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Edmund (Charles Edmund) Maurice</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> + <style type="text/css"> + +body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; +} + + h1,h3 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + margin-top: 2em; +} + + h2 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + margin-top: 2em; + line-height:1.4; +} + +p.title { text-align:center; text-indent:0; + font-weight:bold; + line-height:1.4; + margin-bottom:1em; } + +p.halftitle { text-align:center; text-indent:0; + font-weight:bold; + font-size:x-large; + margin-top:5em; + margin-bottom:1em; } + +p { + margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; +} + +p.sig { /* signature moved right */ + margin-left: 50%; + } + +hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +hr.full {width: 95%;} + +table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; +} + +.center table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; } + + .tdc {text-align: center;} + +.pagenum { + position: absolute; + right: 1%; + font-size: x-small; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + font-style: normal; + letter-spacing: normal; + text-indent: 0em; + text-align: right; + color: #999999; + background-color: #ffffff; +} + +blockquote.summary { + font-size: 90%; +} + +.center {text-align: center;} + +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +img { /* the default inline image has */ + border: 1px solid black; /* a thin black line border.. */ + padding: 6px; /* ..spaced a bit out from the graphic */ +} + +p.caption { /* caption para is.. */ + margin-top: 0; /* ..snuggled up to its image */ + font-size: smaller; + text-align: center; + clear: both; +} +.center { text-align: center; text-indent:0; } +.center table { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; } +.center img { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + +/* Footnotes */ + +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px; margin-top:1em; clear:both;} +.footnotes ol { margin-left:0; margin-right:0; + padding:0; + width:100%; + list-style-type:none; } +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; width:80%; + margin-bottom:0.75em; + font-size: 0.9em; + position:relative;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; + left:-3em; top:0; + text-align: left; } +.fnanchor {vertical-align:baseline; + position:relative; bottom:0.4em; + font-size: .8em; } + +/* Poetry */ +.poem { + margin-left:10%; + margin-right:10%; + text-align: left; +} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 { + display: block; + margin-left: 0em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i2 { + display: block; + margin-left: 2em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i4 { + display: block; + margin-left: 4em; + padding-left: 3em; + text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem h3 { /* title of poem above text */ + text-align: left; + margin-left: 2em; /* indented within poem, or.. */ + font-weight: normal; /* ..light variant? */ + } + +/* Transcriber's notes */ +.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; + color: black; + font-size:smaller; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; } + + hr.pg { width: 100%; + margin-top: 3em; + margin-bottom: 0em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + height: 4px; + border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ + border-style: solid; + border-color: #000000; + clear: both; } + </style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in +Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, by C. Edmund (Charles Edmund) Maurice</h1> +<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a +href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></p> +<p>Title: The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany</p> +<p> With Some Examination of the Previous Thirty-three Years</p> +<p>Author: C. Edmund (Charles Edmund) Maurice</p> +<p>Release Date: April 26, 2012 [eBook #39540]</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF 1848-9 IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND GERMANY***</p> +<p> </p> +<h4 class="center">E-text prepared by Henry Flower, Odessa Paige Turner,<br /> + and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> + (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> + from page images generously made available by the<br /> + Google Books Library Project<br /> + (<a href="http://books.google.com">http://books.google.com</a>)</h4> +<p> </p> +<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> + <tr> + <td valign="top"> + Note: + </td> + <td> + Images of the original pages are available through + the the Google Books Library Project. See + <a href="http://books.google.com/books?vid=Qo4MAAAAYAAJ&id"> + http://books.google.com/books?vid=Qo4MAAAAYAAJ&id</a> + </td> + </tr> +</table> +<p> </p> +<hr class="pg" /> +<p> </p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a><br /><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> +<p class="halftitle">THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-9.</p> + + +<div class="poem"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Es reden und träumen die Menschen viel"> + +<tr><td><div class="stanza"><span lang="de"> +<span class="i0">Es reden und träumen die Menschen viel<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Von bessern künftigen Tagen:<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Nach einem glücklichen, goldenen Ziel<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Sieht man sie rennen und jagen.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Die Welt wird alt, und wird wieder jung;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Doch der Mensch hofft immer Verbesserung.<br /></span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tdc"> + * * * * * + </td></tr> +<tr><td> +<div class="stanza"><span lang="de"> +<span class="i0">Es ist kein leerer schmeichelnder Wahn,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Erzeugt im Gehirne des Thoren.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Im Herzen kündet es laut sich an:<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Zu was Besserm sind wir geboren;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Und was die innere Stimme spricht,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Das täuscht die hoffende Seele nicht.</span></span> +</div></td></tr> +<tr><td> +<span class="i4"><span class="smcap">Schiller.</span><br /></span> +</td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> + +<div class="center" style="margin-top:2em;"> + <a name="illo_mazzini" id="illo_mazzini"></a> +<a href="images/illo_mazzinih.jpg"> +<img src="images/illo_mazzini.jpg" width="475" height="600" + alt="" + title="" /> +</a> + <p class="center caption"><i>Giuseppe Mazzini.