span> +hard and drank yet harder, with the result that +nightly drunken brawls were frequent, the quieter +folk often lodging complaints concerning disturbed +sleep or rioting beneath their windows between the +younger burghers and the watchman. Occasionally +a man is banished for molesting the town guard, while +intoxicated and disorderly, for undue license was not +winked at by the town council.</p> + +<p>This was also the epoch when flourished those +civic games which furthered the sentiment of brotherhood, +and served, besides, to improve the youth of the +city in the use and practice of arms. Among these, +the May games, May processions, May empires, took +a foremost place. They had their origin in the pagan +conception of spring as a fair youth, who, in victorious +duel, overcame the treacherous winter.</p> + +<p>The May emperor was usually elected from among +the town council. The one who had obtained the +wreath during the previous year delivered it up at the +beginning of May or at Whitsuntide. He would ride +out into a neighbouring wood "upon his good horse," +accompanied by all the councillors clad in armour, to +the sound of martial music and with the town's flag +flying. This was called "going to fetch the May." +A beautiful boy generally headed the procession. +What ceremonies went on in the wood is not known, +but when the procession returned, leading in the new +May emperor, the boy would bear a flowery wreath +upon his long pole as token of victory; while all the +councillors and the huge crowd that followed in their +train were decked with green branches and boughs. +The newly-elected emperor was expected to treat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> +the crowd. After a while this grew a heavy and +serious expense, and we find it recorded that a certain +burgher of Stralsund, who knew he would be +elected to this honour, fled the city. He was, however, +followed and brought back, made to accept the +post and its expenses, and heavily fined into the +bargain.</p> + +<p>As in modern Switzerland, so in mediæval Germany, +crossbow shooting for prizes gave another +occasion for public holiday, the different guilds turning +out, with banner and music, to do honour to their +various patron saints. In such wise all adult men +were trained to warfare, though the armies of the +Hansa usually consisted in great part of hired mercenaries, +easily obtained for ready cash in those days, +when fighting was held a pleasure far beyond legitimate +work. Many records survive to attest that these +Hansa merchants were skilled in the use of dagger +and axe. One, for example, a peaceful citizen and +trader, with his own hand killed a noted pirate who +had long rendered the Baltic unsafe. The merchant +went his road, as the saying was, trusting to God and +his own right arm. "Whosoever would be a good +burgher at Danzig must be industrious both in commerce +and arms," runs an inscription on the house of +the crossbow shooters of that city.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo115" id="illo115"></a> +<img src="images/illo115.jpg" width="438" height="500" alt="CHILDREN'S SPORTS." /> +<p class="caption">CHILDREN'S SPORTS.</p> +</div> + +<p>Later on, as the towns grew more aristocratic in +character, the gilded youth of the day had games of +their own, from participation in which the artizan was +excluded. These, in many cases, led to such riots +and uprisings of the populace against the municipality +as occasioned the "unhansing" of Brunswick +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span> +and other cities. Foremost among them were the +so-called "Popinjay Associations," who met to shoot +down from a pole these bright-coloured birds with +which travellers had become acquainted in the market +of Bruges. It was usual for the winner to treat his +comrades to a barrel of beer and cakes.</p> + +<p>Indeed, without touching upon the innumerable +institutions common to guilds, trades, patricians, and +plebeians, a picture of those times would be imperfect. +Some of these were instituted for purely +hilarious purposes, others combined charity and +mutual support with carouse and license. Thus in +Cologne there was a society which met to drink +wine, and presented to every honoured guest a medal +having the inscription, "Bibite cum hilaritate." This +society imposed on itself certain laws regarding the +avoidance of bad language, of lawless living, of coarse +speech and action.</p> + +<p>In the North beer was the chief beverage, many +companies were dedicated to Gambrinus, the "arch-king +and inventor of brewing." Here, too, quaint +rules attest the rudeness of contemporary manners. +It was customary to exact a monetary fine +from those who spilt more beer than they could cover +with their hand. It seems that even women were +not excluded wholly from these revels. At least a +princely guest, harboured by Lübeck, expressed his +disapprobation at the presence in the cellar of the +town hall of patrician ladies, who under cover of their +veils, which formed for them an incognito, drank hard +and enjoyed themselves grossly.</p> + +<p>Endless are the rules and regulations of the various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span> +calends, ghostly brotherhoods, companies, and other +names by which they styled themselves. Thus, for +example, they were forbidden to take the food off +each other's plates, to call each other certain most injurious +names, to throw knives and plates at each other, to +appear at solemn drinking bouts bare-footed, to roll in +the mud, to retain arms, hat, and cloak when in company, +to tap a fresh barrel without the presence of an +elder, and so forth. Their duties to each other combined +social and religious obligations. Thus they were +often bound to pray for those who, absent on travels, +could not attend at mass. They gave decent burial +to their poorer comrades, nursed them when sick, +helped them when distressed. A pound of wax, half +a hundredweight of tallow, a barrel of beer, were not +uncommon fines for dereliction of duty. Games of +chance were universally forbidden. Dancing and +song were common forms of diversion. The shoemakers +and tailors of Lübeck were noted for their +skill in the sword-dance, a dance probably not +unlike the Highland reel executed to this day by +Scotchmen.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo118" id="illo118"></a> +<img src="images/illo118.jpg" width="388" height="550" alt="DOMESTIC MUSIC." /> +<p class="caption">DOMESTIC MUSIC.</p> +</div> + +<p>Wit, grace, imagination, were elements mostly +absent from the lives of these rough Germans. This +is nowhere more evident than in their amusements. +The carnival practices furnished a notable example, +practices so graceful, so pretty in the South, so rough +and rude in the North. Two instances will suffice. +At Stralsund it was customary to nail up a poor cat +with which a man fought until he hit it to death, +when he was mock-knighted by the burgomaster. In +Cologne poor blind people were let loose in an enclosed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span> +space to hit a pig, which should be the prize +of the successful candidate. The joy of the spectators +reached its height when the poor blind men struck +each other in place of their victim. The practices at +weddings were too rude for description.</p> + +<p>Luxury in dress was most pronounced, and +sumptuary laws were repeatedly enacted. It seems +strange that it was the men even more than the +women who offended in these respects. Simple, nay, +rude as the lives of these burghers were in their +homes, out of doors they loved to make display, +especially in the matter of costly weapons and brave +horses. Young men returning from the wars or the +great markets of London or Bruges, introduced new +fashions and fantasies which changed far more frequently +than we are apt to suppose. The most +conservative dress was the headgear of the patricians, +the councillors and members of the municipality. +This consisted for many ages in a long cap of +cloth, trimmed with fine fur. Before hats or caps +came into fashion as coverings, the sight of these +men in their long fur cloaks, with their heads enclosed +in these curious hoods, must have had a +stately, grave effect. So proud were the patricians +of this dress that the councillors of Bremen actually +forged a document early in the thirteenth century, +according to which Godfrey of Bouillon, accorded +to them, during the first Crusade, the permission to +wear fur and gold chains. The dress, clogging the +free action of the legs, necessitated a stately slow +walk, and its length would seem often to have inconvenienced +them in those times of unpaved streets and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span> +mud-coated roads. A certain Evart von Huddessen, +the representative of Stralsund at the Court of King +Erik of Sweden, gained the special favour of the +monarch on an occasion, when, invited by the king to +visit with him his pleasure gardens outside the town, +he quietly walked through the puddles after Erik's +horse, instead of waiting like the other representatives +for their servants to carry for them their trains, +which they feared to spoil in the mud. "Eh! what +are we waiting for here?" he cried to his colleagues, +"shall his royal highness ride alone? I reckon my +masters of Stralsund are rich enough that they can +make good to me my new coat."</p> + +<p>Nor were they invariably simple in their homes, +though usually so. A favourite German folk tale +tells how Melchior, of Bremen, had his dining-room +paved with silver dollars, and even if history +or chronicle does not confirm this legend, it is +thoroughly in keeping with Hanseatic modes of displaying +wealth. There did exist, for instance, a +certain Wulf Wulflam, of Stralsund, who sat upon +a silver seat, and had his rooms hung with costly +arras. When he married he, like a royal personage, +caused the road from his house to the church to be +overspread with a Flanders carpet, while musicians +played day and night before his door. No doubt at +his wedding appeared also the eighty dishes which +at weddings was the highest limit allowed to +burgher luxury by the Hanseatic by-laws.</p> + +<p>It would seem, too, that the Hansa representatives +when sent to "Hansa days" (the meetings of the +various cities in common council) after a while indulged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span> +in great display to impress beholders with the +power and wealth of their respective cities. This, +after a time, assumed such proportions that poorer +or wiser communities refrained, whenever possible, +from sending members to the "Hansa days."</p> + +<p>Such were the habits and customs of these old +burghers. As we see, it was a time when men were +occupied with the material rather than the ideal side +of life. A curious medley it presents of egotism and +altruism, piety and license, love of individuality and +strict regulation, roughness of living and unbridled +luxury, boorishness and civilization.</p> + +<p>A word must be said of that important institution, +the town council, to complete this sketch of the +German towns during the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries. Its constitution varied somewhat of course, +according to the size and wealth of the cities, but +there were certain main resemblances. The number +of aldermen varied from twelve to twenty-four. At +their head were two or four burgomasters, who enjoyed +no special privileges, except that in council they +held the office of president. The appointment was +for life, but they took it in turns to be on active duty. +Certain limitations of choice as to aldermen existed. +Thus for long in Lübeck no one could hold that office +who earned his bread by handicraft. This regulation +however did not last. Still merchants throughout +filled the chief places; as, being travelled men, and +knowing the requirements of their fellows, they were +considered the most fit. Next to these, brewers +and tailors took a leading part. The general constitution +of the council may be regarded as in a fashion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span> +aristocratic, but it was checked in deliberations and +decisions by a sort of second chamber, the common +council. Under their rule the cities certainly +flourished; the one chamber counselled, the other +acted, and to be alderman was indeed no sinecure, +but rather a post that imposed heavy labour. Honour +it brought, but scanty remuneration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo122" id="illo122"></a> +<img src="images/illo122.jpg" width="433" height="500" alt="MIDDLE-CLASS OCCUPATIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." /> +<p class="caption">MIDDLE-CLASS OCCUPATIONS IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Noblesse oblige</i> was the proud motto these men +acted on. The church bells called them to their +meetings, which at first were held in the municipal +church, later in the guildhalls. At Lübeck they +always assembled first in their own chapel of Our +Lady's Church, then went in procession to the town-hall. +This was the centre of all national life. The +market-place was built before it, around it were the +chief shops. In the market-place justice was +administered, either in the open air or under the +open porticos of the guildhall. Civic feasts were held +here, foreign guests received at this spot. No wonder, +then, that the burghers spent great sums upon the +building and decoration of their town-halls and surroundings. +They were to them the palladium of +civic independence, whence law and order, merriment +and feasting took their origin. To this day the +cellars of the town-halls in Germany boast the best +wines and choicest foods, and though now let out as +restaurants they still, many of them, show in fresco +and carving the remains of ancient splendour. In +the town-halls were preserved the treasure, the +civic documents, and the great town books, called +into requisition in all disputes. "No witness goes +beyond the Book" was the axiom of the day. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span></p> + +<p>The market-place was always the largest open place +in a city. The streets were narrow and tortuous. +This was necessitated by the circumstance that all +towns at that date were walled, and hence their extension +circumscribed. Each class of workmen lived +together; shoemakers in one street, coopers in +another, and so forth. Their houses being small, it +was usual for them on fine days to do their work out +of doors, which gave an animated appearance to the +place. At night these streets were closed by iron +chains drawn across them.</p> + +<p>The town life was, in short, but the family life on +an extended scale, and the municipality watched over +the welfare of the inhabitants as a father over that +of his household. To facilitate commerce and industry, +and to look after roads and buildings, were +among its chief cares. It is noteworthy that in some +towns regulations existed compelling every one who +had means to leave in his will a certain sum for +repairing the highways and keeping the ports in +good condition. Many fulfilled this provision, even +without this order.</p> + +<p>Another occupation of the aldermen was to superintend +trade, and see it carried out on honest principles. +Thus, at Novgorod, a bale of linen is discovered +to be bad, so that "no honourable and good +man could be paid in such ware." It is sent back +to Riga, thence to Wisby, thence to Lübeck, where +the aldermen had to find out who delivered these +goods. Punishment for such fraud followed inevitably, +and was so heavy that, on the whole, few attempted to +play these base tricks. We also come across complaints +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span> +that barrels of herrings had been packed +fraudulently, good and large fish being on the top; +small and inferior and even stale ones filling the +rest of the barrel. As such perishable goods could +not be returned, the aldermen instituted official +herring packers, who were responsible for honest +action.</p> + +<p>In all difficult matters, the advice of the municipality +was asked and given. It was held "that they +knew what others did not know." Thus burgher and +burgher ruler worked hand in hand, and each man +felt himself a link of the whole chain. This feeling +gave rise to an active patriotism, a warm love for +their own town, of which instances abound in the +mediæval chronicles. Many tales are preserved of +brawls arising in the towns through the vauntings +of rival citizens. Thus a certain Lübecker meeting +a Bremener in a Hamburg inn, boasted so greatly +of his native town's advantages and made such fun +of his companion's aldermen that they all but came +to serious blows. "You had better mind your words +and drink your beer in peace," was the friendly +advice of a bystander.</p> + +<p>Such were these burghs which had grown free +and strong through burgher industry, and were kept +powerful by burgher unity and honesty. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>III.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE VICTUAL BROTHERS.</h3> + +<p>A serious interruption to the Baltic trade after +the glorious peace with Waldemar arose from the +notorious gang of pirates known to history as the +Victual Brothers. Upon the principle that all is +fair in love and war the Hansa, during its campaign +against the Danish king, had openly countenanced +and even abetted piracy, so long as the attacks of +the robbers were directed against their enemies. The +chance of plundering under protection was too +tempting not to attract a large number of adventurers, +who for some years carried on their black +trade under the designation of "Victual Brothers," +a name chosen because their ostensible aim was to +supply with provisions that part of the Swedish coast +which belonged to the Hansa.</p> + +<p>It seems strange to us of to-day to find as the +leading spirits among these Brothers the names of +Moltke and Manteuffel, doubtless forbears of the +famous modern German generals. These pirates +founded masses and charitable institutions on the +one hand, and robbed and sacked remorselessly +on the other. Peace being concluded, the Hansa +naturally had to clear the seas of these pests, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span> +it had been easier to call them into activity than +to suppress them. A large body of men had found +profitable employment coupled with stirring adventure; +this latter being a powerful incentive in those +days, and were loth to quit their free wild life.</p> + +<p>They continued their association, nay, even enlarged +it, forming themselves into a corporation, after the +pattern of the Knights Templars, and divided all +booty equally among their body. In a brief space +they became the scourge of all the commercial cities. +"God's friend and all the world's enemy" was their +audacious motto. Masters of both seas, the Baltic +and the German Ocean, on one occasion they even +seized, plundered, and burnt down Bergen (1392) and +took prisoner the bishop. Gothland became their +stronghold, and Wisby, once the Hansa's glory, was +turned into a pirate's nest near which the merchant +sailed with fear and trembling.</p> + +<p>It seems strange, to our modern ideas, even to +think that piracy was once a reputable calling. It +was held as such, for example, in ancient Greece, +as we may read in Thucydides, book i. chap. 5. +No offence was in those days either intended or +taken if one Greek asked another if he were a pirate. +In the Baltic, like duelling in more polished climes, +this practice long survived the positive laws framed +against it. Pirates would even give back empty +ships to merchants, wishing them a happy return +with fresh and fuller cargoes.</p> + +<p>In vain did Margaret of Sweden protest against +the audacities of the Victual Brothers. She was +helpless against them. The measure of her impotence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> +can be gauged by the fact that she begged +from Richard II., king of England, permission to +hire three ships at Lynn for the protection of her +kingdom. In vain, too, on the days when the Hansa +met in council, was this theme discussed. For three +whole years all fishing on Scania had to be abandoned. +The result was severely felt throughout the +length and breadth of Christian Europe, for herrings +and other Lenten food became rare and costly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo128" id="illo128"></a> +<img src="images/illo128.jpg" width="550" height="327" alt="SHIP-BUILDING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY." /> +<p class="caption">SHIP-BUILDING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.</p> +</div> + +<p>Stronger and stronger grew these pirates, so that +at last it was decided to send out an army against +them. Once more recourse was had to a poundage +tax to raise supplies and thirty-five large vessels with +three thousand men were sent to sea in 1394. After +long and arduous struggles they at last broke the power +of the association, but for long afterwards separate +bands of pirates, once members of the mighty gang, +rendered the navigation of these seas a peril.</p> + +<p>Legend took possession of these robbers from an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span> +early date, and we come across them in song and +fable. Taking a foremost place were Godeke +Michelson and Stortebeker, whose special mission +it was to harry the traders with England. Stortebeker, +it is said, was a nobleman, indeed noblemen +were frequently found in the association. As a youth +he had been wild and lived so riotous a life that all +his property was gambled and drunk away. When +finally the town of Hamburg, the scene of his +carouses, in order to pay his debts, deprived him +of his knightly armour and forbade him the city +precincts, he joined the Victual Brothers.</p> + +<p>At this time their leader was Godeke Michelson, +who hailed the new confederate with joy, after testing +his strength, which was so great that with his hands +he broke iron chains like string. And because his +new ally was also great at drinking—he could pour +down huge bumpers at one gulp—he bade him lay +aside his noble name and renamed him instead +Stortebeker ("Pour down bumpers"). Once when the +pair had plundered the North Sea clean they made +a descent upon Spain. As was their wont, they divided +their spoils with their comrades, only on this occasion +they kept for themselves the holy bones of St. +Vincent, stolen from a church, bearing them under +their coats upon their naked breasts. Hence, says +legend, they grew invulnerable, so that neither crossbow +nor axe, sword nor dagger, could harm or wound +them.</p> + +<p>When the Victual Brothers were conquered by the +Hansa and banished from the Baltic, these two chieftains +with their followers found good friends in Frisia, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span> +where to this day memories of Stortebeker survive, +and the chieftain Keno then Broke became his father-in-law, +for his lovely daughter lost her heart to the +doughty pirate, and followed him on to his ships and +his floating kingdom. For Stortebeker was a king in +his way. When he made captives who promised him +a ransom he let them live. But if they were poor +and old and weak, he threw them overboard relentlessly. +If they were poor but strong, and so likely +to be of use, he tested their strength in this manner. +He caused his own enormous goblet to be filled +with wine. If they could empty it at one gulp they +were his peers, and he accepted them as comrades. +Those who could not pass this ordeal were dismissed.</p> + +<p>It is said that Stortebeker and Godeke Michelson +sometimes had moments of penitence concerning +the lives they led. In such a moment of remorse +they each presented the cathedral of Verdun with +seven glass windows, on which were painted cunningly +the seven deadly sins. Stortebeker's "mark," two +reversed goblets, is depicted in one of them, probably +the one that treats of gluttony. They also founded +a charity for distributing bread to the poor.</p> + +<p>In 1400, the Hansa sent out a fleet to Frisia to +combat these chieftains. It was in this war that the +Hamburgers attained the honour of conquering the +Victual Brothers, dispersing their crew and releasing +their captives. Keno then Broke was carried off into +confinement, for he had, against his oath and faith, +contrived to aid the pirates. With Keno the town of +Hamburg made a new treaty. It is said that just as +it was signed and the councillors had left the council +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span> +chamber, Stortebeker managed to slip out of a hiding-place, +where he had heard all that passed, and joked +with his father-in-law at the expense of the Hamburg +aldermen who had once more put faith in him. Whilst +so engaged a certain Councillor Naune, who had forgotten +his gloves, returned to the hall and overheard +them. Hence the war broke out afresh. Once more +many Victual Brothers were captured and beheaded in +Hamburg. Their heads were stuck upon poles for +the warning of all beholders, while the account books +prove that the executioner received eight pennies per +trunk decapitated and his servant twenty pennies per +body buried. Yet again a fleet had to set forth; for +as long as Stortebeker and Godeke Michelson were +living there was no peace possible. Under a Hamburg +alderman, Simon of Utrecht, who commanded +the fleet on board a mighty ship known as the +<i>Coloured Cow</i>, they again set out. The name of +this vessel is remarkable, and is the first instance we +come across in Hanseatic history of a profane denomination +for a ship. All the others are named after +some saint or angel, under whose special protection +it was supposed to sail. "The <i>Coloured Cow</i>, from +Flanders, that tore through the ocean with its great +horns," sings the folk-song, the "Stortebeker Lied," +which a hundred and fifty years ago was still sung by +the people. The Victual Brothers lay off Heligoland. +Towards dark one evening in the year 1402, the +Hamburg fleet approached them, and a daring fisherman +came so near that he was able to pour molten +lead upon some of their rudders, loosening them, +and rendering the vessels unseaworthy. Next day +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span> +the battle began. It raged three days and three +nights, and only after a desperate resistance was +Stortebeker conquered.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo132" id="illo132"></a> +<img src="images/illo132.jpg" width="550" height="375" alt="HELIGOLAND." /> +<p class="caption">HELIGOLAND.</p> +</div> + +<p>Some of the pirates fled, many were killed or thrown +into the sea; their ships, richly laden with booty in +the shape of linen, wax, cloth, &c., were seized, and +Stortebeker with seventy comrades carried in triumph +to Hamburg. The cell in which Stortebeker was +confined was known as Stortebeker's hole as long as +it existed. It was destroyed like so many of the antiquities +of Hamburg in the great fire of 1842. Short +work was of course made of his trial, and with his +companions Stortebeker was condemned to death. +When he heard his sentence it afflicted him much, and +he offered the municipality in return for his life and +freedom a chain of gold to be made from his hidden +treasures, so long that they could span with it the whole +cathedral and also all the town. This offer was, of +course, indignantly rejected, and next day he was +publicly executed, together with seventy comrades. In +compliance with their dying petition they went to death +dressed in their best, marching in stately procession, +and preceded by fifes and drums.</p> + +<p>After Stortebeker's death the Hamburgers searched +his ships for the hidden treasures. Except a few +goblets they could find nothing at first, until a carpenter +broke the main-mast, which was discovered to be +hollow and full of molten gold. With this fortune +the merchants who had suffered at Stortebeker's hands +were indemnified, the costs of the war paid, and out +of the remainder a golden crown was made and +placed on the spire of St. Nicholas Church. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span></p> + +<p>Stortebeker was thus out of the way; but there still +remained Godeke Michelson. So the Hamburgers +with Simon of Utrecht and his <i>Coloured Cow</i>, once more +set forth and once more returned victorious, bearing +in their train Godeke Michelson, eighty robbers, and +the under-chieftain Wigbold, of whom it is said that +he had been a professor of philosophy at Rostock, +and had exchanged his chair for the forecastle of a +ship. These men also were all decapitated in the +presence of the burghers and municipal council.</p> + +<p>It was a heavy day's work for the executioner, and +it is related that he waded up to his ankles in blood. +After it was all ended an alderman asked him kindly +if he were not much wearied. "Oh no," said the +headsman, laughing grimly, "I never felt better in my +life, and I have strength enough left to behead the +whole lot of you councillors." For this treasonable +speech he was at once dismissed from his post.</p> + +<p>Various relics exist to this day to keep Stortebeker's +memory fresh in Hamburg. Among them were +a small whistle with which he gave the signal to his +ships during a storm, an iron cannon nineteen feet +long, his armour, and the executioner's sword.</p> + +<p>But chief of all Hamburg preserved the so-called +Stortebeker goblet, a silver bumper, from which +tradition says he drank. "Whosoever comes to Hamburg +and does not go to the Ship's Company, that +he may drink from the goblet of Stortebeker and +Godeke Michelson, and write his name in the book +that lies beside it, has not been in Hamburg," says an +old writer. This goblet is about a yard and a half +high, and holds four bottles. A sea-fight is engraved +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span> +on it, together with other incidents out of Stortebeker's +life, and some rough rhymes. Once more +modern criticism, destructive and intolerant of all +picturesque legend, declares that the cup is of later +date than Stortebeker's time, and can never have +been his.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo135" id="illo135"></a> +<img src="images/illo135a.jpg" width="360" height="550" alt="TOMB OF SIMON OF UTRECHT, HAMBURG." /> +<p class="caption">TOMB OF SIMON OF UTRECHT, HAMBURG.</p> +</div> + +<p>Soon after the death of the pirate chiefs, Hamburg +sent an envoy as pilgrim to the shrine of San Jago of +Compostella. Whether he was employed to bear +thither the thanks of the city to the saint for their +victory, or to return to Spain the relics of St. Vincent, +history saith not. A medal was struck to commemorate +the event. It bears Stortebeker's portrait and +an appropriate inscription. Simon of Utrecht, the +victorious captain of the fleet, who later won other +battles for the Hansa, received high honours from +Hamburg. When he died he was accorded honourable +burial, and a gravestone to his memory was put outside +St. Nicholas Church. Happily it survived the +great fire. It shows the crest of Simon, a large three-masted +vessel, with the figure of a beast at the helm; +doubtless, the famous "coloured cow;" a swan draws +this ship through the waves. Below is an inscription +in Latin verse, recording the hero's feats against the +pirates, and enjoining posterity to imitate the great +deeds of their forbears, that the fame of the city may +not be diminished. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/griff.jpg" width="450" height="106" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>IV.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE FACTORY OF BERGEN.</h3> + +<p>We have seen how great was the Hansa's power +in peace and in war; let us now cast a glance +at the basis upon which the whole proud fabric +rested. This is to be sought, beyond doubt, in +its foreign commerce. How enormous the interest +they had, especially in the Baltic trade, how +great, indeed almost exclusive, was their empire +in that sea, it is difficult to realize. And to retain +this empire, to be masters of the mercantile +relations between the eastern and western extremities +of Europe, they considered no sacrifice too +great. This was the keynote of their policy. Their +purpose, simple enough in conception, was carried out +with a disregard of other claims than their own, and +often a violence which made them encounter resistance, +and which in the end was largely the cause of +their fall.</p> + +<p>The political agitations and confusions which disturbed +the Scandinavian kingdoms early in the +fifteenth century were astutely utilized by the Hanseatics, +who, having their settlements at Bergen and +Scania, were able to keep out the Dutch and English, +then just beginning to attempt a rivalry with them in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span> +the northern trade. The Dutch were easily disheartened. +Not so the English; and we read of instances +in which the Hanseatics and English acted towards +one another with a savagery which proves that commercial +rivalry can excite hearts as bitterly and +furiously as political or religious fanaticism.</p> + +<p>No matter at what cost, monopoly the Germans +were resolved to have, and they succeeded in forcing +the kings of Denmark to place an interdict upon +English trading. This prohibition corresponded to +another that they had extorted, according to which +all merchandize coming from the extreme end of the +Norwegian kingdom was obliged to pass through and +halt at their station of Bergen. The purpose of the +latter regulation was to concentrate all the productions +of the country at a single point; thus offering +to the Hanseatics the first refusal of goods, and a +power of dominating the market.</p> + +<p>Indeed nowhere did their imperious and self-seeking +policy show itself in a less amiable light than in the +dealings of the Hansa with the poor inhabitants of +Norway's sterile coasts. The history of their factory +at Bergen is from its earliest foundation the history +of a relentless despotism, disfigured by violence and +breach of faith in treaties. King Haguin had, in +1376, accorded to the German merchants the right to +trade freely in all the burghs, villages, and harbours +of his kingdom, but it seemed that they themselves +preferred to restrict their business to the town of +Bergen, which, it is true, combined uncommon advantages. +It possessed an excellent harbour, the city +was shielded by an amphitheatre of lofty mountains, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span> +and though, as regards climate, it could boast no +advantages, more rainy days occurring there than at +other points of the Norwegian coast, yet it had early +been the staple of all Norwegian and Arctic products. +Its geographical situation rendered it equally accessible +for travellers from the north and south, while its +harbour was so deep that even ships of considerable +draught could anchor almost in front of the town's +houses.</p> + +<p>From the earliest times the inhabitants of Bergen +had been traders. In 1393 they were grievously pillaged +by the Victual Brothers; and ere they could +recover from this misfortune, another pirate, Bartholauer +Voet (1428), attacked them, just when the +English were helping them to recover their commerce. +It is pretty evident that his attack was countenanced, +if not commanded, by the Hansa. At sight of his +ships the inhabitants fled. The crew were thus +enabled to land unhindered; they plundered everything, +down to the bishop's palace and his library; +and they despoiled the Norman vessels which had +come there for the summer fishing. They then took +their stolen goods to market, returning the following +Easter for a second visit. This time the inhabitants +were more on their guard, and made a gallant but +vain defence. Once more the city was sacked, and +the royal and episcopal palace and many private +houses were burnt to ashes.</p> + +<p>Shorn of its wealth, Bergen was now so weak that +the conquerors were able to dictate their own terms. +The city, which for five hundred years had been +in exclusive possession of the Greenland passage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span> +had to renounce all maritime traffic. Further, +the citizens saw themselves forced to pawn their +land to the Hanseatics, in return for the mere +necessaries of life, and as they could rarely redeem +these pledges the whole city of Bergen gradually fell +into the hands of these opulent traders.</p> + +<p>Expelled from their old dwellings in ancient +Bergen, which formed the part of the city known +as the Bridge, the inhabitants planned to establish +themselves on the harbour board that skirted the +opposite side of the crescent. But the insatiable +greed of the Hanseatics would not suffer them to +stay there. The conquerors obtained this also for +themselves, so that in the end the entire port was in +their power.</p> + +<p>Thus, and by means of an ever-increasing population +of merchants, clerks, apprentices, sailors, workmen, +they exercised a practical suzerainty over the town. +Whenever cited to submit themselves to the local +authorities they claimed the privilege of foreigners; +they refused to pay city taxes, though they held the +rights of citizens, while they paid custom duties at a +reduction. They openly protected the enemies of the +king, felled the forests, introduced themselves arbitrarily +into the houses of strangers; in short, committed +every offence with impunity. As in London +and Novgorod, so in Bergen, the Hanseatic factory +formed a state within the state.</p> + +<p>The Hanseatics, in their arbitrary actions, repeatedly +ran counter to the Hansa's command and how +to keep order at Bergen became one of the most +difficult problems at "Hansa days." It would seem +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span> +as if the rude climate had exercised a deleterious +influence over these naturally coarse-grained Germans.</p> + +<p>As we have said, the whole harbour board was in +their hands. The two sides were connected by the +so-called Shoemaker's Alley, long the abode of +strangers at Bergen, a quarter that became after a +time the residence of all boors and doubtful characters, +who shrank from no acts of violence, and +defended the German monopoly after their own +fashion, <i>i.e.</i>, by means of fisticuffs and knives. Thus, +as an example: the all-important fish market was so +situated that the inhabitants of Bergen could reach +it only by means of this street. Until the Germans +had had the first pick of newly-arrived goods, the +inmates of Shoemaker's Alley suffered no one to pass, +and woe to those who ventured to disregard this +prohibition. So completely broken was the might of +these northern people—the descendants of the Normans, +that most warlike race, the scourge of ancient +Europe.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo142" id="illo142"></a> +<img src="images/illo142.jpg" width="550" height="512" alt="JUSTICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." /> +<p class="caption">JUSTICE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</p> +</div> + +<p>The side of the harbour known as the Bridge—the +Bridge of the lice the natives called it in derision—was +the actual factory of the Hansa. It consisted of +so-called gardens, of which nine belonged to the community +of St. Martin and thirteen to that of St. Mary. +Each garden was isolated, and formed a separate factory, +bearing its own crest and name, such as "The +Cloak," the "Court of Bremen," &c. The common +crest of the Bridge was odd enough, presenting half of +the German imperial eagle, against a crowned cod-fish. +Each garden was connected with the sea by a drawbridge, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span> +so that vessels could anchor in front. The +ground-floor consisted of workshops and warehouses: in +the first were the bedrooms of the resident merchants, +above were the kitchens. Behind the house were +mighty cellars, and above these again the "Schutting," +a large windowless space used as a council chamber. +Opening thence was the kitchen garden.</p> + +<p>Every "garden" was inhabited by at least ten +"families," each of whom had a husband as chief +superintendent and magistrate, to keep order among +the younger members and apprentices. As a rule the +"family" came from the same Hansa town. The +faults of the very young were punished by flogging, +those of the apprentices by fines or imprisonment. In +the summer the heterogeneous "families" dined alone, +in the sad winter time they all met in the "Schutting," +but ate at separate tables. At a fixed hour every one +had to rise and go to bed.</p> + +<p>Superintending the entire factory was a grand +council, composed of two aldermen, eighteen members, +and a secretary, who had to be a doctor of laws. +When conflicts arose between the different members +of a family, or between residents and travellers, the +matter was referred to the aldermen for decision. +Grave cases were sent up to the Hanseatic diet. The +aldermen had further to watch over trade, taxes, and +all that regarded the business transactions of the +colony.</p> + +<p>In its time of greatest prosperity the factory at +Bergen counted about three thousand souls, all vowed +to celibacy, which was imposed on them under most +severe penalties. The fear was that union with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span> +native women might lead to the divulging of Hanseatic +secrets, or induce the men to settle permanently +in this spot, and so become denaturalized. Members +of the Hansa were strictly forbidden to spend a night +outside the factory. Armed watchmen and savage +dogs exercised a rigid guard.</p> + +<p>These residents were usually agents for merchants +in the Baltic cities. After ten years' sojourn, they were +obliged to return to their native town to give place to +new arrivals, who then had to go through the various +gradations of rank, beginning as office boy, and ending, +if luck favoured, as alderman. It was a sort of hierarchic +organization, of which the rules were most +rigidly enforced. Entrance dues for vessels, fines, and +money penances defrayed the general expenses of the +factory; each town paid for the board, wages, and +arming of its representatives. Not all members of the +Hansa, however, were permitted to trade with Bergen, +the conditions being purposely made onerous and +expensive.</p> + +<p>In the same restrictive spirit, and to hinder a great +influx of men to the factory, a series of probationary +ordeals was planned, through which every new-comer +had to pass. By rendering these tests difficult and +repulsive they hoped to deter from Bergen the sons of +opulent families, for whom the advantages to be gained +there would be counterbalanced by the perils of initiation. +These "games," as with grim humour they were +termed, were entirely in keeping with the grotesque +spirit of the age, and analogies are to be found, though +less gross, in the religious orders and the institutions +of chivalry. The mildest of them resembled in some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span> +respects the practices common to British sailors in +crossing the line. It is scarcely strange, that in the +frigid, rigid north, among a population naturally rough, +far from home, friends, and the more refining influences +of life, a prey to deadly <i>ennui</i>, imagination should +have taken a fierce and coarse turn.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo145" id="illo145"></a> +<img src="images/illo145.jpg" width="513" height="550" alt="SHIP AT THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY." /> +<p class="caption">SHIP AT THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.</p> +</div> + +<p>We cannot sully our pages by detailing the thirteen +different "games" or modes of martyrdom that were +in use at Bergen. Our more civilized age could not +tolerate the recital. In those days they attracted a +crowd of eager spectators, who applauded the more +vociferously the more cruel and barbarous the tortures. +The most popular were those practices known as the +smoke, water, and flogging games; mad, cruel pranks, +calculated to cause a freshman to lose health and +reason. Truly Dantesque hell tortures were these +initiations into Hansa mysteries. Merely to indicate +their nature we will mention that for the smoke game +the victim was pulled up the big chimney of the +Schutting while there burnt beneath him the most +filthy materials, sending up a nauseous stench and choking +wreaths of smoke. While in this position he was +asked a number of questions, to which he was forced, +under yet more terrible penalties, to reply. If he survived +this torture he was taken out into the yard and +plied under the pump with six tons of water.</p> + +<p>The "water" game that took place at Whitsuntide +consisted in first treating the probationer to food, and +then taking him out to sea in a boat. Here he was +stripped, thrown into the ocean, ducked three times, +made to swallow much sea-water, and thereafter mercilessly +flogged by all the inmates of the boats. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span> +third chief game was no less dangerous to life and +limb. It took place a few days after, and was a rude +perversion of the May games. The victims had first +to go out into the woods to gather the branches with +which later they were to be birched. Returned to the +factory, rough horse-play pranks were practised upon +them. Then followed an ample dinner, which was +succeeded by mock combats, and ended in the victims +being led into the so-called Paradise, where twenty-four +disguised men whipped them till they drew blood, +while outside this black hole another party made +hellish music with pipes, drums, and triangles to deafen +the screams of the tortured. The "game" was considered +ended when the shrieks of the victims were +sufficiently loud to overtone the pandemonic music.</p> + +<p>When all the ordeals were ended a herald, who also +occupied the <i>rôle</i> of fool, announced in a loud voice that +the games were over, adding the fervent wish that the +noble practice of ordeals might never be abandoned, +and that for the honour and prosperity of the Hansa +commerce and the Hanseatic factory they might ever +be held in veneration.</p> + +<p>Only those who survived and sustained these rites +were admitted into the corporation at Bergen and +could rise to the highest grades, with the prospect of +assisting as spectators at the games in which before +they had themselves played a part. Not till 1671 +were these barbarous practices, which every year increased +in ferocity, suppressed by order of Christian V. +of Denmark, and only, of course, after the Hansa had +sunk from its pristine power. +</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/flowers.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>V.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE HANSEATIC COMMERCE WITH DENMARK, +SWEDEN, AND RUSSIA.</h3> + +<p>Though the Government of Denmark was more +enlightened than that of Norway, and though the +Danes were jealously desirous of keeping their trade in +their own hands, they, too, could not free themselves +from the all-absorbing power of the Hanseatic League. +In vain did they endeavour to raise up rivals to these +traders; in vain did they even encourage pirates to +attack them; in vain did they institute custom dues +and taxes; each and all of these measures proved insufficient. +The credit of the towns was unassailable. +The Hanseatics knew how to vanquish all obstacles, +and finally they found themselves in full possession of +all their ancient privileges, as well as those which they +had extorted in concluding peace with Waldemar.</p> + +<p>The dissensions of the three northern kingdoms, +which lasted for nearly fifty years, and which the +Hanseatic League were by no means anxious to see +settled (for, above all else, they feared the union of the +three northern kingdoms under one head) were admirably +utilized. The League played off one set of +enemies against another, now aided this faction, now +sided with that, never too openly expressed either +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span> +sympathy or hostility, and yet always contrived so +that any advantages accruing were theirs.</p> + +<p>It was in those troubled times that Lübeck bought +from the Danish king the town of Kiel and adjoining +lands, while the queen pawned her jewels to the city +in order to raise money for war purposes.</p> + +<p>Denmark was of immense importance to the +Hanseatic League, not only for the grain and cattle +it produced, but because it was the key to the +passages of the Belt and the Sound, the only maritime +routes for passing from the Baltic to the North +Sea. And, above all, the Sound was of first-class +importance as dominating the coveted province of +Scania, that mediæval Peru. This tongue of land, +which juts out into the sea in form of a hook on the +extreme south-west of Sweden, and shows to-day two +miserable towns, Skânoe and Falsterbo, almost buried +in driving sand, presented in the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries, from St. Jacob's to St. Michael's +Day (July 25th to September 29th), a most animated +spectacle. Nothing more strange is to be found in +either hemisphere than was the tumultuous life of +this arid province. Here each foot of ground was +jealously disputed by fishermen and merchants.</p> + +<p>Englishmen, Flemings, Danes, and peoples of +tongues and customs the most diverse were found side +by side. But the Hanseatics preponderated. They +established themselves in a species of rude wooden +barrack called by them Witten, where they at once +instituted their peculiar rules and privileges, which +gave them that united power which in the end enabled +them to crush out all competition. For the device of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span> +the Hanseatics, though unexpressed, was "Monopoly," +and during these centuries they carried it rigidly into +effect. The word Witten still survives in the name of +various fishing stations on the Baltic; for example, +one not far remote from the old pagan city of Arkona, +once the site of a temple, where the Christian Saxons +bought the right to fish by paying tribute to the local +god.</p> + +<p>The main object of the trade in Scandinavia was +herrings, but this brought many other industries in its +train. Itinerant merchants offered cloth, linen, hardware, +wine, beer, and many other articles to the natives, +whose country boasted no handicrafts, as well as to +the temporary residents. In short, the place became +a market for the exchange of Western and Eastern +products, natural and manufactured. Here could be +seen the Lübeck cooks busy in extemporized kitchens +that formed a sort of rude restaurant; here rough +taverns in which German drinks were obtainable at +easy prices; here German shoemakers plied their +skill; above all, the coopers drove a lively trade, +making and mending the barrels needed for the +precious fish. The import of salt, too, was obviously +of first-class importance, and this was entirely in the +hands of the Germans. We might expect that during +the busy period when thousands of men were hard at +work fishing, salting, packing the herring, beer should +have been drunk in large quantities, but the amount +consumed almost passes belief. This also was entirely +supplied by the Hanseatic cities. It was they, too, +who shipped the indispensable fish and sent it to +England, France, the Netherlands, the Baltic, nay, far +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span> +into the centre of Germany, and even to Poland and +Russia.</p> + +<p>They had not in Scania, as at Bergen, a regularly +organized factory, but the Witten stood under superintendence, +while at adjacent Malmö they founded a +permanent colony, under the jurisdiction of an alderman, +who administered Lübeck law and watched over +the Witten trade with jealous care. Here each town +had its guild representative, often its house, and here +annually a dignitary from Lübeck would pay a +passing visit in order to adjust quarrels and investigate +the state of trade.</p> + +<p>The "Scandinavian travellers," as they were named, +instituted a number of companies with rules of a +religious, commercial, and worldly-sensuous character. +Thus the "Pious Brotherhood of Malmö" buried +every poor stranger with the same church pomp, +costly palls, candles and masses, as they would one of +their own members. No one was admitted into the +brotherhood who was at feud with one of its associates. +No one might enter the common room bearing arms. +A member who introduced a guest was responsible for +his good behaviour. In a word, the regulations were +of a certain humane character, far different from those +which obtained at Bergen. They were evidently +copied from those of the guilds in the Hanseatic and +other towns of the Middle Ages.