</i></p> +</div> + + + + +<h1> +<small>THE</small><br /> +REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT<br /> +<small>OF 1848-9<br /> +IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND +GERMANY.</small><br /> +</h1> +<p class="title">WITH SOME EXAMINATION OF THE PREVIOUS<br /> +THIRTY-THREE YEARS.<br /></p> +<p class="title"><small>BY</small> +<br /> +C. EDMUND MAURICE,<br /> +<small>AUTHOR OF "THE LIVES OF ENGLISH POPULAR LEADERS IN +THE MIDDLE AGES."</small></p> +<p class="title" style="margin-top:5em;"> +<i><small>WITH AN ENGRAVED FRONTISPIECE AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS.</small></i> +<br /> +</p> +<p class="center" style="margin-top:5em;"><span class="smcap">New York</span>: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS<br /> +</p> +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">London</span>: GEORGE BELL AND SONS<br /></p> + +<p class="center">1887.<br /> +</p> +<p class="center" style="margin-top:2em;">[<i>The right of translation is reserved.</i>]<br /></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top:5em;"> +CHISWICK PRESS:—C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT,<br /> +CHANCERY LANE.<br /> +</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>The following book is the result of many years' +work. It aims at showing the links which connected +together the various movements in Germany, Italy, +and the Austrian Empire in 1848-9. Many as are the +books which have been written on the various parts of +that struggle, I do not know of any attempt to link +them together. How adventurous this effort is I am +most painfully aware, and none the less so because I +happen to know that the task was undertaken and +abandoned by at least one writer who has many +qualifications for it to which I can lay no claim. I +allude to my friend Dr. Eugene Oswald, who has +most generously assisted me in carrying out the +work for which he was unable to spare the time. +But I may say without arrogance that however deficient +my history may be in the learning and ability +which Dr. Oswald's would have shown, as well as in +that lifelikeness which his personal share in the +important rising in Baden would have enabled him to +give to the descriptions; yet I shall at least have no +temptation to any one-sided estimate of the merits of +the various races concerned in the struggle, a temptation +from which the most candid German could +hardly escape. My only danger in that matter would +be that I might be tempted to speak too favourably +of <i>all</i> the movements of those various races; seeing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> +that during my investigations in the cities affected +by these movements, I received the most extreme +courtesy and kindness from German and Bohemian, +Magyar and Szekler, Saxon and Roumanian, Serb, +Croat, and Italian; and I feel nothing but pain at +any word of criticism I have uttered in these pages +that may jar on the susceptibilities of any of those +races.</p> + +<p>It will be noticed, of course, that I have omitted +from this history any account of the French Revolution. +My reasons for this have been given at the +beginning of the seventh chapter. But I may add to +what I have said there that I had long felt the disproportionate +importance which many people attached +to the French Revolution of 1848, in regard to its +immediate influence on Europe. From Palermo, not +from Paris, came the first revolutionary outburst. +From Presburg, not from Paris, came the word that +shook Metternich from power, and secured a European +character to the Revolution. Under these circumstances, +I conceived the idea of telling the story of +the European Revolution, without touching on the +French part of it, except in the most incidental +manner; so that the students of this period may be +able fairly to estimate the other influences which produced +these great results, unblinded by the splendour +which anything done in Paris seems always to +have for the student of revolution.</p> + +<p>One other peculiarity in my book also needs some +explanation. I have, as far as possible, avoided references +to authorities in notes. Such references only +worry the general reader, while the student will, I +think, be more helped by the list of authorities which +I append to this preface.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span></p> + +<p>It now only remains for me to thank those friends +who have helped me in my work.—For the German +part of the Revolution, I have received much help +from the kind loan of the "<span lang="de">Neue Rheinische Zeitung</span>" +by the late Dr. Karl Marx. For the special Baden +part of it I received help not only from Dr. Oswald +but also from Dr. Karl Blind, who lent me pamphlets +not otherwise accessible. For the Bohemian part of +the narrative I owe much to the kind help of Dr. +Gabler, Mr. Naprstek, Count Leo Thun the younger, +and Dr. Rieger. For hints about the Viennese +struggle I owe thanks to Dr. von Frankl, the well-known +poet of the revolution, and also to Dr. Friedjung. +For some general hints on the Slavonic question I +am much indebted to Baron Helfert; and my obligation +to Dr. Herbst I have acknowledged in a note. +For general Hungarian information I owe thanks to +Mr. Pulszky, to Miss Toulmin Smith, to General +Klapka, to my kind friend Professor Felmeri of +Klausenburg, to Dr. Lindner, Mr. Kovacs, Mr. +Kovary, Mr. Boros, of the same town, and to Mr. +Szabò, now Librarian of Klausenburg University, +formerly a distinguished officer in General Bem's +army; also to Mr. Fekete, Mr. Sandor, and Professor +Koncz of Maros Vasarhely; and last but not least to +Mr. Paget, the author of "Hungary and Transylvania." +For special hints about the Saxon question +I am indebted, amongst others, to Dr. Teutsch, +to Professor Senz, and to the late "Obergespan" of +Hermannstadt, Herr von Brennerberg, whose loss to +the district I can well understand, since the acquaintance +of a week enabled me to appreciate the singular +justice of his mind, as well as his uniform kindness; +while for information from the Roumanian point of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span> +view I owe thanks to Mr. Barritzu. For information +on Serb questions I am indebted principally to Mr. +Polit, and Mr. Hadjiç of Neusatz, and Mr. Boscoviç +of Belgrade, for whose acquaintance I have to thank +the late Servian Minister in England, Mr. Mijatoviç. +The same introducer I have to thank for the kindness +shown me by Mr. Matkovicu of Agram. In the last +mentioned town I also received useful information +and help from Mr. Subek, and from the Librarian of +the South Slavonic Academy.</p> + +<p>For help in Italian work I have to thank my old +friend Madame Venturi, Signor Ernesto Nathan, +Signor Cardinali, Signor Berti, Professor Villari, +Signor Guastalla, Professor Aurelio Saffi (the Ex-Triumvir +of Rome), Signor Galli, Dr. Sacchi, the +Syndic of Goito, the Librarian of the <span lang="it">RBiblioteca di Brera</span> +at Milan, and my friend Signor Pizzi.