</p> + +<p>Until early in the sixteenth century the League +retained in undiminished vigour its advantages in +Scandinavia. To break their power it was necessary +for the Dutch to discover a better mode of salting the +fish. Then the fish itself came in smaller shoals to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span> +these coasts, and appeared instead near Scotland and +Ireland, and, worst of all, modern Europe became +Protestant, and fasting was hence no longer an +obligatory fashion. Only a few sunken gravestones, +still standing amid the desolation of this district, bear +witness to the former importance of the site.</p> + +<p>As for the rest of Sweden, the country, though not +productive, was still of value to the Hanseatics, since +they held the entire trade in their hands. As from +Norway, they exported wood, iron, copper, skins, in +a word, explored all its resources. In most of the +maritime towns they exercised certain rights. Thus +Stockholm itself was partly in their possession, the +local administration being half chosen by them. In +this wise they were able to bring pressure to bear +upon the government. In short, they disposed of the +whole commerce of Sweden, and it was not until the +days of Gustavus Vasa that their might was rudely +and completely shaken.</p> + +<p>Indeed, in those middle centuries there seemed no +limit to the Hanseatics' ambition and power. They +early cast their eyes towards that immense territory +in the far north, that Russian Empire which in those +days was truly an unknown land. With quick traders' +instinct they recognized that the country was worthy +to be included in their vast monopoly. When they +first established themselves in Russia is not known. +Towards the end of the thirteenth century we find +them in possession of a factory at Novgorod, on the +river Volchor, a city which, with the province that +surrounded it, was then an independent republic, for +the Russia of those days was surrounded by various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span> +principalities mostly under Tartar rule. The natives +were not strong enough to claim as their own a rich +and populous city, whose liberties were protected by +the Western Christians, and which had moreover been +founded by aliens, namely, by one of those enterprising +Norman chiefs, who in early times were, as we +know, the terror of all states and countries.<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>It is thought that the Hanseatics had another +similar establishment at Pleskow, a city on the Velika, +and perhaps even a depôt at Moscow, but undoubtedly +Novgorod was their most important station. Here +merchants and artizans fixed their abode, and drew +around them a rich commerce for the town. It was +the staple for Arctic and Byzantine riches, riches which +the more barbarian Russians did not understand how +to utilize like our cunning traders. As early as the +eleventh century we hear of a German trading settlement +at Novgorod. In 1269 the local ruler accorded +to the Hanseatics, "to the German settlement, the +Goths, and all peoples of Latin tongue," special freedom +in dealing with his province.</p> + +<p>As usual, the Hanseatics created a monopoly and +jealously excluded all strangers. Assigned in Novgorod +to a special quarter of the town, they built a +church of their own, dedicated to St. Peter, and +grouped their guildhall, shops, stores, and dwelling-houses +around it. The quarter soon became known +as the Court of the Germans at Great Novgorod, or +the Court of St. Peter. As at Bergen, it was built in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span> +such a manner that it could be defended, if need be, +and at night it was closed and guarded by watchmen +and fierce dogs.</p> + +<p>There is happily preserved for us the Codex of this +German colony on the Lake of Ilmen. It is called +the Skra, an old German word which we encounter +elsewhere in Hanseatic chronicles. This Skra furnishes +a lively picture of the strange character of the +Court of St. Peter. It appears that "the entire council, +together with the common consent of the wisest of all +the German cities," had decreed that the laws here +laid down should be enforced on all who visited the +court, "as it was done from the commencement." The +non-resident merchants, who always travelled in large +parties and accompanied by a priest, are spoken of as +the "summer and winter travellers." They elected +from out of their number the alderman of the Court +of St. Peter. He became head of the settlement, +received the income, fees, and taxes, and defrayed the +general costs. The alderman of the dwelling court +was the highest dignitary and, with the aid of the four +wisest, adjudged all quarrels, personal or commercial. +These aldermen had special privileges in the choice +of residence, and the aldermen of the "winter travellers" +were further allowed certain honours and comforts +in the great common room. The land travellers +had to yield to the seafarers in all matters of convenience +and space. Their priest, too, was regarded as +the chief ecclesiastic of St. Peter's Court, and to him +alone was accorded free board and a salary out of the +common funds. Any one who refused to appear in +answer to a summons before the court was subjected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span> +to a heavy fine. The so-called "rooms" (<i>i.e.</i>, dwellings) +were common to all; except that the "winter travellers," +secluded from all the world in midst of the long +Arctic nights, were permitted special privileges. The +"children's room," the abode of the younger clerks +and apprentices, also enjoyed rather more freedom +from strict rules than was accorded to their elders. A +master might not dismiss his subordinate until he had +brought him back to his country; he was also bound +to care for him in sickness, and might not punish him +arbitrarily, or on his own authority alone. As at +Bergen, and at the Steelyard in London, the whole +establishment partook of a monastic character, in +which most stringent rules prevailed. And of these +rules none was more strict than that which forbad +social intercourse or partnership trading with natives.</p> + +<p>A special brewery concocted the sweet mead or +beer drunk by the thirsty brotherhood of St. Peter's; +in St. Peter's cauldron was melted down all the wax +brought in from afar; the wood for firing was felled +in St. Peter's forests. A monotonous life it was, +interrupted only in spring and autumn by the arrival +of the summer and winter travellers with their rich +wares. In the cosy warmth of the common room, +over endless bowls of mead, these far-travelled men, +snowed up here and unable to return till spring +released them, would beguile the long winter evenings +with anecdote and tales. In this wise the Scandinavian +Sagas first penetrated into Middle and Southern +Germany.</p> + +<p>The rules made against the Russians were severe +and offensive in the extreme. It is evident they were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span> +not trusted in the smallest degree. A Hanseatic +enjoyed the first privilege in all respects. For +example, if a native was bankrupt, the German +merchant to whom he was in debt had the first right +to be paid before Russian creditors, and the Germans +could further insist that such a bankrupt should be +banished the city with wife and child. By way of tax +they themselves paid a piece of cloth to the ruler of the +mainland between their Court and the sea, and a pair +of gloves to the Russian officials.</p> + +<p>For the rest their whole attitude was haughty and +overbearing, and it is scarcely astonishing that quarrels +and risings against them were of frequent occurrence. +But they almost always kept or at least regained the +upper hand. Their audacious motto was "Who can +stand against God and the Great Novgorod?" No +doubt many of their rigid measures were necessary +to a small colony living amid a turbulent and rude +population, differing from them in manners, language, +and religion. The station was as difficult to hold as +years ago was that of Canton for the English. Like +the Chinese, the Russians hated the merchants, if +for no other reason than because they were foreigners. +In every possible manner they tried to cheat +them, adulterating wax, furnishing bad furs, &c., +&c. In consequence, the alderman of St. Peter's +saw himself obliged continually to issue new +warnings and rules to secure his traders from the +Russian tricksters. So, for example, the dwellers +of the Court of St. Peter were enjoined only to +buy furs in well-lighted places, where it was easier +to test their genuineness and excellence, further to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span> +accept no large consignments that had not been previously +subjected to careful scrutiny. And notwithstanding +the fact that their commerce in Russia was +subjected to great danger, that they even had several +times to close their court and withdraw, the Hanseatics +clung tenaciously to their Russian monopoly, which +was one of the chief sources of their wealth. They +even watched to see that no non-Hanseatic learnt +Russian, an indispensable acquirement for this trade. +Nay, at one time they held the whole province of +Livonia responsible for hindering such a proceeding. +After a time, under penalty of one hundred marks, no +Russian was allowed to live in Livonia. On pain of +corporal punishment, they were enjoined to treat with +Russians only for ready money, or more strictly for +ready goods. Credit with these barbarians was not +encouraged, for it was desirable in every way to simplify +intercourse, and moreover then, as now, it was +next to impossible to a foreigner to make good his +credit claims before Muscovite justice.</p> + +<p>The trade consisted in Russian products, furs, +metals, honey, and, above all, wax, much sought +after in those Catholic times, when the consumption +of this article was wonderfully great. It would seem +as though some obscure merit were attached to the +burning or the gift of candles, the origin of which is +probably heathen. What the Hanseatics brought to +market was chiefly Flemish and English cloths and +linen, as well as divers articles of luxury, eagerly sought +after by the various princes and sovereigns and by the +innumerable Boyars who ranked like petty princes.</p> + +<p>In those large and small courts a barbaric and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span> +gorgeous display was common, and ostentatious +rivalry existed between the princes. Probably this +love of exterior pomp is explained by their neighbourhood +to the East. The Hanseatics astutely utilized +this Russian tendency, and spared no pains in bringing +to market wares calculated to dazzle and please these +grown children; children in this respect alone however, +that they could be fascinated by finery and +show. In other matters the Russians behaved like +adults, and they kept a constant watch upon the +Hanseatics, never neglecting any opportunities of +annoying them or hindering their trade. Thus, if +the League accused the Russians of want of good +faith in commercial dealings, they returned the compliment, +and complaints of linen goods as being too +narrow, too coarse, or not according to sample, were +frequent. Often these were justified, as often not. +But on several occasions the Russians arrested +Hanseatics, put them in irons, even on one occasion +hanged a Hanseatic merchant from the door of the +League's own factory. The Hanseatics met such +insults by threatening to leave Novgorod; indeed, +carried out this threat several times, but love of +gain on the one hand, hunger after luxuries on the +other, appeased the troubled spirits, and peace was +re-established on the old footing. These treaties of +reconciliation were sealed by the Germans with a +key in a shield, the seal of St. Peter's Court. The +Russians swore fidelity by kissing the crucifix.</p> + +<p>But as such disturbances might always recur, and +in order that the damage should not prove too heavy +to members of the League, it was decreed by them in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span> +the fourteenth century that no merchant might send +to or store at Novgorod merchandise exceeding in +value the sum of a thousand marks. This shows that +their position at Novgorod was rather that of a +hostile encampment than that of a secure and permanent +settlement.</p> + +<p>Above all, the Hanseatics strictly forbade Russia +to trade on the sea, and any Russian merchant ships +that they encountered were captured and the captain +and crew severely punished.</p> + +<p>Early in the twelfth century the clever Lombards, +already famous throughout Europe for their skill in +all banking transactions, tried to gain a footing at +Novgorod. It seems that their financial shrewdness +was not always combined with the strictest honesty, +and that hence they enjoyed an ill fame. Certainly +the Hanseatics succeeded in 1405 in prohibiting +"these dangerous men" from any residence in the +Baltic cities, while in St. Peter's Court their presence +was formally proscribed in 1346.</p> + +<p>A serious interruption to the commerce of the +League with Russia occurred in the middle of the +fifteenth century, when the Prussian towns revolted +against the oppressive supremacy of the chivalric +order of the Teutonic Knights. Like all spiritual +powers, when it is a question of the goods of this +world, the Teutonic Knights fought ardently to regain +their power, and this warfare long rendered the Baltic +dangerous and impossible for trade purposes. Indeed, +so long and so serious was this war that but for the +fact that the League was in a sufficiently flourishing +condition to be able to bear great losses, and also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span> +for the fact that the Russian trade was worth many +sacrifices, the League might even then have been +permanently crushed.</p> + +<p>More serious was the next enemy who arose and +who shook to its foundations the empire of Hanseatic +commerce in Russia. This was the Czar <a name="Ivan_II" id="Ivan_II"></a>Ivan II., +known as the Terrible. He had conquered and +chased from his domains the savage Tartar hordes +that annually ravaged it; he was ambitious to unite +the whole Muscovite kingdom under his sway. Like +his successors to this day, he hated all that savoured +of liberty and independence, and was resolved to exclude +from his realms everything that approached a +more advanced civilization and was irreconcilable +with absolute rule.</p> + +<p>He cast a jealous eye on Novgorod, with its political +independence and its prosperity. Here, he said to +himself, were rich spoils to be obtained; this power +within his own domains must be broken. He tried, +with success, to gain over to his side a portion of the +population. These were, however, soon denounced +as traitors to the community, and the great bell of +Novgorod, regarded as the Palladium of popular +liberty, was rung to call the city under arms. A +violent struggle ensued, in which Ivan committed +many of those acts of cruelty that have made his +name notorious.</p> + +<p>At last, after a gallant resistance, in which especially +a woman, named Marsa, took a leading part, Novgorod +fell into the hands of Ivan, who despoiled it of +its liberty and riches, and sent its chief inhabitants +into the centre of his empire and replaced them by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span> +his Muscovites; burnt, ravaged, pillaged, and sacked, +so that at one blow the town lost its liberty, lustre, +and prosperity. The great bell of freedom was +carried to Moscow, where to this day it hangs, no +longer inciting to revolt, but calling the people to +prayer. As for the Hanseatics at Novgorod, they +were taken prisoner and kept in cruel durance. +Their merchandise was confiscated, and all their possessions, +such as church ornaments, bells, silver vases, +&c., were carried off in triumph to Moscow.</p> + +<p>This blow came upon them like a thunderbolt, for +all their privileges had just been reconfirmed by the +Russian ruler. But to Ivan no sacred treaties were +binding. Only after many years and long negotiations +did the Hanseatics succeed in getting him at +least to release their prisoners. When he did agree +to this most had already died from the effects of +privation. Of the confiscated goods he would not +return a bale.</p> + +<p>Thus ended the glory of the Hanseatic rule in +Russia. It is true that under Ivan's son the cities +once more endeavoured to open their court on the +Volchor. But a twenty years' interruption of trade +was not easily made good. They could not recover +their monopoly, which had been usurped by Danes +and Dutchmen. The last blow to all such efforts +came from the English, who had discovered a passage +to Russia by means of the White Sea and Archangel, +and hence no longer needed Hanseatic mediation. +In 1603 Czar Boris Gudenow wanted to reinstate the +Hansa in its ancient privileges. It was too late. +The dissensions that agitated Russia did not permit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span> +the League to derive any profit from his good intentions. +Commerce had taken another direction, and +kept it. When, some time after, a traveller passed +through Novgorod, all he found to remind him of the +German colony here were only the ruins of the stone +church of St. Peter, a single storehouse, and one +wooden shanty, which served as shelter for him and +his servant. Of the former glory and prosperity there +was no sign.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo162" id="illo162"></a> +<img src="images/illo162.jpg" width="250" height="247" alt="SEAL OF NOVGOROD." /> +<p class="caption">SEAL OF NOVGOROD.</p> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VI.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE COMMERCE OF THE LEAGUE WITH THE +NETHERLANDS AND SOUTHERN EUROPE.</h3> + +<p>Among the Western countries not even England +attracted the attention of the League so powerfully as +did the Netherlands, with their cosmopolitan market +of Bruges, a market which, as early as the days of +King Canute, was already of great importance. There +was to be found every element needful to second their +vast ambition and to foster their activity. In Flanders +lived the most industrious nation in Europe, dwelling +in opulent cities, having excellent harbours and +markets, where all the necessaries of life, and all +objects of luxury abounded. In these markets our +traders could find all the articles most eagerly sought +after by the inhabitants of more northern climes, +while they, in their turn, could furnish the Flemings +with the productions of the North, and especially with +those which were necessary to a maritime people. +Thus the League had cunningly got into their hands +the whole monopoly of hemp, so needful for rope +making. Indeed, it must ever be borne in mind that +the Hansa had the monopoly in those days of the +whole industry and of all the products of Northern +and Eastern Europe. This active and profitable commerce +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span> +was almost entirely carried on by means of the +factory which the League had established at Bruges. +It was here that its merchants supplied themselves in +their turn with the manufactures of the industrious +Flemings; with cloth, linen, and the costly tapestries +admired to our day.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo164" id="illo164"></a> +<img src="images/illo164.jpg" width="550" height="381" alt="STADT-HAUS, BRUGES." /> +<p class="caption">STADT-HAUS, BRUGES.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was at Bruges, then, that the vast ramifications +of Flemish and Hanseatic trade were united. Fifteen +different foreign nations held established depôts in +the city which was a very artery of commerce. Sixty-eight +Flemish trade-guilds flourished in the town. It +communicated with the sea by means of a canal +and a not too distant harbour. Extensive privileges +had been accorded to it by various native princes. +The inhabitants were proud, rich, and independent. +It was said of them by a contemporary that the +merchant-aristocrats of Bruges "rode to tournament +yesterday, bottled wine to-day, cut out garments to-morrow." +A queen of France could not deny that +the splendour and luxury of the courts were cast into +the shade by the pomp and splendour of the maids +and matrons of commercial Bruges. With these men +commerce had already become a science, and various +peoples who had till then the most elementary notions +on the point came to the Netherlands to instruct +themselves. It is surprising to read that, as early as +1310, they had instituted at Bruges an insurance office, +and that the chief principles affecting exchange of +values were already understood. These matters were +novelties even to the Hanseatics, though they owed +their prosperity and very existence to trade.</p> + +<p>The League therefore found itself in a totally different +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span> +position in the Netherlands from that which it +occupied in poor or barbarous countries like Norway +or Russia. Here was no question of submitting a whole +people to their monopoly; it was rather a matter of +obtaining gracious concessions and privileges. Hence +the factory at Bruges in no way resembled those of +Bergen and Novgorod, which were armed citadels +placed in the midst of a more or less hostile people +and constantly liable to warlike attacks. Here, on +the other hand, civilization reigned and competition +was active. The Hanseatic factory at Bruges partook +more of the character of a general office and +storehouse than that of any other factory of the +League. But "the Residence of the German Merchants," +as it was called, was organized in the main +like that of its brethren. In its most prosperous days +the factory consisted of about three hundred traders +or agents, who executed the orders to buy and sell +for those Hanseatic merchants who did not come to +Bruges in person to carry on their trade. These resident +merchants were not permitted to quit the factory +until after a certain number of years' sojourn. During +this time they were interdicted from associating with +the natives. They lived in the Hanseatic building +under the supervision of six aldermen and a council +composed of eighteen members, and there were in +force for them here as elsewhere rigid rules of life, +among which the imposition of celibacy took a leading +place. The factory was partitioned into several +chief divisions called "districts," where the members +from different cities abode in almost monastic seclusion. +Less rude customs, however, prevailed than at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span> +Bergen. The Hanseatics being in the midst of a +polished and luxury-loving people, acquired some of +their more civilized habits. By way of Bruges comforts +and refinements penetrated into German homes, +and Flemish modes of thought and speech crept into +German literature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo167" id="illo167"></a> +<img src="images/illo167.jpg" width="550" height="502" alt="RHINE BOAT, COLOGNE." /> +<p class="caption">RHINE BOAT, COLOGNE.</p> +</div> + +<p>The factory at Bruges was in every respect of +immense value to Germany and the Hansa. It grew +into a sort of training college from which came forth +the most able magistrates and administrators of the +Hanseatic League.</p> + +<p>The head of the factory was a president chosen by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span> +the Diet of the League. He was changed annually, +usually at Whitsuntide, when the by-laws of the +factory were read and the newly elected had to swear +"to submit to its statutes, to see that these were +observed without fraud as far as in him lay and +according to his five senses."</p> + +<p>As elsewhere expenses were paid by fines and +customs dues. These latter some cities tried to +elude at various times in a spirit of egotistic and +most short-sighted policy. Chief among these was +Cologne which was in consequence "unhansed" for +some time. Indeed Cologne was always a more or +less turbulent member of the League. The official +meetings of the Hanseatic representatives at Bruges +curiously enough did not take place in their own +factory, but were held in the Reventer, that is to say, +the refectory of the Carmelite convent. Their +charters were deposited in the church sacristy, or +more precisely in the so-called Noah's ark, this alliance +between sacred and profane things being a +common feature of those times.</p> + +<p>As the might of the League increased at Bruges +they insisted that every vessel sailing the seas must +make an enforced halt at the port of Bruges, and thus +give the traders a first chance of buying their wares +or, in any case, of exacting from them a staple toll. +Exception was made only in the case of ships sailing +to England or to the Baltic seaboard. The possession +of this privilege naturally proved a source of great +wealth and power to the League, who grew proud +and haughty as they increased in strength, and even +ventured to oppose themselves to the Flemings, if +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span> +they considered that these had in any way offended +against "the majesty of the Hanseatic nation in the +person of any of its members or officers." They +would then threaten to transport their factory into +some other city, and once actually carried out the +threat. They suspended all trade with Flanders, +blocked its ports, and refused to buy its goods. At +the last the murmurs of the artizans thus thrown out +of work, and the general distress among the people, +forced the rulers to crave grace and to beg for the +return of these masterful strangers, even according +them new privileges, that is to say, new weapons +of oppression. For the League, on these occasions +of proud resentment, took the most menacing of +tones and exacted a heavy satisfaction. Thus once, +because one of its members had been, as it considered, +gravely insulted, and others murdered, it demanded +that a chapel should be built and masses founded to +pray for the repose of the souls of those who had +perished; and that a large indemnity should be paid +to the relations of the dead and to the division of the +League to which they belonged. And, further, in +order to induce this division to return to Bruges, it +was requisite that one hundred of the chief burghers +should come in procession to the Carmelite convent +and ask public pardon from the Hanseatics, and that +sixteen of these should go in pilgrimage to Santiago +de Compastello and four to the Holy Sepulchre at +Jerusalem. Only after such expiation would the +division allow itself to be re-established.</p> + +<p>The dissensions and revolutions which, in the fourteenth +century, convulsed Flanders and caused the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span> +sovereignty of the provinces to pass into the hands +of the Dukes of Burgundy, did not, for a long time, +touch the commerce of the Hanseatics. Their trade +seemed able to cope with the subversive influences of +tumults, seditions, and civil wars; their activity was +not discouraged; their great credit enabled them to +repair all losses, and even to draw profit from these +very disturbing influences themselves. Each new +ruler, guided by the same motives of interest, awarded +the same favour to this association of strangers, who, +in coming to their country, nourished its industries +and profitably exchanged products. Even Charles +the Bold—proud and warlike though he was, a declared +foe to all liberty, attacking at that very time +the Swiss people, who were striving to gain their +national independence—openly protected the Hanseatic +towns, and interested himself warmly in aiding +them to overcome the English, with whom they had +been at strife.</p> + +<p>This good understanding, it is true, was impaired +under Maximilian of Austria, his son-in-law and successor. +This prince was a stranger to the Flemings, +a German by birth, accustomed to exact blind +obedience, the son of an emperor and his heir. On +all these accounts he was distasteful to the Flemings, +who rose up in revolt against him, and imprisoned +him in the Castle of Bruges. It was on this occasion +that there happened an event made famous in legend. +Maximilian's Court jester, who loved his master, had +formed a plan for his liberation. Horses, rope ladders—all +were in readiness. The jester himself sprang +into the canal that separated the castle from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span> +mainland, in order to swim across and aid his sovereign. +But it happened that his night raid alarmed +the swans which were kept by the town on this canal. +They raised a great noise, flapped their wings in +anger, and threatened to kill the poor fellow, who +was obliged to beat a hasty retreat, while his scheme, +thus discovered, was rendered futile. For four months +Maximilian was kept in confinement. No sooner was +he liberated and master of the empire than he took +his revenge. This audacity was punished severely, +and ended in a loss to Flanders of its opulence and a +great part of its industry. Above all, the town of +Bruges had to submit to hard treatment, and ceased +from that time forwards to be the most flourishing and +important market of Europe.</p> + +<p>The wily Hanseatics had, meanwhile, acted like the +proverbial rats that abandon the sinking ship. Seeing +the course that things were taking, they sought to +establish themselves elsewhere, and Antwerp, long +jealous of Bruges, obtained the reversion of its rival's +trade: the fruits of which it enjoyed until the murderous +hordes of Philip II., in their turn, crushed +Antwerp as Maximilian had crushed Bruges.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo172" id="illo172"></a> +<img src="images/illo172.jpg" width="345" height="550" alt="THE PIED PIPER'S HOUSE, HAMELIN." /> +<p class="caption">THE PIED PIPER'S HOUSE, HAMELIN.</p> +</div> + +<p>No doubt, by means of the Flemish market, the +League also treated with France, but our knowledge +concerning this trade is very scanty. It seems certain +that they had no regular factory in that country, +though for a short time they held a depôt at Bordeaux. +Probably their trade with France was chiefly +indirect and by means of Flanders. The fact that +for so long the greater part of the French seaboard +was in the hands of the English may have had something +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span> +to do with this matter. We know, however, +that successive French kings accorded to them various +privileges. Louis XI., on one occasion, speaks of +them as a "Power," and proposed to make an alliance +with them against England. Charles VIII. yet further +enlarged the concessions granted by his father. It is +even recorded that in case any difficulties arose +because of obscurities of phrase in a contract made +between the League and Frenchmen, these should +always be interpreted to the advantage of the Hanseatics. +They were further promised impartial justice, +reduced custom dues, and a civil standing equal in all +respects to that of the natives. The kingdom was +open to them for trading purposes, and in case of a war +breaking out between France and a foreign nation, the +Hanseatics were allowed to continue their commercial +connection with that nation without being regarded +as violating the peace and friendship promised. +France, on the other hand, reserved to itself the +same privileges. But why France was willing to +concede so much to these strangers does not appear. +The commerce can in no case have been considerable. +The manufactures of France in those days were few +and limited. Their small navy did not require much +wood, iron, or hemp. It is true they had their wines +and their salt, and that in exchange they bought +herrings and smoked fish, but there was no such +lively and profitable intercourse as we encounter elsewhere. +The land was still too poor, too distracted +with wars and dissensions to be able to utilize its +native riches. Besides this, her own direct commerce +with the Mediterranean and Latin East, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span> +Crusaders and Italian traders, rendered her more +independent of Hansa help.</p> + +<p>Very scanty are the records that have come down +to us concerning the trade of the League with Spain. +This nation, incessantly occupied in wars with the +Moors and in chivalrous exploits, neglected and disdained +trade. They even went so far at times as to +interdict it also to others. But all that has come +down to us concerning the intercourse of the Hanseatics +with this country is so vague, and borders so +much on the fabulous, that it cannot be accepted as +history. What does seem certain is that in 1383 +King John of Castile forbade the Hanseatics to have +any intercourse with his kingdom, that he confiscated +eighty-four of their vessels, and that in 1441 the +factory of Bruges received orders to practise reprisals +upon the Spaniards and to close to them all the ports +of the Netherlands. All details, however, are lacking. +We only know, again, for certain that in 1472 the +Spaniards raised the interdict against the League. +No doubt they had suffered pecuniarily from the +absence of these active traders. In 1551 Philip II. +even went so far as to sign a treaty of commerce with +the League, in which this prince favoured them as +much as his predecessors tried to harm them. And +this treaty, strange to say, was not quite a nullity +even at the beginning of our own century. On the +strength of certain clauses contained in it were +founded various privileges enjoyed up to that date, in +their commercial intercourse with Spain, by the cities +that were then all that remained of the once mighty +League—namely, Lübeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span></p> + +<p>In Portugal the League was more fortunate than +in Spain, and early established a factory at Lisbon. +From this port they traded with the Mediterranean, +and came in contact with the flourishing Italian commercial +republics, as well as with the products of the +Levant and India, for which Italy was the sole market. +But the Italian trade was chiefly in the hands of the +South German cities, such as Augsburg, Ulm, and +Nüremberg, and the wares were transported by land. +These cities formed a counter league among themselves, +which, though in a measure affiliated to the +Hansa, was never quite an integral part. Their sole +object was the Levant and Italian trade. Already in +the thirteenth century they had a depôt at Venice, +the far-famed Fontego de' Tedeschi, which visitors to +Venice behold to this day as one of the most lovely +palaces abutting on the Grand Canal. This factory, +however, was very differently constituted from that of +other cities. The League never obtained a monopoly +or special privileges in Italy. The Fontego at Venice +was merely the warehouse or dwelling-house of the +German traders, without any internal jurisdiction or +president.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo176" id="illo176"></a> +<img src="images/illo176.jpg" width="550" height="423" alt="FONTEGO DEI TEDESCHI, VENICE." /> +<p class="caption">FONTEGO DEI TEDESCHI, VENICE.</p> +</div> + +<p>They were permitted to sojourn with their wares at +stated times in Venice, received on their arrival the +keys of the fifty-six rooms of the building, which on +their departure they had to re-deliver to the Venetian +authorities. In course of time the Germans, +gaining refinement and acquiring a love of art from +their Italian intercourse, spent large sums in decorating +and adorning this palace, which, however, never passed +into their real possession. Three Venetian citizens, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span> +under the title of Visdomini de' Tedeschi, and native +secretaries, and a "fontegaro," always inhabited the +building and kept strict watch over the traders, whose +commerce was subjected to all manner of tedious +restrictions. The house, as we have said, was only +open to them at stated times of the year. They were +only permitted to sell to and buy from Venetians; all +wares exported or imported had to be weighed in the +public balances, and only this weight was accepted as +just. The Italian secretaries, one of whom always +slept in the Fontego, kept strict account of all goods +that came to hand or were sent away, and the control +over these wares was in the power of the Visdomini. +Nothing might be unladen in the warehouse without +permission from one of these local officials. But in +spite of all these restrictions, which the Germans +would not have tolerated for a moment at Bergen +or Bruges, their depôt at Venice was a favourite +sojourn, and remained the centre of a pleasant, easy, +and refined intercourse between Germany and Italy +until the time of the Reformation. The influence of +the Rialto made itself felt in Prague, Dresden, Frankfort, +and the other South German cities, and has +placed its imprint upon their literature and art. From +Italy these cities brought the models to adorn their +streets, markets, guildhalls, and churches. From +Italy they brought the tales and fables that delighted +listeners long before the days of printing, and awoke +the native mediæval poetic art, so that the stories of +Boccaccio became as familiar to the Germans as to +the Italians themselves. In spite of all the restrictions +they placed on their freedom, the foreigners were not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span> +unwelcome to the proud Venetian signoria. They +even spoke of the German nation as their "cuorisino" +(little heart), and in their sore need, during the time +of the League of Cambray, formed by the Pope, the +Emperor and the kings of France and Spain against +the Republic of Venice (1508), they called upon their +German friends for sympathy, and did not call in +vain. The bond of a common interest, that of trade, +bound together the proud rich city of the Lagoons +and the less powerful, less wealthy, but by no means +poor or insignificant, cities of Southern Germany.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_jewel.jpg" width="200" height="151" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VII.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE STEELYARD IN LONDON.</h3> + +<p>Nowhere was the Hanseatic power so great as in +England. Of none of its connections do we possess +more ample records. As already stated, England was +one of the first depôts of the "common German +merchant," long before these combined under the +generic name of Hanseatic. From early days the +English kings had protected these rich foreigners, +who helped them out of many a pecuniary difficulty. +Indeed they accorded them such privileges and monopolies +as could not fail to rouse the jealousy of their +own people. We therefore find in the history of the +Steelyard in London a mingled record of all passions +and interests, hate and favours, honour and national +prosperity, envy and violence, greed and poverty, +pride and fear, in a word, a most motley record of +which it is not easy to frame the contradictory +elements into one harmonious picture.</p> + +<p>During the long reign of Henry II., and under his +sons, Richard Cœur de Lion and John, there was an +active intercourse between Germany and England, +encouraged by the marriage of Matilda, daughter of +Henry II. with Duke Henry the Lion.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo180" id="illo180"></a> +<img src="images/illo180.jpg" width="550" height="360" alt="THE STEELYARD, LONDON. (From an old Print.)" /> +<p class="caption">THE STEELYARD, LONDON. (From an old Print.)</p> +</div> + +<p>The rich merchants of Cologne were the earliest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span> +to obtain special favours. These were accorded by +Richard Cœur de Lion, who, halting in that city to +attend high mass in the cathedral after his release +from Austrian imprisonment, received there such +ample supplies towards the heavy ransom money +required for his person, that, to show his gratitude, he +gave to his "beloved burghers of Cologne" a letter +of freedom, in which he released them from their +annual rent of two shillings for their guildhall in +London, and from all other taxes due to the king +upon their persons or their merchandise. It was long +ere King John, his successor, could make up his mind +to renew these privileges, but his own difficulties with +his turbulent barons, and the pressure which the +merchants could bring to bear by their riches, at +last overcame his hesitation. Edward I. and his +followers further extended these prerogatives, for the +Plantagenets found the Hanseatic Rothschilds even +more useful in aiding their war schemes than the +skilful alchymists whom they had summoned to their +Court, and who knew how to shape the Rose noble +(the money of the period) out of artificial gold. Then, +too, the Hanseatics were considerate creditors, who +did not press unduly, and even overlooked a debt if +some favour were extended in default of payment.</p> + +<p>Edward the Third's crown and most costly jewels +were long retained at Cologne in pawn for a heavy +sum of money. The details concerning this transaction +are preserved to this day in a correspondence +deposited in the State Paper Office of London. It +seems that when the time for redemption came the +king had not the money. He was in special straits +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span> +just then, for the celebrated commercial firm of the +Bardi, at Florence, which constituted the very focus +of the Italian money business, had failed, and the +King of England appeared in their books as a debtor +for the sum of one million golden gulden. The merchants +of the Steelyard were not slow adroitly to turn +the royal perplexity to their profit. They undertook +to redeem the pawned jewels and offered the king loans +of more money, although he already owed them much. +Edward was in sore need, for the wars with France +strained his resources to the utmost. He drew upon +them for thirty thousand pounds, a sum worth fifteen +times more then than to-day. Thus it came about +that the great victories of the Black Prince at Crecy +and Poitiers were gained in no small degree by the help +of German capital. Needless to add that the Hanseatic +merchants showed no diffidence in accepting for their +factory important privileges in return for these services.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo182" id="illo182"></a> +<img src="images/illo182.jpg" width="550" height="308" alt="BARDI PALACE, FLORENCE." /> +<p class="caption">BARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.</p> +</div> + +<p>It was to a German merchant prince that the king +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span> +let the tin mines belonging to the Black Prince in +the Duchy of Cornwall. To the same firm he ceded +a large number of farms situated in different shires +for the space of a thousand years.</p> + +<p>The Easterlings are spoken of in records as the +allies of the English kings, and there seemed at last +no limit to the royal favours.</p> + +<p>That the people did not look upon them with the +same friendly eye is easy to understand. The English, +full of a just sentiment of what they could do by +themselves, and of what they were hindered from +doing by these foreign monopolists, bore their presence +with extreme impatience. Feuds and riots were not +infrequent, and no royal favours, no Hanseatic ships +of war could save them from occasional brutal attacks +at the hands of the mob. Thus during the Wat +Tyler rebellion the people pursued the hated foreigners +even into the sanctuary of the church, murdering +mercilessly all those who could not pronounce the +words "bread and cheese" with the pure English +accent. But these rebellions were quelled by the +royal commands, or extinguished themselves by the +fact that the Hanseatics were also useful to the +English people, oppressed by the feudal system and +engaged in constant wars, whose trade industries were +thus unable to develop quickly. Nor did such passing +storms shake the power or the resistance of the +Hanseatics. Bloody encounters, rude tumults were +entirely in keeping with the license and roughness +of those earlier ages, and were met by the League, +more or less, in all their foreign stations.</p> + +<p>With their usual astuteness they utilized wisely all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span> +periods of calm, and reckoned with the love of gain +to help them in less peaceful moments. When the +English made things uncomfortable for them at home, +they revenged themselves upon them at Bruges or at +Bergen, paralysing their commerce, and harassing +their vessels, even forbidding them to enter the ports +of Norway, Iceland, and Greenland. For verily in +those days whosoever tried to outwit the Hansa +was likely to prove the victim of his own plots. Circumstances +aided the Germans, enabling them to +make their power felt just when England had to +betray weakness. The feeble and stormy period of +Henry VI., often deposed and made prisoner, the +Wars of the Roses, the long and continual hostilities +waged with France, all favoured the League, and +made the English submit to its demands rather than +attract to themselves yet more enemies.</p> + +<p>In no place, not even in Bergen, did the Hanseatics +succeed in enjoying greater independence. Their +factory was privileged, and while benefiting by +English law, they were quite independent of +it. Everything, therefore, was favourable to their +commerce, and they were hampered by no such restrictions +as weighed, not only upon other foreigners, +but upon the English themselves. To give a just +idea of the degree of power to which their privileges +and trade had raised the League, let us cite one +example. It will serve in lieu of many, and it places +in full light the almost incredible ascendency which a +company of merchant cities, isolated and distant from +each other, had gained over a great kingdom and a +proud and valiant nation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span></p> + +<p>The English Government having been unable or +unwilling to repress the frequent acts of piracy +which its subjects practised against members of the +League, these also took to piracy, and mutual recriminations +ensued. The Lübeckers in particular revenged +themselves fiercely. They also wrote a letter of complaint +to the English king, "a letter full of pride and +audacity," says Henry IV. It then happened that +the Danes, at strife with the English for other causes, +joined themselves to the Hanseatics, and united they +harassed the English by sea and by land. These, in +their turn, took possession of the Hanseatic depôt in +London, and put in prison or killed all who lodged +there. The League hearing this broke off commercial +connection with England, closed their ports and the +entrances of the Baltic, and seized English vessels on +all seas and on all coasts. The Hanseatics even +landed in England itself, and pitilessly ravaged many +of the maritime provinces, hanging on the masts of +their ships all the men they took prisoners. This war +at last grew so ruinous for the English that they +applied to the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, +to mediate between them and their foes. A congress +was assembled at Utrecht to put an end to this dire +quarrel and to assure peace upon a solid basis. The +mediator and his counsellors thought it but just to +accord to the English a part of what they had +desired so long, namely, liberty to trade in the +Baltic and with the Hanseatic ports of Dantzig and +Russia. This concession greatly favoured the commerce +which their merchants were ambitious to carry +on, or already carried on, notwithstanding all obstacles. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span> +But for their part the Hanseatics insisted on recovering +all the privileges they had lost, and on recovering +them with usury. In fact, by this treaty of Utrecht +Edward IV. not only reconfirmed all their ancient +monopolies, but accorded to them new and important +favours, proving to what extent the English were still +in the power of these foreigners. Such was the effect +of the fear which the League inspired in the English; +such, too, was the ignorance of their Government, +which, being in possession of a power not less great +and, had they desired, even greater than that of their +rivals, allowed strangers to deprive them of the most +useful of all independent rights, that of utilizing for +their own profit the resources of their own labour and +their own soil.</p> + +<p>In reading this chapter of the annals of England, +it is hard to believe that we are dealing with the +nation whose ships now scour all the seas, whose +tonnage exceeds that of all other countries combined, +which is the greatest trader of the earth, and which +trades not only freely, but also in that spirit of domination +with which its ancestors reproached the Hanseatics, +and which they endured with so much impatience.</p> + +<p>This treaty of Utrecht served for a long while as +basis for all subsequent treaties between the Hanseatics +and the English, and well or ill observed, it survived +until the reign of Edward VI.</p> + +<p>The position held by the Hanseatics in England +certainly has no counterpart in the international +intercourse of the Middle Ages. The only exception, +perhaps, is the position of Genoa, Venice, and Pisa +in the Byzantine and Latin empires. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo187" id="illo187"></a> +<img src="images/illo187.jpg" width="550" height="390" alt="STEELYARD WHARF, LONDON." /> +<p class="caption">STEELYARD WHARF, LONDON.</p> +</div> + +<p>The chief depôt of the Hanseatics in England was +in London, and was known first as the Guildhall of +the Germans, then as the Easterlings' Hall, and finally, +as its dimensions grew, as the Steelyard. It was +situated in Thames Street, on the left bank of the +river, close to Dowgate, just above London Bridge, +in earlier times the only city gate that commanded +the water. The whole length of this street leading to +the post gate was lined with the wharves, warehouses, +and dwelling-houses of the Germans. It is therefore +easy to comprehend how they held, by their position +alone, the key to the whole commerce of the City of +London in days when goods were almost entirely +transported by water-ways. As at Bergen, so here, +they dominated the whole commercial situation.</p> + +<p>There have been many disputes as to the origin of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span> +the name Steelyard. It has been now pretty well +established that it took its rise from the fact that on +this spot stood the great balance of the City of +London, known as the Steelyard, on which all exported +or imported merchandise had to be officially +weighed. It was after the treaty of Utrecht in 1474 +that the German factory first took this name, from +the circumstance that its domain was then greatly +enlarged. The whole place was defended by a high +strong wall, fortress fashion, and there were few +windows towards the front. This was as a protection +from the frequent attacks of the London mob, and +also as a defence against the robbers anxious to penetrate +into a storehouse of riches. The chief building, +still called their Guildhall, was a massive stone +structure, of which, until 1851, some of the main walls +still remained. The northern front, which looked +towards Thames Street was especially imposing with +its many stories, its high gabled roof, surmounted by +the double eagle of the empire with its outspread +wings. Three round portals, well protected and +clamped with iron, were seen on its northern frontage. +The centre one, far larger than the others, was rarely +opened, and the two others were walled up. Above +these three portals were to be read, in later days, +the following characteristic inscriptions:</p> +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="center">"<span class="smcap">Haec domus est laeta, semper bonitate repleta;<br /> +Hic pax, hic requies, hic gaudia semper honesta.</span>"</p> + +<p class="center">"<span class="smcap">Aurum blanditiae pater est natusque doloris;<br /> +Qui caret hoc moeret, qui tenet hoc metuit.</span>"</p> + +<p class="center">"<span class="smcap">Qui bonis parere recusat, quasi vitato fumo in flammam +incidit.</span>"</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span></p> + +<p>The second of these couplets is attributed to Sir +Thomas More, Chancellor of England, author of the +"Utopia," and a good friend to the Hanseatics. This +great hall was used for the meetings of the merchants +and for their common dining-room. At one +end was a low tower that served as depository for +the documents and valuables belonging to the merchants +or the factory. Close upon the river stood +another strong building, the dwelling of the house +master. Here was the capacious stone kitchen, in +which ample preparations were made for the dinners +of week-days and festivals. Between these two +buildings ran the garden, in which the Germans had +planted fruit trees and vines. On summer evenings +they were wont to rest here after the business of the +day, while the young people among them amused +themselves with playing at ball or other recreations. +It was a pleasant green spot with cool shady arbours, +tables, and seats, and was frequented, not only by the +Hanseatics themselves, but by the London citizens; +for the League had the permission to sell their +Rhenish wines in this spot. Threepence a bottle was +the average price.</p> + +<p>In "Pierce Penilesse, his application to the devil," +we read, "Let us go to the Stilliard and drink rhenish +wine;" and in one of Webster's plays a character +says: "I come to entreat you to meet him this afternoon +at the Rhenish warehouse in the Stillyard. Will +you steal forth and taste of a Dutch brew and a keg +of sturgeon?" This garden restaurant was also +famous for its neat's tongues, salmon, and caviar. It +would seem that the place was a favourite resort from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span> +the days of Prince Hal and Sir John Falstaff to those +of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, the former the embodiment +of boisterous enjoyment, the latter of chivalric +and pedantic learning. A multifarious and varied +company indeed that little garden harboured in its +day, who met in "the Rhenish wine house" to close +their bargains over their wine cups, for festive carouse +or serious talk. There could be seen England's most +honoured men; bishops, mayors, ministers, chancellors, +naval and military heroes. Even Shakespeare's +company of actors, London's merriest +<i>gourmets</i>, are known to have turned in here. The +spot did not lie far off the famous "Boar's Head" +tavern, and Prince Hal's town residence in Cold +Harbour Lane abutted upon the Steelyard. There, +too, assembled the grave ambassadors of the Hanseatics, +their delegates and merchants, their apprentices +and agents; a motley crew indeed, who, until +the days when the garden in Cosins Lane perished in +the Great Fire of London (1666), constantly frequented +the locality, and helped to enhance its wealth and +importance. The memory of the place was kept up, +till quite lately, by a large tavern, bearing the sign of +the Steelyard, which still stood on the same spot, +surmounted by a bunch of golden grapes, similar to +those which we so frequently meet with in the narrow +streets of old German towns.</p> + +<p>No less busy, no less varied was the inner life of +that small state within a state. A strange little +world with its severe monastic discipline, its semi-religious +character. In many rooms and halls, in +warehouses and passages, were crowded a number of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span> +masters and men, assembled here from some sixty +Hanseatic cities, busy superintending the stapled +wares which arrived by river and were drawn up by +means of the mighty crane that formed a notable +feature in the water frontage of the factory. Some +wares, too, arrived by way of the crooked streets. +These entered the building through the small carefully +guarded doorways. As time went on and there was +not room enough for all the guests in the main building, +adjoining houses were rented for the Hanseatics, +but all were subject to the same rigid discipline, and +were members of the same large household. In early +days the London merchants had insisted that an +Englishman should be head inspector of the Hanseatic +warehouses, but from this they soon freed themselves, +alleging that it was giving the sheepfold over into the +keeping of the wolf. As elsewhere, the presidency +was assigned to an alderman and twelve councillors. +These were chosen from the different towns in rotation. +As elsewhere, all residents had to remain +unmarried during the period of this sojourn in the +Steelyard. Not even the house-master was allowed +to have a wife. In later years, a Cologne merchant +who had decorated, improved, and enlarged the +garden inn, and turned it into one of the most beautiful +taverns in London, being a resident for life, was +anxious to marry. But so sternly did the League +hold by their decree of celibacy for their absent +members, that they only agreed to make an exception +in his case after fourteen members of the English +Parliament had signed a round robin petition to the +Hanseatic Diet to this effect. Those who trespassed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span> +against the by-laws of the house as to habits or +morals were heavily fined. If refractory they were +often imprisoned, and at times even the aid of the +English constables would be called in. But this was not +frequent. The Hanseatics preferred to manage their +own affairs, and keep themselves distinct from the +natives among whom they dwelt. In criminal cases +the jury, as is still the custom in England under similar +conditions, was composed half of Englishmen, half of +Germans. At nine every evening the portals of the +various dwelling-houses were closed, and the key +given to one of the masters, who took turns to fill +this office. Whoever played at dice in his room at +the tavern, whoever entertained non-Hanseatics, whoever +let a woman cross the precincts of the Steelyard +paid a heavy sum, of which half went to the informant. +Cleanliness was severely imposed both in +person and in the use of the common sleeping and +packing rooms. The fine for contravention in this +respect was paid in wax, not in money. It was +employed for the candles which the Hanseatics kept +burning on their behalf in the church of All Hallows +the More. Opprobrious language towards one +another, blows or drawing of knives was fined by a +hundred shillings paid into the common fund; a high +sum truly if we consider that five pounds sterling was +worth, in the fourteenth century, about four times its +present value. They were even forbidden to fence or +to play tennis with their English neighbours under +out paying a penalty of twenty shillings.</p> + +<p>Every merchant was bound to have in readiness in +his room a full suit of armour, and all the needful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span> +weapons in case of an attack on the Steelyard, or on +the Bishopsgate. For the City of London had ceded +to the Hanseatics this gate, which they had to guard +and keep in repair, relieving them instead of the +annual tax towards the preservation of the town +walls known as wall-money, of bridge money, and +paving money. They also managed to obtain special +privileges with regard to shipwrecked goods; the +English being obliged to pay them damages provided +that something living, if only a dog, or cat, or +cock reached the shore alive from the shipwrecked +vessel. This secured them greatly from the perils of +wanton wreckage.</p> + +<p>In London none of those gross manners and customs +prevailed that we find at Bergen or Novgorod. +The Hanseatics knew that in England they found +themselves among a people fully their equals, and +were careful not to offend them in any respect. Indeed +they did all they could to conciliate them, and were +liberal in presents. Thus the Lord Mayor of London +received from them yearly a cask of the finest +sturgeon, or two barrels of herring, or a hundredweight +of Polish wax. An English alderman, annually +chosen to adjust disputes between the natives and the +foreigners, was presented each New Year's Day with +fifteen golden nobles, wrapped up in a pair of gloves, +by way of tender consideration for the feelings of the +recipient. The Chief Inspector of Customs received +about twenty pounds sterling, intended probably to +make him indulgent in the exercise of his duties. +And so forth, making as a whole a most goodly sum +thus wisely spent in fees and in conciliating those in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span> +power and office. Every point relating to this as well +as to the inner statutes of the factory was most carefully +recorded in writing, and has, in large part, been +preserved to us. It is a record of most quaint regulations, +every one of which no doubt had its wise +purpose and scope.</p> + +<p>The Hanseatics purchased from the English the +produce of their flocks and tillage, that is to say, wool, +strong hides, corn, beer, and cheese. Wool was from +the earliest date one of the chief and most important +articles of their exportation from England. This was +sent to Flanders and the Netherlands to be worked +up. It was only later, as the English learnt to manufacture +skilfully this costly produce, that the Hanseatics +exported the finished goods in lieu of the raw material. +The details concerning this wool trade show how +many places in England were engaged in it, and how +appropriately the Chancellor of England is seated +upon a wool-sack as symbol of one of the main sources +of England's ancient wealth. So valuable, indeed, was +this wool trade that a special tax was placed upon the +wool, a tax which Edward III. repeatedly farmed out +to Cologne merchants for the space of several years +in advance in return for ready cash.</p> + +<p>Among the articles imported by the League we +find pepper, potash, various kinds of wood adapted +for building ships and making crossbows, iron and +iron utensils, flax, linen, hemp, grease, fish, corn, and +Rhenish wines. We even find that they imported +French wines after the English had lost all their +possessions in France with the exception of Calais. +By their means, too, there came to England Italian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span> +and Oriental produce, such as choice spices, perfumes, +medicines, metals, figs, almonds, dates, even gold dust, +and jewels, with which they provided themselves at +Bruges.</p> + +<p>A very important branch of trade was that in salted +cod-fish, or stock-fish as it was called, an article +largely used on the Continent and in England too +in the Middle Ages. With this the English were then +accustomed to feed their troops when on service. +Nor were even living creatures lacking among their +cargoes, such as choice falcons from Norway or +Livonia, for which the English nobility, who were +then, as now, passionately addicted to sport, paid +high prices.</p> + +<p>Indeed, the Steelyard was one of the staple places +for the export and import of all the principal +necessaries of life before men had thought of the products +of America.</p> + +<p>Nor was London by any means their only depôt. +It was the chief, but they also had factories in York, +Hull, Bristol, Norwich, Ipswich, Yarmouth, Boston, +and Lynn Regis. Some mention of them is found in +Leland's "Itinerary." Under an invitation to the +Hanseatics to trade with Scotland we find the name +honoured in legend and song of William Wallace. In +John Lydgate's poems we also meet with our Hanseatics. +In relating the festivities that took place in +London city on the occasion of the triumphal entry +of Henry VI., who had been crowned king at Paris +some months previously, the poet narrates how +there rode in procession the Mayor of London +clad in red velvet, accompanied by his aldermen +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span> +and sheriffs dressed in scarlet and fur, followed +by the burghers and guilds with their trade ensigns, +and finally succeeded by a number of foreigners.</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="o1">"And for to remember of other alyens,</p> +<p>Fyrst Jenenyes (Genoese) though they were strangers,</p> +<p>Florentynes and Venycyens,</p> +<p>And Easterlings, glad in her maneres,</p> +<p>Conveyed with sergeantes and other officeres,</p> +<p>Estatly horsed, after the maier riding,</p> +<p>Passed the subburbis to mete withe the kyng."<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p> +</div> + +<p>A love of pomp and outward show was indeed a +characteristic of the Hanseatics in England who thus +perchance wished to impress upon the natives a sense +of their wealth. As times grew less turbulent and +the German Guildhall less of a fortress, it was handsomely +decorated with costly paintings and fine carving. +Most notable were two large works by Holbein, who +visited England at the invitation of King Henry VIII., +desirous of emulating his rival Francis I. in protecting +the fine arts. When the painter first came over he +lived in one of the quaint houses that, before the Great +Fire, stood on London Bridge, and some of his earliest +works seem to have been two commissions for his +countrymen, whose Steelyard was close by. They +were destined to decorate the Great Hall, and were +tempera pictures representing respectively the +Triumph of Poverty and of Riches. When in the days +of James I. the Steelyard ceased to exist as the collective +home of the Hanseatics, the towns decided to +present these pictures to the Prince of Wales, Henry, +who was a lover of the arts like his younger brother, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span> +Charles I., into whose collection they passed on +Henry's death. Unfortunately, they perished in the +great fire that destroyed Whitehall. Federigo +Zuccari, who saw them during his sojourn in London +and appraised them as exceeding in beauty the works +of Raphael, made careful drawings of them, and thanks +to these and the engravings made after them we are +in possession of at least an outline representation of +Holbein's work. The pictures are conceived in the +spirit of the age that loved such so-called triumphs in +art and poetry. The figures, chiefly allegorical, were +life size and in the richness of fantasy and learning +that they display it is permissible to recognize the help +and advice of Holbein's friend, the Chancellor, Sir +Thomas More. In many cases the names of the +personages represented are written beside the figures, +after the quaint method of that time.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo197" id="illo197"></a> +<img src="images/illo197.jpg" width="550" height="256" alt="THE TRIUMPH OF RICHES, BY HOLBEIN." /> +<p class="caption">THE TRIUMPH OF RICHES, BY HOLBEIN.</p> +</div> + +<p>The Triumph of Riches shows a car of Plutus drawn +by four white horses, driven by Fortune and followed +by a motley crowd which includes Justice, Usury, Bona +Fides, Sichæus, the rich husband of Queen Dido, +Pythias (of whom Plutarch tells that he so loved gold +that once when he returned hungry from abroad his +wife placed gold before him instead of meats), and +many figures, for the most part culled from the pages of +Herodotus, Juvenal, and other classic authors. In the +heads of Crœsus and Cleopatra it is said that Holbein +painted likenesses of Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn. +In a corner of the picture is written the distich +ascribed to Sir Thomas More which we have already +met with above the central portal of the German +Guildhall. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span></p> + +<p>The Triumph of Poverty was purely allegorical, and +appears to have been considered less attractive than +the former work, whether on account of its treatment, +or on account of its less pleasing theme does not appear. +In this case the car is drawn by two oxen and +two asses, designated as Negligence and Idleness, +Greed and Sloth. This canvas, too, bore some Latin +verses from More's pen, which, curiously enough, +have not been incorporated in his collected works.</p> + +<p>In all public ceremonies and processions the Hanseatics +seem also to have taken a notable part; as we +mentioned above on the occasion of Henry the Sixth's +entry. We come across another detailed account +when Queen Mary went in triumph through London +the day before her coronation. At Fenchurch the +Genoese had dressed up a lovely boy as a girl, who +was carried before the Queen and greeted her. The +Hanseatics had built up a hillock in the corner of +Gracechurch, whence a fountain poured forth wine. +On this hillock stood four children who likewise +greeted the Queen. In front of the Steelyard they +had placed two casks of wine, from which they poured +drink to all who passed. This liberality cost them +a thousand pounds, and heavy payments to cover +such expenses are not infrequent in their account +books.</p> + +<p>In England, contrary to the usual custom, the Hanseatic +League never had its own church. Perhaps +this need was less felt in a land that professed +the same creed than in Russia. The Germans +frequented the parish church of All Hallows, +contenting themselves with endowing a chapel, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span> +altars, special masses, and alms. They also presented +the church with costly stained glass windows, +in the decoration of which the German imperial +eagle figured conspicuously, and with cunningly-carved +stalls reserved for the use of the Steelyard +authorities. As late as the year 1747 these seats +were still in the possession of the master of the Steelyard +and the other representatives of the guild. In +front of these stalls there always burned five of the +biggest tapers the church could boast. Indeed the +Hanseatics were famous for their outward observances +of piety, both while they were Catholics and after +they, as well as the English, became Protestants. Of +course the Catholic religion made more show. Saint +Barbara was a saint whom they specially affected, +and on her day (December 4th) they caused a most +elaborate mass to be sung and afterwards treated the +priest, their English alderman, and the royal doorkeeper +of the Star Chamber to fruit and wine in the +Cosin's Lane Garden. At Corpus Christi they joined +the great procession of all the guilds and notabilities; +and on midsummer night, and the eve of St. Peter and +St. Paul, they illumined their Great Hall after the +ancient Saxon fashion with Yule fires and torches. +After the Great Fire of London the League presented +All Hallows with a carved oak screen that ran the +length of the whole church. It was the work of a +Hamburg carver, and excites admiration to this day. +In the centre it shows the large imperial eagle, as also +the arms of Queen Anne; the main work consists of +twisted columns and arches.</p> + +<p>The Germans in England seem to have adopted the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span> +purer Protestant doctrines with great caution, if not +tardily. At least we have it on record, that when in 1526 +a commission, headed by Sir Thomas More in person, +proceeded to make a domiciliary search of the Steelyard +for writings of Luther, nothing was found but +Old and New Testaments and German prayer books, +while the whole body, both young and old, swore at +St. Paul's Cross that there was not a heretic among +them. Soon afterwards the Reformation was firmly +established in England, as it already was in most of +the cities belonging to the League, and from that +time forward the Steelyard associates attended the +English Protestant service in All Hallows Church.</p> + +<p>Such were the life, the habits, and the nature, of the +German community that made its English centre in +the Steelyard, and which, so long as it was in harmony +with the times, conferred many advantages not only +upon themselves, but upon the people among whom +they dwelt. For in thrifty activity the English in +those days could not be compared with the Hanseatics, +while in point of wealth no one could compete +with these Germans, excepting only the Italian money-changers +of Lombard Street, then, as still, a favourite +locality of banking houses. But the Italians were +exclusively occupied with financial transactions, while +the Germans devoted themselves exclusively to mercantile +affairs.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VIII.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE.</h3> + +<p>The notices that have come down to us about the +organization of our League are scanty, although we +possess a vast number of minutes concerning their +diets. It is doubtful whether there was even a fixed +mode of governing and government, whether the +whole was not rather in a state of flux controlled by +the circumstances of the moment. That certain traditional +modes of administration obtained, however, +seems indisputable. It raises a smile to read that +when some problem seemed insoluble, or some +venture proved a failure, our naïve Hanseatics registered +in their books, "of this matter let those think +who come after us," thus throwing the burden upon +the following generation.</p> + +<p>There was no fixed place of meeting for the Hanseatic +diets, but most frequently these were held at +Lübeck, because it was situated almost in the centre +of the various activities of the League. The assemblies +were held in "the name of all the cities," and +those who failed to send representatives were begged +"not to take it amiss" if conclusions were arrived at +without their sanction. "Every town shall consider +the benefit of the others, so far as is in accordance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span> +with right and honour," runs one of their quaint +formulæ. "Should strife arise between the cities, +which God forbid, they shall settle their dispute +according to the counsels of the neighbouring towns."</p> + +<p>There was also no fixed time for these diets; they +were assembled according to urgency or press of +business, but usually they were annual, and met about +Whitsuntide, as that feast falls in the fine weather, when +travelling was easier for the delegates of the northern +towns. At the close of each diet, the deputies present +decided on the time and place of the next meeting, +and Lübeck and other leading cities were charged with +the care of making known to the cities unrepresented +the decisions arrived at by the assembly. But default +to send a deputy to the diet was not lightly overlooked. +Some excuse had to be given, and the +validity of the excuse was sharply criticized. Sometimes +a town might be busy resisting its temporal or +ecclesiastical lords, an internal revolution might have +occupied all its energies, the roads might be unsafe, +or it might have been visited by some public calamity +like the Black Death. If the diet thought that these +pleas were merely subterfuges to save the expense of +sending a delegate, or to avoid explaining some infraction +of the rules of the League of which the city +in question was guilty, a heavy money fine was imposed, +and in case of absence three times repeated it +might even find itself "unhansed," deprived of all the +pecuniary privileges belonging to members of this +powerful association. By such rigid measures did the +League hold its members together. Nor was this all. +A deputy who did not arrive in time for the opening +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span> +of the proceedings was fined a gold mark for each +day of delay, a fine that was not remitted unless the +causes for his default were found on scrutiny to be in +every way sufficient.</p> + +<p>On their arrival at the meeting place, the deputies +were received in state by some member of the local +municipal council, and were offered the wine of +honour. The conferences began about seven or eight +in the morning, and lasted till one or two in the +afternoon. One of the burgomasters of Lübeck was +usually made president. At the first meeting he +would thank the members present for having come, +and these would reply to him in courteous terms. +Then when all their credentials had been examined, +and the excuses of the absent sifted, the diet would +proceed to the business in hand. This business was +heavy and varied, covering the external and internal +policy of the League, the needful moneys to be raised, +the state of the various foreign factories. Even private +quarrels between merchants were heard here in appeal. +The diet decided on peace and war, sent despatches +to foreign kings and princes; threatened, warned, +exhorted, those who had failed to fulfil treaty obligations. +Such was its power that it rarely failed to +make its voice heard, and a threat indited by the +city of Lübeck was not put quietly into the waste-paper +basket by the northern courts. These missives +were sealed with the seal of the city in which the diet +was sitting at the time. Just as in their buildings, +their guildhalls, and their towers, our forefathers knew +how to express a quaint conceit, so also in a simple +seal they understood how to express symbolically a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span> +summary of their activity. Thus the pious and wise +Lübeck bore on its city seal a ship with high bulwarks, +from whose single central mast waved a flag bearing +the cross. An ancient pilot steers the vessel through +the waves with his left hand while his right is raised +in admonition. Opposite to him sits a youth busy +with the ropes, who, with his uplifted right hand, +seems to point to the help of heaven. This was to +symbolize that prudence, energy, and pious confidence +accompanied Lübeck in all its paths. The +common Hanseatic seal was only used for foreign +affairs. It represented the imperial double eagle with +the inscription "<i>Signum civitatum maritimarum</i>."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo205" id="illo205"></a> +<img src="images/illo205.jpg" width="250" height="240" alt="SEAL OF LÜBECK" /> +<p class="caption">SEAL OF LÜBECK</p> +</div> + +<p>The decisions arrived at by the diet were all recorded +in careful minutes, known as "recesses," of +which an immense number have come down to us, +escaping fire and other vicissitudes. They all testify +to the thoroughly businesslike character that distinguished +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span> +the League. Among other matters we +often come across applications from cities to be +admitted into the Hansa. Their candidature was +generally addressed to Lübeck, and their claims and +resources carefully scrutinized by the prudent League. +As a rule the demand was conceded. The League +was never sorry to see its strength grow, and its +expenses diminish by being divided among a greater +number of towns. Such admission, however, was +made upon unequal conditions, according to the importance, +the resources, and the situation of the city +in question. This inequality had struck deep roots +also in the very heart of the cities. The inhabitants +were far removed from enjoying the same prerogatives, +the Hansa was by no means a democratic association. +The most important posts were reserved for a +certain number of families know as patricians, who +had distinguished themselves by services for the common +weal, or who held power in the shape of wealth. +An individual, however, could be "unhansed" as well +as a city, if he had failed to observe some law of high +commercial consequence, and it was even more difficult +for an individual to be readmitted than a town.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo207" id="illo207"></a> +<img src="images/illo207.jpg" width="336" height="550" alt="PETERSEN-HAUS, NUREMBURG." /> +<p class="caption">PETERSEN-HAUS, NUREMBURG.</p> +</div> + +<p>From the inequalities in the position of different +members of the League there arose conflicts of interest +which were to prove "the little rift within the lute," +that by and by should "make the music mute." For +instance, the interest of the maritime towns was not +always that of the inland ones. Schisms and divisions +were apt, above all, to take place when there +was a question of beginning a war, as this could never +be done without general approbation. Each town +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span> +was inclined to throw the burden on its associates. +For as each was solely preoccupied with its personal +interests, and only entered into the League with a +view to the profits it could thus obtain, there was +always in the minds of the delegates a tacit reserve to +make as few sacrifices as possible, and as time went +on they were even ready to abandon their allies, and +let the League perish if they did not find themselves +directly benefited by any sacrifice demanded by the +common weal.</p> + +<p>What held them together at all was, in a word, +nothing more noble or ideal than personal advantage, +the fear through exclusion of losing by exclusion, the +great advantages that accrued from being a member +of the League. No wonder that with an ambition +so little exalted the Hansa was destined not to +survive until our own day. For communities like +individuals must strive after some lofty ideal if their +existence is to be happy, and to have a sound enduring +basis. The wonder is rather that seeing what +motives animated its members, the defective character +of the means at its disposal, such as the lack of a +standing army, and the constant mutations in its +form of government, it should have attained to such +mighty results as we have roughly sketched in this, +the second and culminating period of its existence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span></p> + +<h2 class="p6">PERIOD III.</h2> + +<p class="center"><i>THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE HANSA.</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p4"> +<img src="images/griff.jpg" width="450" height="106" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<h3 class="p4">INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<p>From the law of change to which all human affairs +are subject the mighty Hanseatic League was not +exempt. Great though its power seemed to all outward +appearance, and rich as were its members, still, +for some time past, signs of decay and decline had +made themselves manifest, here and there ominous +rents and fissures, that threatened, if not an entire, +yet a partial fall of the building.</p> + +<p>The latter years of the fifteenth and the early +years of the sixteenth centuries were a time of the +greatest moment in the history of modern Europe. +They mark the transition from the mediæval to the +modern spirit, embracing two such potent factors in +human development as the Reformation and the +discovery of America. It is almost sad to think that +the decrepitude of a powerful institution should have +coincided with the transformation and rejuvenescence +of Europe. Yet so it was. So it will ever be; we +must march onward with our time, or be trodden down.</p> + +<p>Many of the ideas of the Hansa had grown effete +or were becoming gradually obsolete. Individuality +in men, independence in nations were factors beginning +to manifest themselves and to rebel against +those notions of blind obedience and of selfish +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span> +monopoly inculcated by the Hansa. The time was +nearing when the old system of staple, of factories +was to give place to the busy varied life of the +Exchange.</p> + +<p>The discovery that the earth was round, not flat, +that Ulysses had no idle dream when he dreamed +that there was another continent beyond the pillars +of Hercules, was a matter of unspeakable moment +to trade. When we recollect that almost to the +same date belong the discovery of a maritime route +to the East Indies, and the invention of printing, +we cannot but recognize that a power, not willing +to move with the times, but painfully, obstinately +clinging to its own ideas and images, had to be +left behind. The very causes for which the Hansa +had been founded, insecurity of roads, want of +international justice, and other barbarous and +intolerant conditions, no longer existed. The +League itself had developed from a liberator +into an oppressor. It no longer fitted with the +changing conditions; it too must change or perish. +In vain did it point to ancient charters, evoke +"inviolable treaties" acquired at the point of the +sword or by might of wealth. It had to learn that +of these treaties, as indeed of treaties in general, +must be said that which is sadly, but too truly said +of human promises, that they are "like pie-crust, +made to be broken."</p> + +<p>The spirit of revolution, or rather of change, was +abroad. It made itself felt in manners, in institutions, +in governments. The capture of Constantinople +by the Turks contributed to the new development. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span> +By warning Europe of a new and menacing +danger, it drew yet more closely together the different +states which the Crusades had already put into +relations with one another, and for which the feudal +system formed a sort of common link. This same +event turned the stream of sciences, letters, and arts +towards Italy. On the other hand, the princes were +finding out the means of diminishing the power of +the feudal lords and nobles. The subjugation of the +power of these vassals undermined little by little the +feudal system, and allowed this worn-out institution +to be replaced by institutions more in conformity +with the needs of modern society.</p> + +<p>Various states, that had been unable to develope +their forces, owing to the abuse of the feudal system, +moved swiftly forward, now that they were free from +restraint, and, having succeeded in centralizing their +power desired to give it a firm and equal step in the +march onwards. Meanwhile the forces that existed +in the hands of the rulers were active enough to +assure the tranquillity of the people, but it was +always possible to turn them from their destination; +war might arise any moment out of the very institutions +that ought to secure the maintenance of peace. +The people, recognizing this and fearing lest ambitious +rulers should form projects of aggrandizement and +conquest, had recourse to that policy which the Italian +republics had already initiated and in which Florence +took the lead.</p> + +<p>The democracy understood full well that it was +for their good, and even essential to their very +existence as a power in the state, that they should +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span> +act upon the forces that determined the government, +just as these re-acted upon them: that, in a word, +they should mutually hold each other within the +limits of the law and that general security could only +arise from the equilibrium of the means of attack +and defence. This new policy which demanded +frequent communications between the parties interested, +gave rise to the system of embassies, itself +quite a new feature in international and political life, +though it was really an extension of ideas and +systems long ago pursued by the Hansa. In a word, +the whole method of the world was changing, and +it remained to be seen whether the Hansa could still +keep ahead as it had hitherto done.</p> + +<p>While other nations were looking about them all +round the globe, the Hansa was, as ever, occupied +in securing to itself the monopoly of the Baltic basin, +in order that no other peoples should deprive them +of the wealth of Scandinavia. And yet this "monopoly +of the herring and the cod-fish," as it has been +named, was steadily becoming less and less valuable. +More than half of Europe was Protestant and no longer +fasted; wax was no more required in quantities for +Church ceremonials and the evidences of personal +piety; the imitation of Italian and Spanish fashions +in dress caused less demand for the furs of the North. +The English were among the chief commercial rivals +of the Hansa at this date, and after them the Dutch, +those very Dutch whose cities had at one time +formed part of the League, but who had seceded after +the wars with Waldemar, finding it more profitable +to keep friends with the Danes. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span></p> + +<p>It is strange that this combination of merchants, +generally so astute, should not have recognized whither +the stream of things was tending.</p> + +<p>Nor in its perplexities could it find any help from +the emperor. The German Empire was suffering from +the same ills as the League, and with equal steps was +advancing towards its dissolution. Until now the +Hansa had gone on its triumphal way in spite of all +inner and outer political complications, indeed had +rather profited than lost by these. This was now +altered. It was now no longer a body animated by +one will, one spirit. The disintegrating element of +religious discord had entered among its members, +they were mixed up with the bloody doctrinal wars, +that followed the Reformation and ravaged Germany, +and they were divided among themselves on this very +point. At last, after the treaty of Augsburg (1555), +which restored to Germany a more or less agitated +peace of some fifty years, there followed the terrible, +devastating Thirty Years' War, which gave the death +blow to the League.</p> + +<p>The Thirty Years' War left behind it only a heap of +ruins. It had consequences so disastrous that from +some of them Germany has not recovered even to this +day. It caused her to lag in the onward march of +progress, and for all her military strength at this +present moment, she has not yet overtaken her neighbours +and contemporaries in many important points +of civilization, that are more unfailing sources of a +nation's power than mere brute strength in arms or +tactical skill in battle.</p> + +<p>One of the first serious causes of decline in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span> +Hanseatic power was due to the fact that as time +went on and conditions of trade altered, the interests +of the maritime and continental cities were no longer +identical. The sea-board towns used to furnish to the +inland the means of selling the produce of industries +with profit in the countries east, north, and west of the +Baltic. The Hanseatic ships and factories facilitated +this distribution of goods. But when other nations, and, +above all, the merchants of the Netherlands, and after +them the English, Danes, and Swedes carried on a +part of this commerce with their own ships, the inland +cities no longer had the same interest in remaining +united with the maritime. They even thought that +their union with the League was more onerous than +useful, and began to grow restive and would no longer +pay their dues to the general fund, which consequently +became much weakened and impoverished. Thus +there were not only enemies from without, but +enemies from within to contend against. "A house +divided against itself cannot stand" is a saying of +which our Hansa was very soon to learn the full +truth.</p> + +<p>But before the final collapse came the League was +to know one more moment of proud prosperity, a +moment which, had it been wisely and unselfishly +used would have secured to the Hansa a prolonged +dictatorship in Northern Europe.</p> + +<p>After this rapid survey we will consider these events +in detail and order. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/flowers.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>I.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">STORM CLOUDS.</h3> + +<p>The centre of the Hansa's power had ever been the +Baltic Ocean. On its shores the idea of the League +had first taken shape: here it had grown and flourished, +and here also it was to receive its death blow. As we +have said, in the course of the fifteenth century the +Dutch gradually came forward as serious competitors +of the League. Their geographical position made +them freer than the Hanseatics; enclosed in a sort of +inland basin to which at any moment they might lose +the key, their astuteness was not less keen than that +of their rivals, and like their rivals they wisely made +use of any quarrels or dissensions that might be +abroad. They were not slow, therefore, to discern +that the Scandinavian people and also the Scandinavian +kings groaned under the heavy despotism +exercised by these German merchants. They proposed +themselves as substitutes for the Hansa, +offering money and support to the kings and easier +and better conditions of trade to the natives. These +proposals were unofficially accepted. Neither rulers +nor ruled as yet dared oppose themselves openly to +the League, but they were not sorry to see its power +reduced.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo218" id="illo218"></a> +<img src="images/illo218.jpg" width="355" height="550" alt="CHARLES V." /> +<p class="caption">CHARLES V.</p> +</div><p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span></p> + +<p>For awhile the Hansa were able to keep their rivals +in check, worrying them by piracy on the one hand, +and insisting on their ancient claims and trade rights +on the other.</p> + +<p>But Charles V. had ascended the throne; the +greatest emperor that had ever governed in Germany +since his namesake Charles the Great. He was ruler +not only of Germany, but of Spain and the Netherlands, +and to the latter people he was especially well +disposed. He looked with no friendly eye upon the +League, which made itself a power within his territory, +and he was not sorry to see it weakened by competition. +When the Sound, their Danish Hellespont, the +gold mine of the League, continued to be jealously +guarded by them, and its navigation denied to other +nations, Charles V. declared quite openly that "he +would rather miss three royal crowns, than that his +Burgunders should be excluded from the Sound." +This was a sort of challenge to the Hansa. Let us +hear how other circumstances came about to enforce +it from other quarters.</p> + +<p>It may be remembered that since the days of +Waldemar Atterdag, the League had always had a +voice in the election of a ruler to one of the three +northern kingdoms, and that it regarded with no +friendly eye the attempts made at a union of those +kingdoms under one common head.</p> + +<p>In 1513 Christian II. had ascended the Danish +throne. He was an unscrupulous and cruel ruler, +known to posterity as the Nero of the North. Before +ascending the throne of Denmark he had been +governor of Norway, and in that capacity had conceived +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span> +a bitter hatred against the overbearing +foreigners, "those German cobblers," as he called +them, who once even ventured to close against him +the gates of his own town of Bergen. He had already +favoured by all ways in his power the trade of non-Hanseatics, +and tried to obtain some gentler treatment +for the oppressed burghers of Bergen. Still so +great was yet the fear of the Hansa, that when in +1513 Christian was crowned King of Denmark, he +made no difficulties about renewing all Hanseatic +treaties and privileges, and only stipulated that the +harbours of Norway should also be accessible to the +Netherlanders. In return he desired their assistance +against Sweden, with which country he was at war.</p> + +<p>For a time the League, and above all Lübeck, were +rejoiced at this new king and his attitude towards +them, but not many years had passed before they +found out that they had to do with a more logical +and altogether sterner man than any of his predecessors +had been. Christian hated the Hansa, and +rebelled against the subjection of the Sound, a Danish +sea, to foreign control, and the absolute sway of the +Hansa in his markets. Among many unwise words +and deeds that live bound up with his memory, it was +not the most unwise which he repeated after Sigbrit +Willem, the mother of his beloved and lovely friend, +Digveke (Little Dove), "that good friendship must be +maintained with the Netherlands, and that Copenhagen +must be made the staple place of the North."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo221" id="illo221"></a> +<img src="images/illo221.jpg" width="299" height="550" alt="CHRISTIAN II. OF DENMARK." /> +<p class="caption">CHRISTIAN II. OF DENMARK.</p> +</div> + +<p>Unfortunately for Christian, though he could repeat +Sigbrit's sayings, and perhaps also in a measure +recognize their wisdom, he had not the natural +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span> +capacity to carry them into execution. This clever +woman recognized that the aim of the king should +be to reinstate the Scandinavian Union, to break the +power of the aristocracy and the clergy, and to free +his impoverished people from the fetters in which the +Hansa had bound them for nine centuries. This was +all right and well, but it needed to be carried into +effect with tact and moderation. Christian did not +possess these gifts; he made himself personally +detested by his cruelty and his overbearing manner, +he knew not that generosity which so gracefully +becomes a victor. After conquering Sweden, he +soiled his victory by causing the most illustrious +personages of the kingdom to be executed, and still +worse he stained his personal honour by violating the +conditions of an armistice in causing Gustavus Ericson, +of the house of Vasa, to be carried off captive to Denmark. +It did not improve matters when Christian +explained that he required him as a hostage. He +caused Gustavus to be shut up in the strong fortress +of Kalo in Jutland. Here the captive was put on his +parole, and it is said suffered none of the rigours of +custody. But the food put before him, salt junk, sour +ale, black bread, and rancid herrings, cannot have +comforted his enforced captivity in the material sense, +while he confessed to having been maddened by the +talk of the soldiers who guarded him, and who boasted +that they would soon hold all Sweden, and jestingly +parcelled out among themselves the wealth and +beauty of the nation.</p> + +<p>This young man so unjustly imprisoned was +destined to become the avenger of his fatherland, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> +and those of his fellow-countrymen who had perished +upon the scaffold. He resolved to escape, hoping to +reach Sweden in time to defend his country, or to +take advantage of any favourable juncture that might +arise.</p> + +<p>It was in September, 1519, that, early one raw +autumn morning, Gustavus managed to escape from +the Castle of Kalo, disguised as a drover of oxen. +He made his way to the city of Lübeck, and threw +himself upon the protection of the burgomaster and +council. Needless to say the town gave a generous +welcome to the man who was foe of their foe—the +King of Denmark. But it was not long ere his +whereabouts became known, and Christian sent +messengers to Lübeck, demanding in high-handed +language that Gustavus should be handed over to +him. He complained that Vasa had effected his +escape contrary to his pledged word as a knight. +Gustavus spoke in his own defence.</p> + +<p>"I was captured," he said, "contrary to all justice +and all plighted faith. It is notorious that I went +to the king's fleet as a hostage. Let any one who +can, point out the place where I was made prisoner +in battle, or declare the crime for which I deserved +chains. Call me not then a prisoner, but a man +seized upon unjustly, over-reached, betrayed. I +am now in a free city, and before a government +renowned for justice and for defending the persecuted. +Shall I then be altogether deceived in the +confidence I have placed in them? or can breach of +faith be reasonably objected to me by one who never +himself kept faith or promise? or can it be wondered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span> +at that I should free myself from prison which I +deserved by no fault, except that of trusting to the +assurances of a king."</p> + +<p>The shrewd burgesses who listened to Gustavus's +defence were not misled by his rhetoric, but motives +of policy told in his favour. They knew that if +Christian were once undisturbed king of the three +northern kingdoms, he would possess a power which, +as he had already shown, he would not use to the +advantage of the League. Here was a young nobleman +of fearless character and high talent, a man who +hated the king with hereditary hatred and personal +animosity. Might he not become a thorn in his side +and a clog upon his movements?</p> + +<p>This was the view of the matter taken by the +burgomaster of Lübeck and put forcibly before his +colleagues. It was therefore agreed emphatically to +refuse the king's demands, and, instead of giving up +Gustavus, to furnish him rather with the means to +return to his own country. "For who knows," said +the worthy council, "what he may do when he gets +there."</p> + +<p>To this refusal to deliver up the hostage the King +of Denmark replied, through his ambassadors, that +he should make a house-to-house search for his +prisoner. That was truly more than the proud city +could stomach. They answered in the most haughty +terms that they should never permit such an interference +with their home rights and privileges, and in +the presence of the Danish ambassadors reassured the +fugitive of their protection and friendship.</p> + +<p>When the news of this reply reached Christian, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span> +regarded it as an act of great audacity. From this +moment he became a yet more embittered enemy of +the Hansa, whose chief city and spokesman he very +properly recognized was Lübeck. He harassed them +continually in fresh ways; he carried on a yet more +envenomed war against the Swedes, of whom he +knew the League to be the secret ally and the chief +support.</p> + +<p>At first success favoured his arms; he broke faith +in all directions—plundered, ravaged, sacked. But at +last he made the cup of wrath against him overflow +by his cruel execution of ninety noble Swedes, in the +autumn of 1520; vaunting the deed in insolent heartless +words. He had shown them, he said, "how he +roasted his Michaelmas goose." Further, in his +wanton presumption he did not hesitate to give +active expression to his hatred against Lübeck. +When congratulated by his councillors that he could +now rejoice in the possession of the three northern +crowns, he replied: "So long as Lübeck is not in my +power, I cannot be happy in my kingdoms."</p> + +<p>Shortly after this, Christian set out for the Netherlands +to visit his imperial brother-in-law at Ghent. +The objects of his journey were various. He wanted +to obtain the payment of his consort's marriage +portion; to solicit the emperor's aid against his +uncle, Frederick of Schleswig Holstein; and yet +more to obtain his tacit, if not active assistance, +against the Hansa towns on the Baltic, and especially +against Lübeck.</p> + +<p>It was on the occasion of this visit that Charles V., +accompanied by Christian and Margaret of Austria, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span> +laid the foundation-stone of Antwerp Cathedral. +After this ceremony they returned to Brussels, where +Christian entertained his friends at a banquet. +Among the guests was the great German painter, +Albert Dürer, then visiting the Low Countries. He +was then and there commissioned to paint the Danish +king's portrait—a portrait that all contemporaries +greatly admired as a faithful reproduction of Christian's +manly beauty. The artist received thirty +florins—a sum that seemed to him munificent, and +called forth expressions of real gratitude.</p> + +<p>Soon after, Christian presented a petition to the +young and inexperienced Charles, in which he +begged, as a gift from him, "a little town on the +German side of his dominions, called Lübeck, so +that when sometimes he passed over to Germany he +might possess a place of his own in which to rest." +Charles, enlightened by the burgomaster of Cologne +to the effect that Lübeck was no "little town," but +one of the four imperial cities, and a chief centre of +the Hanseatic League, refused his brother-in-law's +petition in decisive terms. Nor did Christian fare +better with his other demands; Charles had been +warned against him, and had been taught to see in +him a possible heretic. It is even related that in his +anger Christian tore from his neck the Order of the +Golden Fleece, given to him by the emperor, and +trod it under foot in disdain.</p> + +<p>Christian returned home to find fresh difficulties +awaiting him, for in his absence Gustavus Vasa had +not been idle. This restless patriot had lingered +but eight months in the hospitable German city. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span> +Young, full of enthusiasm and fire, he longed to be +actively at work to aid his oppressed compatriots; +and one morning, in the spring of 1520, after confessing +his obligations and his gratitude to the +Lübeckers, he stole over to the Swedish coast in +a little fishing-smack, and landed in territory that +was groaning under Christian's oppressions.