—For help of +various kinds I have to thank Miss Wedgwood, Miss +Irby, Dr. Brandl and Mr. Garnett of the British +Museum.</p> + +<p>I have also to acknowledge the kindness of Mr. +Diösy in allowing a copy to be taken of his picture +of Kossuth, for insertion in my book. This favour, +with other help, I owe to my friend Mr. B. Gunszt.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td colspan="3"> </td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Authorities Consulted</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_xi">xi</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Chief Races of Austrian Empire</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_xvii">xvii</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Table of Dates</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_xix">xix</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Chapter</span></td><td align="right">I.</td><td><span class="smcap">The Triumph of Despotism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">II.</td><td> <span class="smcap">First Efforts of Constitutionalism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">III.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Faith and Law against Despotism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">IV.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Language and Learning against Despotism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">V.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Despotism retiring before Constitutionalism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">VI.</td><td> <span class="smcap">First Mutterings of the Storm</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">VII.</td><td> <span class="smcap">The Downfall of Despotism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">VIII.</td><td> <span class="smcap">The Struggle of the Races</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">IX.</td><td> <span class="smcap">The Revolution Breaks into Separate Parts</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">X.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Last Efforts of Constitutionalism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">XI.</td><td><span class="smcap">The Death Struggle of Freedom</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_497">497</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations"> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Giuseppe Mazzini</span></td><td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#illo_mazzini"><i>Frontispiece.</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Kossuth Lajos</span></td><td align="center"><i>to face page</i></td><td align="right"><a href="#illo_lajos">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Robert Blum</span></td><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right"><a href="#illo_blum">224</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Il Vascello, Rome</span></td><td align="center"> " </td><td align="right"><a href="#illo_vascello">483</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<h2><a name="AUTHORITIES_CONSULTED" id="AUTHORITIES_CONSULTED"></a>AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.</h2> + + +<p> +<span class="smcap">General History.</span><br /> +<br /> +Metternich's Memoirs.<br /> +Menzel's <span lang="de">Geschichte der letzten vierzig Jahre</span>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +GERMANY.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">General German History.</span><br /> +<br /> +Arndt, Life of.<br /> +Blum, Life of.<br /> +Görres, Life of.<br /> +Marx, <span lang="de">Neue Rheinische Zeitung</span>.<br /> +Perthes, Life of.<br /> +Stein, Life of, by Professor Seeley.<br /> +<span lang="de">Stenographischer Bericht des deutschen Vor Parlaments zu Frankfort.</span><br /> +---- <span lang="de">des Fünfziger Ausschüsses</span>.<br /> +---- <span lang="de">der deutschen Constituirenden Versammlung</span>.<br /> +Zimmermann <span lang="de">Deutsche Revolution</span>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +PRUSSIA.<br /> +<br /> +Humboldt <span lang="de">Brief-Wechsel mit einem Jungen Freunde</span>.<br /> +---- Letters to Varnhagen von Ense.<br /> +Schmalz <span lang="de">Berichtigung einer Stelle in der Bredow-Venturinischen Chronik für das Jahr 1808</span>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +BADEN.<br /> +<br /> +Goegg (Amand) <span lang="de">Rückblick auf die Badische Revolution</span> (from <span lang="fr">La Ligue des Peuples</span>).<br /> +<span lang="fr">La Liberté de Penser</span> (a journal containing pamphlets, &c., on the Baden Revolution).<br /> +Morel <span lang="de">Der März-Aufstand und Die Badische Revolution</span>.<br /> +Struve (Gustav) <span lang="de">Geschichte der Volks Erhebungen in Baden</span>.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" (Amalie) <span lang="de">Erinnerungen</span>, &c.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.<br /> +<br /> +<span lang="de">Adressen an eine hohe deutsche Versammlung, &c., von Kiel</span>.<br /> +Bunsen. Memoir on Constitutional Rights of the Duchies.<br /> +Droysen. The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +SWITZERLAND.<br /> +<br /> +<span lang="de">Der Untergang des Sonderbundes.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +AUSTRIA.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">General History.</span><br /> +<br /> +Helfert. <span lang="de">Geschichte Oesterreichs.</span><br /> +Springer. <span lang="de">Geschichte Oesterreichs seit der Wiener Frieden, 1809.</span><br /> +Pillersdorf. <span lang="de">Rückblick auf die politische Bewegung in Oesterreich.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +VIENNA.<br /> +<br /> +Dunder. <span lang="de">Denkschrift über die Wiener October Revolution.</span><br /> +Grüner. <span lang="de">Geschichte der October Revolution.</span><br /> +Reschauer. <span lang="de">Das Jahr 1848.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Reichstag's Gallerie, &c.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Verhandlungen des Oesterreichischen Landtages 1848.</span><br /> +Violand. <span lang="de">Die Sociale Geschichte der Revolution in Oesterreich.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Wiener Boten.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +BOHEMIA.<br /> +<br /> +Müller. <span lang="de">Die merkwürdigsten Tage Prags in der Pfingst-Woche des Jahres 1848.</span><br /> +Pameti (Pamphlets and proclamations, &c., in the Archives of Prague).<br /> +Schöpf. <span lang="de">Volks Bewegung in Prag.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Ständische Verhältnisse des Konigreichs Böhmen.</span><br /> +Stiles. Austria in 1848-9.<br /> +Tomain. <span lang="de">Das Böhmische Staatsrecht.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +GALICIA.