</p> + +<p>At first, Gustavus, who at once assumed the <i>rôle</i> of +leader of revolt, could not make himself heard among +the peasants. They replied to his instigations in +their apathy of oppression with, "Salt and herrings +will not fail us as long as we obey the king, but if we +rise we are sure of ruin." But Gustavus was undaunted, +though he knew a price was put upon his +head. For months he scoured the country, travelling +by by-paths, sleeping one night in the woods, +another in the open fields; assuming now this, now +that disguise. Gradually he gathered a following +around him, which grew in importance day by day. +His influence increased above all after the tidings of +the "Bloodbath," for so the terrible massacre came +to be called, perpetrated by Christian upon the nobles +of Stockholm, on the occasion when he offered them +a banquet, apparently of peace, but which proved to +them a feast of death.</p> + +<p>Chief among Gustavus's allies were the people of +Dalecarlia, among whom he went on his mission of +revolt dressed in their native dress. This land of +valleys is inhabited by a people who have many +points of resemblance with the Scotch Highlanders; +thinking themselves, as these do, of a superior caste +and adhering even to this day to an exaggerated and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span> +antiquated mode of dress. Like the Highlanders, too, +they are frugal; they are accustomed to drink only +water, and often in case of necessity eat bread made +of the inner rind of the birch tree, which grows so +freely in their woods. It is said that one of the +Danish commanders, learning this, exclaimed "A +people who can live upon wood and drink water the +devil himself could not conquer, much less any other. +Let us go hence."</p> + +<p>When the Danes heard of the army of peasants +that was rising against them, they at first treated the +news with great contempt. "If the skies rained +peasants," they said, "we would fight them all." +But they were soon to see that these peasants were +not to be lightly despised. It was before Upsala that +Gustavus's army, aided by troops sent to him from +Lübeck made its first attack on the Danes. There +was a heavy snowfall during the battle, in consequence +of which the Danish cavalry and artillery proved of +no avail, while the peasants with their irregular mode +of warfare were less impeded by the elements. The +victory was theirs, and the Danes had to confess that +their boast was foolish, "For when God withdraws +his hand from a warrior a poor peasant is as good +as he."</p> + +<p>From this moment success followed success and +the prospects of the cause of Gustavus grew steadily +brighter. His instructions to his followers were that +"they must teach the tyrant that Swedes must be +ruled by love, not ground down by cruelty."</p> + +<p>In August, 1521, Gustavus was elected administrator +of Sweden, and was virtually ruler of the land, though +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span> +the whole was not yet in his possession. The time +of shifts, disguises, and humiliations was now over. +The scenes of these, however, the barns where Gustavus +threshed, the different spots where he was in +the greatest peril—are still pointed out with veneration +by the descendants of those peasants who succoured +him in his adversity, and boasted that they were the +first to help him to a crown.</p> + +<p>In this juncture Christian saw himself obliged to +send out yet more ships and men against Gustavus. +To meet the re-enforced enemy, Vasa turned to +Lübeck in 1522 and begged of "his fathers, brothers, +friends, and dear neighbours of that town," under +promise of eternal gratitude, to help him against "the +tyrant," saying he would in his turn and time "accord +to them milder privileges and everything that could +be to their profit." The burghers decided to accede +to this request; ten strong ships were armed to aid +Gustavus Vasa and sent out to meet the Danish fleet.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile they did not neglect to use the weapons +of diplomacy; weapons so often successfully employed +by them during their career. They remembered that +Duke Frederick of Schleswig Holstein was uncle to +Christian II., and that the two had ever been at feud. +It occurred to them that it would be well to gain the +duke as their ally, promising him the Danish throne +in event of their victory; of course in return for +important privileges; the Hansa would have been +untrue to themselves and their traditional policy had +they for one moment left out of sight their own +advantages.</p> + +<p>This proposal met with assent, and the consequence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span> +was that a powerful enemy was thus raised up in the +centre of the king's dominions. Christian, following +the counsel of Sigbrit, planned another wholesale +massacre of the nobles whom he believed favourable +to Frederick's cause. The matter got known, and +in consequence a council was held by them in which +they drew up a deed, renouncing their allegiance to +Christian and choosing Frederick in his place to fill +the Danish throne.</p> + +<p>A question arose as to who should convey the +perilous document to the king. A certain monk of +Jutland offered to bear the ill tidings. He met the +king as he was proceeding to one of his castles. +Assuming an open and cheerful countenance he +managed to get himself asked to dinner by the king, +and continued to amuse him and divert all suspicions +till the king retired to rest. Then, placing the despatch +in one of his gloves, he left it on the table, went +quietly out and escaped by a boat which he had +ordered to be in readiness. A page who found the +despatch next morning carried it to the king.</p> + +<p>Christian, who till then had blustered and disbelieved +in real danger, grew alarmed when he read +this unexpected paper. He wrote to those who subscribed +it saying "that he submitted himself to the +emperor and other disinterested princes as his judges. +As to the massacre at Stockholm, he would atone +for it; he would fill the country with churches and +monasteries, and undergo any penance which the Pope +might impose. The Council and States should have +from him fresh securities, if only they would retract +their step and turn from him this dishonour they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span> +had meditated." The nobles replied that they +acknowledged no tribunal superior to their own; +that the king had perjured himself so often that they +could not trust him; that he had confessed himself +guilty, that the deeds by which he had freed them +from their allegiance were known to all the world, +and that they had chosen the Duke of Holstein as +his successor.</p> + +<p>And indeed Frederick, Duke of Holstein, was +proclaimed king of Denmark in January, 1523. The +Hansa fleet by sea, the support of the clergy and +nobles by land—that clergy and those nobles whom +Christian had oppressed—conduced to this result.</p> + +<p>A manifesto put forth by Lübeck made known to +the Emperor of Germany and the Empire how "the +city after long patience and repeated prayers, in consideration +of her oaths and duties towards the Holy +Roman Empire and remembering the inevitable +damage done to body, honour, and goods, had taken +up arms to prosecute the wanton insurer and aggressor +of the Holy Roman Empire."</p> + +<p>This manifesto was one of the little farces the +Hanseatic League loved to play with their supposed +liege lord and sovereign, the Emperor of Germany, +each time they took independent action and showed +by deeds how little they heeded his authority or +wishes.</p> + +<p>In vain Christian, after his deposition, tried to rally +his subjects around him. Fearing probably that +revenge would be taken upon his person for his cruel +massacres in Sweden, he decided that discretion +was the better part of valour. Choosing twenty of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span> +his best and fastest ships, he placed on board of them +all the State papers, all the gold and silver that had +been hoarded in the public buildings, and the State +jewels. On April 13, 1523, he, his wife and three +children together with Sigbrit, "the last packed away +in a chest with the treasures," quaintly writes a contemporary +chronicler, went on board the largest of +the vessels, whereupon they all set sail for the Netherlands. +It was nothing more or less than flight, and +an acknowledgment that Gustavus Vasa and his ally +the Hansa, through its representative Lübeck had +conquered; that the League, though declining in might, +was still able, as in the most glorious times of its +history, to play with kings like dice, deposing and +installing them.</p> + +<p>Two years later the same city of Lübeck was +called upon to arbitrate in a conflict between the +two kings, which it thus had made, Frederick +of Denmark and Gustavus of Sweden. As the +price of its intervention and of the sacrifices it had +made on their behalf, the city, in the name of the +League, of course, asked great favours, favours which +were accorded by treaty, and which were to be the +last smiles of Fortune, about to become fickle to the +union she had favoured so long.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in June, 1523, Gustavus Vasa had been, +by unanimous consent, elected King of Sweden. It +is amusing to read that Stockholm, the last city to +surrender to its new ruler, the last faithful to Christian, +refused, even after it had capitulated, to deliver up the +keys of the gates to Gustavus. The governor handed +them over to two Lübeck councillors, present on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span> +occasion, with the words, "We present to the imperial +city of Lübeck the kingdom and the city, and not to +that rogue, Gustavus Erikson, who stands there."</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed, however, that Christian +so quietly and easily abandoned his Danish crown to +his uncle and rival. He made many attempts to +enlist the various courts in his favour. Especially +did he try to gain the help of his brother-in-law, the +emperor, but the League was too clever and too +strong for him. He did get together an army of +mercenaries, but his means of paying them soon ran +out, though to attain that end he pawned or sold all +his treasures and the queen's jewels. At last, he had +to fly in terror from his own soldiers who were +enraged at his inability either to pay them their +wages, or at least lead them to some town they +could plunder.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, Christian was not daunted. He was +a man not easily dismayed. He intrigued on every +hand to regain his kingdom, and at last, fancying +that the Lutheran doctrines he had embraced prejudiced +the emperor against him, he formally renounced +Protestantism and returned into the bosom +of the Romish Church.</p> + +<p>Christian had not erred in his calculations. This +step induced Charles to be more favourable to him, +and for a while he lent him his countenance, soon, +however, to withdraw it. Still the brief favour sufficed +to enable him to get together a strong army +to attack Denmark. Frederick, alarmed, turned to +Lübeck for aid, and did not turn in vain. Indeed, +his ambassadors admitted that "Lübeckers had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span> +shown themselves in this time of need, not like mere +neighbours, but like fathers to Denmark."</p> + +<p>After many vicissitudes of fortune, Christian at +last abandoned the idea of regaining his old rights +by force of arms. He craved an interview with his +uncle and a free passage to Copenhagen. This safe +passage was accorded to him and its terms were +couched in the most sacred and solemn words. The +Hanseatic representatives enforced the promise on +their own account. Not suspecting treachery, unwarned, +Christian stepped on board the vessel that +was to convey him to the Danish capital, and +arrived in Copenhagen with the fond hope that +Frederick would receive him like the prodigal son. +Instead of allowing him to land at once, however, +he was detained in the harbour for five days, under +the pretext that Frederick was absent, and at last +when permitted to set foot on dry land, he was +invited to meet the king at Flensburg, and was told +that the fleet had orders to carry him thither.</p> + +<p>Then, and only then, the unfortunate man suspected +that he had been betrayed. And so it was. +Frederick and his councillors pronounced the safe +conduct null and void; Christian was taken prisoner, +and amid fierce ejaculations of rage and despair, was +locked up in the "Blue Tower" of the Castle of +Sonderburg. Here for fifteen years in company +with his favourite dwarf, Christian had to suffer +painful confinement that only ended with his death. +His confinement was unjust, no doubt, but it was +richly merited.</p> + +<p>Unmourned by his relations, or the aristocracy he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span> +had oppressed, Christian's memory lived among the +peasants and lower classes, of whom he had been the +supposed friend, a friendship that no doubt had no +higher aim than his own ends, but which never had +occasion to show its true character. His name, +consequently, became a watchword among the +people, and inspired those who soon after were to +be the leaders in great convulsions in the Scandinavian +provinces. But this is outside the course of +my history.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_pair.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>II.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">KING FREDERICK AND KING GUSTAVUS VASA.</h3> + +<p>In speaking of Christian's continued aggressions +and his death, we have somewhat anticipated the +course of our story. We left our League in the proud +consciousness of having made two kings and expelled +a third. It was but natural that they should now +look for some reward in the gratitude of Frederick +and Gustavus. They thought that the moment had +come to regain their ascendency in the Scandinavian +north. But they were to learn the old, old lesson +once again: "Put not thy trust in princes."</p> + +<p>Frederick was the first to show his colours. It was +true that he had sworn to the Hansa not only restitution, +but extension of all their ancient rights and +privileges, but when they demanded as a first pledge +of friendly feeling, that the Baltic should be absolutely +closed to the Netherlanders, and that indeed no one +might trade in that sea but themselves, Frederick +met them with an inexorable refusal. We should be +wrong if we regarded this refusal as a mere display +of ingratitude on the king's part. He saw that the +claim was detrimental to the interests of his own +subjects, whom, after all, he was bound to consider first.</p> + +<p>But he went much further. He dissolved the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span> +German Society that traded at Copenhagen and +insisted that all Hanseatics should be subjected to +the same laws as his own subjects. Further, he took +under his protection the inhabitants of Bornholm, +which island was under the rule of Lübeck, having +been given up to that city by reason of forfeiture. +For the natives groaned under the Hansa's rule, and +declared "they would rather be under the Turks, than +under the German, Christian, imperial city."</p> + +<p>In vain did Lübeck protest to Frederick; in vain +did she remind him of his promises, point to his +treaties, and recall his written and spoken words. She +had to ask herself bitterly what she had gained in +return for the great sacrifices she had made to change +the ruler of Denmark. The uncle had become the +nephew, that was all, and worse than the nephew, +because less impetuous and passionate, and, therefore, +more determined and dangerous. Added to this, +they fell out about religious matters. Frederick +encouraged the new faith, while the Queen of Hansa, +stubbornly conservative in all matters, remained until +the spring of 1531 an adherent of the old religion.</p> + +<p>In 1553 Frederick died. An interregnum of more +than a year followed, during which the hopes of +Lübeck to re-establish her authority in the north +revived; and were fed and fanned by the Burgomaster +Jürgen Wullenweber. It was to prove the last flickering +of the Hansa's glory.</p> + +<p>But before we speak of the agitated period of +Wullenweber's ambitious plans, let us see how, on his +part, Gustavus Vasa showed his gratitude to the town +to which he owed so much. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span></p> + +<p>Gustavus Vasa had even less consideration than +Frederick. During his residence in Lübeck he had +learned to appreciate the material results that sprang +from trade, and was secretly resolved that his own +subjects and not these strangers should benefit by the +country's resources. At first he, like Frederick, +accorded the Hansa munificent charters. Indeed, he +could not do less than assent to all their demands; he +was deeply their debtor for money advanced during +his wars, for material as well as moral assistance. He +had no gold or silver to offer them, but he could +accord them the exclusive use of those gold mines, the +Baltic and the Sound. The Hansa should have the +trading monopoly "for ever and ever," so ran the +words of the charter.</p> + +<p>But as soon as Gustavus felt the crown firmly +planted on his head, and had in part paid off his debt, +he applied himself to securing the commercial independence +of his country and to making the League +understand the meaning of the words "for ever," +when they occur in a promise. He resolutely set his +face against the Hanseatic claims for monopoly. +"Gustavus was an angel at first," piteously writes the +Lübeck official chronicler; "Alas, that he should so +soon have become a devil."</p> + +<p>In open assembly, 1526, the king did not hesitate +to speak the following words of unmistakable clearness: +"We must," he said, "withdraw from the +strangers their unrestricted liberty; we must open the +Swedish harbours to all ships." Next year even +more definite words were spoken in the assembly. +It was decided "to curtail the Hanseatic privileges +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span> +without further delay, as seriously prejudicial to the +kingdom."</p> + +<p>There was one way by which Lübeck could retain +in leading strings the "vassals," as she proudly called +them, who had grown over her head. This was by +means of their still unpaid debts. But Gustavus +worked unremittingly towards attaining this end. +His country, which was poor, had been yet further +impoverished by wars, but still he succeeded, by +means of heavy taxation, in raising supplies. He +taxed everything that he could think of. It is said +even hazel-nuts were subjected to this burden. Nay +he even persuaded various towns and communes to +melt down their church bells in order to expunge the +national debt. By these trenchant means he succeeded +in reducing it to a small amount by the year +1532, and then threatened the Hansa with yet more +repressive measures, if they ventured to persist in +claiming their ancient privileges.</p> + +<p>No wonder that the ill-humour of the Lübeckers +grew from day to day, and that they used to say to +each other, "This is our thanks for having made an +ox driver a king."</p> + +<p>But Gustavus never swerved from his fixed resolve +to make an end of Hanseatic privileges and monopolies +as far as concerned his kingdom. By the time +of his death in 1560 the power of the League was +broken in Sweden beyond all hope or possibility of +revival. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>III.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">WULLENWEBER.</h3> + +<p>Among the various disintegrating influences at +work upon the League we have already named the +Reformation. The new doctrines were destined at +first to bring little blessing to the land in which they +took their birth, and more especially to the Hansa +was the purer creed to prove a source of dissension, +resulting in eventual dissolution. Among other +causes this was due to the fact that the cities did +not all or at the same time embrace Protestantism. +Thus a schism arose in their very midst: the Protestant +cities eyeing the Catholic with distrust, and +<i>vice versâ</i>. Moreover, these changes of view and +system led to great disunion in the various towns +themselves, often temporarily weakening the authority +of the municipality and causing the city to be too +much pre-occupied to attend to the common affairs +and the welfare of the entire League. The movement +also took different forms in different centres. In +some it came about quite easily, and found the ground +all ready prepared; in others, it entered with strife +and bloodshed, or with fanatical excesses and absurdities, +as for example in Bremen, and Münster, where +the over-excited sect of the Anabaptists held sway. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span></p> + +<p>It was especially in the North, that the trade in +indulgences, consequent on a Papal need for ready +money, found the most rigid opponents. The clear-headed +burghers resented this demand as an insolent +defiance of their common sense, and many who had +already been half unconsciously influenced by the +stream of tendency towards a reformed faith, manifested +in the persons of Wickliffe and Huss, felt that +this outrageous and unblushing traffic was too much +for their credulity. The travelling merchants bought +Luther's pamphlets, and carried them to their various +homes. The wandering apprentices learnt the stirring +psalms of the "Wittenberg nightingale." A new +spiritual day was dawning, above all for the lower +classes, who, ignorant of Latin, the language of the +Catholic creed, were unable to follow or comprehend +the services of the church they attended.</p> + +<p>It was in consequence of this awakening, and the +wider and nobler mode of thinking, and the educating +force which it implied, that hand-in-hand with the +religious movement there became manifest also a +political stirring. The character of this was democratic, +and it is not hard to understand why it was so. +The people who had groaned under the oppression +of the clergy and of the aristocracy, who almost +invariably were their allies, began to assert their +rights. They could now read the Scriptures in the +vulgar tongue, and thence could learn that the blind +submission demanded by the priests was by no means +an integral part of Christianity. They remembered +how the cities had been founded on democratic +principles; they drew to light old privileges and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span> +charters; and by their memory and their ardour they +made things far from comfortable for the burgomasters +and patricians who held the government of +the towns. Especially was their power felt by the +arrogant and dissolute clergy, whose property they +confiscated and devoted to public purposes, and +whose churches and monasteries they converted into +almshouses and schools.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to realize the absolute moral corruption +of the priests, monks, and nuns, in order to +comprehend the anger of the populace, and to excuse +the excesses into which they were led by their +righteous zeal. Nor must it be forgotten that the +people had groaned under the Vehmic Tribunal, +which persecuted heretics, and that they had beheld +Christians burn their fellow-Christians for the glory +of God.</p> + +<p>Already, early in the century, Dr. Johann Bugenhagen +had been elected Bishop of the Lutheran +Hanseatic cities, and their need for such an office +gives us an indication of their numbers and importance. +Bugenhagen was a man specially suited to +work out the reform of doctrines and to set in order +church affairs, and this work he performed for the +whole of Northern Germany and Denmark. The +new movement gathered strength. It advanced like +a mighty ocean with resistless power. Only Lübeck, +of all the northern cities, remained untouched by the +storms beating around it. True to its stubbornly +conservative character it continued longer than the +rest faithful to the Roman hierarchy. But even +Lübeck had to yield. The pressure to which it gave +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span> +way came from the people. For some time past +these had craved teachers of "the purer word" as +the new creed was at first called. At first the +demands were refused on imperial authority, but +after a while concessions were made. It was needful +to conciliate the inhabitants, for the funds of the city +were low, thanks to the wars for Frederick and +Gustavus, and it was foreseen that new taxes would +be submitted to with a bad grace. Indeed, when in +1529 the rulers appealed to the guilds to support +them in imposing new taxes they were answered by +a delegation of forty-eight persons who replied to +the municipal demands in bold terms, of which the +upshot was that they would treat of "no money +questions until the municipality should permit the +introduction of the evangelical teaching" and the +sacrament be administered in both forms. This +language was unmistakably clear, and the city rulers +seeing the townspeople were in earnest, yielded to +all their demands. Thus in 1531 Lübeck openly +acknowledged the Lutheran creed. The democracy +had spoken and triumphed. They had made their +power felt; they were conscious of their success, and +they did not mean easily to abandon their newly +acquired position of importance. The leader and +spokesman of this demonstration was Jürgen Wullenweber, +the man whose ambition and energy were to +give to the Hansa yet one more proud moment of +triumph; one more, and the last.</p> + +<p>The origin and the life of Jürgen Wullenweber +are to this day wrapped in some mystery. It suited +the various party factions to represent him respectively +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span> +as an idol and a scoundrel. Even the records that +survive concerning him in Lübeck are few. But +modern research has unearthed much, and proved +incontestably that Wullenweber, even if personally +ambitious, was a true and disinterested patriot. Time +has thrown round his figure a sort of mystical halo. +He has been made the hero of many German +romances, and the protagonist of various German +plays.</p> + +<p>Of his family little is known except that they came +from Hamburg, and were no doubt at first wool +weavers, as the name implies. Jürgen's name does +not appear in any Lübeck register until the year +1530, when he was chosen a member of the Burgher +Committee. He is there described as a merchant.</p> + +<p>This man had been the chosen spokesman of the +democratic party on the occasion when they defied +the city rulers. Soon after he was elected into the +municipal council, and it was not long before it was +generally felt that new blood stirred within that body. +In 1533 King Frederick of Denmark died. During +the interregnum that followed the Danes entered into +a defensive alliance with the Swedes against their +common oppressors, the Hansa. The Scandinavian +nations wished to emancipate themselves from the +League's tutelage. Wullenweber at a glance recognized +the full gravity of the situation. He thought +now or never the time had come to reassert, if need +be by force of arms, the Hansa's might; now or +never was the moment to punish for their ingratitude +and faithlessness the two kings Lübeck had created. +He called together a council, meeting in the guildhall, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span> +March 16, 1533, and with eloquent, ardent words, +he laid before the assembly the whole political +situation, its gravity, and its possibilities. He showed +how the entire Hanseatic trade was endangered by +the commerce of the Netherlands in the Baltic. He +urged the bold scheme that Lübeck should take +forcible possession of the Sound, and thus hold in +its own hands the key to that sea.</p> + +<p>It was a scheme which had often crossed the minds +of the Lübeck councillors, but which since the days +of Waldemar Atterdag they had never tried to carry +into effect, recognizing probably that the might of +the League was not great enough to retain such a +point of vantage, even if their physical force sufficed +to gain it.</p> + +<p>Wullenweber's eloquence and self-confidence, however, +carried the day. The next thing was to consider +the matter of funds. Jürgen reminded his hearers +of the silver and gold ornaments and church decoration +confiscated by the State in consequence of the +Reformation. These he said could be melted down. +As before, he was listened to and obeyed. He spared +nothing in his zeal, even the colossal chandelier of +St. Mary's Church had to go into the melting pot to +make cannons. So much for the funds. It was now +needful to find the men. This was no arduous task. +Lübeck was a favourite resort for the mercenaries +who in those times roamed the world in search of +adventure and pay. Among these men were Max +Meyer, a native of Hamburg, destined to become the +<i>condottiere</i> of the League in its last war.</p> + +<p>The figure of Max Meyer is a most romantic one. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span> +His parents can never have credited what the fairies +sang around the boy's cradle, that he would become +a friend of the great king of England, Henry VIII., +and have his portrait painted by the most eminent +artist of his day, Holbein. He was born in the humblest +circumstances, and brought up as a blacksmith. +Two great iron conduits, the work of his hand, are +shown in Hamburg to this day. He was a tall, strong, +fine looking man, with lively eyes and large hands, +and whoever beheld him at his smithy, swinging +his large hammer upon the anvil, could not help +fancying that he beheld some old Norse Viking, who +was moulding his own sword, so bold and enterprising +did he look. And, indeed, a desire for adventures +stirred in his blood. He knew no rest beside his +smithy fire. He felt he must go into the world. +Already, as an apprentice, he had fought in some of +the northern disturbances, had served as ensign under +Christian II. Throwing aside his hammer, he once +more ranged the world in search of danger and distinction. +Coming to Lübeck, in the course of his +travels, he was engaged by that city to lead the 800 men +whom she was sending to the emperor as aid against +the Turks. A year after he returned to his native +city, glorious and victorious, rich in booty and honours. +Hamburg received him as though he were a great and +powerful lord, and he impressed all his friends and +relations by his magnificence. When he rode away +to return to Lübeck, dressed in a full cuirass, with +nodding plumes upon his helmet, a local chronicler +wrote that "he was so good to look upon, that, although +he was a blacksmith, yet he was such a fine, clever +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span> +fellow, he could pass anywhere for a nobleman." He +left Hamburg in triumph, trumpeters heading the procession, +in which there were forty men in full armour, +and two great waggon-loads of booty. The foremost +men of the city conducted him to the gates.</p> + +<p>Arrived at Lübeck, Max Meyer entered it in the +same proud manner in which he had left Hamburg, +greatly impressing the townspeople by his wealth and +splendour. Among those who saw his entry and beheld +him with a favourable eye was the rich widow of the +Burgomaster Lunte. She lost her heart entirely to +the handsome blacksmith, and at last she married +him, sorely against the wish and will of her family. +Thus Max Meyer became a person of importance in +Lübeck, thanks to his marriage and his wife's connections, +and, consequently, he was thrown into close +relations with Wullenweber. The latter was not slow to +recognize that he was dealing with no common person, +and that here might be the instrumental hand to aid +his schemes. And, indeed, Max Meyer soon became +Wullenweber's close ally.</p> + +<p>It was while Lübeck was thus at war with the Netherlands +that Max Meyer, as commander of the city's +war-ships, approached the English coasts, hearing +that some twenty-four Dutch merchant vessels were +sailing in these waters. He hoped to capture them +and to obtain rich booty. In this attempt, however, +he failed; but he took, instead, some Spanish ships +laden with English goods. This was a breach of the +peace, since the Hansa was not at war with England; +but, regardless of this act, Meyer, perhaps because in +want of provisions, actually sailed into an English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span> +harbour and anchored his vessel. King Henry, who +had heard of his presence, and knew him to be a +Lübeck captain carrying on hostilities against the +Netherlands, received him with great honour. The +English king had his own private reasons for wishing +to stand well with the Hansa. He knew they were +Protestants, and that they were not too well disposed +to the Emperor Charles, from whom he also had +become estranged, now that he had grown weary of +his Imperial Highness's aunt, the elderly Catherine +of Aragon. As the Pope would not listen to the +scruples of his tender conscience about having taken +to wife his brother's widow, from whom he sought a +divorce on that account—according to his own showing—he +hoped, not wrongly, that the Protestants +would take less stubborn and unscriptural views of +the indissolubility of the marriage contract, and he +therefore sought to conciliate all Protestant powers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo249" id="illo249"></a> +<img src="images/illo249.jpg" width="460" height="550" alt="HENRY VIII." /> +<p class="caption">HENRY VIII.</p> +</div> + +<p>But the England of those days, like the England +of ours, was a law-abiding country, and three days after +King Henry had received Meyer with great feasts and +honours at Court, the royal guest was arrested as a +pirate. It was pleaded that he ought to suffer the +common penalty of piracy, that is to say, death. In +these straits the merchants of the Steelyard came +forward to aid their representative, offering to stand +surety for him. They succeeded in averting the +sentence of death by restoring the value of the goods +seized; they could not succeed in relieving him from the +imprisonment which his breach of international faith +had incurred. Max Meyer had to go to prison, +whence he was released at last only by the intervention +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span> +of the municipality of Lübeck, though not until +he had almost served his time.</p> + +<p>Justice satisfied, Max Meyer returned to King +Henry's Court, and was once more made a welcome +guest. Whether he was empowered by the city to +act as plenipotentiary, or whether, in the first instance, +he acted on his own account, does not appear. But +what is certain is that he made a number of proposals +to King Henry, to which the latter lent a willing +ear, that Meyer was knighted by his royal host, and +received from him a golden chain in token of the +honour in which he held him, and that Henry further +promised him a yearly income of three hundred and +a half golden crowns. The terms were that the +English king should advance a considerable sum +to Lübeck towards her war expenses—a sum which the +city promised to refund and to double, out of the first +profits derived from the conquered Danish kingdom.</p> + +<p>Henry's object in this alliance was chiefly to harass +and annoy his Catholic compeers, and to have a rich +Protestant ally in the complications that were thickening +round him. There was not much result from the +friendship on either side; but for the moment, the +news that the King of England was their friend and +supporter, gave renewed courage to the democratic +party in Lübeck. It also gave them ready cash wherewith +to carry on the war with the Netherlands and +their friends the Danes. For war it must be. This +Wullenweber openly advocated, after various vain +attempts to induce the Danish king to grant the +Hansa's requests. Wullenweber himself had on two +occasions been sent by Lübeck as their ambassador +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">251</a></span> +to Copenhagen, and had returned home furious at +the want of success that met his negotiations. Why +should not the Hansa, he pleaded, once more play the +<i>rôle</i> of king-maker? Gustavus Vasa had proved a failure +and a disappointment to the League, had broken +every promise he had made to them. Let a new king +be put in his place. Those who had helped the +Swedish king into power with a hundred marks, should +help him out of power with five hundred marks, he +boasted; adding that before the next carnival he +should make a masquerade before King Gustavus that +he would not despise. For Denmark too he had his +plan; and this was no other than to reinstate Christian +II., once the enemy of the League. Christian +had always opposed the aristocracy and the clergy, +and had proclaimed himself the friend of the people. +Reinstated by the Hansa, he would owe them gratitude, +so reckoned Wullenweber, and being popular +with the lower classes in Denmark the League might +reckon upon their support. To aid him in this enterprise +the dictator turned to the Count of Oldenburg, +a relation of the dethroned king, an intrepid and intelligent +Lutheran known as the Alcibiades of the +North.</p> + +<p>Christopher of Oldenburg, at that time thirty years +of age, handsome in face and stature, was one of those +princelings of Germany, of which the race is not quite +extinct, whose title was their sole fortune and who, +in former days, were willing to sell their services to +any king who needed their aid, and in more modern +times are utilized to marry the redundant princesses +of royal parentage, for whom no match can be found +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">252</a></span> +among the reduced number of reigning houses. +These bold <i>condottieri</i>, whether in search of adventure, +of booty, or of a marriage portion and ease, +had little but their wits to rely upon. Christopher +of Oldenburg, for example, possessed as his whole +patrimony an old convent. He had attracted +around him, however, a band of devoted troops, +free lances, willing to follow wherever he led: +men without fatherland, faith, or ideal, the scum +of all lands, whose desire was bloodshed and booty, +and whose sole religion was obedience to their +chosen captain. Christopher of Oldenburg was not +an ordinary chief. With the military courage of a +<i>condottiere</i> he combined a bright intellect and a mind +of real elevation. He was well educated and well +read. A copy of Homer accompanied him in all his +adventures; his passionate desire was to be a hero of +romance. This was the kind of instrument Wullenweber +required; the man who could realize, appreciate, +and help to carry out his bold designs. And these +were, in a word, to put the Hansa in possession of the +Sound. Possessing this advantage, with two obedient +monarchs upon the respective thrones of Denmark +and Sweden, and enjoining the moral and material +support of the English king, the League would once +more be as in the days of its greatest glory.</p> + +<p>So reasoned Wullenweber, and not without reason. +But he was too ambitious, or, at any rate, too bold. +He had not reckoned with the apathy and the +economic egotism that dictated the policy of the +sister towns. He was to play a dangerous game. +He staked his all and he lost. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span></p> + +<p>Wullenweber's original plan was to attack Denmark, +while carrying on at the same time the war with +the Netherlands. This proposal, which besides being +audacious, meant a great outlay of money, alarmed +the other cities, and, above all, the town of Hamburg. +Owing to her endeavours, a brilliant congress was +assembled within her walls during the month of +March, 1534, when it was proposed to examine carefully +the various points of grievance at issue between +the Hansa and her opponents. There were present +delegates from the various Baltic cities, imperial councillors, +Netherland grandees, and Danish nobles. But +none of them exceeded in outward splendour the representatives +of Lübeck, Jürgen Wullenweber and Max +Meyer, as they rode into the city of Hamburg, dressed +in full armour preceded by the chief of Lübeck's militia, +by trumpeters and drummers, and followed by sixty +armed riders. The timid Hamburgers glanced at all +this military display with some terror, feeling assured +that such a proud bearing meant that the town that +sent forth these men would not easily yield its claims. +Already, before the first assembly of the delegates, +Wullenweber had been regarded with an evil eye by +many of the other Hanseatic envoys. They could +not grasp the ultimate ends he had in view for the +benefit of the League. They thought he was inciting +to needless expense and disturbance. They did not +understand, still less did they sympathize with, the +democratic wave which had swept over Lübeck, and +which had brought two such men as Wullenweber +and Max Meyer to the front. Local chroniclers, +speaking of this meeting of plenipotentiaries, call the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span> +Hamburgers "the peace loving," and accuse the +Lübeckers of being "the instigators of the woful +wars."</p> + +<p>On March 2, 1534, the Congress was opened by +the Burgomaster of Hamburg in the grand council +chamber of the local guildhall, an historical room, +unfortunately destroyed in the great fire that devastated +Hamburg in 1842. In an eloquent speech the +local magnate described the miseries entailed by the +war in which the Lübeckers had engaged against the +Dutch, and urged that peace should be concluded in +the interest of the common Hanseatic merchants. +The burgomaster was followed by an imperial councillor, +who said the same things in yet stronger terms. +Wullenweber was visibly angered. His anger was +increased when the Dutch envoy rose to his feet and +claimed that it should be laid down as a principle +"that the sea and all other waters should be free to +the shipping of whosoever listed," adding that "if +the Lübeckers suffered damage in consequence, they +should find comfort in God's will and in the mutability +of all earthly things."</p> + +<p>This was too much for Wullenweber's temper to +bear. He declared with violence that if the speeches +continued in this tone and spirit he and his colleagues +should leave the assembly, and this, in fact, they +shortly afterwards did. Not only did he leave the +assembly, but the city also, after he found that all the +demands of Lübeck fell on deaf ears. But before +he left he made a powerful speech in the guildhall, +wherein he asserted and maintained that all he had +done had been done solely for the general benefit of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span> +the League. He even accused the other Hanseatic +delegates of being Dutch in sympathy, "a thing," he +added, "which they and the Dutch would repent of +as long as he lived."</p> + +<p>He was asked to explain his projects. He sketched +a plan almost identical in spirit with the Navigation +Act of Cromwell; it might indeed almost be regarded +as its prototype. When taunted regarding the egotism +of this proposal, when told that the sole purpose +that inspired it was to prevent the vessels of other +powers from deriving a profit out of carriage of goods, +Wullenweber retorted as angrily as Cromwell might +have done, and with the same contempt for the petty +spirits that could see no higher object, nor any larger +or wider aims than purely personal and financial ones. +To Wullenweber's mind there was at stake not only +vulgar profit, but the control and supervision of the +Baltic trade, the maintenance of the Hanseatic +colonies, indeed of all commercial navigation; in a +word, of everything that had made the Hansa what +it was.</p> + +<p>The colonial policy pursued by the Hansa, which +had been one of its sources of strength, became a +cause of weakness, and ultimately led to its fall. It +was based in all essentials upon the same principles +as those pursued later by other nations with regard +to their foreign non-European colonies, and which +led in time to the loss of these same colonies. The +chief points were these: that the direct intercourse +and traffic with the Eastern settlements and their +commercial domain were reserved exclusively to +Hanseatic vessels, and that transport by land was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span> +forbidden, because in that case it was not so easy to +keep watch upon business, and to be assured that no +Hanseatic laws were transgressed. Foreign flags +were excluded from all Eastern ports and non-Hanseatic +merchants not admitted to their markets. All +traffic from the Eastern cities to non-Hanseatic +places, and all traffic with these places were to go by +way of Lübeck. This is the sum of the Lübeck +Staple Act, which had a little sunk into abeyance +during the late disorders and which Wullenweber +desired to see fully reinforced. Again, to refer to +England's dictator, with whom Wullenweber had +some points of resemblance, this Lübeck staple was +neither more nor less than the British staple, prescribed +by Cromwell's Navigation Act, when it excluded +foreign flags from American harbours, and +interdicted the Americans from sending ships to any +other European harbour than those of the mother-land. +Two hundred years separated these two +Tribunes of the People from each other, and yet, in +some respects, their ideals and ideas were identical. +But to return to the course of our narrative, which +has been interrupted in order to make clearer the +aims the Lübeck burgomaster had in view.</p> + +<p>Wullenweber grew daily more angered at the tone +adopted in the Congress, not only from his opponents, +but by those from whom he had a right to look for +support.</p> + +<p>On March 12th, accompanied by Max Meyer, and +the same military train with which he had entered, +he left Hamburg, shaking the dust of the city off his +feet in anger. He was soon followed by the delegates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span> +of the other Baltic cities. The congress had +come to an untimely end, and nothing had been +settled.</p> + +<p>Wullenweber's object in returning so precipitately +was twofold. He desired to know the wishes of the +city under the changed circumstances, and he wished +to complain of the colleagues who had failed to +support him. This precipitous return greatly alarmed +the citizens, all the more because during Wullenweber's +absence the aristocratic party had tried to +lodge various complaints against the absent burgomaster, +and to stir up the people to revolt and +discontent. They had even ventured to insinuate +that he was guilty of "stealing and treason." Indeed, +the tumult in the city was so great and seemed so +threatening, that many timid spirits began to think +that discretion was the better part of valour, and that +it would be well to absent themselves awhile.</p> + +<p>Into this state of affairs Wullenweber, by his +unexpected return, dropped like a bombshell. He +saw that energetic steps were needful here. He did +not hesitate for a moment to take them. A meeting +of the Forty-six was held, who were charged to +invite the burghers to a general assembly in St. +Mary's Church. More than a thousand persons +replied to the summons. Wullenweber mounted the +pulpit. In ardent words he expressed his patriotic +intentions, and related in detail the reasons for his +abrupt departure from Hamburg. He also complained +most bitterly of the conduct of those who +should have supported him. Next day he addressed +a similar meeting in the guildhall, and spoke, if +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span> +possible, in stronger terms, openly accusing his +opponents of envy, and saying he was well aware +that some among them even intended to attack him +at night in his house, and to make him prisoner.</p> + +<p>The upshot of his two speeches was that the democratic +party once more gained the upper hand; that +it was agreed that Wullenweber should act entirely +according to his own discretion in the matter with +the Netherlanders; that three of the municipal councillors +inimical to him should be removed from their +place; and that various burghers, whom he designated +as "of Swedish or Netherlandish sympathy," should +either be banished or imprisoned.</p> + +<p>With his power thus increased, Wullenweber +returned to Hamburg, and the congress was reopened. +Since, however, he could gain no support +from the other Hanseatic cities for his policy of continuing +the war with the Netherlands, he at last +consented to accept a truce of four years; a truce +which he recognized would leave his hands free for +the execution of his other plans.</p> + +<p>Nor did he hesitate for a moment to put them into +action. Riders and foot messengers were engaged in +all directions; the "peace ships" were put into war +condition; emissaries were sent to the sister towns to +explain fully the purpose of the new attack upon the +Scandinavian North, and to ask what assistance they +proposed to render in money, ships, and men.</p> + +<p>Wullenweber's plan was really a stroke of genius, +and by no means so foolhardy or foolish as his +enemies have since tried to prove it. It was: to +form around the whole Baltic basin a sort of German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span> +confederation, and had it succeeded, or rather had +it not been impeded by the petty vacillating policy +of the other cities, it would have marked a re-birth +of the Hansa, and there would have been no power +in the North that could have opposed it.</p> + +<p>In May, 1534, hostilities began with Denmark, and +Sweden was also threatened with armed intervention, +in case the broken promises to the Hansa were still +left unfulfilled. To the people, the counter promise +was made that they should have nothing to fear from +the Hansa's armies, "if they did not second the arrogance +of their king."</p> + +<p>To this Gustavus replied by demanding help from +his brother rulers, saying "that it was intolerable that +the Lübeckers should put up for auction the three +good old northern realms, just as if they were their +market wares."</p> + +<p>In a short time the whole North was in flames. At +first extraordinary success crowned the attacks of the +Hansa's fleet and armies, and by Midsummer, 1534, +almost the entire Danish kingdom was in the hands +of the Lübeckers. Then fortune somewhat turned, +and Lübeck had to see an army surround its very +walls, much to the consternation of the inmates. +This danger was however happily averted, thanks to +clever negotiations and force of arms; but meanwhile +things had grown yet more complicated and intricate +in the Scandinavian question. Party faction and +religious jealousies prevented corporate action. +There was a moment when things looked so black +that even Wullenweber was daunted, and the confession +escaped him that "if he were not in the middle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span> +of all this muddle, he should take good care to keep +outside it."</p> + +<p>In the midst of these difficulties dawned the year +1535, one of the most fatal in the life of the German +States; a year destined to unravel and settle for ever +the northern confusions.</p> + +<p>Such a spectacle as the Baltic presented at this +period it had not shown for many a long day. In +the Sound, in all the Danish seas, in all the narrow +waterways that separated the islands from one +another, were seen waving from the tall masts of the +Hanseatic "peace ships," the flag of the League, and +in the harbours of Lübeck, Rostock, and Stralsund, +more ships were put upon a war footing. There was +likewise seen the white-and-black banner of the +Prussian flotilla, sent to aid the imprisoned Danish +king, while the flags of Denmark and Sweden +fluttered from their respective vessels.</p> + +<p>Nor was the spectacle on land less animated than +that on the sea. Troops, mercenaries of every land +and language crowded the shore of the mainland. It +was evident that the encounter would be severe, the +resistance great. The first check came to the Hansa +in the shape of the capture of Max Meyer, owing to +the false information given to him by the Danish +commandant of Scania. Christian III. was proclaimed +king of Denmark, and Gustavus Vasa lent +the new king his most active aid. Things did not +look well for the League, but Wullenweber, though +he grew serious and thoughtful as he learnt the news, +was not discouraged. He continued to confide "in +divine help." +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span></p> + +<p>A vast number of intrigues were now set on foot, +whose purpose was to alienate or conciliate, as the +case might be, the various Catholic and Protestant +kings and princes; thus giving to the entire quarrel +a party character. Lübeck counted on the assistance +of Henry of England, and offered the king in +return for substantial subsidies the entire kingdom of +Denmark as his booty.