<br /> +<br /> +<span lang="de">Ausschlüsse über die jungsten Ereignisse in Polen.</span><br /> +Krasinski. <span lang="de">Panslavismus und Germanismus.</span><br /> +Krolikowski. <span lang="fr">Mémoire sur l'Etat de Cracovie, 1840.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span>Zaleski. <span lang="de">Die Pölnische Frage.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +HUNGARY.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">General History.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span lang="de">Beschwerden and Klagen der Slaven in Ungarn, 1843.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Böhmisch-Slavische Helden in der Panslavismus.</span><br /> +Deak, Life of.<br /> +Görgei. My Life and Acts in Hungary.<br /> +Irby (Miss). Across the Carpathians.<br /> +Klapka. Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary.<br /> +Kossuth, Memoir of in a History of Hungary by E. O. S.<br /> +Kovari (Laslò) Okmanytar az 1848-9. (This book, though written in Hungarian, contains some important documents in German, of which alone I have been able to make use.)<br /> +Mailath (Count Johann) <span lang="de">Geschichte von Oesterreich</span>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="de">Der Ungarische Reichstag in 1830</span>.</span><br /> +Paget. Hungary and Transylvania.<br /> +Pulszky. <span lang="de">Meine Zeit mein Leben.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" (Madame). Memoirs of a Hungarian Lady.</span><br /> +Smith (Toulmin). Parallels between Constitution and Constitutional History of England and Hungary.<br /> +Szechenyi <span lang="de">(Vortrag über) Ludwig Fezstory.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Zur Geschichte des Ungarischen Freiheits-Kampfes Autentische Berichte.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +CROATIA AND SLAVONIA.<br /> +<br /> +<span lang="de">Aktenstücke zur Geschichte des Croatisch Slavonischen Landtages</span>, by Pejakoviç.<br /> +<span lang="de">Agramer Zeitung, 1843-8.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Deutsche Viertels-Jahr-Schrift</span> (article called <span lang="de">Mittheilungen aus Serbien</span>).<br /> +Le Duc. <span lang="fr">La Croatie et la Confedération Italienne.</span><br /> +<span lang="fr">Serbes de Hongrie, &c.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Verhandlungen des Agramer Landtags</span> in October, 1845.<br /> +Other pamphlets on the Croatian question.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +TRANSYLVANIA.<br /> +<br /> +Bem. <span lang="de">Feldzug in Siebenbürgen</span>, by Czetz.<br /> +Bonar. Transylvania, its Products and People.<br /> +<span lang="de">Deutsche Worte</span>, a magazine.<br /> +<span lang="de">Friedenfels</span>, Joseph Bedeus von Scharberg.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[xiv]</a></span>Klausenburg, Collection of documents in Library of.<br /> +Lauriani. <span lang="de">Die Romänen der Oesterreichischer Monarchie.</span><br /> +Maros Vasarhely, Collection of Baron Apor at.<br /> +Roth. <span lang="de">Der Sprach-Kampf in Siebenbürgen.</span><br /> +Scharberg. <span lang="de">Die Verfassung Siebenbürgens.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Unterhaltungen aus der Gegenwart.</span><br /> +<span lang="de">Vereinigung Siebenbürgens mit Ungarn vom Standpunkte der Sachsischen Nation beleuchtet.</span><br /> +Zieglauer. <span lang="de">Die Reform-Bewegung in Siebenbürgen.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +ITALY<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">General History.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alfieri. Opere. Autobiography.<br /> +Bianchi (Nicomede), <span lang="it">Storia della politica Austriaca rispetto ai Sovrani ed ai Governi Italiani dell'anno 1791, al Maggio del 1857.</span><br /> +Coppi. <span lang="it">Annali d'Italia.</span><br /> +D'Amato. <span lang="it">Panteon dei Martiri della libertà Italiana.</span><br /> +Farini. <span lang="it">Lo Stato Romano</span> (really including much of other parts).<br /> +Foscolo (Ugo) <span lang="it">Scritte politici inediti.</span> Jacopo Ortis.<br /> +---- <span lang="it">Lettera a Conte Verri.</span><br /> +---- <span lang="it">Lettera a Conte di Ficquelmont.</span><br /> +---- (Vita di). Pecchio.<br /> +Gallenga. Italy in 1848.<br /> +Gioberti Vincenzo (biography by V. G. in <span lang="it">I Contemporanei Italiani). Del Primato Morale e Civile degli Italiani.</span><br /> +Gualterio. <span lang="it">Gli Ultimi Rivolgimenti Italiani.</span><br /> +---- <span lang="it">Delle Negative date dal Conte Solaro della Margherita.</span><br /> +<span lang="it">La Concordia</span> (paper published at Genoa).<br /> +La Farina. <span lang="it">Storia dell Italia dopo il Settembre del 1847.</span><br /> +Manzoni (Alessandro). <span lang="it">Cenni Sulla vita Sua.</span><br /> +<span lang="it">Miscellanee politiche Genovesi</span> (pamphlets, songs, &c., published at Genoa, and bearing on the revolution).<br /> +Mazzini, Life and Writings of (translated by E. A. V.).<br /> +Panizzi, <span lang="it">Lettere ad, di uomini illustri, &c.</span><br /> +Ranalli. <span lang="it">Istorie Italiane dal 1846 al 1853.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +LOMBARDY AND VENETIA.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span>Andryane. <span lang="fr">Mémoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat.</span><br /> +Anfossi (Francesco). <span lang="it">Memorie sulla campagna di Lombardia del 1848.</span><br /> +Biblioteca di Brera (Milan), Collections of Caricatures, Pamphlets, and Proclamations in.<br /> +Cantù (Cesare). Editions and Lives of Monti and Parini.<br /> +Casati. <span lang="it">Nuove rivelazioni su i fatti di Milano nel 1847-8.</span><br /> +Cattaneo. <span lang="it">Dell'Insurrezione di Milano.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="it">Archivio Triennale.</span></span><br /> +Dandolo. Italian Volunteers and Lombard Rifle Brigade.<br /> +<span lang="it">Gazzetta di Milano, 1848.</span><br /> +Manin, <span lang="fr">Documents et pièces autentiques laissées par.</span><br /> +<span lang="it">Quadro politico di Milano</span> (collection of pamphlets, &c.).<br /> +Vedovi (Timoleone). <span lang="it">I martiri di san Georgio e di Belfiore.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +NAPLES AND SICILY.<br /> +<br /> +Colletta. History of Naples (translated).<br /> +<span lang="it">Ruggiero Settimo. Per Gabriele Colonna.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +PIEDMONT.<br /> +<br /> +Balbo (Cesare) autobiography.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="it">Speranze d'ltalia.</span></span><br /> +Brofferio. <span lang="it">Storia di Piemonte.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="it">I miei Tempi.</span></span><br /> +<span lang="it">Solaro della Margherita, Vita di per Biginelli.