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Max Meyer was fretting at his enforced +imprisonment and absence from the scene of action. +In March, by means of a subtle, but not specially +honest, subterfuge, he managed to escape from the +castle that held him, and thanks to his fertility of +resource, and to his popularity, he soon found himself +surrounded by quite a little army, and resolved to +carry on the war in his own manner, and according +to his own ideas. It is said that he offered the +throne of Denmark to Francis I. of France, an offer +which that monarch refused. Nor did he forget his +old friend, bluff King Hal of England, who, in his +turn, seems not to have forgotten him. Though +Henry nominally rejected the proposals made to him +by Max Meyer, it is certain he continued to give him +substantial and moral support, so that, owing to +English help, Max Meyer was able to hold out in the +seaboard castle of Vardberg, in which he had ensconced +himself, until his tragic end. The gateway +over its lintel, bore, till the time of its destruction, +the arms of the Tudor, a delicate compliment from +Max Meyer to Henry, implying that the castle was +in very truth the king's.</p> + +<p>The first great encounter of the armies took place +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span> +by sea in the month of June. In number and excellence +of ships the Hansa had the advantage. The +Lübeckers were still the best shipbuilders of the +northern world, and many of the Danish and Swedish +vessels sent against them were nothing more than +herring-boats and fishing smacks roughly put on a +war footing. If victory depended on strength and +numbers alone, it seemed assured to the Hansa. Unhappily, +among the many secret methods employed +by the aristocratic party to break the power of the +democratic faction, there existed bribery and corruption +of the ship captains. The usual Hanseatic +concord was absent.</p> + +<p>Indeed, herein is to be found in a great measure +the explanation of the ill success of the Hansa. +When Jürgen Wullenweber dreamed that he would +revive the days and glories of Waldemar Atterdag he +forgot that the burgomasters of those days when they +set out for battle were followed by an army consisting +of the burghers themselves, that, for example, in the +struggle for Scania in 1368, no less than sixteen +hundred citizens gave up their lives to gain a +victory for the League. With the increase of wealth +had grown up, as is usual, an increase of luxury and +idleness. Citizens of rich Hanseatic towns contented +themselves with keeping watch in turns at the city +gates, with defending their own city walls, with interfering +in street brawls and keeping order in the town. +But when it came to active fighting, to going abroad +to battle, they preferred to hire the mercenaries with +which Germany was overrun, thanks to the disturbed +state of the land arising out of the continual wars of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span> +Charles V. Hence arose the class known as <i>Landsknechte</i>; +hence it came about that in those days +German often fought against German, and that all +true patriotic sentiments were extinguished. The +rich Queen of the Hansa, Lübeck, had of course met +with no difficulty in finding numbers willing to serve +under her flag and to accept her pay, but these men, +as is but too natural, did not fight with that enthusiasm +and ardour which men display when the +cause is their own. Jürgen Wullenweber was of the +old Hanseatic type, but the mould that had formed +him was broken. His contemporaries were not up to +the level of his noble and patriotic ambition. Had +he been ably seconded the whole history of Northern +Germany might have been transformed.</p> + +<p>As we have said, the fleets met in hostile encounter +in the month of June. After some heavy fighting +the heavens themselves interposed in the strife. A +great storm arose, driving the vessels of the foes +asunder. Two days later the decisive combat was +fought on land. The place of encounter was Assens, +on the island of Fünen, a spot where human sacrifices +used to be offered to the great Norse god Odin. +This battle of Assens ended in the complete discomfiture +of the burgher army, and there followed immediately +afterwards another meeting by sea, when +the Hansa had to suffer the shame of seeing some of +its vessels flee before the enemy, while others capitulated +in cowardly fashion.</p> + +<p>The consequences of these battles made themselves +felt instantly. What Wullenweber had said the +previous year when he was yet the victor was now +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span> +realized, "that it was easier to conquer Denmark +than to keep it." For not only Fünen, but Zealand +and Scania fell off from the burgomaster's party after +the defeat at Assens, and did homage to Christian III. +as their king and ruler. Only Copenhagen, Malmöe, +and a few small towns refused this allegiance, and +still offered an armed resistance. But it was not to +be of long duration.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the close of Wullenweber's proud career +approached. It is characteristic of the whole course +of German history, that the fall of Wullenweber, and +the ultimate fall of the Hansa, were due not so much +to external as to internal enemies. Petty jealousies, +"particularism," to use their own phrase, that is to +say, practising a church-steeple policy rather than a +wide and liberal one, has ever been a danger to Germany. +It defeated the efforts of Wullenweber, as it +did those of the patriots of 1848, and of many more +before and since.</p> + +<p>In July the Hanseatic Diet was called together to +consider the state of the League's affairs; and on this +occasion a number of the cities, and chief among +them the inland ones, found a much desired occasion +to vent the wrath and envy which they had long +nourished against Lübeck and its democratic dictator. +A number of attacks, some of them of the +most despicably petty character, were made against +Wullenweber. The Lübeckers were told that they +had permitted "irregular disorders," and that it was +they who disturbed the general concord of the +common Hansa. Most bitter of all were the charges +launched by Cologne, the town that had long been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span> +jealous of the power of her northern sister. Forgetful +of the whole course of Hanseatic history, she ventured +to say that it would seem strange to the emperor and +other princely potentates, that a town like Lübeck +should meddle with such great matters as the deposition +and installation of kings.</p> + +<p>To this taunt Lübeck replied with dignity, pointing +out that she had no wish either to change the faith of +the kings or to murder them (as Cologne had previously +suggested), but that according to treaty she +had the right to act as she had done, and that she +had acted, not for the sake of exhibiting her own +power, but because of the natural, intimate, and needful +relationship that existed between Denmark and +the Baltic towns. Since olden days no king might +be elected in Denmark without the knowledge of +Lübeck, and on this they had ever acted.</p> + +<p>The men of Cologne were not abashed by this +reference to history. They replied that it might be +so, and that the Lübeckers had the right they would +not deny; but they repeated, it made a strange +impression upon kings and princes that the men of +Lübeck should make and unmake kings.</p> + +<p>Alas! how were the mighty fallen! What a +degradation of sentiment in the Hansa when the +cause of one was no longer the cause of all!</p> + +<p>Some days later, in reply to a similar attack, the +Lübeckers replied, in the old bold spirit that characterized +the Hansa in its best times, "In one thing +they had made a mistake, and that was when they +helped two such worthless men as the kings of +Denmark and Sweden to power, and had further +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span> +made them great, in return for which they were now +ill repaid."</p> + +<p>Cologne then tried to shift its recriminations on to +the religious ground. Glancing at the excesses committed +in Münster by the Anabaptists, she ventured +to question the benefits that had accrued to Lübeck +and other Hanse cities from the Reformation, concluding +with the shameless words, "In our city we +hang, behead, or drown all heretics, and find ourselves +very comfortable in consequence."</p> + +<p>To most of these attacks Wullenweber as representative +of Lübeck had to reply in person. He +knew too well that many of them were aimed directly +at himself. He strove hard to keep his hot temper in +check and to reply with moderation and dignity.</p> + +<p>The attitude of these Diet meetings, however, was +but to prove the prologue to the intrigues which were +to eject Wullenweber and his party from power, and +to break not only the hegemony of Lübeck, but that +of the whole Hansa—a consummation the opponents +certainly did not intend. "Those whom the gods +wish to destroy they first strike with blindness," +says the Latin proverb, and its truth was once more +made manifest by the attitude of the Hanseatic towns +among themselves. They who had ever been so +strong and so united, now no longer held together in +brotherly concord, and weakness and disruption were +the result.</p> + +<p>The instrument that was to spring the chief mine +on Wullenweber and his party was found in the +person of Nicholas Brömse. This man was one of +the leading personages of the Municipal Council of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> +Lübeck in the early days of the sixteenth century, and +was burgomaster of the town in the days when +Gustavus Vasa arrived there as a fugitive. Indeed, +he is said to have been one of the most zealous friends +and protectors of the young Vasa. When the Reformation +dissensions began to stir in the city, Brömse +was among the most pronounced opponents of the +purer creed, and repeatedly, by his personal interference, +retarded its introduction. Indeed once, after +it was officially introduced, he succeeded, in virtue of +his personal influence with Charles V., in getting the +Lutheran creed forbidden in the town. In so doing, +however, he somewhat exceeded his limits; his action +aroused suspicion in the council and hatred among +the citizens; and finally, in 1532, he had to resign his +post and fly secretly from Lübeck to escape the wrath +of his enemies. He made his way to the imperial +Court, at that time located in Brussels, and there he +gained the ear and favour of Charles. Thence he +watched with anxious curiosity the course which +events were taking in his native town. He was biding +his time to revenge himself upon the city that had +ejected him, and upon the burgomaster who had +supplanted him in popular favour.</p> + +<p>When Nicholas Brömse learnt how the Hanseatic +Diet had censured the action of Jürgen Wullenweber, +he thought that the time for which he had long waited +had come. He employed all his personal influence +with the emperor to induce him to take a decisive +step against the city of Lübeck, and with good result. +For there issued from the imperial council chamber, +June 7, 1535, a decree, stating that unless within six +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span> +weeks and three days from the receipt of this document +the town of Lübeck had abolished all democratic +innovations and reinstated in the government +Nicholas Brömse and other councillors banished +together with him, the town would be declared under +the imperial ban.</p> + +<p>With Jesuitical astuteness not a word was breathed +regarding Church reforms, but it was fully understood +that a blow was aimed at the Lutheran creed quite +as much as at Jürgen Wullenweber and the democratic +party.</p> + +<p>A Hanseatic Diet was sitting at Lübeck when this +decree arrived. A committee was at once chosen to +discuss the acceptance of the imperial mandate. It +decided that obedience must be tendered to the +dictates of the imperial council. In consequence the +democratic party resigned power, and Wullenweber, +who understood well that the whole was chiefly aimed +at him, saw that there remained nothing for him to do +but follow his party.</p> + +<p>After delivering before the Diet a speech of great +dignity marked by unusual moderation, in which he +said if it were the will of God and were adjudged for +the common weal that he should retire, he should +certainly not refuse, he laid down in August, 1535, +the office he had filled with such zeal and patriotic +ambition.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of popular gratitude that when +he returned from the guildhall, after completing the +deed of renunciation, he was followed by a crowd that +hissed and hooted him. This people of shopkeepers +turned upon the man who was their true friend +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span> +because the wars had impoverished them, had +slackened their trade, and had brought distress within +their walls. They did not recognize, or they forgot, +that they themselves had encouraged the outbreak +of these hostilities, and had applauded and sustained +the man who proposed them; and that had he been +better supported, his plans would have resulted in +their pecuniary benefit.</p> + +<p>It is evident that his fellow-rulers among the +Lübeck Council knew that Wullenweber had been +wronged, since they offered to bestow on him for six +years the governorship of a neighbouring dependency. +This he refused, but before he finally quitted office +he took good care that the welfare and existence of +the new creed should not be endangered by the return +of the zealous Papist, Brömse, and also that an +amnesty should be accorded to all political offenders.</p> + +<p>Shortly afterwards Brömse entered the city in +stately procession, preceded by a hundred and fifty +horsemen. He proceeded at once to St. Mary's +Church and took possession of the burgomaster's +chair, whence he listened to the minutes decided upon +by the Hanseatic Diet. The decree by no means +pleased his Catholic soul that whatever else was +reinstated, the new religion should be left intact; +but he held his peace and trusted to time, as he had +already done, with good result, while he waited +at the Court of the Emperor Charles. In this one +respect, however, he was to be disappointed. Lübeck +never again changed its creed, or bowed its head to +the Papal party.</p> + +<p>But where now was the man to find peace who but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span> +recently had held as ruler both sides of the Sound, +who had dared to fling the gauntlet to two monarchs, +and who had been dictator throughout all Scandinavia? +Notwithstanding many negotiations, peace +had not yet been concluded between Lübeck and +Denmark. Copenhagen was still held by the Hansa's +allies. It is easy to understand that the temptation +presented itself to Wullenweber to make common +cause with them, and to try in yet another form to +gain success for the League. But whether this was +really his plan or not we have now no means of +deciding. The latter years of Wullenweber's life are +wrapped in much mystery, owing to intentional +falsification of facts on the part of his enemies. Thus +much is certain, that in the autumn of 1535 he set +forth on a journey northwards, making for the +province of Halland on the Cattegat, where lay the +castle held by Max Meyer. Probably he wished to +confer with his trusty colleague. His friends tried +to dissuade him from his intention, reminding him +that his road led him through the territory of the +Archbishop of Bremen, one of his most violent +opponents. It was impossible, however, to control or +guide this headstrong and fearless man. Ambition +and self-confidence made him fall into the trap which +his enemies had laid for him.</p> + +<p>Nicholas Brömse and his followers, hearing of this +journey, at once sent messengers to the ecclesiastical +prince, and by heavy bribes bought him over to +their side. In consequence, scarcely had Wullenweber +touched the archbishop's domains than he was +seized and imprisoned, regardless of the letter of safe +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span> +conduct he bore about him. He was carried off to +Rothenburg, one of the archbishop's castles, and for +some weeks the world knew nothing of his whereabouts, +until his foes had matured their plans against +him.</p> + +<p>Wullenweber's brother, Joachim, at that time one +of the Council of Hamburg, was the first to be +uneasy regarding Jürgen's fate, and he succeeded in +ascertaining the fact of his imprisonment and the +perpetrator of the deed. He addressed a letter to +the archbishop, demanding an explanation of this +breach of faith. The audacious prelate replied, that +"Since it was notorious how designedly and presumptuously +Jürgen had acted against the will of +God, of the emperor, and of the spiritual rulers of +Lübeck, and how he had spent a night in his, the +archbishop's domains without his permission, his will +or a safe conduct, he, as the emperor's relative and +as prince of the empire, had held himself in duty +bound towards his Church to take the man prisoner. +Further reasons for this step would be made known +in course of time."</p> + +<p>Armed with this insolent reply Joachim Wullenweber +turned to King Henry VIII. of England in +his sore strait, and implored him to befriend the +man who had ever befriended him. To this request +Henry lent a ready ear and he pleaded, but in vain, +for his "faithful and honoured friend," with the +Council of Hamburg and Bremen, and at last with +the archbishop himself.</p> + +<p>But Brömse and his party were not the men to +release their prey when once it had fallen into their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span> +hands. They were determined to have their revenge. +They hated Wullenweber; Brömse, in particular, hated +him so much that it was possible for a contemporary +chronicler to declare that he even tore Wullenweber's +flesh off his bones with his own teeth. This no doubt +is a baseless charge. Nicholas Brömse, the patrician, +with the delicate coquettish features of a woman, with +the lily white hands that were noted among his contemporaries, +is not likely to have done such a thing. +He might be false and cruel, but he could not have +been actively bestial and ferocious.</p> + +<p>What is certain is that Wullenweber's enemies were +determined to destroy him. So great and powerful a +man could not be simply put aside; he had to be sacrificed. +A truly fiendish scheme of incrimination was +opened against him; so painful and unfair that it +awoke pity even in the breasts of his contemporaries. +Among them, Maria, at that time regent of the +Netherlands, was so deeply moved by the burgomaster's +fate, that she felt herself called upon to +demand that the prisoner should at least be brought +before an imperial governor, in order that his case +might have a more impartial consideration. But +Wullenweber's foes would not listen to any mild or +merciful counsels. Their chief endeavour was to +spread abroad a belief that the dictator had acted +in concert and sympathy with the Anabaptists, at +that moment the bogey with which to scare both +Catholics and Protestants.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo273" id="illo273"></a> +<img src="images/illo273.jpg" width="470" height="550" alt="SCENE BEFORE A JUDGE." /> +<p class="caption">SCENE BEFORE A JUDGE.</p> +</div> + +<p>The exact means employed to break Wullenweber's +strong spirit during the first months of his +imprisonment are not known. There is no doubt, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span> +however, that he was subjected to torture, and that +upon the rack he was made to acquiesce in statements, +many of them quite false, and others distorted to +serve the purpose of his tormentors. Among the +so-called confessions were said to be an admission +of his Anabaptist leanings, an intimation that he had +proposed to murder and kill as many nobles as possible, +that he had abstracted for his own private ends +public and church property, and other statements, +so manifestly out of keeping with his previously +known character and general bearing, that it is +amazing to think how his contemporaries, even +those most opposed to him, could for a moment +have given them credit.</p> + +<p>Hero though Wullenweber was in the moral sense +he was no hero at bearing physical pain, and, indeed, +the two qualities by no means go together, nor +does nervous shrinking from pain necessarily imply +moral weakness. The contrary is often the case. +The man of finely strung nerves, to whom bodily +pain is on this account less supportable than to his +more coarse-grained brother, is, for that very reason, +capable of a refinement of sentiment and action +equally unknown to the other. The beef-built man +is apt to be beef-witted.</p> + +<p>It is quite certain that all the admissions undoubtedly +made by Wullenweber were wrung from him +under excruciating tortures. Indeed, in the hour of +his death, and in two letters to his brother Joachim, +he affirmed that "the jailer of Bremen, together with +his mortal enemies, had forced him into the admission +of political and moral sins." He says he was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span> +racked again and again, and on one occasion had to +swear that he would not answer in any other sense +than that demanded of him. If he failed in obedience to +this command he should be torn to little pieces on the +wheel, but, so God help him, he knew nothing whatever +of Anabaptists or these other charges. He implores his +brother to make known all this to his friends at Lübeck, +and to beg that some honourable men would search +his account books, and see whether it be true that he +had abstracted State moneys. The brother himself +might come and hang him higher than any thief yet +hung, if he could prove that he, Jürgen, had stolen +anything from the Lübeckers. Finally, he warns the +zealous Lutherans that the purpose of all that he had +to suffer, all that was now being done, was to restore +the old state of things, and that he feared that his foes +would effect this in Lübeck of all other places.</p> + +<p>Meantime, King Henry of England repeatedly +demanded of the Archbishop of Bremen that his +"beloved and trusty servant, Jürgen Wullenweber," +should be treated with more clemency. Receiving +no reply from the archbishop, the king turned to the +city of Hamburg for aid to release the imprisoned +burgomaster. He said he had need of his "innocent +servant" for most important purposes, and pointed out +that it was for the weal, not only of his own kingdom, +but also, and even more, for that of the German nation, +that Jürgen should be freed. Baffled on all sides, the +king demanded at last, that at least the reasons for +this confinement should be made publicly known.</p> + +<p>These reasons could not be given, based as they +were on motives of the lowest kind, that would not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span> +bear the light of day and of judicial investigation. +The inquiries, however, caused the archbishop and +his wire-pullers at Lübeck to think it well to remove +Wullenweber from his prison at Rothenburg to some +other more distant place. In consequence, he was +passed on in the spring of 1536 to the custody of the +archbishop's brother, Duke Henry of Brunswick, a +bigoted Catholic and zealous persecutor of heretics. +He confined Wullenweber in his castle of Steinbrück, +a strong fortress situated between the towns of +Brunswick and Hildesheim. The dark dungeon with +its walls ten feet in thickness, with its small door but +a foot and a half in breadth, are shown to this day. +Quite recently this inscription has been put up inside +it—"Here Jürgen Wullenweber lay and suffered. +1536-1537."</p> + +<p>Yes, suffered indeed. For a year and a half this +unfortunate man suffered mental and physical tortures +in this hole. On one occasion he was racked in the +presence of Nicholas Brömse and other burghers +from Lübeck, and in order that he might recant +nothing he had previously been made to say, he was +racked twice before this public torture came about, +and threatened with instant death did his answers +vary. The duke was present on all occasions, it +being a special pleasure to him to witness the sufferings +of heretics. At the end, when the questions +and replies were read aloud in the presence of the +Lübeckers and the lacerated man, the duke turned +on him harshly, asking, "Jürgen what do you say +to all this?" "I have said, yes," replied the broken +man, in low tones. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span></p> + +<p>A letter written to his brother a few days after +this event is heart-rending in its accents of despair +and sorrow that he had been made to incriminate +others by enforced false testimony. He begs his +brother to do his best to make this good; he says he +knows that he himself will lose his life, though he +had two kings of England to friend, but he wished +to save those who had stood by him and aided him. +Brömse and the others who persecute him, know +well that all the accusations are false, but it suits +their purpose to put them forward. "Vouchsafe me +credit; if I am a thief, may you yourself help me +on to the gallows; if I am a traitor, on to the wheel; +if I am an Anabaptist, into the fire."</p> + +<p>Thus Wullenweber's confinement dragged on, and +public sympathy for his fate increased. Seeing this, +his persecutors thought it desirable to make an end. +They announced that "the honest country" should +judge Wullenweber. They carried out this proposal +in the most despicable and treacherous manner. +On a Monday morning September 24, 1537, a large +gathering of peasants was assembled in an open +space in the neighbourhood of Wolfenbüttel. From +their midst were chosen twelve farmers who had not +the smallest knowledge of State affairs, and barely +comprehended the question at stake against the +accused. Then the charges made against Wullenweber +and to which he had acquiesced under torture +were read before them. Called upon to reply, Wullenweber +boldly, in a speech of great dignity, denied the +charges, and declared himself willing to die to prove +his innocence. That he should die was unanimously +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span> +resolved; indeed, the verdict was a foregone conclusion. +As they were unable to resolve upon the +method it was voted that the hangman should decide +on Wullenweber's punishment. Master Hans, called +on by the judge, said that he "deemed it right and +fitting that Wullenweber should be led forth and +quartered and his body be torn on four wheels, and +that he should be judged thus between heaven and +earth, that he might act in this wise no more, and that +others should remember how he had been dealt by."</p> + +<p>But even after this Wullenweber's enemies were +not appeased. They read out three more articles of +accusation against him, articles which the advocate +said he could not hear because of the noise made +by the crowd. Jürgen replied. It was true he had +confessed this while in prison, but under great pain, +and in order to save his body and soul. But in +order that his soul might not lie before the stern +judgment seat of God, he herewith exculpated those +whom he had inculpated while in prison, and begged +his gracious lord (Duke Henry was close by) not +to stain his hands with innocent blood and to bring +therewith his (Wullenweber's) soul to lasting damnation. +He then requested, as a last favour, to be +permitted to speak a word or two with the emissaries +from Lübeck. Most unwillingly the two men came +into the presence of their late chief. "Jürgen, what +do you want?" said one of them, in harsh tones that +roused all the pent-up ire of Wullenweber's soul. +In presence of the miserable instruments of his +oppressors he broke, for the first time, his silence +of two years' standing. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span></p> + +<p>"This," he said in loud, clear tones: "this is what +you have striven after so long, even four years ago +when you wanted to surprise and carry me off by +night in my house, which God Almighty did not +permit. Now after all you have succeeded, that I +admit before God. But I also tell you before the +whole world, that the last articles are false, and that +what I said in prison, I said under torture and to +save my life."</p> + +<p>He wanted to add yet more, but the Lübeckers +were afraid lest a tumult in his favour should arise +among the people. One of them urged Master Hans, +the hangman, to hurry on the execution. But the +hangman had a soul of mercy. He listened to +Wullenweber's prayer, "I have but a short while +left. Let me say two or three words more, then I +will gladly die." And yet again he repeated, taking +Almighty God to witness, that he had in no respect +failed in his duty or his obligations to the town of +Lübeck; that he was no thief, no traitor! Then as +though he had done with his conscience, with the +world, he sank upon his knee, and bent his head +to receive his death-blow. Master Hans severed the +noble head from its trunk with one sharp blow. The +body was then quartered and torn to little pieces +on the wheel.</p> + +<p>So perished the last great Hanseatic hero and with +him the Hansa's power. At that time, so great was +the fear of his foes, so blindly prejudiced the masses, +that no one ventured to speak a good word for the +dead man. But that all did not think that he had +suffered justly is made manifest by a few little +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span> +trifles. Thus, for example, a worthy Hamburg +burgher of the period notes in his private diary the +fate that had befallen this great man. In the margin +he painted a red flaming sword and underneath he +wrote the words, "This he did not deserve." The +same man writing a few days later and speaking of +his execution and quartering, notes again in the +margin, "Duke Henry merited this." Even the +chancellor of Zelle, one day in his cups, ventured the +utterance that "Wullenweber had died as a martyr +to the gospel."</p> + +<p>Yes, he had died as a martyr; a martyr to his +town and to his faith, and the Hanseatic League was +not to see the like of him again. He was no perfect +hero of romance. Indeed his impetuosity and his +excitable temperament, which caused him to be +carried away by his enthusiasms, hindered him from +developing one of those firm characters that excite +eternal admiration and respect; he was lacking in +moderation, and in foresight; but combined with his +faults there were grand and noble elements, and take +him "all in all," he was a man to honour and +admire, a true patriot, a true friend to the people +and their cause.</p> + +<p>In the archives of Weimar are deposited and can +be seen to this day, the acts of interrogation and +indictment planned against Wullenweber by his +enemies; curious documents, well worth the study +of a student of humanity, as proving how even +truth can be distorted to bad ends. In one +of them Wullenweber's signature is scarcely decipherable; +no wonder when we learn that he had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span> +just before been hung up for four hours by his +thumbs!</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo281" id="illo281"></a> +<img src="images/illo281.jpg" width="550" height="508" alt="THE RACK." /> +<p class="caption">THE RACK.</p> +</div> + +<p>Jürgen's friend and ally Max Meyer had not survived +him. He too fell a victim to treachery and +cruelty. Vardberg's walls were subjected to hot +bombardment, from which sacks stuffed full of wool +taken in booty could not preserve them. Then too +the hired soldiery had grown restive, their wages +being in arrear, owing to the delay with which supplies +arrived from England. In the month of May, 1536, +the castle was forced to surrender and open its gates +to the enemy. Max Meyer was promised a safe pass, +a promise that in accordance with the usages of +the time was broken. The whilom blacksmith was +delivered over into the hands of King Christian III., +who caused him to be put in irons. He was then +accused of all manner of offences, many of them, as +in the case of Wullenweber, purely imaginary; was +tortured, and made to confess to fictitious crime; and +finally, given over to the keeping of the Danish +governor from whose guardianship he had months +before escaped by his happy ruse. On June 17, +1536, Max Meyer was beheaded at Helsingoer, and +his body quartered and torn upon the wheel. So +ended this handsome adventurer, and with his death, +and that of his friend Jürgen Wullenweber, ended +also an important and picturesque episode in Hanseatic +history. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>IV.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE HANSA LOSES ITS COLONIES.</h3> + +<p>The prominence which we have had to accord to +the history of Lübeck in the preceding chapters +would almost make it appear as though we were +dealing with the adverse fortunes of only one town, +of a town moreover that was fighting mainly for its +private and special interests and that succumbed in +the combat. But this conception would be wholly +erroneous. In those days the German Empire had +no maritime commerce save that carried on by the +Hansa; this commerce had no protection save that +afforded to it by the League. The League was only +powerful so long as Lübeck with a firm hand and +high spirit held together its various members and +led and encouraged their more feeble and often vacillating +steps. For there were few among the cities +that heartily supported the Queen of the Hansa in +these latter days. At the cost of great and real +sacrifices she insisted that the prerogatives of the +League should be maintained, and if in return she +also asked for some privileges for herself, this can +scarcely excite wonder. It is therefore obvious that +the declining power of Lübeck necessarily brought +with it an enfeeblement of the whole federation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span></p> + +<p>After the failure of Wullenweber's bold schemes +and his ignominious death, after the enmity against +Lübeck, and consequently against the League, that +had been fanned to yet greater fury by late events, +it is easy to understand that the relations of the +Hansa to the Scandinavian kingdoms suffered an +entire change. Denmark was the first to avail itself +of the liberty it had regained. The country forthwith +began to draw profit from its "gold mine" the Sound. +Then Norway followed suit. The town of Bergen, +above all, so long oppressed by the League, now took +its revenge. Gradually as the inhabitants beheld the +enfeeblement at home and abroad of their rivals they +withdrew from them privilege after privilege until the +time came that the natives of Bergen recovered both +their commercial activity and their fortune.</p> + +<p>The justice of history is less pressed for time than +the justice of man, but it is yet surer and more +inexorable.</p> + +<p>This inevitable justice, which punishes the children +for the sins of their fathers, fell upon the Hanseatics +in full measure at Bergen. The time actually came +when it fell to the people of Bergen to advance funds +to impoverished or ruined Hanseatics, and, on the +principle of returning a tooth for a tooth, an eye for +an eye, insult for insult, they advanced these moneys +under the same hard conditions that had been +employed towards themselves. The dispossession of +the Hanseatics was naturally a work of time, but in +course of years it became complete. The last occasion +when the four chief "games" were performed, +which according to a reporter at the Hanseatic Diet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span> +were designed "to keep off rich folks' children from +Bergen and secure the profits of the trade to poor +young fellows," seems to have been about 1590.</p> + +<p>It is true that up to the eighteenth century German +merchants retained certain prerogatives in Norway, +but they were no longer the Hanseatics of the League, +they were merely the members of an association +reduced to slender proportions, an association as +impotent to sustain its dignity as to restore the rights +of its predecessors.</p> + +<p>Sweden was no less happy in its efforts after +emancipation from Hanseatic tutelage. Gustavus +Vasa laid the foundations for this exemption from +tolls, monopolies, and harassing restrictions. He +taught his subjects the great lesson how to trade to +their own profit. After his position as ruler was +once well assured he did not hesitate to speak in open +court of the German merchants as "butchers," comparing +his predecessors to "good milch kine," and +adding that he should never forgive himself, but +should be ashamed before God and man, did he +sacrifice the well-being of his kingdom to the rapacity +and selfishness of the Lübeckers. And he kept his +word. So long as he lived he checkmated the League +with all the resources at his command, and he left +his desire to raise the commercial prosperity of his +kingdom as a legacy to his son.</p> + +<p>Nor was it enough that men had come to hate the +Hansa with that fierce hatred which is felt towards +those who, holding power in their hands disgust +and oppress their inferiors by overbearing conduct. +Even nature seemed to turn against them in that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span> +dark moment of their national life. In the years +following the burgomaster's war, as Wullenweber's +war grew to be called, the herrings which had already +failed once or twice during the course of the fifteenth +century, either entirely abandoned the Scanian coasts, +or came in such small quantities as not to repay the +cost of maintenance of the "Witten." There was +yet worse in store. Not only did the herrings +abandon the Hansa, but they favoured their rivals +the Netherlanders, coming in great masses into their +waters, and thus enriching them at the expense of +their enemies; a circumstance that furnished the pious +preacher Bonnus with the theme for a sermon, in +which he pointed out, to his own satisfaction, how +this was the direct punishment inflicted by Almighty +God, for the war so wantonly entered upon by the +Hansa.</p> + +<p>A fresh blow of great force came to the League in +the year 1553. The English, so long forcibly kept +outside the navigation of the Baltic, had suddenly +opened out for themselves a road to the mouth of the +Northern Dwina by means of the Arctic Ocean, thus +discovering the White Sea, and offering a new route +to merchants trading with Russia.</p> + +<p>The discoverer of this new ocean route was Sir +Richard Chancellor, who, together with Sir Hugh +Willoughby, had been commissioned by an association +of London merchants, to undertake the search of a +road to China by way of the icy sea. They set forth +in three stately vessels, the <i>Bona Esperanza</i>, the +<i>Bona Confidentia</i>, and the <i>Edward Bonaventura</i>. +For four months the ships kept close together, but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span> +in the region of the North Cape the <i>Edward Bonaventura</i>, +which Chancellor commanded, was separated, +owing to ice and storms, from its comrades—never +more to rejoin them.</p> + +<p>Sir Hugh penetrated with his ships as far as the +harbour of Artschina in Northern Lapland, whence +he could not continue his journey, owing to the +intense cold and the lack of means of sustenance. +In this desolate spot, he and his whole crew perished. +Long after, fishermen found their bodies. Beside +Willoughby's corpse lay his journal, which closed +with the desponding words: "Then sent we three men +south-east three days' journey, who returned without +finding of people or any similitude of habitation." +The diary, which has been lately printed, is a touching +record of patient endurance and heroic enterprise.</p> + +<p>Meantime the more fortunate Sir Richard had +penetrated to the spot where Archangel is now +situated, and where then stood a monastery dedicated +to St. Nicholas. After resting here, he made his way +to Moscow, where Czar Ivan held his Court. Here he +was received in the most friendly manner, remained +some months, and was finally dismissed with a royal +letter to the young King Edward VI., in which Ivan +expressed his great wish that their two countries +should henceforth approach each other in more +intimate relationship. Nor were these desires of the +Czar's fruitless.</p> + +<p>After Sir Richard Chancellor's return, and on hearing +his report concerning the terms under which the +Czar would allow the English to trade in and with +his country, a number of London merchants formed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span> +themselves into a commercial corporation under the +title of "The London and Muscovite Company." +This company once more despatched Chancellor to +treat with the Czar, and the result was that by the +year 1555, mutual trading relations between Russia and +England were established.</p> + +<p>Now if an earthquake had shaken the whole of +Northern Europe, it could not have produced a +greater commotion in the entire Baltic North than +did this Russo-Anglican alliance, "The London and +Muscovite Company." The good understanding +between England and Russia was at once recognized +as a danger of first-class importance to all the merchants +along the Sound and the Baltic. They saw +their entire commerce in imminent danger. What +did it now avail them that the Sound had been closed +for centuries against the English ships, if the London +merchants could carry their goods to Russia by +another route? Above all, the Hanseatic League +recognized the danger that menaced both them and +their colony of Livonia, the colony of which the city +of Bremen was wont to boast that it had been the +godmother. What would happen, they asked themselves, +with good reason, if Czar Ivan, already their +enemy at Novgorod, should also take unto himself +Livonia, if he should open its harbours to his new +friends, and thus obtain for himself the mastery of +the Baltic?</p> + +<p>In order to fully appreciate these fears, we must +remember that the province anciently called Livonia +embraced all the departments now known as Esthonia, +Courland, and Livonia; in a word, the whole Baltic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span> +coast of the Russian continent. This district was +entirely governed by the Germans. Three hundred +years back a priest named Meinhard had founded the +first Christian Church at the mouth of the Dwina, and +from that time forward Germany had not ceased to +send the flower of its aristocracy, the <i>élite</i> of its +burghers, its monks and its priests, its merchants and +citizens, its <i>landsknechte</i> and mercenaries to these +northern coasts to spread the Christian faith, and to +found a German colony.</p> + +<p>Colonists of all kinds rapidly established themselves +in Livonia, and while the industry of the merchants +raised prosperous cities and safe harbours along the +river and the seaboard, the nobles dotted the land +with their castles and strongholds, and the clergy +with their churches and convents. It was a special +characteristic of this greater Germany that it faithfully +retained and reproduced the outward features +of the mother-land. With German speech, German +law and German customs had become naturalized.</p> + +<p>On the gates of the citadels the knights beheld the +same coats of arms that greeted their eyes at home. +In the towns were seen the same architectural +features, the same tightly-packed gabled houses, +with their quaint projecting storeys, and their yawning +cellars, for the storage of goods; the cocklofts, +with their heavy, pendant cranes, that distinguished +the northern cities and made them all resemble, more +or less, those toy towns of our childhood that come +from Nürnberg, and are so deftly packed into their +box that, once removed, no unskilled fingers can +replace them. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span></p> + +<p>The monks and the priests, on their part, formed +in Livonia their accustomed cells, their silent cloisters, +the glory and weird wonder of the Gothic cathedral, +with its tall, pointed spires and steeples, its coloured +glass windows, through which the northern sunlight +broke in soft rays, staining the floors of God's house +with glory.</p> + +<p>In a word, everything here reproduced mediæval +Germany. Of the natives of the land there was +little trace, though some of these still lingered in +the country and ventured secretly to pay worship to +their old deposed gods in sacred thickets and on +lonely heaths. To this day Livonia retains its +German character; the German language still reigns +supreme there, German customs prevail, German +names survive. In the times we speak of it was +entirely under Teutonic sway.</p> + +<p>Was this rich, important colony to be lost to the +mother-land and to the Hansa that had created it? +No wonder the League was alarmed.</p> + +<p>Nor was it alone in its fears. Sweden and all +the West took fright. In imagination, they already +beheld the East—in the shape of Russia and its +barbarous dependencies—descending upon them with +the weapons furnished to them by England. At the +instigation of the King of Sweden and of the Livonians, +who, in 1556, expressed their fears on this +subject before the Hanseatic Diet, the League, desirous +to dispel this European peril, warned the Emperor +of Germany, the Kings of Denmark, England, and +Poland, and the Duke of Prussia, not to facilitate +Russia's projects of invasion by putting at her disposal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span> +either the munitions of war or the means that +would help to civilize her, and thus render her yet +more redoubtable.</p> + +<p>To these requests England turned a deaf ear, for +her commercial policy then, as now, was a trifle +selfish and insular. Judging that the distance which +separated her from Russia gave her entire security, +she did not dream of disturbing a traffic which she +found lucrative. Queen Mary, admonished by the +King of Sweden to interdict to her subjects the new +navigation to Archangel, contented herself by forbidding +the shippers who traded with the White Sea +the exportation of arms.</p> + +<p>It was not long before the alarms expressed proved +themselves to be anything but chimerical. Danger +first showed itself in the shape of dissension. Livonia, +seeing itself suddenly grown of enhanced importance +to the League, took up certain pretentious airs towards +its foster-mother. It broke through ancient contracts +and statutes, among which was a stern interdict +against trading on its own account with Russia. The +next step was to put the Hanseatic League commercially +upon the same footing as a stranger; and the +Livonians were, consequently, able to turn against +them some of their own laws—for example, that +which declared that guest should not trade with +guest.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Russia, which had now completely +thrown off the Tartar yoke and was beginning to +feel its strength, cast more and more greedy eyes +towards Livonia, with its rich cities and wide seaboard. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span></p> + +<p>Under pretext of bringing about a fusion of the +Greek and Latin branches of the Catholic Church, +the Czar Ivan had sent successive embassies to Germany, +who there recruited for him workmen, artists, +learned men, and officers, all of whom were to aid in +putting the newly-welded Russian Empire upon a +civilized basis. While there, these men had learnt +the fact that Livonia, which stood under the government +of the Teutonic knights, had been divided by +internal dissensions since the death of the Grand +Master, Water von Plattenberg, who, early in the +sixteenth century, had saved the province from falling +a prey to the Russian desire for conquest.</p> + +<p>Ivan, hearing this, felt the moment was favourable. +He saw that the German Empire looked on indifferently +at what was passing in the extreme corner of +its possessions—the German Empire always had the +knack of being indifferent at the wrong and critical +moment—he perceived that the Hansa League +was ill-disposed at that instant to her stubborn and +disobedient daughter; while Sweden and Denmark +glanced with all too loving eyes at the German +colony on the Baltic Sea. He felt now or never was +the time for action. Moreover, Livonia had but one +friend, and that a nominal one, Poland, which masked +designs anything but friendly under the cover of an +amicable alliance; it had but one man on whom it +could count—the present Grand Master of the Teutonic +knights, Gotthard Kettler. But this man, +though of dauntless courage and a true patriot, was +condemned to rule over the once bold company of +Knights at a moment when too long-continued peace +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span> +and prosperity had sunk them into sloth, indifference, +and vicious practices.</p> + +<p>Under the pretext that a certain toll had not been +paid him, Ivan quite unexpectedly sent into Livonia +a herd of barbarous soldiers, under the leadership of +the erstwhile Khan of Kasan. The money not being +forthcoming, this army took possession of Narwa, a +port just about to enter into the League. Thence +they overspread all the province, burning, razing, +sacking, robbing, and violating.</p> + +<p>They met with little resistance. The enervated +nobles—"usually so ready for a scuffle," says an old +chronicler—fell like flies before them, and the strongest +burghs were quietly delivered over into their hands. +Dorpat, one of the strongest, opened its gates to the +invader without the smallest opposition, the citizens +having been seized with panic at their approach. +Here there fell into their hands rich treasure, stored +in the fort, affording them the sinews of war. Reval, +also besieged, turned to the King of Denmark for +aid against its foes. He sent back the Livonian +ambassadors laden with a thousand sides of bacon +and other victuals to stay their hunger, but more +effective aid he could not or would not afford.</p> + +<p>In short Livonia was being rapidly broken up and +divided among the various greedy nationalities that +surrounded her—the two Slavonic, Russia and Poland, +on the one hand; the two Scandinavian, Sweden and +Denmark, on the other.</p> + +<p>In these sore straits the Grand Master of the Teutonic +knights, Gotthard Kettler, made "the sad plaint +of the Christian Brothers on the Baltic," heard at the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span> +Imperial Diet. The Emperor Ferdinand, to whom +the Grand Master made personal appeal for speedy +help, promised his assistance, and did send a letter to +the Czar, begging him to desist from his persecution +of the Livonians; but the letter was so lukewarm in +its wording, and it was so evident from its tenour +that the Emperor had no intention of following it up +by action, that the Czar did not hesitate to send +a very haughty and defiant reply. In this letter he +proved that it was not difficult to find excuses for his +conduct. The Germans, for instance, had oppressed +his subjects; had taken from them their churches, +and converted them into storehouses for their goods; +had forbidden to his people free-trade in their markets. +Some of these complaints were doubtless not quite +groundless, for we know with what a high hand the +Hansa was wont to treat the inhabitants of a land +they had taken under their protection.</p> + +<p>Livonia now turned to the League for aid; but the +League had been offended by the late independent +deeds of its colonies, and was not inclined to bestir +itself much. The Hanseatics did not perceive the +folly of their action at the time; they did not observe +that in thus yielding to personal feeling they were +losing their finest, richest dependency. It seemed as +though with Wullenweber all Hanseatic ambition, +clear-sightedness, and enterprise had sunk into its +grave. An able scheme which would have rescued +the entire colony for the Hansa, at a cost of some +200,000 dollars, was allowed to gather dust, unregarded +and unconsidered, in the archives of Lübeck.