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">" <span lang="it">Memorandum Storico-Politico.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 5.5em;">" <span lang="it">Avvedimenti Politici.</span></span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +ROMAN STATES.<br /> +<br /> +Artaud. <span lang="fr">Vie de Pie 7.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="fr">Vie de Pie 8.</span></span><br /> +Balleydier. <span lang="it">Storia della Revoluzione di Roma.</span><br /> +Beghelli. <span lang="it">La Republica Romana del 1849.</span><br /> +Brasini. <span lang="it">L'8 Agosto 1848, Bologna.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="it">La Resistenza di Bologna nelle otto Giornate di Maggio, 1849.</span></span><br /> +D'Azeglio (Massimo) <span lang="it">Degli ultimi casi di Romagna.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" <span lang="fr">Correspondance Politique.</span></span><br /> +<span lang="it">Monitorio Romano, 1848 and 1849.</span><br /> +Orsini. Memoirs.<br /> +Pasolini (Memoir of), by his son, translated.<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span><span lang="it">Protocollo della Republica Romana.</span><br /> +<span lang="it">Republica Italiana del 1849</span> (anonymous clerical).<br /> +Rossi (Pellegrino). <span lang="it">Vita di per Raggi</span> (including other notices of him).<br /> +Torre (Federico). <span lang="it">Memorie Storiche sull'intervento Francese</span> (unfinished).<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +TUSCANY.<br /> +<br /> +Guerrazzi (Domenico) <span lang="it">Apologia della Vita Politica.</span> (His novels should also be read to estimate his influence.)<br /> +</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[xvii]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHIEF_RACES_OF_AUSTRIAN_EMPIRE" id="CHIEF_RACES_OF_AUSTRIAN_EMPIRE"></a>CHIEF RACES OF AUSTRIAN EMPIRE.</h2> + + +<blockquote> +<p><span class="smcap">Hungary.</span></p> + +<p><i>Magyars</i>, ruling race; found in most parts of the Kingdom, but +most largely in the Northern parts. Semi-Turkish race +(non-Aryan). Various creeds; Calvinism the most distinctive +(<i>i.e.</i>, the one that has most connected itself with the race-struggles). +Chief town, Buda-Pesth.</p> + +<p><i>Croats</i>, chiefly found in Croatia, but sometimes in Slavonia and +Dalmatia. Creed, Roman Catholic; Slavonic race; chief +town, Agram.</p> + +<p><i>Saxons</i>, found in S.E. of Transylvania. Creed, mainly Lutheran; +race, German; chief town, Hermannstadt.</p> + +<p><i>Serbs</i>, found chiefly in Slavonia, but also in Banat, Bacska, and +in smaller numbers in other parts of Hungary. Creed, +Greek Church; race, Slavonic; chief towns, Neusatz and +Carlowitz.</p> + +<p><i>Slovaks</i>, found in North Hungary. Creed, Lutheran; race, +Slavonic.</p> + +<p><i>Szekler</i>, found in N.E. of Transylvania. Creeds, various; race, +same as Magyars; chief town, Maros Vasarhely.</p> + +<p><i>Roumanian</i>, or <i>Wallack</i>, in all parts of Transylvania, and a few in +the Banat. Creed, Greek Church; race, mixed Dacian +and Italian; chief town, Blasendorf.</p> + +<p><i>Italians</i>, found in Dalmatia and Istria.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Western Austria.</span></p> + +<p><i>Germans</i>, found everywhere, but chiefly in Archduchy. Creed, +mainly Roman Catholic; chief town, Vienna.</p> + +<p><i>Slovenes</i>, found in Krain, Carinthia, and Styria. Race, Slavonic.</p> + +<p><i>Czechs</i>, in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. Creed, chiefly Roman +Catholic; race, Slavonic; chief town, Prague.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Galicia.</span></p> + +<p><i>Poles</i>, found in all parts. Creed, Roman Catholic; race, Slavonic; +chief town, Lemberg.</p> + +<p><i>Ruthenians.</i> Creed, Greek Church; race, Slavonic.</p></blockquote><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[xviii]</a><br /><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[xix]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_DATES" id="TABLE_OF_DATES"></a>TABLE OF DATES.</h2> + + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Dates"> +<tr><td>1846.</td><td>April</td><td align="right">25.</td><td>Charles Albert defies Austria about the salt-tax.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>June</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Election of Pius IX.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>July</td><td align="right">8.</td><td>King of Denmark asserts his right to absorb Schleswig-Holstein.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>Pius IX's. amnesty.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1847.</td><td>Jan.</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>Landtag summoned to Berlin.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>July</td><td align="right">5.</td><td>Pope grants Civic Guard to Rome.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">14.</td><td>Clerical conspiracy suppressed in Rome.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>Austrian occupation of Ferrara.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20.</td><td>Swiss Diet resolves to dissolve Sonderbund.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Sept.</td><td align="right">1.</td><td>Unsuccessful rising in Messina.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12.</td><td>Meeting of South German Liberals at Offenburg.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Metternich formally expresses his approval of the Sonderbund.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Nov.</td><td align="right">4.</td><td>Motion carried at Pesth for taxation of nobles.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">24.</td><td>Troops of the Swiss Diet occupy Luzern.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Dec.</td><td align="right">9.</td><td>Nazari makes his motion for reform in Milan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>Agreement for Austrian troops to evacuate Ferrara.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">27.</td><td>Ciceruacchio asks the Pope to join the Italian League.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1848.</td><td>Jan.</td><td style="white-space:nowrap" align="right">2 and 3.</td><td>Smoking riots at Milan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12.</td><td>Sicilian rising begins.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">19.</td><td>Arrest of Manin and Tommaseo at Venice.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[xx]</a></span> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Neapolitan Constitution granted.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Feb.</td><td align="right">4.</td><td>Leopold of Tuscany promises Constitution.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12.</td><td>Pope appoints first lay Ministers.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.</td><td>Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">27.