</p> + +<p>The weakness of Germany, the supineness of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span> +League, the cold calculations of the King of Poland, +all combined to deprive the hapless land of support. +It became a prey, on the one side, to the barbaric +vigour of Ivan IV., and, on the other, to the machinations +of Sigismund Augustus, king of Poland. By +the year 1561 the colony of Livonia was lost to +Germany and to the Teutonic knights, and was +divided among the various nationalities that surrounded +it, Sweden coming in for no inconsiderable +portion. Thus fell Livonia, the Russo-Baltic province +to which in those days was assigned the <i>rôle</i> +accorded to the Ottoman Empire by a certain class +of statesmen in our own time, namely, that of a +rampart of civilization against barbarism.</p> + +<p>As we look back upon the course of history +and the state of opinion in those times, it seems +almost incredible that this fall should have been +permitted, that neither the Hansa nor Germany +should have stretched out a hand to help the oppressed +colony. Incredible, because at that time +the whole German and Scandinavian Baltic coast +resounded with the cry of alarm that the Muscovite +was seeking to make himself master of the Baltic. +It is true that this result, equally bitter for Germany +and for all Northern Europe, was only accomplished +in the days of Peter the Great; but the foundations +of this Russian Empire over the inland sea were laid +in those times, and Germany had largely itself to +blame for the disasters that happened in consequence.</p> + +<p>The immediate result of the loss of Livonia was +that Lübeck became involved in its last war—a war +that was to leave it exhausted. These hostilities +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span> +lasted seven years, from 1563 to 1570, and were +instigated by a desire on the part of Lübeck that the +Hansa, though it had lost Livonia, should not lose all +profits accruing from trade with the Russian continent. +The quarrel began by Eric XIV., Gustavus +Vasa's successor, professing that he would reinstate +the Hansa in all her privileges in his kingdom; but +demanding in return from the League far more than +it had ever possessed in Sweden, namely, a factory +and special privileges in every town of the League.</p> + +<p>When this was not granted he suddenly chose to +take umbrage at the fact that Lübeck had never +ceased to trade with Narwa, although he had, as he +alleged, repeatedly told the Lübeckers that by so +doing they strengthened the hands of the Muscovite, +the common enemy. He complained of this to the +Emperor Ferdinand, who, on his part however, was +satisfied with the reasons for their actions put forward +by the Lübeckers. Eric who, on his side, was +by no means satisfied, now demanded in the most +emphatic terms that the Hansa should cease all navigation +to Narwa or to Russia, in order that the Muscovite +might not be strengthened by the importation +of arms. He contended that the channels of Finland +were not the open sea, but belonged to his dominions, +and that he had a right to hold sway over them, and +to capture or harass any vessels he found in their +waters.</p> + +<p>It is strange indeed to find Lübeck replying to this, +that the open, rude Baltic had been recognized by +nature herself as a free sea; Lübeck which had ever +contended that this sea was an inland lake and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span> +should be so treated, that only those should trade in +its waters to whom she, its mistress, graciously accorded +permission. The conclusion of the dispute +was that Lübeck made an alliance with the Danish +king, Frederick II., in which it was resolved to carry +on war against Sweden. The sister towns, apathetic +and most unwilling to fight, did not fail, however, to +obey the Danish king's mandate that they should +at once cease from all trade and intercourse with +Sweden.</p> + +<p>On June 9, 1563, the Queen of the Hansa +issued her declaration of war against Eric XIV. of +Sweden. The king, to whom the document was +addressed, referred it with contempt to the magistrates +of Stockholm, saying that "kings must write to +kings, but burghers and peasants should treat with +their peers."</p> + +<p>But though Eric was so contemptuous, these +burghers, whom he professed to despise, were to +cause him some uncomfortable moments. Not inglorious +for Lübeck was this last seven years' war +waged by her, and its results might have been of +some consequence had she been supported by the +whole League. But this was far from being the case. +Still she won several important victories, and on one +occasion captured the Swedish admiral's vessel. In +the midst of the hostilities Eric was deposed, and +here again would have been the Hansa's opportunity +had it known how to profit by it.</p> + +<p>But in vain did Lübeck counsel union and implore +the other Baltic cities to make common cause and +crush the common enemy. They only replied complaining +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span> +of the expenses entailed by this thoughtless +war, and by alleging that more advantage might be +obtained by diplomacy. In the end Lübeck had to +bend to the common sentiment.</p> + +<p>Imperial diplomacy was put into motion, resulting +in a congress held at Stettin, in December, 1570, in +which a reconciliation was brought about between +Denmark, Lübeck, and King John of Sweden; and of +which the conditions were, that the Hansa might +trade with certain Russian cities; "so long as the +emperor permitted it;" Sweden was also bound over +to pay some of the outstanding debts which Gustavus +Vasa had contracted with Lübeck.</p> + +<p>King John assented, but no sooner did he feel himself +firmly seated on his throne than he too forgot all +his treaty promises, and once more demanded that all +Hanseatic commerce with Russia should cease. He +defiantly styled himself "Lord of the Baltic," assigning +as his claim to this title the fact that to the +Swedish crown had passed the heritage of the Hansa, +both on the seas and in the Livonian colonies.</p> + +<p>An Imperial Diet assembled at Speyer shortly +afterwards and discussed these new complications, +and professed great anxiety for the welfare of those +deluded subjects of the empire, the Hanseatics. It +also made sympathetic reference to the fate of +Livonia, and made no secret of its embarrassment and +annoyance at seeing now the Muscovite, now the +Pole, now the Swede in possession of the Baltic.</p> + +<p>But the anxiety and the sympathy did not go +beyond words. The Hansa was weary; the empire +was impotent to aid. It is true that Sweden had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span> +offered to restore to the Germans all the portion of +Livonia she had taken for herself in return for the +costs of war, but even this proposal was allowed to +drop. When, by 1579, the Swedes perceived that the +empire made no effort to regain its lost possession, +they quietly assumed that none would ever be made, +and their assumption did not prove erroneous.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough, at the diet held at Frankfort, in +the autumn of 1570, presided over by the Emperor +Maximilian who was ever well inclined to the Hansa, +and repeatedly urged them to unity, there was also +present the infamous Duke of Alva, the Catholic +butcher, who murdered human beings to the glory +and honour of God. It was he who urged that by +all possible means the exportation of armour and +fire-arms should be hindered, lest the Muscovite, in +possession of a European army, should one day +bring sorrow not only to the Netherlands, but to all +Christendom.</p> + +<p>The German merchant world was to blame, in the +first instance, for the loss of the prosperous colony; +and that this was perfectly understood by outsiders +is proved by the rough utterance of a Tartar +Khan who had been imprisoned together with a +Livonian. Spitting into the face of the latter, the +barbarian said, "It serves you German dogs quite +right that you have lost your province; you first put +into the hands of the Muscovite the rod with which +he whipped us, now he has turned it against yourselves +and whipped you with it."</p> + +<p>But the League's troubles were not at an end with +the loss of Livonia and their Russian trade. They +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span> +were to learn by bitter experience, what individuals +too have to learn, that mankind cannot resist the +temptation to kick the man or nation that is down.</p> + +<p>Bitter ingratitude was first to be shown them by +their ally, Denmark, in return for all the heavy sacrifices +they had made on her behalf. Lübeck was +treated with overbearing contempt, while the neutral +cities were punished, as perhaps they more justly +deserved, for their cowardly policy. Thus Rostock, +which had furnished the Swedish admiral with food +supplies in 1566, was forbidden to trade thenceforth +with Scania; Hamburg, whose ships had been captured +engaged in the same unpatriotic business, had to pay +a hundred thousand dollars to regain them; and +Danzig, too, was fined the same sum by the King of +Denmark for a like offence.</p> + +<p>But the keenest humiliation was yet in store for +Lübeck herself, in King Frederick's behaviour concerning +the Island of Bornholm, so long the Hansa +queen's special possession. First a Lübeck governor +was formally ejected by the Danes, then the +inhabitants of the island, encouraged in insubordination +by seeing how the authorities at Copenhagen +dealt with their masters, refused to pay their dues, +finally one of the towns even forcibly ejected +some Lübeck traders. It was ominous that King +Frederick opposed all mention of Bornholm during +the treaties for peace. Suddenly, on the 7th of +September, 1575, he informed the city of Lübeck, +"that as the fifty years' possession, accorded to them +by his grandfather, would have expired on the 19th +of the month, he intended to retake possession of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span> +island." On the city's replying that the peace of +Hamburg had extended their right of possession +which they held for unpaid Danish debts, King +Frederick was not ashamed to reply to the council +of Lübeck, that they should reasonably consider that +this treaty was invalid since his father, who had made +it, was not at that time crowned, and neither he nor +his councillors had been consulted in the matter. +Frederick did not for a moment consider that the +Hansa had in all respects acknowledged the "uncrowned +king," and had helped him into his kingdom.</p> + +<p>Lübeck felt too weak, too exhausted, seriously to +resist the king's claims. It sent an embassy to +Copenhagen, begging for the extension of the possession, +held by them as a pledge, for another forty, thirty, +twenty, fifteen, eight, seven, six, five, or at least one +year. Thus low had the Queen of the Hansa sunk, +thus was she broken, that she could beg so abjectly. +She begged in vain. King Frederick was deaf to +entreaties; he saw his rival's weakness, and he +profited by it. Had they not had enough return +for helping Frederick I. to power by holding the +island fifty years? Lübeck was forced to yield; the +only concession that was made to her was, that +Frederick graciously permitted her to convey one +hundred tuns of Rhenish wine free of duty through +the Sound for the space of ten years, to supply the +town cellar of the capital. In the summer of 1576 +Bornholm was formally delivered over to the Danes, +and the Hansa lost yet another source of wealth.</p> + +<p>For a while the League still strove to carry on +some trade with Russia, at first by Reval, then by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span> +Narwa, but in 1587 the latter town was finally taken +by the Swedes. By good fortune Lübeck and its +friends found in the Czar, Feodor Ivanowitch, a +prince inclined to deal favourably with them. Indeed, +so well disposed was he, that in the year 1586 he +reduced the existing custom dues by half in their +favour, and placed at their entire disposal once more +the factories Novgorod and Plestrow. But in recovering +the possession of their establishments, the +Hansa were far from recovering their monopoly, +which time and events had undermined for ever. +Annoyances without end awaited them from the +Swedes and the Poles, whose territories they had to +cross to arrive at their settlements. They were made +to pay heavy transit tolls; their goods were subjected +to annoying, and often disastrous delays; their ships +were often captured and ransacked by Swedish and +Polish pirates, who were well aware that their devastations +were regarded with no evil eye by the home +authorities.</p> + +<p>The last embassy sent by the old and veritable +Hanseatic Confederation to the Muscovite Court, in +January, 1603, only attained their ends very partially, +notwithstanding the truly royal presents which they +laid at the feet of the then reigning Czar, Boris +Féodorowitch Gudenow. The chronicles tell that the +presents consisted of valuable silver-gilt vessels, representing +ostriches, eagles, pelicans, griffins, lions, +also a Venus and a Fortuna. Presents were also +added for the Czar's son, but by an unlucky oversight, +the all-powerful Russian Chancellor had been +forgotten in the matter of gifts; this want of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span> +thought lost the Hanseatic ambassadors his potent +favour.</p> + +<p>The ambassadors consisted of councillors from +Lübeck and Stralsund, and there went with them +besides a certain Zacharias Meyer, an old Lübeck +merchant, who had lived for many years in Russia, +and knew the language and habits of the people. +The embassy met with little success.</p> + +<p>The monarch whose geographical knowledge was +not very extensive, and who confounded the names +of the Hanseatic towns who sent him this embassy +with those that had passed into the possession of +Poland, his arch enemy, categorically refused to recognize +the Hanseatic League as such, and would +only allow the city of Lübeck to be spoken of, which +it seems was less unfamiliar to him. Towards this +city he showed himself well disposed, and very +generous, and said it might establish factories and +storehouses in various localities, according to traditional +custom, and trade freely without vexatious +custom dues as far as Moscow. In return he +demanded only a money duty on the weight of the +merchandise imported, no matter of what nature. In +vain the ambassadors pleaded that the towns could +not separate themselves. The Chancellor exclaimed +with anger—</p> + +<p>"Then we will separate them; the Czar does not +know the other towns, and those which he knows +are in the hands of princes who are his enemies."</p> + +<p>And from this decision neither he nor his royal +master could be moved. This entirely personal +favour to Lübeck naturally changed the character +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span> +borne hitherto by the Hanseatic commerce in Russia, +and helped yet further to fan the fire of discontent +already smouldering in the bosom of the League. +All attempts made by the other cities to profit by the +advantages conceded to Lübeck remained fruitless; +and this city herself, though she seems to have preserved +these custom privileges until the middle of the +seventeenth century, does not seem, judging from +appearances, to have obtained any durable or profitable +result from them. There always remained the +disturbing fact that either Swedish or Polish domains +must be crossed, or a long <i>détour</i> made by way of the +White Sea, where again obstacles of yet another kind +awaited them.</p> + +<p>In very truth the Hanseatic commerce with Russia +was slowly dying. Some efforts were made to +resuscitate it by the cities that remained united +when Czar Michael Feodorowitch sat on the imperial +throne. The Hansa's demands were actually supported +by the Netherlands. But even goodwill on +the Russian side was impotent to raise a commerce +which had been practically strangled by the powerful +grasp of Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus, it is true, +annoyed at the new direction commerce was taking, +and the consequent loss to his kingdom in transit +dues, tried all in his power to revive the old movement +upon the Baltic. In this spirit and with this +desire, he concluded various treaties with Russia that +obliged the Hanseatics to pass through his domains, +and especially to touch at Reval, the Lübeckers, who +held their depot at Novgorod, naturally preferring to +pass by way of Narwa. But Gustavus Adolphus and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span> +his successors, after all, did not depart from the +previous policy of Sweden. He and they, like their +predecessors, sought to make themselves masters of +the entire Baltic commerce, and to impose their intervention +upon the outside nations, whom they crippled +with custom dues. Various promises of relaxation +which were made to Lübeck by Sweden were ill kept. +The hand of this country continued to weigh heavily +upon all the Baltic coasts, until there arose on the +scene the figure of Peter the Great, who in his turn +reduced them to submission, and who made himself +practically lord and master of the Baltic lands.</p> + +<p>Thus ends the history of the Hanseatic commerce +with Russia, which might be said to have ended +already, under Czar Feodorowitch Gudenow, for it was +no longer one League, but only an individual city that +maintained communication with Russia in those latter +days. The confederation of cities known as the +Hanseatic League had ceased to march together, +or to figure by name in the various treaties and +negotiations made after the accession to power of +this Czar.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_face.jpg" width="200" height="115" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/griff.jpg" width="450" height="106" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center b13 p4">V.</p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE LEAGUE IN THE NETHERLANDS.</h3> + +<p>The successive losses of factories and Hanseatic +liberties in the kingdoms of the North and East, were +of themselves a fatal shock to the prosperity of the +League. It must be remembered that the great +privileges attained by the League in times past in +England, the Netherlands, France, and Spain, were +all based on the monopoly acquired by them in +trading in the products of Russia, Denmark, Sweden, +and Norway. This monopoly, as we have seen in the +last chapters, had been seriously threatened; factories +had been forcibly closed, natives and strangers +had competed with the Hanseatics; the League's prerogatives +and charters had been trodden under foot +and disregarded.</p> + +<p>All the efforts made by the Hanseatics at the end of +the fifteenth century and in the early years of the sixteenth +to expel from the Baltic waters their various competitors, +had ended in failure. It obviously followed +that, with the loss of this monopoly, the privileges +extorted on the strength of it would vanish also; and +this was speedily the case, for under what pretence +of preference could the League now invoke special +favours at the hands of the Eastern nations? +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span></p> + +<p>These general causes of failure in the West were +destined to be complicated in the case of the Netherlands +with the adverse fate which befell the town of +Bruges at the end of the second period of our story, +and of which we have already spoken. The disaster +which deprived the town of its commercial importance +also contributed to ruin the Hanseatic factory +established in that city. Then the Hanseatics themselves +were not wholly blameless, seeing how at +Bruges they repeatedly revolted against paying the +tax enforced for storage of goods, a tax that was a +regular condition in the statutes of the League, and +which was exacted in all its foreign settlements; and, +besides this, there are also other circumstances to +be reckoned with, of a more general character. The +closing of the factory of Bruges was one of many +signs of the course of events. A new spirit was +abroad affecting commerce and progress in all directions, +a spirit against which, as we have said, the +League resolutely set its face, and which it refused to +recognize until it was too late.</p> + +<p>After the invasion of the territory of Bruges in +1488 and the ten years' blockade of the harbour of +Sluys, by the Emperor Frederick III., to avenge the +confinement of his son, the city found her trade +almost ruined. Two important branches were lost to +her, by the Italians who brought their own silk stuffs +to the rival market of Antwerp and by the Flemish +cloth-workers who had settled in England and likewise +sent their goods thither.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances the Hansa could scarcely +hope for the continued prosperity of Bruges. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span> +tumultuous activity that had hitherto reigned in the +factory gave place to a death-like silence. The profit +that was lost to the town fell chiefly to the lot of +Amsterdam and Antwerp, but partly to the fairs held +annually in various localities of the Netherlands, +which benefited by this abandonment and which came +gradually to attract to themselves all the business of +the East.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed, however, that the Hanseatic +Diet did not observe with dismay the visible and +rapid decline of the prosperity of this once flourishing +factory; but what could they do to hinder the general +desertion of its merchants? Could they, reduced as +they were in strength and influence, restore to the city +of Bruges its character of general depôt for the West? +Could they remove the obstruction of the Zivin, +ordered by the emperor, which, by a canal had connected +Bruges with the sea? Were they not themselves +so weakened that their own members refused +to pay the imposed dues, violated all the factory +laws, and traded and made common cause with the +natives?</p> + +<p>In vain did various diets send ambassadors to +Bruges to recall to the minds of the faithless traders +the laws under which they were constituted and by +which they were bound to abide. In vain did the +alderman of the factory itself plead with the men +living under his charge. The spirit of individualism +and insubordination was abroad, and since the League +could no longer ensure its old profits to its foreign +members, these no longer found it to their own +interests to obey its behests, many of which they +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span> +rightly felt to be antiquated. Add to this, that the +failure to pay the appointed taxes made negotiations +often impossible for lack of means, and it will be seen +how crippled and handicapped was the League in its +relations with Bruges.</p> + +<p>The Baltic towns, ever the most public-spirited +and perhaps also the most commercially enlightened +recognizing this state of affairs, had in 1530 combined +on a fixed tariff, which they thought should be paid +to the factory at Bruges for its maintenance. But the +other cities would not listen to this, and the absence +of concord, that of late had made itself felt and heard +too often in the councils of the League, was manifest +again on this occasion. Town after town stated +through its deputies that it would not contribute to +this general tax unless some special favour were +granted to it, unless some special merchandise were +allowed to pass free into the Netherland domains; +the merchandise named being usually that in which +the bulk of the town's trade consisted. If ever an +association gave practical exemplification of the +homely saying of "cutting off one's nose to spite +one's face," the League was doing it at that moment.</p> + +<p>As usual Cologne was one of the most restive and +obstructive of all the towns. It actually proposed to +pay a lump sum of a hundred guilders annually, and +so be free from all custom duties of whatever kind. +By the time the dispute was at last decided, and a sum +fixed upon by all the towns together, the dominion of +Bruges had hopelessly passed away from the Hansa, +and the League was busy with the thought of removing +its factory to Antwerp. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span></p> + +<p>For they finally admitted that they must cut +loose from the old moorings; that it was necessary +to quit the ancient factory, where disunion and +grave disorders had crept in. The merchants who +had deserted had many of them become naturalized +citizens of Amsterdam, or Antwerp, where they +quietly continued their commercial relations with the +confederated towns, without taking notice either of +the confederation or of its factories. Under these +changed circumstances what could be done? There +were only two courses possible to the League: to +afford free trade to the Netherlands, and so renounce +its ancient methods, or to maintain the old system, +and make an attempt to apply its principles in a new +locality. The first course would have been the most +rational, and the most in keeping with the spirit of +the time. But the Hanseatics, as we have frequently +had occasion to see in the course of our story, were +not men easily to lose hold of prey, or to break +spontaneously with a past that had been glorious and +lucrative. They decided in favour of the second +course, and at once set about seeking for the spot +which would best secure their interests. Various +places offered themselves for their choice, such as +Bergen-op-Zoom, Middlebourg, Haarlem, all of which +promised the Hansa considerable advantages, in +order to attract it to themselves. It would, perhaps, +have most inclined to Amsterdam, but it could not +forget that this town had often fought in the ranks of +its enemies, and had put forth in the Baltic a special +activity very prejudicial to its monopoly. Antwerp +was finally decided upon, for it was manifest already +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span> +in 1513 that the great commercial movement of the +epoch seemed inclined to tend towards that spot.</p> + +<p>The story of the rise of the city into importance is +most interesting. Formerly its houses had been all +thatched with straw. Its inhabitants lived on the +results of agricultural labour and fishing. Since the +English merchant adventurers had patronized the +town, wretched habitations had given place to fine +solid houses; ease and wealth had taken up their +abode among the burghers. As an instance of this, +it may be mentioned that houses which fifty years +previously let for forty to sixty dollars of annual +rent, now fetched four to eight hundred dollars a year. +The Hansa asked themselves, very naturally, were +not some of those good things to fall to their share.</p> + +<p>It was in 1545 that it was finally settled by the +Hanseatic Diet that a depôt should be established at +Antwerp, but the negotiations regarding it dragged +on. It was, however, at once decided, that the factory +should become, like the factories of the past, an obligatory +intermediary of all the relations between the +Hansa and strangers.</p> + +<p>In 1561, the League was fortunate enough to obtain +from King Philip of Spain the confirmation of the +privileges which they had extorted in the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries from the Dukes of Brabant, +and which permitted them to bring in their goods at +a minimum rate, and accorded to them other valuable +privileges. And besides this liberality on the part of +the ruler of the land, the interested city also showed +itself willing to further the weal of the League. The +Hanseatics were offered by the town of Antwerp a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span> +spacious tract of land, free of rent, situated between +two canals, on which they were to be allowed to erect +a factory. Besides this, Antwerp offered to defray a +third of the costs, laying down for this purpose the +large sum of thirty thousand guilders. Annexed to +the establishment, which was to be the free possession +of the confederation, was an open public square, that +formed a sort of exchange—free to all comers—where +prices were to be settled, and sales and auctions held. +A public balance, adapted to the weights in use +among the Hanseatics, was to serve in the residence +itself, for weighing the merchandise imported by +them, while the public balance of the town was to +serve for weighing their purchases. Other very +favourable conditions with regard to the exportation +of unsold goods, and of goods in storage and in transit +were added. In return for all these favours, the +Hanseatics had to promise not to abandon Antwerp, +unless very real and serious causes, such as a war or +a plague, should force them thence; and that Antwerp +should enjoy in Hanseatic cities such commercial +liberties as were accorded by the League to the +most favoured nations.</p> + +<p>On May 5, 1564, the foundation-stone of the splendid +House of the Easterlings, at Antwerp, was laid, +with great pomp and ceremony, in presence of the +local burgomasters and the representatives of the +League. In four years the stately edifice was finished, +and formerly<a name="formerly" id="formerly"></a> handed over to the aldermen of the +Hansa, and such Hanseatics as were in Antwerp, +who were regarded by the city as the representatives +of the confederated towns.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo313" id="illo313"></a> +<img src="images/illo313.jpg" width="550" height="350" alt="THE HANSA FACTORY, ANTWERP." /> +<p class="caption">THE HANSA FACTORY, ANTWERP.</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span> +The first Hanseatic Syndic General, Dr. Heinrich +Sudermann, of Cologne, then put the finishing touch +to the great work by sketching out for the factory +a projected code of statutes for its internal management. +It was laid before the Hansa Diet for +revision, approved, and at once promulgated. This +code enumerated the qualities requisite for admission +to the enjoyment of Hanseatic privileges, +determined the methods of nomination, as well as +the duties of the various functionaries attached to +the factory, and other details. The accounts were to +be placed under the supreme supervision of Lübeck. +Further, the merchants were to maintain the traditional +monastic discipline, were to live under the same +roof, and partake of their repasts in common in the +great hall of the factory. A few of the rules recall +the old hostile attitude always maintained by the +League towards strangers. All disputes of Hanseatics +among themselves were to be submitted to +the jurisdiction of the factory.</p> + +<p>In a word, in the outer magnificence of the factory +building, as well as in the elaboration and rigour of +the statutes, all the ancient traditional Hanseatic +forms had been revived. Indeed, as regards the +statutes, these attained at this epoch their greatest +scientific perfection.</p> + +<p>But perfect, correct, traditional, though the forms +might be, they were no longer in accordance with the +times; no longer the expression of the epoch that +gave them birth. It was easy to foresee that the first +adverse breath would dissipate them.</p> + +<p>And so truly it proved. Indeed, certain complications +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span> +showed themselves before the building was +finished, and foreshadowed the nature of the troubles +to be expected in the future. Money, as usual, was +the touchstone of discord. Various cities refused to +pay in the stipulated sums, others protested against +the regulations proposed. Danzig even went so far +as entirely to object to the new settlement as too +distant from the centre of business, and contended +that the pact of the League with the town of +Antwerp had been concluded too hurriedly, and +without due consultation.</p> + +<p>In consequence of these difficulties, the factory, +when completed, found itself crippled, and hampered +by debts, from which it was never able to free itself. +This was an unfortunate start, and was entirely due +to the apathy and bad faith of the cities, among +whom it became more and more evident that the +old spirit of union was rapidly dying out.</p> + +<p>Another difficulty was, that the traders began to +object to living in common under one roof. The +reasons in ancient times for this regulation, such as +the defective conditions of public security, no longer +existed in these more civilized times. Merchants +did not care to submit to the often tiresome and +petty restrictions on personal liberty involved by the +monastic rules that existed in the factory.</p> + +<p>In vain the Syndic of the League put forward for +the consideration of these unruly members, that the +concentration of all the Hanseatics in one factory +building made the defence of their privileges more +easy, while their dispersion in the various towns and +villages facilitated exactions by the natives and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span> +raising of taxes. In vain he pointed to the example +of England, where the Hanseatics, thanks to their +unity of action and of existence, had kept their prerogatives +intact during three centuries, while, on the +contrary, in the Netherlands the spirit of isolation had +produced in course of time an augmentation of at +least treble their original dues. In vain he demonstrated +that partnerships made with foreigners were +onerous for the Hanseatics themselves, and drew +down upon them the too great probability of conflicts +with the rulers of the Netherlands, who thus would +find their interests betrayed.</p> + +<p>Expostulations, appeals to the statutes, and menaces, +proved powerless to change the state of things, or +the direction in which affairs were tending. There +was no longer a strong support to be obtained from +the League as a body, in return for obedience; its +threats were no longer followed up by deeds, it had +grown too feeble to quell resistance, especially such +resistance as was made by towns strong in themselves—as, +for example, Danzig and Cologne.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the factory was no longer +respected as supreme by its own members. It +frequently happened, even in the early days of the +settlement, that Hanseatics residing at Antwerp +brought their differences before the local tribunals +instead of before their own court. It is related, that +one day one of the Hanseatic aldermen, anxious to +repress this mode of violating rules, reprimanded a +citizen of Cologne, one Mathern Schoff, on this +account. The accused fell upon the official dignitary +and belaboured him with his fists. The matter +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span> +created a scandal and was brought before the High +Court of Brabant. This court took part with the +rebellious Hanseatic, with the result that the authorities +of the factory were forbidden, under the most +heavy penalties, to take any action against him. +They were even threatened with the loss of all their +privileges.</p> + +<p>Such incidents, and a number of others like them, +presaged a catastrophe at a time not too far distant. +But circumstances unconnected with the factory +rendered its position still more difficult and precarious +and hastened its fate.</p> + +<p>Chief among these external causes was the war +between England and Spain; the war whose +chief incident was the destruction of the great +Spanish Armada by the force of the elements, which +ranged themselves on the side of the English +Queen. This war, which made the navigation +of the seas unsafe, was of course a most serious +interruption to trade. Nor did the destruction of +the Armada bring peace to the Hansa. Besides +this there had broken forth in the Netherlands +the great revolt in the cause of freedom against +the ecclesiastical and civil despotism of Philip II., +which was permanently to change the whole state of +that corner of Europe, and which for the time being +absolutely extinguished all trade by sea or land. +Glorious as these events proved for the cause of liberty +and of freedom of thought, they were disastrous to +the League. Each of the militant nations interdicted +it from all relation with the other, and security for +commerce was of course quite at an end. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span></p> + +<p>Now it must be borne in mind that the revolt +of the Netherlands began while the Hanseatics were +still building their new residence at Antwerp. The +League was no longer, as in old days, strong enough +to make its neutrality respected, and the consequence +was, it had to yield to the demands of whichever +party was at the moment the strongest. Thus the +Prince of Orange manifested from 1571 onwards a +desire that they should interrupt their communications +with Spain. As a result, when Antwerp was +taken, and pillaged by the Spaniards, November +4, 1576, the Hanseatics were forced to see themselves +treated not as neutrals, but as friends of the +rebels. Their papers were seized and their goods +confiscated; even their charter was seized and the +price of ransom fixed at the high rate of twenty +thousand guilders. Further, if we may deduce inferences +from the minutes of the Hanseatic Diet of +the same year, 1576, it would seem as though King +Philip II., and the Prince of Orange each in their +turn placed a tax of 10, 20, and even 40 per cent. +upon the merchandise imported by the Hanseatics +into the Low Countries.</p> + +<p>The League, in this desperate situation pleaded for +help now from one leader, now from another, but +could obtain no efficient relief or support from any +side. At last in April, 1577, the Spanish governor of +the Netherlands offered conditions to a Hanseatic +embassy which under the circumstances seemed +sufficiently advantageous. It was proposed that to +indemnify them for the losses suffered during the +pillage of Antwerp, the Hanseatics should for twenty +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span> +years be completely exempt from all taxes imposed +in Holland or Brabant, and from half the taxes established +for Zealand. Besides this the heads of the +factory were once more to be recognized as alone +competent to pronounce judgment in civil suits +between Hanseatics residing in the Low Countries. +On their part, however, the Hanseatics would have to +submit to the necessities of warfare. Further, full +latitude was conceded to them in the matter of +re-exportation of their goods, unless imperious need +opposed this, in which case they should receive current +prices for their merchandise.</p> + +<p>That these promises were ill kept, and that the +factory, scarcely born, was rapidly nearing its end, +is proved by the complaints addressed in 1581 +and 1582, to the city of Lübeck by its representatives +residing at the factory of Antwerp. They +pointed out how money was absolutely wanting in the +establishment; that the Hanseatics, resident and +non-resident, did not pay the contributions promised; +that the Spaniards harassed them, and rendered +their indebted position yet more difficult; that they +had no means of enforcing payment, and that if any +one city, or private person did pay, it was out of +pity. Then followed complaints of certain cities, +especially of Cologne, which sent merchandise to +foreign agents. The document further states that +the rooms, cellars, and storehouses of the factory were +quite empty; that the imposition or rather the faithful +payment of some of the various taxes had to be taken +into serious consideration; and that as the canal duties +in Zealand were always rising in price, contrary to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span> +treaty, it seemed to the petitioners advisable that +reprisals should be made on the natives of that +territory, residing in or treating with Germany. +Finally, they announced to the city that they were +about to charge an able secretary with the permanent +duties of looking after the affairs of the factory, if +such a plan were pleasing to the town of Lübeck, +and if the factory was to continue its existence. +This last phrase is significant.</p> + +<p>Lübeck, in its reply, offered to the factory of Antwerp +mere empty phrases of consolation, promising +in a lukewarm manner to see that the outstanding +Hanseatic dues were paid, in order that a beginning +might at least be made. But it opposed the advice given +by its representatives at Antwerp, to practise reprisals +towards the Netherlanders, because in that case they +would seek for themselves other routes and the Hanseatic +port would remain abandoned and neglected.</p> + +<p>One of the Hansa's earliest and most able historians, +commenting on this reply from the city of +Lübeck makes the following very just remarks: +"Nothing betokens more clearly the end of the +Hanseatics' commercial dominion than this last +passage in Lübeck's reply to its petitioners. Formerly +the League would have interrupted all intercourse +with the country that so misbehaved, and would thus +have punished it, would have avenged the very +smallest infraction of its privileges. Now it did not +even dare have recourse to this measure for fear of +completely sacrificing a commerce the pursuit of +which had become possible independent of the Hanseatics." +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span></p> + +<p>A little later than the documents referred to +above, an Antwerp Hanseatic alderman wrote that +he saw no hope for their body, and that the debts +were of such a nature, so numerous, so onerous, +that within twenty-four hours the representatives of +the factory might be arrested, and the factory itself +put up for sale. This piece of news did arouse +the apathy of the cities. Indeed it created such +alarm that even Cologne showed itself disposed +to pay the stipulated taxes faithfully and regularly, +within the course of the ensuing years. Unfortunately +however at the point to which the Hansa had +come, this tax which was levied on goods proved +fatal to the Hanseatic commerce, already crippled by +other custom dues, while it assured an ever-increasing +advantage to their two commercial rivals, the English +and Dutch. It was in consequence of these heavy +duties, too, that many a Hansa citizen renounced of +his own free will the liberties that had come to cost +so dear.</p> + +<p>The Hansa Diet could see no remedy save in their +old traditional measures. These import duties they +insisted must be paid by the towns, and to insure +this they established payment stations in divers +localities of the Low Countries, such as Dortrecht +and Amsterdam. But all these efforts failed to bring +about the needful result, and the chief alderman at +Antwerp was menaced with imprisonment. Indeed, +it is said he was actually confined for some while.</p> + +<p>In sore straits, the Hansa resolved to confide the +administration of its Antwerp factory to a manager +and a secretary chosen from the town of Cologne, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span> +who in critical moments should seek advice of the +towns of Lübeck and Bremen.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the best administration in the world—and +that of Cologne was perhaps not the best—could +not restore life to an establishment irrevocably +doomed. The few promises made, the few guarantees +given, whether by the United Provinces or by +the Spanish Netherlands, were not kept. Two Hansa +embassies which passed through Antwerp early in +the seventeenth century—the one bound for England, +the other for Spain—halted at the factory to inspect +it. Their official report sent to the Diet was, that +this factory was completely fallen into disrepute and +decay, and that in the general ruin every one thought +only of himself, and the general interest was not considered. +They added, that places formerly bustling +with commercial life had been converted into barns +for the threshing of corn.</p> + +<p>A faint new hope was excited by the armistice +which in 1609 was concluded between Spain and the +Low Countries; and Bremen was charged with the +administration of the factory in the place of Cologne. +But this was a mere passing delusion which was to +vanish before the reality; for in 1624 the Spanish +soldiers took up their headquarters in the factory, +and never quitted it until after the lapse of nearly +thirty years, by that time having made its hundred +and seventy rooms entirely uninhabitable.</p> + +<p>A very pardonable, and indeed in this case very +laudable, <i>amour propre</i> made the town of Lübeck too +late desirous to restore this factory, which recalled +the greatness, as well as the decadence, of the Hanseatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span> +League. But the Queen of the Hansa, the +most patriotic, the most energetic of all the cities, was +not supported by her confederates in this costly +enterprise. She therefore saw herself forced to +abandon the establishment to its fate.</p> + +<p>Still, before that date, indeed immediately after +the pillage of Antwerp, the trade of the Hanseatic +League with the Low Countries had ceased to be +a commerce placed upon a regulated footing and +ruled by prescribed laws, laws emanating from the +factory and punctually and faithfully obeyed by the +members. A faint activity and revival occurred in +the seventeenth century when the Dutch and Hanseatics +made a mutual trade pact. But this proved +of little profit to the latter, as far at least as their +traffic in the Low Countries was concerned; for, like +impatient heirs, the citizens of the United Provinces +endeavoured to enfeeble their rivals, to whose succession +they looked forward.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_jewel.jpg" width="200" height="151" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/flowers.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VI.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE END OF THE HANSA'S DOMINION IN ENGLAND.</h3> + +<p>The Hansa had been more fortunate in England +than in the Low Countries. Up to the middle of the +sixteenth century nothing had occurred that had sensibly +modified its old relationship with the English +nation. Nor had the factory diminished in power +or the commerce in importance. It is true that at +various times, now the kings themselves, now the +people, had grown restive under the heavy monopoly +of the Hansa League; but, to the kings especially, +the League with its riches, its command of ready +money and of ships, was of great use, and all attempts +at restriction of privilege ended in failure.</p> + +<p>But as Russia became consolidated after she had +thrown off the Tartar yoke, so England also gained +in strength after she had once renounced the foolish +desire of making herself mistress of France, and after +the long civil war of the Roses was ended, and a new +and peaceful reign inaugurated.</p> + +<p>Henry VII. left the Hansa privileges intact. The +same was the case under Henry VIII., who even +confirmed and extended them. The patron of Max +Meyer, the friend of the democratic burgomaster +Wullenweber, found it to his own interest to have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span> +the theological and political support of the maritime +Baltic cities, and was regardless of the interests and +deaf to the entreaties of his native merchants. It is +true that this hot-tempered and capricious monarch +several times threatened the League with a restriction +of their rights. Once indeed his threats seemed so +likely to take effect that the Hamburgers, in alarm, +advised the Steelyard authorities to remove from the +factory all silver vessels and all ready money. However, +these threats were not serious; they were perhaps +but a ruse to extract more pecuniary or moral assistance +from his allies.</p> + +<p>The successive checks, however, which the League +was encountering in other foreign countries were not +without their reactionary effect upon England. Various +discussions arose between Hanseatic and English merchants, +and led to more or less violent squalls, which +were certainly the prelude to the coming tempest.</p> + +<p>The Hansa, for instance, complained that they had +been suddenly forbidden to export English goods into +foreign countries, that is to say, countries other than +Germany proper. Above all, an attempt was made to +prevent them from carrying English cloth into the +Low Countries. This traffic the Merchant Adventurers, +an association formed partly upon the pattern +of the Hansa, wished to reserve to themselves alone.</p> + +<p>The Hanseatics further revolted against the old-established +custom that made them all responsible +for infraction of privilege, and punished them for the +wrong done by one or several of their cities against +some individual Englishman.</p> + +<p>On their side the English insisted with much bitterness +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> +that the German towns refused to render them +justice within their dominions; that they had even +laid violent hands upon such of their compatriots as +were occupied in fishing in Ireland; and that they +had, in the days of Christian II., harassed their +navigation in the Baltic.</p> + +<p>During the hostilities between Francis I. and +Henry VIII. the mutual recriminations diminished. +The German Empire supported the English king, and +the League had one more opportunity of playing the +old game that had so often turned to its advantage. +Solicited by both parties to lend its support, it played +off one against the other; and insisting upon the +neutrality of its members, traded freely and advantageously +with both combatants.</p> + +<p>It is quite certain that, notwithstanding some vexations +and disputes, King Henry VIII. of England +remained until his death the staunch friend of the +Hansa, as well as of the Low German towns that +formed part of the Smalkaldic League.</p> + +<p>The reign of his young son and successor was to +witness the first serious shock to the Hansa's power. +This boy, who ascended the throne at the early age +of ten years, confirmed all the Hanseatic privileges +on his accession. Destined to give some rude blows +to the confederation, he conformed in the first years +of his reign to the ways of his ancestors. One incident +is worth mentioning in order to illustrate the immense +influence which the Hansa had gained in England. +It was the rule, contracted years ago, that the name +of the Hansa should figure in all treaties between +England and France.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo327" id="illo327"></a> +<img src="images/illo327.jpg" width="268" height="550" alt="SIR THOMAS GRESHAM." /> +<p class="caption">SIR THOMAS GRESHAM.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span> +But after Edward had reigned a few years he lent +willing ear to the requests of the Merchant Adventurers, +all the more readily that their petitions were +supported by Sir Thomas Gresham, the honoured +founder of the London Exchange. This man made +clear to the young king and his guardian, the Duke +of Northumberland, that unless the Steelyard were +destroyed, the price of exchange could not rise, +because the fiscal privileges accorded to the Hansa +weighed too heavily upon the English. Besides this, +the men of the Steelyard were subjects of the emperor, +whom the young Protestant king hated as a persecutor +of his fellows in the purer faith.</p> + +<p>Still the Hansa suspected no real danger from +King Edward, and the less so, as they had completely +acceded to his desire that they should abstain +from all trade with Scotland. In April, 1551, a plot +laid against the hated and envied strangers by the +London burghers was discovered. In the course of +the inquiry into the plot, it was needful to examine +the Hansa's claims. Confiding in the goodwill of +the king's councillors, the "New Hansa," as Sir +Thomas Gresham called the Merchant Adventurers, +poured forth a long catalogue of grievances against +the League. It was stated that English merchants +had been ill-treated in various Hansa cities, notably +in Danzig and Stralsund; that the commerce of the +English was hindered in all possible ways; and that +serious loss was incurred by the royal treasury from +the circumstance, suspected to be true, that the Hansa +permitted persons foreign to their association to +enjoy with them the benefit of their privileges. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span></p> + +<p>In the list of complaints retailed before the king by +the discontented burghers and merchants of London, +and by the Merchant Adventurers who found themselves +less favoured than these foreigners, an attempt +was evident on the part of the English to place on +one footing and to consider as equally prohibited, +the fraudulent importation by the Germans of merchandise +belonging to non-Hanseatics, and the importation +by them of merchandise which belonged +to them, but was not produced in their territory.