</td><td>Meeting at Mannheim to demand German Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Mar.</td><td align="right">2.</td><td>Second Chamber of Baden demands repeal of Carlsbad Decrees. Downfall of Ministry in Bavaria.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>Kossuth's speech at Presburg.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>First meeting at the Wenzelsbad in Prague.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13.</td><td>Rising in Vienna. Workmen's petition in Berlin. Granting of Liberal Ministry by King of Saxony.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Abdication of Metternich.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>Students' rising in Pesth. Rising in Berlin. Granting of Constitution by Pope.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">17.</td><td>Serb meeting at Pesth.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td style="white-space:nowrap" align="right">18 to 22.</td><td>Five days of Milan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.</td><td>Rising in Venice.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">23.</td><td>Manin chosen President of Venetian Republic. Jellaciç made Ban of Croatia. Charles Albert declares war on Austria.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">25.</td><td>Prussian Assembly opens.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26.</td><td>King of Naples deposed by Sicilians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">31.</td><td>Meeting of Vor-Parlament at Frankfort.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>April</td><td align="right">2.</td><td>Bundestag repeals Carlsbad Decrees.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">4.</td><td>Bundestag authorises Prussia to act for Germany in Schleswig-Holstein.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8.</td><td>First battle of Goito.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Palacky refuses to join the Committee of Fifty at Frankfort.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>First Baden insurrection.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Papal allocution against the Italian war.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>May</td><td align="right">1.</td><td>Slavs summoned to meet in Prague.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>Mamiani Ministry formed.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13.</td><td>Meeting of Serbs at Carlowitz. Provisional Government at Milan declare for fusion.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[xxi]</a></span> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Coup d'état in Naples. Second rising in Vienna. Meeting of Roumanians at Blasendorf.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.</td><td>First meeting of Constituent Assembly at Frankfort. Flight of Emperor of Austria to Innspruck.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Battle of Curtatone.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Unsuccessful riot in Milan. Completion of vote of fusion.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">30.</td><td>Slavonic Congress in Prague. Abolition of Transylvanian Parliament. Surrender of Peschiera to Charles Albert.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>June</td><td align="right">2.</td><td>First encounter between Magyars and Roumanians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>Separate Provisional Government formed in Bohemia.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Hrabowsky's attack on Carlowitz. Fall of Vicenza.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td style="white-space:nowrap" align="right">12 to 18.</td><td>Rising in Prague.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">19.</td><td>Ferdinand declares Jellaciç a traitor.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Jellaciç made Dictator by Croatians. Archduke John chosen Administrator of the German Empire.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>July</td><td align="right">4.</td><td>Venice accepts the fusion with Piedmont.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.</td><td>Kossuth supports vote for sending troops against Italians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Aug.</td><td align="right">5.</td><td>Capitulation of Milan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8.</td><td>Expulsion of Austrians from Bologna.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Restoration of Manin's dictatorship in Venice.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26.</td><td>Truce of Malmö signed.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">31.</td><td>Abolition of feudal dues in Vienna.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Sept.</td><td align="right">5.</td><td>Frankfort Assembly condemns the Truce of Malmö.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">9.</td><td>Jellaciç crosses the Drave.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Meeting of Roumanians to protest against Hungarian conscription.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">16.</td><td>Frankfort Assembly rescinds its vote about the Truce of Malmö.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.</td><td>Émeute in Frankfort.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">21.</td><td>The "Struve Putsch."</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">25.</td><td>Official appointment of Lamberg at Buda-Pesth.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[xxii]</a></span> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Murder of Lamberg.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Oct.</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>Jellaciç declared Dictator of Hungary.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6.</td><td>Murder of Latour.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">7.</td><td>Croat army surrenders to the Hungarians. Ferdinand flies to Innspruck.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8.</td><td>Kossuth threatens death to those who won't hang out the Hungarian flag.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">10.</td><td>Auersperg and Jellaciç join forces.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Bohemian deputies meet in Prague.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.</td><td>Puchner's appeal to the Transylvanians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">21.</td><td>Hungarian troops cross the Austrian frontier.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.</td><td>First meeting of Kremsier Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">30.</td><td>Battle of Schwechat.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Nov.</td><td align="right">1.</td><td>Windischgrätz enters Vienna.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">9.</td><td>Blum shot.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Murder of Rossi. Prussian Assembly votes that no more taxes be paid.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">24.</td><td>Flight of Pope.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Prussian Assembly decide to leave Berlin. Cavaignac announces intended expedition to Rome.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Dec.</td><td align="right">2.</td><td>Abdication of Ferdinand.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">5.</td><td>Final dissolution of Prussian Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13.</td><td>Address from Forli asking for Constituent Assembly.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.</td><td>Frankfort Parliament abolishes feudal dues.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">31.</td><td>Hungarian Committee of Defence retreats to Debreczin.</td></tr> +<tr><td>1849.</td><td>Jan.</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Frankfort Parliament votes for exclusion of Austria from Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">22.</td><td>Görgei sends Waizen Declaration to Windischgrätz.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Feb.</td><td align="right">1.</td><td>Saxons apply for help to Russians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">6.</td><td>Re-occupation of Ferrara by Austrian troops.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">8.</td><td>Flight of Grand Duke from Tuscany.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">9.</td><td>Proclamation of Roman Republic.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">19.</td><td>Görgei superseded by Dembinski.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">21.</td><td>Announcement that the Austrians have crossed the Po.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[xxiii]</a></span> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26.</td><td>Opening of Prussian Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Mar.</td><td align="right">7.</td><td>Dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Capture of Hermannstadt by Bem.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">12.</td><td>Charles Albert declares war on Austria.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20.</td><td>Formal announcement of new Austrian Constitution.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">23.</td><td>Battle of Novara. Abdication of Charles Albert.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Frankfort Parliament decides to offer Crown of Germany to King of Prussia.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">29.</td><td>Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini made Triumvirs.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>April</td><td align="right">1.</td><td>Capture of Brescia by Haynan.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>King of Prussia refuses the Crown of Germany.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">14.</td><td>Declaration of Hungarian Independence.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">17.</td><td>Final meeting of Sicilian Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">24.</td><td>French arrive before Civita Vecchia.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">25.</td><td>Re-occupation of Pesth by the Hungarians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">27.</td><td>Dissolution of Prussian Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>May</td><td align="right">14.</td><td>Beginning of third Baden insurrection. King of Prussia recalls Prussian members from Frankfort Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Neapolitans capture Palermo.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">20.</td><td>Bologna captured by Austrians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">26.</td><td>Proposals of Lesseps accepted by Triumvirs.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">30.</td><td>Frankfort Parliament resolves to adjourn to Stuttgart.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">31.</td><td>Oudinot rejects Lesseps' Convention.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>June</td><td align="right">4.</td><td>Russian proclamation of intended invasion of Hungary.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13.</td><td>Ledru Rollin's insurrection in Paris.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">17.</td><td>First Russian victory in Transylvania.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">18.</td><td>Final dissolution of German Parliament.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">19.</td><td>Austrians capture Ancona.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">30.</td><td>Roman Assembly decides to yield. Prussians surround Rastatt, which is centre of Baden movement.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>July</td><td align="right">3.</td><td>French enter Rome.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">15.</td><td>Papal Government restored.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Death of Charles Albert. Hungarian Diet dissolves itself.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiv" id="Page_xxiv">[xxiv]</a></span> </td><td>Aug.</td><td align="right">5.</td><td>Capture of Hermannstadt by Russians.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">11.</td><td>Görgei made Dictator. Kossuth flies from Hungary.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">13.</td><td>Görgei surrenders at Vilagos.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="center">"</td><td align="right">28.</td><td>Austrians enter Venice.</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Sept.</td><td align="right">26.</td><td>Klapka surrenders Komorn.</td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /><small>THE TRIUMPH OF DESPOTISM. 1815-1819.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Condition of Europe in 1815.—Metternich's position.—Character +of Alexander of Russia.—Metternich's attitude towards +religion.—Madame de Krüdener.—The Holy Alliance.—Aspirations +of the Germans.—Stein <i>v.</i> Metternich.—Schmalz's pamphlet.—The +Rhine Province.—Arndt and Görres.—The Small States of +Germany.—Würtemberg.—Weimar.—The Jena demonstration.—The +Burschenschaft.—The Wartburg demonstration.—The +Murder of Kotzebue.—The Carlsbad decrees.—The Final Act of +Vienna.—Metternich's triumph.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>In the year 1814 Napoleon Buonaparte ceased to +reign over Europe, and, after a very short interregnum, +Clement Metternich reigned in his stead. +Ever since the fall of Stadion, and the collapse of +Austria in 1809, this statesman had exercised the +chief influence in Austrian affairs; and, by his +skilful diplomacy, the Emperor had been enabled +to play a part in Europe which, though neither +honourable nor dignified, was eminently calculated +to enable that Prince to take a leading position in +politics, when the other Powers were exhausted by +war, and uncertain of what was to follow. But +Francis of Austria, though in agreement with +Metternich, was really his hand rather than his +head; and thus the crafty Minister easily assumed +the real headship of Europe, while professing to be +the humble servant of the Emperor of Austria.