</p> + +<p>The fact was urged that, since the Hansa paid +only the usual custom dues, even for the foreign +products they imported, and for their exportation of +English goods to lands outside the rule of the Hanseatic +League, they were thus able to paralyse with +the greatest facility all English competition in these +different lands.</p> + +<p>Certainly nothing better justifies the murmurs of +the islanders against the foreigners than a comparison +of their various commercial transactions. +From these it appears that the English themselves, +in 1551, exported 1,100 pieces of native cloth as compared +with 44,000 pieces exported by the Hansa +League in the same year.</p> + +<p>It is true that all these complaints were not new. +But this time they fell upon more fruitful soil. The +government were perhaps all the more ready to give +an attentive ear, as of late the national commerce +had taken a very vigorous start, so that the royal +treasury might hope for considerable receipts, even if +the Crown should lose the duties paid to it by the +members of the League. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span></p> + +<p>In consequence the representative members of the +Steelyard were cited before the Privy Council, which +after a very brief examination of the claims brought +forward by the Hansa, decided hastily (February 23, +1552) "that the Hansa, an illegal body, the names +and origin of whose members were unknown, had by +importation and adulteration of foreign goods forfeited +the privileges accorded them by Edward VI."</p> + +<p>The following day, also in Privy Council, the suppression +of all the old Hanseatic privileges was decreed +and the League placed on an equality with all +other foreigners, none of whom had special favours +granted them. This decision seemed to promise that +at last the English would gain pre-eminence over their +redoubtable rivals.</p> + +<p>Meantime, the Hanseatic Diet, informed of this +step on the part of the English Government, sent +over an ambassador to treat with the king and +Council. The result of his efforts was that, in July +of the same year, the Hansa's privileges were re-established +provisionally "as far as was reconcilable +with the justice, fairness, and honour of the king"—so +ran the clause.</p> + +<p>Of all the negotiations a detailed and interesting +account has been preserved to posterity in the Diary +of the young King Edward, one of the most interesting +documents for the knowledge of his short reign.</p> + +<p>The concession granted to them made the members +of the Steelyard think, and very rightly, that it would +be well for them to put their own house in order, and +of their own accord to initiate various reforms in their +body, reforms much needed, for complaints against +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span> +them had been loud and long. They secretly hoped +to be in this wise restored to their former favoured +position.</p> + +<p>The disorders, however, in the body of the Steelyard +were not, on the whole, those from which other +foreign factories suffered. The taxes and other +enforced contributions, both from residents and from +the towns trading with England, were punctually +paid, and the finances of the establishment were +flourishing. The complaints, moreover, addressed to +the Diet, that the members of the Steelyard loved +luxury, wine, women, and gambling too well, and +that they rebelled against their semi-monastic life, +were not more frequent from England than elsewhere.</p> + +<p>The difficulties were chiefly that trade regulations +were not faithfully observed; that rules of the +strictest nature, on which largely depended the +Hansa's success, were circumvented and disregarded. +For instance, no man who had not attained his +majority was by statute allowed to become a member +of the League and trade on his own account; nor +was one who had not learnt English for at least six +months. This latter precaution was the more requisite, +as past experience had taught that, by ignorance of +the native language, these men were apt to compromise +the interests of the factory. Then there were +other abuses that led to grave results, such as trading +illicitly with natives and then absconding with their +debts unpaid; the whole factory in such cases becoming +responsible for the debts.</p> + +<p>In 1553, therefore, the members of the Steelyard +drew up a series of new statutes which they proposed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span> +to lay before the King of England for approval. If +these minutes are well considered it will be seen that +whatever else was dead or moribund, Hanseatic astuteness +was not. The new laws, it is true, tended to +abolish the abuses that had crept into the use of their +privileges, but they did not make the least sacrifice +of the liberties that the Hansa had acquired in the +course of years.</p> + +<p>King Edward, however, seemed little inclined to +consider these statutes, or to revoke permanently his +somewhat arbitrary decision—a decision undoubtedly +just towards his subjects. Then happily for the +Hanseatic League, though not for his country, he +died in this same year, and the crown passed to his +sister, the fanatical persecutor of Protestants, Bloody +Queen Mary, as the popular mouth has named her.</p> + +<p>The new sovereign speedily made it evident that +she meant in all respects to pursue a different policy +from that of her predecessor. The first to fall +was the Duke of Northumberland, the pronounced +enemy of the Hansa. Immediately after, the queen +showed by various signs that she was graciously +disposed towards these strangers, who had boldly +greeted her proclamation as queen against her rival, +Lady Jane Grey, by draughts of Rhenish wine +liberally bestowed upon the populace at the gates of +her capital. On the occasion of her triumphal entry +into London they were foremost in welcoming her +with pomp and splendour, as we have already +mentioned in a former chapter.</p> + +<p>Scarcely was the queen firmly seated on her throne, +than the Syndic General of the Hansa, Dr. Sudermann, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span> +waited upon her, attended by councillors from some +of the chief Hansa cities. The result of their representations +was that one of the first acts of the new +queen's reign was to annul the royal statute of +Edward VI. that so grievously threatened the League. +This almost unexpected good result was, it is whispered, +not due merely to Queen Mary's reactionary +policy, but also to the corrupting influence of Hanseatic +gold, judiciously distributed.</p> + +<p>Our League thus recovered its entire liberties and +rights in the matter of export and import, notwithstanding +the opposition of Parliament, of the Lord +Mayor of London, and of the citizens. It is therefore +not astonishing that they were willing to show themselves +liberal on the occasion of King Philip's entry +as husband of the English queen; and that in order +to maintain the favour of this couple, various cities, +especially Lübeck, showed themselves far from +friendly to Protestant refugees who sought protection +in their precincts.</p> + +<p>A valuable memorandum, drawn up by the Syndic +Sudermann and happily preserved to our times, gives +a vivid picture of what was implied by the Hanseatic +privileges in England.</p> + +<p>Taking merely into account one article of their +commerce, English cloth, it appears from this report +that from the month of January to the month of +November, 1554, the Hansa had exported from +England 36,000 pieces of cloth, as against 1,100 +exported by the English themselves, a third dyed +and two-thirds in the rough; that they only paid for +the right of exit threepence each piece, while other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span> +foreigners paid five shillings and ninepence; that +they could use their own servants for packing and +expediting merchandise, and so were relieved of +various custom dues; that had they not possessed +these privileges they would have had to buy this cloth +on the Antwerp market, paying about £1 sterling +more for the same; that they further gained £1 on +each undyed piece, which they alone were allowed to +export in this state, and which they resold after +having had it dyed. If it be further considered that +in reality they paid less than threepence a piece in the +pound as custom duties, because the price of goods, +fixed in ancient statutes, had gone up, while the +Hansa still paid at the old figure; if, in short, this and +various other matters be taken into account, it is no +wonder that Syndic Sudermann could prove that on +English cloth alone the Hansa earned, above that +made by other foreigners who traded in this branch, +a sum of about £61,000 sterling.</p> + +<p>Small wonder, therefore, that the trade was as much +coveted as it was prosperous, and that the mayor and +municipal council of London did not cease from laying +their complaints before the queen. They literally +pestered her with petitions and demands on this +subject.</p> + +<p>For some months the Hansa succeeded in averting +the storm from their heads, but finally the leading +members of the Steelyard found themselves suddenly +cited to appear before the Queen's Privy Council, +and had to listen to a long catalogue of grievances +drawn up by their accusers.</p> + +<p>The sum total of these grievances was, that the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span> +Hansa did not contribute sufficiently to the resources +of the English Crown; that it was prejudicial to the +English navy, because it refused to employ any +vessels but its own; that it harmed the very quality +of English cloth, for the makers, seeing the Hansa +would be sure to buy, presented them often with +inferior qualities. An amusing complaint is the +following: Whereas, say the memorialists, the Hanseatics +are all bachelors, they greatly injure English +trade at Antwerp, because the increased leisure this +state gives them, allows of their trading more extensively +and actively. Further, they once more +brought forward the time-honoured objection that +the Hansa would permit of no reciprocity, and while +nominally allowing the English to settle in their +towns, crippled their trade by heavy taxation and +vexatious regulations.</p> + +<p>That these assertions were not without foundation, +not even the Hansa could deny. They could but +point to ancient charters to justify them in a measure. +The result of this last formal complaint was, +however, that the Privy Council decided that henceforth +the Hansa should abstain from importing +English cloth into the Netherlands, and that the +quantity of undyed goods they might export be reduced +by two-thirds. They further added that any +infraction of these orders would result in entire suppression +of all privileges.</p> + +<p>The Hansa, who did not easily own themselves +beaten, and who desired at all costs to hinder their +rivals from supplanting them, sent various embassies +in the course of the next few years to the Court of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span> +England. They also once more attempted the +agency of bribery and corruption by means of Hansa +gold, to attain their ends. In vain. Embassies, +seductions, led to no result; not even a letter which +King Philip of Spain was induced to indite to his +wife, the Queen of England, on their behalf, could +modify by one iota the decision taken by the Privy +Council.</p> + +<p>Despairing of a good result from these measures, +the League resolved to have recourse to its ancient +mode of exerting pressure upon obstinate peoples, +by threatening to break off all intercourse with them. +The measure was, however, likely to have brought +destruction to them in England; that it did not +was due to the circumstance that the towns were no +longer, as in past days, blindly obedient to the orders +issued by the Hanseatic Diet. The Hansa, issuing +such an order, forgot that they were no longer the +exclusive masters of the North and East.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of things when Queen Mary +died, and Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen, took into her +firm and able hands the reins of the English government +(1558). It is true that she gave a gracious +reception to the Hanseatic embassy that waited on +her in May, 1560; but between a gracious reception +and a confirmation of the ancient privileges of the +League the Hansa were to learn that there lay an +abyss she would never bridge over.</p> + +<p>That the Hansa's power was effectually broken in +England ultimately was due to that queen and to her +wise statesman, Lord Burleigh.</p> + +<p>It was soon felt by the nation at large that, with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span> +the advent to power of Elizabeth, a new spirit was +infused into English life and enterprise. After a +hundred years of weakness, England awoke to renewed +life and vigour, and with vigour awoke ambition.</p> + +<p>The Merchant Adventurers, encouraged by Gresham, +put forward their desires; and they, too, asked that +the Hansa should be kept down. These desires were +listened to by the patriotic sovereign. She reconfirmed +all the new tariffs with which the Hansa had +been charged by Edward VI., and she further made +various demands which the Hansa were most unwilling +to concede; for they implied a strict investigation +of the affairs of their factory—an investigation that +they had no wish to provoke.</p> + +<p>In the following years an active correspondence +took place between the English queen and the Hansa +cities, which made it most emphatically manifest to +the latter that they must renounce all their antiquated +pretensions; but that, on the other hand, the English +queen was willing to place them in the category of +the most-favoured nation clause, so that they would +still pay less than other foreigners.</p> + +<p>The Steelyard authorities, being on the spot and +better able, therefore, to estimate the bearings and +value of Elizabeth's letters and threats, strongly +advised the Hansa towns to conform to the queen's +concessions and demands. They foresaw that worse +things were in store were this not done. But the +League—to whom the smallest and most equitable +sacrifice always seemed an enormity—resolved, before +yielding, to try as a last resource what could be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span> +effected by endeavouring to obtain the intervention +of the emperor.</p> + +<p>It is strange that, after the lapse of so many years, +experience should not have taught the Hanseatics +that from the German emperor no effective help +could be obtained. In this case, as in many previous +ones, the reigning sovereign contented himself by +writing a letter of remonstrance—a letter so worded +that it was easily manifest to the recipient that words +would not be followed by deeds. Both the Hansa +and the emperor involuntarily revealed that, even +after the ancient special privileges were withdrawn, +the League would still enjoy great favour in England.</p> + +<p>The emperor's letter was presented to Elizabeth by +the aldermen and councillors of the Steelyard. The +queen's privy councillors, and especially the trusty +William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, in reply, made it very +clear to the deputation that they had nothing to hope +for beyond the last concessions offered.</p> + +<p>Burleigh was the special object of the Hansa's +hate. This arose, perhaps, from the fact that he had, +according to a contemporary reporter, insulted one of +their ambassadors by accosting him "with almost +indecent rough speech." But Burleigh's speech can +scarcely deserve these epithets, if the complaints and +remarks are founded on his saying, that it was a +bad shepherd who desired to pasture the cattle of +strangers more richly than his own flocks; nor could +they complain that they were excluded, so long as +they might trade as freely as the English, and more +freely than the French, Flemings, Dutch, Scotch, and +other nations. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span></p> + +<p>The Hansa, blind, unwise, stuck to its old policy, +and like Shylock demanded the very letter of its +ancient bond. It is true that Elizabeth insisted, on +her side, that her subjects should be favoured in the +Hansa towns; that this reciprocity should be granted +was already a clause in the Treaty of Utrecht, concluded, +it will be remembered, in 1474, but it had +never been carried into effect.</p> + +<p>It must be admitted that, all things considered, +Queen Elizabeth treated the Hanseatics with a good +deal of consideration and long-suffering, and demanded +from them no more than what she had a right +to demand. When they refused the offer to be placed +on an equal footing with the English the queen issued +an order that their export of English cloth should +in future not exceed five thousand pieces. Cologne +tried to retaliate by putting on an import tax, but it +was an isolated measure, and had no effect.</p> + +<p>In a word, the victory remained in the end with the +English Government, on the side of which fought, +not only its own vigorous organization, but also the +disunion among the Hansa towns, which grew more +serious daily, and the grave disorders that existed in +the Steelyard itself.</p> + +<p>For some time past serious complaints had been +heard against the alderman of the factory, Peter +Eiffler, a man who filled this high post for several +consecutive years. He was accused among other +things, of having tampered with the funds of the +establishment, of having administered the factory +without the help, or advice of the council; and of +having divided unfairly among the Hanseatic merchants, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span> +the five thousand pieces of cloth permitted +to them for export. Further, he was reproached for +having in 1563 made a journey, leaving the Steelyard +and the care of the treasury to young men +incapable of so high a trust, who had done great +damage to the factory.</p> + +<p>After all these accusations had been duly sifted, +this unfaithful servant of the Hansa was of course +deposed from his post of trust, but his dismissal +brought no fresh order into the shattered condition +of things. As is frequently the case in the face of +a public calamity, public spirit was extinct. Each +individual thought only of himself, and of what he +could rescue from the impending general ruin. On +the one hand, there was the selfishness of the individual +towns; on the other, the selfishness of the +foreign factories. The London Steelyard, seeing that +the fabric of the League was tottering, tried to save +its individual existence out of the general wreck. +It thought to acquire an independent life, and act +and trade on its own account. Hence when the +League knocked at the doors of its strong-room, to +obtain the funds that should prolong or, as they +hoped, even dispel the death agonies of the other +foreign factories, whether by bribing nobles and +kings, or by sending embassies to foreign courts, +the Steelyard was careful not to listen to these +demands, thinking of the future, when it might need +all funds for itself. It was thus that in 1567, the +London factory, in reply to a reprimand sent it by +Syndic Sudermann for delaying to pay a sum of +over one thousand florins into the public fund, made +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span> +known to the town of Lübeck that this delay must +not be imputed to it as a fault, that the times were +not favourable to saving, that the annual expenses +of the Steelyard amounted to eight hundred pounds +sterling, and that other sums no less high had to +be expended by it, in maintaining the factories at +Lynn and Boston. The memorandum went on to +explain that, if the English establishments were not +kept in good repair, they would become forfeit to +the English Crown. Then, again, the Hansa taxes +had grown so heavy that no one could bear them. +If the Diet wished, the Steelyard would be quite +ready annually to send its accounts to Lübeck for +revision, in accordance with the ancient usage, which +however did not seem very firmly established; but, +on the other hand, they would prefer not to act thus, +since they feared lest their account-books should fall +into the hands of their enemies, who by inspecting +them, would gain an undesirable insight into Hanseatic +commerce, and might thus perchance despoil +them of their last privileges. The memorandum +winds up by saying, that the Steelyard would feel +greatly obliged if the League would refrain in future +from making demands for pecuniary help in times +of public difficulty.</p> + +<p>If this was not the language of insubordination, +it is difficult to say what else would be. Whither +had vanished the blind obedience which the League +had ever exacted, and till now obtained from all its +members, and which was the source of its greatness +and strength?</p> + +<p>Whether all that was stated by the Steelyard in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span> +this memorandum was true, it is difficult to decide. +Substantially no doubt it was so, but in the reports +of the Hansa Diets during these years, we come +across frequent complaints of the prevarication +practised by the aldermen of the London factory.</p> + +<p>Perhaps we must not blame either the towns, or +the factories too much for yielding to the all-powerful +instinct of self-preservation. When the Hanseatic +towns as a whole recognized that they were impotent +to demolish the rising commerce of England, or to +break the firm will of its lady sovereign, they were +almost forced to desert a cause which was a losing one, +and to work each for their own separate advantage.</p> + +<p>Hamburg was the first among the confederate +cities to recognize whither matters were tending, and +to adjust its policy with a due regard to the new +spirit of the age. It concluded a convention on its +own account with England. Matters came about in +this wise. The chief foreign trade of England was +gradually passing into the hands of the Merchant +Adventurers. Now to this company the Netherlands +were closed, owing to the conflict raging between +Elizabeth and King Philip of Spain. Hence these +merchants had to seek elsewhere the depôt which +they had found in the Low Countries for their English +merchandise. Owing to its situation and its excellent +harbour the town of Embden, which did not belong +to the Hanseatic League, seemed to unite in itself +all requisite conditions, and it was indeed towards +this place that English commerce was directed. In +consequence Embden, within a brief space, grew most +prosperous. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span></p> + +<p>This prosperity, however, speedily proved noxious +to the city of Hamburg, till then one of the great +staple towns for the traffic in English woollens. +Seeing its gains passing thus into the hands of +strangers, the city deliberated whether the situation +could not be changed, and whether it would not be +wiser, more lucrative, and altogether better, to open +its own gates to the Merchant Adventurers, conceding +to them a factory, various privileges, and great commercial +liberties. Thus it would secure the double +profits arising from their sojourn, and from the commerce +that passed through.</p> + +<p>In 1567, Hamburg put this project into execution, +concluding a formal treaty with the Merchant Adventurers +for the space of ten years. It was cautious +at first not to name a longer term. The experiment +was but tentative, as it assured those of its burghers, +who, clinging to the old Hanseatic ideas, opposed the +scheme.</p> + +<p>That the project was also opposed by the Hansa +Diet will be easily inferred. Bitter reproaches were +addressed to Hamburg by the Diet held at Lübeck +in 1572. They were told that they had been guilty +of treason to the common cause. Their delegates +replied with warmth, rejecting this reproach. They +recalled to the memory of their hearers the treaty +of Utrecht which stipulated reciprocity for England, +and they endeavoured to prove that their townsmen +had acted, not only in no spirit of narrow egoism, +but in the interests of the entire League, since in +consequence of their treaty with the Merchant +Adventurers, the export of undyed cloths from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span> +England had been permitted in larger quantities, and +that the German waters were freed from British +pirates. Further they contended that every town +had a right to think also of its own interests. +Embden had received the Merchant Adventurers, +and had extracted profit from them; why then +should such profit be grudged to a town that was +a portion of the Hansa?</p> + +<p>The delegates were able to point also to the +tangible fact, that in the short space of the first +two years, the factory of the Merchant Adventurers +had turned over in Hamburg, the sum of three and +a half million of dollars.</p> + +<p>This was all well and good for Hamburg, but +beyond question the treaty still further disturbed the +relations of the cities towards each other, and helped +on the pending catastrophe. And the worst of all +was that Elizabeth could not be induced to reconfer +the old Hanseatic privileges, even after her subjects +had been received by Hamburg.</p> + +<p>Still, for the moment, nothing was changed with +regard to the new position taken up by Hamburg, +though the agitation on the subject within the League +itself continued unabated. When the ten years of +treaty were ended, and the Hansa was desirous of renewing +the convention, then the storm broke forth with +fresh fury. Appeal was even made by the Hanseatic +League to the Emperor Maximilian II., who decreed +solemnly that no town might treat with England +without the consent of its allies.</p> + +<p>Still the Queen of England did not at once break +off all relations with the Hanseatic League. She +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span> +temporized, not being willing to lose for her subjects +the advantages gained at Hamburg which she hoped +to see further extended. The Hansa, on its part, +demanded that the queen should re-confirm its +privileges; then it would accord a factory to the +English. The queen replied that she wished first to +see the factory accorded; then it would be time +enough to speak of the privileges.</p> + +<p>In this wise the negotiations did not progress. +Each of the parties was rolling the stone of Sisyphus, +as Elizabeth herself remarked. It was quite evident +that at that moment the queen was resolved not to +resort to extreme measures, and though she threatened, +she did not carry out her threat of putting the +Hanseatics on the same footing with other strangers. +The moment had not yet come. It came later, when +she could do without certain of her imports, such as +raw materials for ship-building and for stores of war, +among which latter gunpowder took a great place. +Then, too, before the defeat of the Spanish Armada +had occurred, England did not feel her maritime +power great enough to venture a <i>coup de force</i>.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, each new meeting of the Hansa Diet +put in a stronger light the radical difference between +the policy pursued respectively by the towns of +Lübeck and Hamburg. This difference may be said +to form the tame epilogue to the great tragedy of +Wullenweber's failure and death.</p> + +<p>The Lübeckers wanted the old privileges, the whole +privileges, nothing but the privileges. What cared +they for the changed condition of the world's affairs? +Syndic Sudermann's ideal was the restoration of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span> +good old customs in the factories, the continuance of +every measure that in the past had made the Hansa +great. But Sudermann was no military hero, who +could win back privileges at the point of the sword, +or "hold down foreign nations under his thumb," as +the secretary of the Steelyard expressed himself. He +was a learned, well-nourished, well-paid Hanseatic +Syndic, thorough, pedantic, earnest, long-winded. It +is on record that one of his memoranda destined for +the Imperial Diet was so long, that a hundred and +fifty dollars had to be paid in the Imperial Chancery +for having it transcribed—an enormous sum in those +days of cheap labour—and that the imperial councillors +roundly declared that they would not read it at +all, if it were not shortened. He it was who on all +occasions represented Lübeck as her spokesman, and +the ideas he expressed were those of the city.</p> + +<p>Hamburg, on the other hand, could not refrain at +times from remarking that the kingdom of England, +like other kingdoms, no longer presented the same +aspect as two or three hundred years ago, and that +hence account must be taken of modifications, and +actions be regulated accordingly. Its delegates +cited the case of Antwerp, pointing out that that +town's prosperity dated from the days it had opened +its gates to the English Merchant Adventurers. Till +then the houses had been thatched with straw, and +the inhabitants had subsisted on the profits accruing +from agriculture and fishing. And now what commercial +activity, what a busy life was to be seen in the +marts of Antwerp, what wealth was found among all +classes of its burghers! To cite one instance alone: +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span> +dwellings that fifty years ago were taxed at a rental +of forty to sixty dollars, now cost eight hundred +dollars.</p> + +<p>But Lübeck would not recede from its old standpoint, +and would not relinquish its old conservative ideas. +It seemed to have none of that elasticity of mind that +can adapt itself to changed conditions, and profit by +them. It could but plead repeatedly—how far it was +in earnest it is hard to tell—that the government of +the League might be taken from off its shoulders, for +the burden had grown too heavy. As a substitute it +proposed either Cologne or Bremen. It could not +find words to express the sorrow which Hamburg +and other cities had caused by relinquishing the +general weal for their own private good. It said it +would itself retire from the League, in which the old +sentiments no longer lived, were it not held to its +duty, or what it deemed its duty, by the force of old +memories. It could not realize that its system was +antiquated, its ideas played out. Like some old +people, it could neither give way gracefully, nor +assimilate intelligently the new thoughts that sway +the younger and rising generation. Like the old, too, +it overlooked the fact that the young must win, time +being in their favour.</p> + +<p>In a great Diet held in 1591 the following resolution +was actually put forward, namely, "that each +town present should declare whether it intended to +remain Hanseatic." This question was indeed significant. +It should be mentioned that during the sitting +of this Diet Syndic Sudermann died—a man who +deserved well of the League, even if his opinions were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span> +sometimes narrow and mistaken, and not up to the +level of the current ideas. Like Wullenweber, he had +reaped nothing but ingratitude in return for his ardent +and patriotic labours.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that Cologne was the first of the +cities to reply in the affirmative, that she wished to +remain in the League, Cologne ever so insubordinate +and stubborn. Bremen also acquiesced, provided +twenty more cities sided with Cologne. They stated +that they decided thus for the sake of their posterity, +since, having once acted, they must go through with +it at all costs.</p> + +<p>While all these dissensions were going on in the +heart of the League itself, England continued in its +onward path, evincing that feverish activity of commercial +enterprise that has ever distinguished it. +Elizabeth sent ambassadors in all directions, courted +and bribed the German princelings, distributed her +gold everywhere, and by means of her spies neglected +no means of making herself feared or beloved, or +both.</p> + +<p>The League meanwhile had to look on with impotence, +for it lacked resources to do otherwise. Day +by day it was losing its influence. It is true that both +the Hanseatic and the Imperial Diet tried to prevent +the English from settling in Germany; but the towns +that saw their profit in receiving them either openly +or secretly disobeyed commands which neither party +could enforce. As a sample of the replies given to +the Diet by the Hanseatic cities may be cited the +case of Stade, which, when called to account, answered +"That Almighty God had put the English in their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span> +way, and thus sent them some means of subsistence, +in order that the citizens might get a bit of bread, +and keep off the pangs of hunger."</p> + +<p>Thus year by year England's influence increased +and that of the Hansa declined. Then occurred a +further cruel blow to the League. In consequence of +the strained relations between England and Spain, +Hanseatic trade in that country and in Portugal had +risen to some importance. The Hansa supplied those +countries with grain, munitions of war, and shipbuilding +materials. Queen Elizabeth naturally looked +on all this trade with an evil eye, and regarded it as +so much support accorded to her enemies. She did +not fail to make the League acquainted with her displeasure, +even threatening to treat its cargoes as +contraband of war. The Hansa in its turn pleaded +that it merely exercised the right of neutrals, and +persisted in not abandoning a lucrative trade.</p> + +<p>Then came the defeat of the invincible Armada +which left to England the empire of the seas, and +gave her a boldness and self-confidence which she +has happily never since lost. Sixty Hanseatic vessels +were encountered by Norris and Sir Francis Drake +about to enter the mouth of the Tagus. They were +laden with grain to provision the Spaniards. These +were seized, and no subsequent negotiations ever +succeeded in causing Elizabeth to release her hold +either on the vessels or their cargo.</p> + +<p>Needless to say, that this proved the last straw in +the load of Hanseatic grievances against the queen.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the King of Spain, to compensate the +League, and to win it to his side, offered to enter into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span> +a firm alliance with it. But they would not break +with the Netherlands, now in full revolt against King +Philip. There remained only the last and almost +hopeless resort, to appeal once more to the empire.</p> + +<p>On August 1, 1597, after fifteen years of nearly +useless solicitation, and when it was quite too late to +remedy matters, the Emperor Rudolph caused an +imperial mandate to be issued at Prague, which +enjoined the English to quit the Empire within +the space of three months. This mandate was +couched in proud and fierce terms against the English +queen, and menaced with severe punishment those +Germans who, on German soil, should put themselves +into communication with the hated Merchant Adventurers +of England.</p> + +<p>Great was the joy of Lübeck and of several other +towns at this order, and they kept strict watch that +the imperial mandate should be obeyed. They hoped +from it the most salutary effects in modifying the +resolutions of Elizabeth.</p> + +<p>They had reckoned without their host, or rather +they had not duly judged the character of their +opponents. Driven from Germany, the English +found a refuge in the Dutch town of Middleburgh, +whence they conducted a lucrative trade with the +empire, awaiting some happy chance that would be +sure to arise from the now ever active discord in the +League, and that might reinstate them on the shores +of the Elbe and the Rhine.</p> + +<p>Elizabeth meanwhile, in 1598, driven to yet further +exasperation by a Hanseatic attempt to hinder the +export of grain to England and Holland, sent word +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span> +to the merchants residing at the Steelyard that +they must depart out of these premises and quit England +within the space of fourteen days. The Mayor +of London, attended by the Sheriffs, formally presented +to the authorities of the Steelyard this decree, +which authorized them to take possession of the +building and all that pertained to it.</p> + +<p>Ten days after this compulsory taking of possession +the Germans filed out of the Steelyard in orderly +procession. The authorities wrote to the Hanseatic +Diet, stating that, after duly protesting against this +forcible act, they "marched out of the gate, the +alderman at the head, and we following him, sad in +our souls, and the gate was closed behind us; nor +should we have cared to have remained another night +within the walls. God be pitiful."</p> + +<p>Thus the last sacrifice was consummated, which had +been long demanded by Sir Thomas Gresham and +his friends, and which the now flourishing condition +of English trade required. In order that the English +merchant might thrive unchecked, he had to drive +away from his midst his old masters, the Hansa, the +men who had taught him how to trade, a lesson the +pupil had learnt too well. Such was the mournful end +of the German Guildhall on the banks of the Thames; +an institution older than the Hanseatic League itself; +the most honourable monument which Germany could +point to abroad of her strength and enterprise. Yet +it is, perhaps, rather the fact that it endured so long, +than that it perished, that should surprise us. It is +certainly wonderful, and much to the credit of the +English, that musty parchments sealed with the seals +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span> +of the Plantagenets, should have been honoured so +late, honoured when England's commerce and navy +could boast men such as Sir Thomas Gresham, Sir +Francis Drake, and Sir Walter Raleigh.</p> + +<p>Of course the Hanseatic League did not at once +give up all for lost. They intrigued, they negotiated, +they even flattered themselves with hopes of success. +Then suddenly the news of Elizabeth's death broke +up a congress held with this end in view. The +Hanseatics at once cast glances full of hope at her +successor. They trusted he might prove less inexorable. +Experience had often shown them that with a +change of ruler came a change of policy.</p> + +<p>But they proved greatly mistaken. The reply +received by the first embassy they addressed to +James I. rudely shattered all their hopes. They +resumed their intrigues at home, trying to stir up the +emperor to hinder the export of wool from Germany, +and to encourage the manufacture of woollen goods +at home.</p> + +<p>It was the great De Witt who wisely said that the +one weak point in the German Hansa was that it +was not backed by manufacturing interests. They +were merely carriers and intermediaries, and this +made itself felt in the days of their decline.</p> + +<p>Negotiations, entreaties leading to nothing, and +the Germans being impotent to hinder, the English +soon found their way again into the empire with +their persons and their goods, and once more Hamburg +was the first to receive them formally and to +conclude a treaty with them. This time neither the +emperor nor the League protested. It is true the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span> +Steelyard in London was ultimately restored to the +Germans, but the old privileges enjoyed with it were +gone for ever. Nor was it, when restored, regarded +any longer as the property of the Hanseatic League +such as we have known it—a compact body, willing +and able to defend its rights. It was rather the property +of the Germans living in England, and this +it remained. In 1853 the Steelyard property was +sold to an English company for building purposes for +the sum of £72,500, by the cities of Lübeck, Bremen, +and Hamburg, the sole heirs of the once powerful +Hanseatic League. The present Cannon Street +Station stands on part of the site.</p> + +<p>With the death of Elizabeth the history of the +Hanseatic League as such practically comes to an +end in England. Then followed, quickly afterwards, +the Thirty Years' War, which gave the League a +mortal blow, from which it never recovered.</p> + +<p>Even before the last stroke fell, John Wheeler, a +secretary of the association of Merchant Adventurers, +had declared regarding the Hanseatic cities (1601), +"Most of their teeth have fallen out, the rest sit but +loosely in their head." His judgment was verified all +too soon. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/couple.jpg" width="450" height="105" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VII.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR KILLS THE LEAGUE.</h3> + +<p>John Wheeler's diagnosis of the condition of +the League was too correct. It is true that an +ostensibly official document enumerates fifty towns +as forming part of the Hansa League in 1603, but we +know that at the same time only fourteen had a seat +and voice in the Diet and duly paid their fees. +Indeed, the more we examine the internal condition +of the League at this period the more we wonder, +not that it fell asunder, but that it endured so long. +It had become utterly disorganized and was decaying +fast.</p> + +<p>In 1606, the Emperor Rudolph II. evoked a feeling +of alarm among all the towns by suddenly demanding +to see their charters, and to know whence they +derived their privileges and statutes. Thus the results +of appealing to imperial aid, in the English complications, +bore their inevitable and unpleasant fruit. The +emperor's ulterior aim was of course to extract +money from the cities, this time in aid of his Hungarian +wars. As in the days of their glory, the cities +knew how to protect themselves, and how to escape +undesirable inquiries by means of subterfuges and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span> +evasive answers. Still the first attempt at supervision +had been made, and was to bear fruit later.</p> + +<p>While matters were in this uncomfortable state, +there broke forth the long, terrible strife known to +history as the Thirty Years' War. Its causes are to +be sought for in those most unhappy differences of +doctrinal opinions, which, being rooted in mutual +intolerance, a want of fairness of spirit, and of +dramatic insight into the needs of divergent mental +constitutions, make one man wish forcibly to impose +his point of view upon his neighbour, under the +conviction that it is the only point of view, and +hence the true one. This intolerant and narrow +spirit, which more fatally divides individuals and +nations than any other form of human folly, had +reached its climax in the century of the Reformation, +when not only were Protestant and Catholic opposed +to one another, but Protestants were also divided +among themselves, Calvinist and Lutheran persecuting +each other with an acrimony quite out of proportion +to the gravity of the questions at stake.</p> + +<p>The details of this most deplorable war fall outside +our province, and belong to the history of Germany +proper. We can but touch on it as it concerns our +League. When hostilities commenced, the Hansa +were to realize what even the shadow of a great name +implies. Power after power made overtures to the +League to make common cause with them. Gustavus +Adolphus of Sweden, was the first. As early as +1621, he sought an alliance with the cities, and he +counted the more on an affirmative reply, that his +enmity to Denmark was shared by the League. But +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span> +they refused his offer, saying they wished to enter +into no unequal bond, assuring the king however, +at the same time, that they desired to remain good +friends with him, and to continue their commercial +intercourse.</p> + +<p>The fact was that, seeing the agitated and disordered +condition of affairs in Germany, the Hanseatic League +hardly felt it wise to take any definite step at this +juncture.</p> + +<p>Gustavus Adolphus, however, was the more disappointed +at their refusal, since he had been led to +expect different treatment from them. Since the time +he had ascended the throne, his relations with the +League had been friendly. An old chronicler tells +us how some time before the king's marriage, the +"honourable Hansa towns" sent ambassadors to +Sweden to conclude a treaty with Gustavus Adolphus +about the Protestant religion, and also to treat with +him concerning trade privileges. Indeed, the latter +seems to have been their chief aim. But as they wanted +to keep it secret, says the writer, they professed that +they had been sent to congratulate the king upon +his marriage. Gustavus Adolphus received them in +solemn audience, standing and with uncovered head; +no small honour to pay to a confederation of trading +towns. Beside him stood his mighty Chancellor, +Oxenstjerna. After the king had accorded them a +cordial and formal reception, he gave them the +traditional presents, usually only awarded to nobles. +Further, he accorded them free board at the cost of the +city of Stockholm, as often as they did not eat at his +royal table. In order that no mistake might arise +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span> +regarding quantity, he informed them that in the +matter of meat alone, they could count on six oxen, +twenty-one fat sheep, one reindeer; and as to drink, +on four barrels of good wine, and three hundred and +sixty Swedish dollars to cover their other expenses. +"This royal treatment mightily pleased the honourable +delegates," writes our chronicler, and no wonder, +when we remember that the men of the Hansa +were famed for the amount they could eat and drink. +No wonder, too, that Gustavus Adolphus thought to +find in them ready allies, if only in return for his good +hospitality.</p> + +<p>That the King of Denmark, their old foe, should also +have courted their alliance, seems yet stranger. He +too, was refused. So was France, who, in 1625, sent +delegates to the Hanseatic Diet to sound the members +as to her chances of success, in forming an offensive +and defensive alliance with these once so powerful +merchants.</p> + +<p>The most important and strangest offer of all was +the wooing of the imperial delegates in the name of +Spain, at the Diet held at Lübeck, in 1627. It appears +that Spain stood in need of a friendly commercial +navy in order to carry on her colonial trade, as +well as of a friendly maritime power with which to +meet the Netherlands. This idea was in accord with +Duke Wallenstein's project to gain empire over the +Baltic by means of an imperial navy, thus to surround +the imperial crown with a new lustre, and the more +surely to hold within bounds the recalcitrant inland +princes. It was not from pure ill will or haughtiness +that Wallenstein so terrified Stralsund, the town which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span> +he besieged so long and mercilessly, nor from pure +love of well-sounding titles, that he styled himself +"General and Admiral of the Baltic and North +Seas."</p> + +<p>The two imperial delegates, who appeared before +the Hanseatic Diet at Lübeck deigned to speak the +quaint formal language that was traditional with the +Hansa League. They were begging for a favour, and +so deemed it wise to assume no masterful tones. The +emperor's word was said to be addressed "to the +honourable councillors and other members of the +worthy city of Lübeck, regarding it as the head of the +most ancient Hansa League." The ambassadors put +before the assembled Hanseatic deputies, that the +Holy Roman Empire, in its entirety, and the venerable +German Hansa towns in particular, had suffered +grievously from the restraint on free navigation which +had been imposed on them by foreign potentates; +and that the German nation had thus the bread +taken out of their very mouths. Therefore it was +the emperor's earnest and ardent desire to befriend +the towns, and to restore the nation to its former +reputation and grandeur. A most useful alliance +would be proposed to them, and this proposal did +not come from a foreign power, but was put forward +under the emperor's patronage and protection. The +facts were these,—Spain had for some time past +declared itself willing to enter into an agreement, +that all the merchandise, whether exported from or +imported into the Spanish dominions, should only +pertain to the natives of the German Empire or to +Spanish subjects. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span></p> + +<p>The emperor through his ambassadors admitted +that this proposal had at first sight seemed to him +somewhat grave, and requiring consideration, but +those competent to judge had demonstrated to him, +that such direct importation of Spanish and Indian +wares into Germany would benefit, not alone the +Hansa towns, but the whole of Germany, and would +serve to compensate for the privations and sacrifices +imposed by the most unhappy war.</p> + +<p>The emperor went on to add, that he had ever +noted in Lübeck a very true and German frankness +and fidelity, and that he did not doubt that Lübeck +would carefully consider this proposal, in concert with +the sister towns, in order that, after the compact had +been duly concluded between the emperor and the +King of Spain, it might be openly confirmed with the +help and advice of the Hansa towns.</p> + +<p>This was the smooth speaking in which the Hansa's +imperial masters chose to indulge when it suited their +imperial purpose. But decrepit, weakened though +the Hansa was, it was not easy to catch it napping. +Our wary merchants felt convinced there was some +ulterior motive at the bottom of this sudden graciousness, +and considered the imperial proposal very +carefully and thoroughly. What could it mean, that +of a sudden these jealous Spaniards were willing to +share the monopoly of their whole colonial trade with +the Hansa towns? Our cities feared the Spaniards, +even when they came laden with gifts. When +we recall, said these traders, the incessant and +endless annoyances which our merchants have endured +during two centuries while doing business +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span> +with Spain and Portugal, the arrogant demands, the +petty frauds and meanness of the Spanish consuls +in the Hanseatic towns, we must confess that this +previous knowledge of the character of our would-be +allies does not lead us to trust their new, gracious, +and friendly offers. They remembered, further, how +a certain consul, called De Roy, was never named in +their minutes, other than as the "arch enemy of the +Hansa towns." They recalled, too, the project of a +maritime commercial company (an <i>Amirantazgo</i>), +proposed some time back by Spain between the Low +Germans and Netherlands, which had revealed to the +acute Hanseatics that Spain was deficient in ships and +in capital, and that its real purpose was to obtain a +fleet for itself on terms as cheap as possible. No, +decidedly, the Spanish offers were not to be thought of.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the Hanseatics very naturally feared an +inevitable breach with their Scandinavian neighbours +if they accepted. They foresaw, too, that their adhesion +to the plan would give the emperor a sort of +right to interfere in their commerce and internal +arrangements. They had a wholesome fear, not without +cause, of being placed under the most Catholic +protectorate of Spain, and, looking ahead, thought +they beheld, hidden beneath these velvet offers, the +claws of the terrible, abominable Inquisition.</p> + +<p>The whole project was therefore allowed to remain +a project. To the imperial spokesmen were presented +respectively four thousand and two thousand +dollars, and the Diet resolved to place the proposal +<i>ad referendum</i>. This meant that it was shelved once +and for ever. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span></p> + +<p>Nor did the Diet have cause to regret its decision, +for soon after the King of Denmark, at that moment +trying to ingratiate himself with them, sent for their +perusal letters which he had intercepted. These +communications were from the emperor, authorizing +Count Tilly to secure the cities of Lübeck, Hamburg, +Bremen, Stade, &c. So much for the sincerity +of this monarch's vaunted friendship.</p> + +<p>And now the war storm long brewing broke over +Northern Europe. Germany was to pay heavily for +her want of religious unity, or at least the want of +mutual forbearance among her people. At first the +Hansa towns had hoped that as usual their claims +for neutrality would be regarded, but Tilly refused +to listen to this, probably owing to his secret +instructions from the emperor. All the northern +towns had to suffer the full horrors of the war-curse, +and they suffered hardly less at the hands of their +friends than at those of their enemies. Both proved +equally merciless. In order to escape having a +military occupation within its walls, Rostock had once +to pay 100,000 dollars, and another time 150,000 +dollars, Wismar was taxed to the sum of 200,000 +dollars; and Hamburg a sum yet higher. Magdeburg's +fate was even more sad; it was besieged by +the imperial army, pillaged, and given to the flames.</p> + +<p>Imperial authority had never appeared so redoubtable +to these free cities, or so injurious to their +religious liberties and their political integrity. +Wallenstein and Count Schwarzenberg even went +the length of demanding the Hansa's ships, in +order to use them for pursuing the foes of their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span> +imperial master upon the high seas, and it is easy +to understand how, in presence of an armed force +of a hundred thousand men, it was vain for the +Hanseatic Diet to object that their deputies had +received no instructions which could warrant them +in acceding to such a proposal.</p> + +<p>The ports of Rostock, Warnemunde, and the +town of Wismar were all occupied by the Imperialists, +who were also engaged in besieging +Stralsund.</p> + +<p>The history of this siege and the heroism displayed +by this city are among the most notable +features in the Thirty Years' War. Wallenstein had +rightly judged it as most important for his purpose +from its geographical position, and had determined it +should be his. As Schiller says in his play <i>Wallenstein's +Lager</i>, he had sworn—</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="o1"> +"Rühmt sich mit seinem gottlosen Mund</p> +<p>Er müsse haben die Stadt Stralsund,</p> +<p>Und wär' sie mit Ketten an den Himmel geschlossen."</p> +</div> + +<p>This town which, thanks to some succour from +outside, succeeded in wearing out the enemy, proved +what bravery can do even under the most unfavourable +conditions. At the same time the episode throws +a fierce light on the low condition into which the +League had fallen. In vain did the city of Stralsund +appeal to the Diet and to the sister cities for +help. It was only after long reflection and many +debates that it was decided to advance to this unlucky +friend the meagre sum of fifteen thousand +dollars, and this at interest of 5 per cent. +</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo363" id="illo363"></a> +<img src="images/illo363.jpg" width="342" height="550" alt="RATH-HAUS, MÜNSTER." /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, MÜNSTER.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span></p> + +<p>These merchants, once princely and noble, at least +in their dealings among themselves, had sunk to +shopkeepers even in the domestic circle. The fact +is, that defeat and terror had paralysed and prostrated +them. Instead of making such a firm resistance +as they would have done in the past, they +had now recourse only to the feeble weapons of tears +and entreaties in order to procure some gentler +treatment for those of their members who had fallen +into the enemy's hands. Most frequently, too, these +humiliating steps proved quite futile, and were +answered according to the temperaments of the +generals-in-chief—brusquely and rudely by Tilly, +politely and cunningly by Duke Wallenstein.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile matters went from bad to worse for +the Hansa towns and for Germany. Even when +the empire achieved victories, the people had grown +too impoverished and too enervated to profit by +them. The story of this long-confused conflict of +thirty years' duration is one of the saddest and most +depressing in European history.</p> + +<p>When in 1648 the peace of Westphalia was at +last concluded, it nominally restored calm to the +whole northern world, including the Hansa towns. +But the League to all intents and purposes was at an +end. The peace could restore neither its power, nor +its union, and the confederation which seemed to +have sunk in deep sleep during the war, awoke from +its long repose only to find itself deprived of nearly +all its members, and powerless to continue any longer +its enfeebled existence. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/king.jpg" width="450" height="108" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p class="center p4 b13"><b>VIII.</b></p> + +<h3 class="p4">THE SURVIVORS.</h3> + +<p>Although the peace of Westphalia found the +Hansa hopelessly broken, yet it was not until after +this event that the various members fully realized +their condition. Until then they had anticipated a +resuscitation with the advent of political calm. When +the Hanseatic deputies had assembled at the Diet of +1628, the last of which an official record exists, they +had voted to postpone to a more convenient season +all proposals that were brought forward for consideration. +This Diet revealed the confusion into which +the Hanseatic accounts had fallen. Still even on +this occasion various cities pleaded for re-admission +into the union. It throws a sad light upon the +character of the delegates to read that those of +Brunswick, reporting to that city the history of this +Diet, should lay great and detailed stress upon the +fact that they had not been regaled with the customary +wine of honour and the wonted supply of cakes!</p> + +<p>All that was achieved on this occasion was that +the cities of Lübeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, were +charged with the protection of the Hanseatic interests, +in the name of all the other cities, so far as such +interests could at present be said to be at stake. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span></p> + +<p>Yet another Diet was summoned in February, +1630, at Lübeck. On this occasion there occurred +what of late had not been unusual, namely, that no +Hanseatic delegates appeared, with the exception of +those of Bremen and Lübeck.</p> + +<p>It is a picturesque historical invention, but, unfortunately, +like most picturesque legends, quite +untrue, that on this occasion all the members of the +most ancient German Hansa put in an appearance, +and in Lübeck's Hansa Saal decreed, in all solemnity, +its own dissolution; that, in short, the Hansa +was present at its own funeral. As the Hansa never +had an actual foundation day, so it had no day of +dissolution. As its growth had been gradual, the +result of time and circumstance, so was its decay. It +had been built up imperceptibly, it passed away +almost as imperceptibly.</p> + +<p>After the Diet of 1630, and again in 1641, the +three cities above named—Lübeck, Bremen, and +Hamburg—made still closer their friendly alliance, +erecting a species of new Hansa upon the ruins of +the old. With great modifications this compact survived +down to our own times, and was not dissolved +until forcibly rent asunder, as disturbing to Prussian +ambition and to Prussian ideas of protective trade. +For these cities kept up a species of free trade, while +all the rest of Germany was protective, and to this +day, though despoiled and shorn of their honour, the +cities call themselves proudly the Hanseatic towns. +In those days their main endeavour was to save as +much as possible from the general wreck, and to try +and keep alive the spirit of the League, of which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span> +most ambitiously they retained the name. They +believed, indeed the other cities believed too, that +with the restoration of peace they could establish +themselves upon the old foundations.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo367" id="illo367"></a> +<img src="images/illo367.jpg" width="362" height="550" alt="RATH-HAUS, LÜBECK." /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, LÜBECK.</p> +</div> + +<p>This vain, daring hope, so common to all who suffer +from incurable disease, did not quit them till the conclusion +of the peace so ardently desired. This peace +inaugurated a state of things incompatible with the +commercial tendencies of the Hanseatics, and showed +indisputably the futility of their hopes.</p> + +<p>Yet with that doggedness or obtuseness which prevents +a man from knowing when he is beaten, and +which was at all times both the strength and weakness +of the Hansa, even after facts had been made +plain to them, they still refused absolutely to accept +them. They still hoped against hope, to shape the +course of events, and as usual Lübeck the energetic +was to the front in these endeavours.</p> + +<p>After the peace of Westphalia, this city tried +repeatedly to organize a Hanseatic Diet in the old +style. It was not until 1669 that a number of cities +could be found willing to send deputies sufficient to +qualify the assembly with the name of a Diet. But +many of these deputies came only to announce that +their towns would not in future pay contributions to +the League, putting forward as their reason either +that the war had impoverished them too much, or +that the changed manner and course of trade made +them doubt as to the continued utility of their union.</p> + +<p>The discussions on this occasion were most animated. +It was a stormy sitting, but it produced no +real result. Too many different and absolutely conflicting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span> +opinions were advanced. The only conclusion +that was arrived at was the choice of a certain Dr. +Brauer, of Lübeck, to fill the honoured post of Hanseatic +Syndic.</p> + +<p>Vain honour truly, a very sinecure. For our poor +old League, already in its death throes, did not survive +this Diet. After eighteen sittings had been held +it was made manifest that no accord could be arrived +at, and the city of Lübeck even doubted if it were +worth while to draw up an official report of the +proceedings. Respect for ancient usages, however, +prevailed, and the minutes were therefore drawn up in +all due form. But they had no fact to record, except +that the assembly had not been able to arrive at a +unanimous opinion on any one point put forward.</p> + +<p>Speaking of this final moment, the eminent historian +of the League, Sartorius, writes—</p> + +<p>"The constituent elements of the League had been +united together in silence, and it was also without +noise that they were decomposed. No one could +be astonished at this end, which for some time past +have been foreseen by any intelligent person."</p> + +<p>"<i>Sic transit gloria mundi</i>" might have been +written on its tomb. Its glory had been great and +real indeed.</p> + +<p>No less a person than the eminent philosopher, +Leibnitz, in 1670, advised the imperial authorities, of +course without result, to revive German trade by the +re-establishment of the Hanseatic towns. The profound +indifference of the empire was a fact too great +to be overcome. The Emperor Charles VI. even +went the length of formally forbidding his subjects to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span> +trade with the two Indies by way of England and +Holland. At no single princely court of the whole +realm was there to be found a sound view of commerce +and commercial requirements. In the midst +of such apathy and ignorance it was a real piece of +good fortune for Germany that, at any rate, the three +cities of Lübeck, Bremen, and Hamburg, were allowed +to keep their independence.</p> + +<p>It was in these cities, then, gradually as trade +revived and the disastrous effects of the Thirty Years' +War were somewhat overcome, that wealth concentrated +itself. Here too was still to be found commercial +knowledge, activity, and enterprise, while the +old name of Hansa was discovered to have sufficient +power left to conjure with. That German industry +still found foreign outlet, that it still survived, and +proved profitable, was henceforward due solely to the +three remaining Hansa towns.</p> + +<p>The empire, meanwhile, whenever it did not harry +them by attempts at futile restrictions or by foolish +criticism of their policy, ignored them entirely. This +was always for the cities the happiest course, allowing +them free room to act as they, with their commercial +knowledge and insight, thought fittest.</p> + +<p>But as time went on, and the political state of +Germany grew more and more abject, it naturally +came about that the Germans grew less and less +respected and feared in the foreign markets, the +foreign people with whom they had to deal knowing +full well that there was no real power to back them. +They had to see all other strangers preferred before +them and the name of German become a by-word. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span> +Indeed they would be scornfully asked what was meant +by German, seeing there was no land really so styled, +and that the country which once bore that name was +split up into a vast number of small principalities. +No wonder that this condition of things did not help +on German trade. No wonder that under these circumstances +the foreign policy of the new League, or +rather of the union of the three towns, for league it +could not be called, was a policy of weakness, almost +of cringing, far different indeed from that of their predecessors, +who had played with thrones and deposed +kings. Where once they commanded they had now +to plead or flatter, and if these methods failed they +were driven to observe the <i>mores mundi</i>, to use their +own phrase, and let fly silver balls, unlike the heavy +balls used in olden times, that is to say, they had to +bribe.</p> + +<p>After the French Revolution and the European disorders +of that time, the Hansa towns by common +accord of Russia and France were declared to be +perpetually neutral, a gift of doubtful value. The +cities were soon made to feel what was meant by +owing their existence to aliens.</p> + +<p>A little later Napoleon the Great was frequently on +the point of giving away the Hansa cities, even before +he had appropriated them to himself. In 1806 he +offered them as compensation for Sicily, and, according +to Lord Yarmouth, would have given them to +Hanover if thereby he could have procured the peace +with England. Sometime after they were destined +by him to serve as the footstool of the throne he +designed for his brother Louis in North Germany. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span></p> + +<p>While he was making up his mind they were held +by his soldiers, and these days of French occupation +were spoken of to their dying days by the burghers +in accents of terror. At last, in 1810, quite suddenly +and without previous warning, "without due regard +and courtesy," as was pleaded afterwards at the Congress +of Vienna, Napoleon incorporated the Hansa +towns with the empire.</p> + +<p>It was well for them that this period was of short +duration, for trade was in those days a matter of no +small difficulty. Napoleon's mania regarding the +continental system had reached its culminating point. +Commerce was carried on either by submitting to +grave sacrifices owing to the blockade, or by smuggling +on a colossal scale. Neither method brought +with it prosperity or calm.</p> + +<p>Then dawned the memorable year of 1813, and +with it came the first check in Napoleon's victorious +path. The citizens of the three Hansa towns were +among the first in Germany to put on armour and +draw the sword for the liberation of themselves and +of their suffering fellow-countrymen. Great oppression, +happily for mankind and progress, often produces +a strong recoil. Enthusiasm knew no bounds; +German courage, which seemed dead, was revived.</p> + +<p>Alas! it was a false hope. Reaction once more +got the upper hand after Germany was liberated from +Napoleon's yoke, and it is a question whether the +yoke of the native rulers was not even heavier to bear +than that of the foreign usurper. It was certainly +less liberal.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"><a name="illo373" id="illo373"></a> +<img src="images/illo373.jpg" width="550" height="425" alt="RATH-HAUS, BREMEN" /> +<p class="caption">RATH-HAUS, BREMEN (From a print in the British Museum).</p> +</div> + +<p>The three Hansa towns, however, fortunately for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span> +them, managed to secure their independence, though +not without a struggle. There were not lacking +neighbours who gazed at them with covetous eyes, +nor others who would have looked the other way had +some power appropriated them.</p> + +<p>At the Congress of Vienna Lübeck was all but +given away to Denmark. But this was more than the +Hanseatic delegates present in the assembly could +stand. Accustomed of old to lift up their voices +boldly, and not to fear crowned or anointed heads, +they fiercely denounced this project as a deed of +darkness, and appealed so strongly to the consciences +of those present, reminding them of the everlasting +shame attending a broken word or promise, that they +actually succeeded in bringing them round to their +point of view. The project was abandoned.</p> + +<p>Thus the towns remained virtually free, while +nominally attached to Germany, and continued, as +of old, as willing, as they were able, to serve their +country with the talents that had been entrusted +to their keeping. Their flag again appeared on all +the seas, their commerce extended in all lands, they +even succeeded in concluding favourable trade alliances +in virtue of the old Hanseatic firm of "the +Merchants of the German Empire."</p> + +<p>But, as ever before, they were not backed by the +nation or by any real power at home, and now that +they were only three towns they could not act as in +the days of old, when their number extended across +Europe.</p> + +<p>But since the many hundred little states of which +Germany consisted have been all absorbed by Prussia, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span> +and incorporated under the collective name of +Germany, even the three Hansa towns, the last to +resist and to stand out for their autonomy, have had +to succumb to the iron hand of Prince Bismarck and +the Prussian spiked helmet. Hamburg still keeps +up a semblance of independence, but it is but a +shadow, and even that shadow is rapidly vanishing +from its grasp. Military, protectionist Germany +does not care to have in its confines a town where +free trade and burgher independence are inherited +possessions. The name of Hansa towns, the title of +Hanseatic League, is but a proud memory, one, however, +to which modern Germany may well look back +with satisfaction, and from the story of the "common +German Hansa" it can still, if it chooses, learn many +a useful lesson.</p> + +<hr class="l15" /> +<p class="center p2 b13">NOTE.</p> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +Since writing the foregoing, the event, long anticipated as +inevitable, has taken place, and the last two cities to uphold the +name and traditions of the Hanseatic League, Hamburg and +Bremen, have been incorporated into the German Zoll Verein, +thus finally surrendering their old historical privileges as free +ports. Lübeck took this step some twenty-two years ago, Hamburg +and Bremen not till October, 1888—so long had they +resisted Prince Bismarck's more or less gentle suasions to enter +his Protection League. But they foresaw what the end must +be; that his motto was that of the Erl King in Goethe's +famous ballad:</p> +<div class="poem"> +<p class="o1"> +"Und bist Du nicht willig, so brauch ich Gewalt."</p> +<p>("And if thou be not willing, I shall use force.")</p> +</div> + +<p>Still they, and Hamburg in particular, held out nobly, jealous, +and rightly jealous, of the curtailment of those privileges which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span> +distinguished them from the other cities of the German Empire. +It was after the foundation of this empire that the claim of the +two cities to remain free ports was conceded and ratified in the +Imperial Constitution of April, 1871, though the privilege, in +the case of Hamburg, was restricted to the city and port, and +withdrawn from the rest of the State, which extends to the +mouth of the Elbe and embraces about one hundred and sixty +square miles, while the free-port territory was reduced to twenty-eight +square miles. This was the first serious interference with +the city's liberty, and others followed, perhaps rather of a petty, +annoying, than of a seriously aggressive, character, but enough +to show the direction in which the wind was blowing.</p> + +<p>It was in 1880 that the proposal to include Hamburg in the +Customs Union was first politically discussed. It met, not +unnaturally, with much opposition among the citizens, and +especially among the merchant class, of whom these citizens +are so largely composed. Not only did it wound the Hamburgers' +pride to see an old and honourable distinction abolished, +but they feared, and not without reason, that their trade +would be seriously affected by such a step. They were afraid +that their city would cease to be the great international distributing +centre which it had been so long. Hot and animated +were the discussions in the Senate, the House of Burgesses, +the press, on docks and quays, in public and in private. But +the pressure exercised from Berlin, though in appearance +gentle, was firm and decided. How could a single city stand +against a strong military empire? In May, 1881, therefore, +was drafted a proposal to the effect that the whole of the city +and port of Hamburg should be included in the Zoll Verein. +This was laid before the Senate, who passed a resolution that +the treaty should be accepted, stating its conviction that the +inclusion of the free ports in the Zoll Verein would not only +be beneficial for the empire, most of whose foreign commerce +passed through them, but also would increase the prosperity of +the cities themselves. Whether the Senate really held this +belief, or whether they thought it wise to profess this opinion, +does not appear. The proposal was then sent down to the +House of Burgesses. Here it did not find such facile acceptance +as among the more aristocratic senators; here no real or +professed illusions reigned. For seven hours did the fathers of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span> +the city discuss the resolution of the Senate in a sitting that +will ever be famous among the annals of the town. The speech +made by Dr. Petersen, the Commissioner for the Senate, was +most impressive, and it touched the hearts of all his hearers.</p> + +<p>He reminded the Assembly that their thousand years' history +testified to the fact that the Hamburgers were ever an active, +practical, patriotic people, who took life earnestly, caring not +only for business and family, but for the common weal. Every +good Hamburger has always been ready to sacrifice his feelings +and his personal interests for the good of the Fatherland. Let +all of them, he urged, even those who could not do it heartily, +vote for the measure, in the sure and certain conviction that the +"Father City" would flourish and prosper, and increase +through the skill, the energy, and, above all, the public spirit of +its citizens. Hamburg would still remain the emporium, for +the wide world, of the German Fatherland, to which she would +be more closely united than ever.</p> + +<p>This speech was followed by much and earnest discussion, +after which the proposal of the Senate was at last agreed to as +an inevitable measure, and Hamburg was included in the Zoll +Verein by one hundred and six votes against forty-six.</p> + +<p>The details for carrying into effect this conclusion have +occupied seven years, and the event was finally celebrated with +great pomp, the Emperor William II. coming in person to +enhance the solemnity of the sacrifice brought by the burghers +of the erst free city for the common weal of the German +Fatherland.</p> + +<p>As we have said, the step was inevitable sooner or later, and +the Hamburgers knew it. The German Empire, so long +a fiction, had arisen stronger than ever. It was natural, +very necessary, that an anomaly should be abolished which +placed the great gateway of foreign commerce outside the +customs regulations of the rest of the empire. It was natural +for the imperial authorities to desire that their two great commercial +ports should be at one with the empire in all respects; +that as far as their trade is concerned they should not be in the +position of foreign countries, jealously watched by imperial +officers lest they might seek to injure the financial interests of +the country of which they form a part.</p> + +<p>It is too early to know what effect this step will have upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span> +trade of the two cities, whether it will check or increase their +prosperity. The gain to Germany is certain. The gain to the +two cities, but in especial to Hamburg, is something less than +problematical. Meantime the last and only privilege the three +once powerful Hanseatic cities retain is that of being entitled, +like the greatest States in the empire, to send their own representatives +to the Bundesrath and to the Reichstag.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_pair.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/dragon.jpg" width="450" height="107" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<h3 class="p4">EPILOGUE.</h3> + +<p>The once proud and mighty Hanseatic League is +dead now, quite dead. There remains of it only a +noble memory, the record of a high and fearless spirit +which resisted tyrants petty and great, a spirit which +recognized the value of independence, and strove +with all its strength to attain and to maintain this boon. +We have traced it from its earliest dawn to its recent +complete demise; there but remains for us to speak +its funeral oration. This is soon accomplished, since +whether for men, for nations or associations, if their +deeds speak not for them more eloquently than human +words, the latter shall avail them little.</p> + +<p>The chief title of the Hanseatic League to remembrance +is that it was the means of spreading higher +culture throughout wide tracts of the European continent, +many of them, in those early times, still sunk +in utter barbarism; that it introduced Western +customs and civilization into all domains of private +and social life for millions upon millions of people. +This association is a bright spot that strikes the eye, +as it looks back across the long, dark abyss of ages +past, and we welcome it the more gladly because the +bond that held this League together was neither +force nor fear, but free will and clear insight into the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span> +advantages and necessity of mutual help. To quote +the pertinent words of Mrs. Sinnett: "These free +cities of Germany rise like happy islands amidst the +wide-wasting ocean of violence and anarchy. Not +by war and spoil, but by industry, enterprise, and +prudent economy, did they accumulate the wealth +that enabled them to heal so many of the wounds +inflicted on their country by the iron hands beneath +whose grasp art, science, even agriculture, by which +they subsisted, was perishing. By the unions which +the cities formed amongst themselves they stemmed +the torrent of violence and anarchy that was threatening +to turn their country into a desert peopled by +hordes of robbers and slaves; they lent the most +effectual aid to the Church in her efforts for the peace +and civilization of Europe; yet they held the balance +most firmly against the too great preponderance of +her power, and rescued the human mind from the +injurious subjection which she sometimes claimed as +the price of her benefits when society had outgrown +the leading strings that guarded its infancy, and felt +as a galling restraint what had once been a needed +protection. The cities built asylums for the widows +and orphans whom the nobles and warriors had made +desolate; they stretched out often a helping hand to +the poor knight, who was regarding them with envy, +hatred, and malice, and all uncharitableness, taking +him into their pay as a soldier, and enabling him to +get a comparatively honest living, instead of wringing +'from the hard hands of peasants their vile trash,' or +filling some menial office at the court of a prince, and +picking up the crumbs that fell from the great man's +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span> +table. Behind their walls and bastions the young +tree of civil liberty, which was perishing in the open +country, took root and flourished; there, even whilst +striving only at first for riches and their peaceful +enjoyment, did men learn to prize the blessings of +social order, justice, and peace. These cities were +not mere aggregations of men within a narrow space, +such as may have existed among the most barbarous +nations; they were organic bodies animated by a +living spirit—a spirit of enlightened intelligence, +courage, and self-reliance, which best supplied what +was defective in the religious system of the time, and +gave a more healthy and manly tone to the character +both of individuals and of society. The Church, it +cannot be denied, sometimes taught men, in the pursuit +of an imagined perfection, to trample on the +impulses, and violate the duties of nature; in these +little republics, on the contrary, though originally +they had only the attainment of temporal good in +view, they rose insensibly to higher objects, and not +only cultivated the social virtues more effectually, but +in their struggle to maintain their place in the world, +fought in many instances a more successful fight +against the sins of the flesh, through the discipline +of the manifold cares of an active life, than the +recluse of the cloister, with all his fastings and +flagellations. Among the happy influences belonging +to these miniature states was the ardent attachment +of the free citizens of the Middle Ages to the little +spot which they had hedged in from the wide wilderness +of slavery around, where the individual, if not +of noble birth, was usually the mere helpless victim +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span> +of arbitrary power. Freedom and honour, the respect +of his fellows, the happiness of domestic life, the interest +and excitement of active business, the joviality +of social intercourse, a thousand ties entwined around +him, connected him closely with the city, and even +the house of his birth; for in those days it was common +for men to live and die beneath the same roof +under which they had been born. The merchant regarded +his native town with a pride fully equal to that +of birth and chivalry in the privileged classes, and little +envied, we may suppose, the life of the solitary feudal +lord in his castle, or the anxious and dependent +position of the courtier. The citizen of a humbler +class showed, by parading on all occasions the tools +and emblems of his trade with the same complacency +with which a soldier displays his sword, or the noble +his armorial bearings, that he knew his position and +was content with it, and felt none of that weak +shrinking from his appointed place in society or uneasy +longing after another, which has since been the +epidemic malady of the middle classes."</p> + +<p>For two centuries and more this guild of merchants +made the German name respected in European lands, +the German flag respected in European waters. When +the empire had fallen to pieces and there was no +union, no cohesion left, the Hanseatics remained German +and held together staunchly and nobly. Though +the time of their existence was brief, yet it was all-important, +not only for their own land, but for all +Europe.</p> + +<p>To appreciate to its full extent the influence exercised +upon Europe in general by the Hanseatic +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span> +League, we must carry our minds back, and compare +Europe as it was when the League took its rise, with +Europe as it was when the League declined. The +Hansa made its appearance in history at a time when +barbarism, violence, religious fanaticism, political +and civil slavery, and dire intellectual darkness overspread +the whole continent, when liberty and industry, +as we understand them, were unknown. The constant +and active communication kept up by the +cities of the Hansa, not only among themselves and +with all parts of Germany, but with the most distant +countries, awoke and kept alive the intelligence of the +people. To the Hanseatics, as to the Italians of the +same epoch, was reserved the honour of dispelling +the obscurity that reigned in the mental and material +world. The Hansa's glory only pales before that of +the rival Italian mercantile associations from the +fact that its energies were somewhat too exclusively +confined to money-getting. Had these communities +arisen in a period of literary culture, or among the +glorious relics of the art of a brighter age, these cities +would have presented several more salient points of +resemblance to the republics of Greece and Italy. It +cannot, however, be denied that in many of their +institutions they improved on the model set by the +Italian cities, and this more especially in all matters +relating to morality and rectitude. But they were +less grand and large in their policy than their Trans-Alpine +brethren, and unfortunately for themselves, +their commercial maxims were always narrow and +selfish. Monopoly was their watchword, their grand +aim. And it was largely in consequence of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span> +narrow policy that their ruin overtook them. They +perished of that disease whereof corporations are apt +to perish, namely, egotism, the centrifugal force which +is perpetually tending to rend asunder all human +society, and must inevitably do so, when not restrained +by some powerful antagonistic action.</p> + +<p>It is strange that, while so rich commercially, the +Hanseatic League lacked political ambition. Had +they possessed it, there is little doubt they might +have made themselves independent masters of all +Northern Germany. But they seem never to have +forgotten that they were merchants. They were held +down by petty motives, smallness of views. Here, +again, they were unlike the Italians, among whom +the trader could develop into the aristocrat, as is +abundantly proved by the history of the Medici and +other famous great houses. The reason must be +sought, no doubt, in the different native temperament +of the two nations—the one innately refined, the +other rougher and more boorish. Though the civic +pride of the Hanseatics was highly flattered when +the kings of the North and the princes of Germany +trembled before them, they confined their ambitions +entirely to gaining commercial advantages.</p> + +<p>Certain it is that the two powers—the Hanseatic +and the Italian Republics—each in their respective +sphere of action, helped on the progress that has +changed the entire face of this hemisphere, and that +they did this by no other means than that of their +commercial activity.</p> + +<p>For this is the great power of commerce, if practised +in its best and highest spirit, that it is able to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span> +work veritable miracles, bringing into contact the +extremes of civilization, enlarging and disseminating +ideas, and helping forward towards that universal +brotherhood of man, that universal peace and goodwill, +which is, and must be, the highest ideal of +humanity. Not till war is really rooted out from +among us, not till what is for the benefit of one is +held for the benefit of all, not until a generous +altruism reigns supreme, can mankind be said to be +thoroughly civilized. Trade and commerce, though +apparently egotistic factors, work strongly towards +this end, even though their action proceed merely +from motives of self-seeking. War is so serious an +interruption to trade that men will seek to avert it, +even out of a simple regard for their own pockets. +By fair smiling peace, not only traders, but all the +world is benefited and made happier. Once let +nations fully understand and recognize its incalculable +benefits, and even the lowest and most squalid +souls will struggle to uproot this remnant of a barbaric +spirit which can never evince itself as aught but +an evil.</p> + +<p>The Hansa uprose in a rough age, and hence +had to work with the rough-made methods of its +time; but in its time and in its way it did a good +work, and posterity cannot withhold from it either +gratitude or admiration. Its policy, its laws, its constitution, +its commerce, its immense credit, the sway +which it once exercised, the able magistrates, merchants, +and mariners whom it produced—all these +have vanished, unable to resist the torrent of +time that engulfs good and bad alike. But its influence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span> +and example have remained, while much +of its spirit, like many of its ideas and rules, have +become incorporated into the general stock of the +ideas of humanity.</p> + +<p>Of the League itself, it is true there remains only +an illustrious name. For Germany, which gave it +birth, there remain memories both of pride and regret—memories +that should serve as a spur to noble and +useful emulation.</p> + +<p>"The History of Commerce," says Montesquieu, +"is the history of the intercommunication of peoples." +The story of the Hanseatic League is an eloquent +testimony to the truth of these words.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/tail_vase.jpg" width="250" height="192" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<p> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387"></a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter p10"> +<img src="images/griff.jpg" width="450" height="106" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<div class="index"> +<h3 class="p4">INDEX.</h3> +<hr class="l5" /> + +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">A</li> + +<li>Albert Dürer, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Alva, Duke of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></li> + +<li>Amsterdam, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Antwerp, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></li> + +<li>Armada, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></li> + +<li>Arnold of Brescia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + +<li>Art, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">B</li> + +<li>Baltic, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></li> + +<li>Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Bergen, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Bismarck, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li>Blackmail, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Boris, Gudenow, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Bornholm, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></li> + +<li>Bremen, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li>Brömse, Nicholas, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li>Bruges, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>Brunswick, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li>Burleigh, Lord, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">C</li> + +<li>Charles IV., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li>Charles V., <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Charles VI., <a href="#Page_369">369</a></li> + +<li>Christian II., <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li>Christopher of Oldenburg, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li>Civilizing influence of traders, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li>Cologne, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></li> + +<li>Commerce with Denmark, Sweden, and Russia, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></li> + +<li>Commerce with the Netherlands and Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li>Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Court of St. Peter, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li>Cromwell's Navigation Act, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">D</li> + +<li>Dalecarlia, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></li> + +<li>Dangers of navigation, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + +<li>Danzig, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></li> + +<li>Decline and fall, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></li> + +<li>Denmark, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> + +<li>Diet of Worms, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + +<li>Ducal cities, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> + +<li>Duke of Northumberland, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Dürer, Albert, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></li> + +<li>Dutch, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">E</li> + +<li>Elizabeth, Queen, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></li> + +<li>Embden, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>End of Hansa dominion in England, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> + +<li>England, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></li> + +<li>England, end of dominion in, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></li> + +<li>English towns, <a href="#Page_195">195</a></li> + +<li>Epilogue, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></li> + +<li>Ethelred the Unready, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">F</li> + +<li>Federation, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + +<li>Feodorowitch Gudenow, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Fights of the Hansa, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Foreign protection, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + +<li>Foreign trade, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + +<li>France, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li>Frederick Barbarossa, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Frederick (of Holstein), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></li> + +<li>Freiburg, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">G</li> + +<li>Godeke Michelson, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li>Gothland, island of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span></li> + +<li>Gresham, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> + +<li>Gudenow, Feodorowitch, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></li> + +<li>Gustavus Adolphus, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> + +<li>Gustavus Vasa, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">H</li> + +<li>Hamburg, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> + +<li>Hansa fights, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Hansa, name of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + +<li>Hansa, towns in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> + +<li>Henry VIII., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a></li> + +<li>Herring, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li>Holbein, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></li> + +<li>Holy Roman Empire, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">I</li> + +<li>Italian merchants, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a></li> + +<li>Italy, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">J</li> + +<li>Julin, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">L</li> + +<li>Liberty, personal in twelfth century, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Life in fourteenth century, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> + +<li>Lisbon, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Livonia, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a></li> + +<li>Lombards, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> + +<li>London, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li>Loss of colonies, <a href="#Page_283">283</a></li> + +<li>Lübeck, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">M</li> + +<li>Mary, Queen, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Max Meyer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Merchant Adventurers, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></li> + +<li>Meyer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li>Michelson, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> + +<li>Municipal privileges, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">N</li> + +<li>Napoleon, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></li> + +<li>Netherlands, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a></li> + +<li>Nicholas Brömse, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a></li> + +<li>Northumberland, Duke of, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></li> + +<li>Norway, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></li> + +<li>Novgorod, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">O</li> + +<li>Oldenburg, Christopher of, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></li> + +<li>Organization of the League, <a href="#Page_202">202</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">P</li> + +<li>Payments, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li>Peace of Westphalia, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Personal liberty in twelfth century, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + +<li>Peter's Court, St., <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li>Petersen, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></li> + +<li>Portugal, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Protection, foreign, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">R</li> + +<li>Reformation, the, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li>Religion, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></li> + +<li>Rhine towns, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + +<li>Rudolph II., <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Russia, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">S</li> + +<li>St. Nicholas Church, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> + +<li>St. Peter's Court, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li>Scania, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li>Simon of Utrecht, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Sir Thomas Gresham, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></li> + +<li>Smolensk, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> + +<li>Spain, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></li> + +<li>Steelyard, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li> + +<li>Stock-fish, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a></li> + +<li>Storm clouds, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></li> + +<li>Stortebeker, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> + +<li>Stralsund, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a></li> + +<li>Sudermann, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></li> + +<li>Survivors, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Sweden, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">T</li> + +<li>Teutonic knights, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></li> + +<li>Thirty Years' War, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></li> + +<li>Tilly, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li>Trade guild, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + +<li>Treaty of Stralsund, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> + +<li>Treaty of Utrecht, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">U</li> + +<li>Unhansing, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + +<li>Utrecht, Simon of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li>Utrecht, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">V</li> + +<li>Vasa, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a></li> + +<li>Venice, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> + +<li>Victual Brothers, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">W</li> + +<li>Waldemar, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> + +<li>Wallenstein, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a></li> + +<li>Westphalia, peace of, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></li> + +<li>Winetha, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + +<li>Wisby, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> + +<li>Wittenborg, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li>Wrecking, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li>Wullenweber, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">Y</li> + +<li>York, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> +</ul> +<ul class="none"> +<li class="alpha">Z</li> + +<li>Zealand, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a></li> +</ul> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter p6"> +<img src="images/tail_pair.jpg" width="200" height="171" alt="Decoration" /> +</div> + +<div class="footnotes p6"> +<h3>FOOTNOTES</h3> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a><span class="greek" title="hê thalassa hagiazetai"><a name="thalassa" id="thalassa"></a>ἡ θάλασσα ἁγιάζεται</span>.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>Julin in Danish, Wolin in Sclavonic, Winetha in Saxon. A learned +author, pointing out the community of origin of the Venetians of the +Adriatic, and the Venedes or Vends of the Baltic, draws a parallel between +the Venice of the Adriatic, and the Venice (Winetha) of the +north. "Singular destiny," he writes, "this of the two commercial +cities, which seem the issue of one trunk, that grew up at the same time +in the Adriatic and the Baltic, almost under the same name, the one to +arrive at the greatest splendour, enriched by the trade of the East, the +other to serve as a starting-point for the commerce of the north."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>Under the term of Greeks, Adam, and other writers of the period, +include the Russians, on account of their adhesion to the Greek form of +the Catholic Church.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>It is worth mentioning that on the coast of Scania, once so rich in +herring fishery, this industry is now almost extinct. The fish rarely +come into these waters, owing perhaps to the increase of traffic in the +Sound (for herrings, as is well known, dislike noise and movement and +seek out quiet seas); or because the great whale fisheries of Greenland +have altered their course, for whales now pursue less often than formerly +the shoals of herrings that were thus forced to take refuge in the Sound; +or this may be simply due to the diminution of the crustacean called +<i>Astacus harengum</i>, on which the fish so largely feeds—the fact in any +case remains.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>"Othello," act i. sc. 3.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>Some writers reckon Waldemar as the fourth of his name, counting +as the third Waldemar the impostor, who for some years ruled over +the land under that name. I have preferred to follow the more generally +adopted reckoning.—H. Z.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>"Ante portas Wisby in manibus Danorum ceciderunt Gutenses."</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>Modern, disintegrating criticism, casts doubts on this story, and +tries to prove that this gate was walled up before Charles' visit, and +that he did not depart by it. This objection, however, is not fully +proved, and the contrary tradition so powerfully rooted, and so entirely +in keeping with the spirit of the age, that I have preferred to reproduce +it as characteristic, even if untrue.—H. Z.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>Rambaub, in his "History of Russia," says that Novgorod was +founded by Slavs, but that in the ninth century a castle and fort were +built there by Rurik the Norman.</p> + +<p class="footnote"><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>"Lydgate's Minor Poems," Percy Society, p. 4.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="l15" /> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div class="tnbox"> +<p class="center"><b>Transcriber's Note:</b></p> +<p>Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. +Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original +document have been preserved.</p> +<p>Page 312: <a href="#formerly">formerly</a> possibly should be formally</p> +<p>Page 160: <a href="#Ivan_II"> Ivan II.</a> possibly should be Ivan IV.</p> +<p>Footnote 1: ἡ θαλασσα ἁγιάζεται +changed to <a href="#thalassa">ἡ θάλασσα ἁγιάζεται</a></p> +</div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HANSA TOWNS***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 39664-h.txt or 39664-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/9/6/6/39664">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/6/6/39664</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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