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> + +<p>The system of the new ruler resembled that of +Napoleon in its contempt for the rights of men and +of nations; but it was to be varnished over with an +appearance of legality, a seeming respect for the +rights of kings, and a determination to preserve +peace and avoid dramatic sensations, which made it +welcome to Europe, after eighteen years of almost +incessant wars or rumours of wars. As he looked +round upon the countries that had fallen under his +rule, the contemplation of the existing state of +Europe seemed to promise the new monarch a fairly +successful reign. France had been satisfied by the +preservation of Alsace and Lorraine, and by the +sense that, from having been the focus of revolution, +she had now become the corner-stone of legitimacy. +England had at first seemed to give pledges to the +cause of liberty by her promise of independence to +Genoa, and her guarantee of the Sicilian Constitution; +but with the help of Castlereagh, whom Metternich +described as "that upright and enlightened statesman," +the Austrian Government had succeeded in +persuading the English to consent to look on quietly +while Genoa was absorbed in the Kingdom of +Sardinia, and while the Anglo-Sicilian Constitution +was destroyed by Ferdinand of Naples; and the +English zeal for independence had been happily +diverted from the support of constitutions and civic +liberties to the championship of the most contemptible +of Napoleon's puppets, the King of Saxony.</p> + +<p>The King of Prussia, who in 1813 had seemed in +danger of becoming the champion of popular rights +and German freedom, was now, with his usual feebleness, +swaying towards the side of despotism; and +any irritation which he may have felt at the opposition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +to his claim upon Saxony, had been removed by +the concession of the Rhine Province.</p> + +<p>Among the smaller sovereigns of Europe, the King +of Sardinia and the Pope alone showed any signs of +rebellion against the new ruler of Europe. The +former had objected to the continued occupation of +Alessandria by Austrian forces; while the representatives +of the Pope had even entered a protest against +that vague and dangerous clause in the Treaty of +Vienna which gave Austria a right to occupy +Ferrara.</p> + +<p>But, on the other hand, the King of Sardinia had +shown more zeal than any other ruler of Italy in +restoring the old feudal and absolutist régime which +the French had overthrown. And though Cardinal +Consalvi, the chief adviser of the Pope, was following +for the present a semi-Liberal policy, he might as +yet be considered as only having established a +workable Government in Rome. And a Pope who +had been kidnapped by Napoleon was hardly likely +to offer much opposition to the man who, in his own +opinion, was the overthrower of Napoleon.</p> + +<p>Yet there were two difficulties which seemed +likely to hinder the prosperity of Metternich's reign. +These were the character of Alexander I. of Russia, +and the aspirations of the German nation.</p> + +<p>Alexander, indeed, if occasionally irritating Metternich, +evidently afforded him considerable amusement, +and the sort of pleasure which every man finds in a +suitable subject for the exercise of his peculiar +talents. For Alexander was eminently a man to be +managed. Enthusiastic, dreamy, and vain; now bent +on schemes of conquest, now on the development of +some ideal of liberty, now filled with some confused<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +religious mysticism; at one time eager to divide the +world with Napoleon, then anxious to restore Poland +to its independence; now listening to the appeals of +Metternich to his fears, at another time to the nobler +and more liberal suggestions of Stein and Pozzo di +Borgo;<a name="Anchor-1" id="Anchor-1"></a><a href="#Footnote-1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> only consistent in the one desire to play an +impressive and melodramatic part in European affairs.</p> + +<p>But, amusing as Alexander was to Metternich, +there were circumstances connected with the condition +of Europe which might make his weak love of +display as dangerous to Metternich's policy as a more +determined opponent could be. There were still +scattered over Europe traces of the old aspirations +after liberty which had been first kindled by the +French Revolution, and again awakened by the +rising against Napoleon. Setting aside, for the +moment, the leaders of German thought, there were +men who had hoped that even Napoleon might give +liberty to Poland; there were Spanish popular leaders +who had risen for the independence of their country; +Lombards who had sat in the Assembly of the Cis-Alpine +Republic; Carbonari in Naples, who had +fought under Murat, and who had at one time +received some little encouragement, even from their +present King. If the Czar of Russia should put +himself at the head of such a combination as this, +the consequences to Europe might indeed be serious.</p> + +<p>But the stars in their courses fought for Metternich; +and a force, which he had considered almost as +dangerous as the character of Alexander, proved the +means of securing the Czar to the side of despotism.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> +<p>Nothing is more characteristic of Metternich and +his system than his attitude towards any kind of +religious feeling. It might have been supposed that +the anti-religious spirit which had shown itself in the +fiercest period of the French Revolution, and, to a +large extent, also in the career of Napoleon, would +have induced the restorers of the old system to +appeal both to clerical feeling and religious sentiment, +as the most hopeful bulwark of legitimate despotism. +Metternich was far wiser. He knew, in spite of +the accidental circumstances which had connected +Atheism with the fiercer forms of Jacobinism, that, +from the time of Moses to the time of George Washington, +religious feeling had constantly been a tremendous +force on the side of liberty; and although +he might try to believe that to himself alone was +due the fall of Napoleon, yet he could not but be +aware that there were many who still fancied that +the popular risings in Spain and Germany had contributed +to that end, and that in both these cases +the element of religious feeling had helped to +strengthen the popular enthusiasm. He felt, too, +that however much the clergy might at times have +been made the tools of despotism, they did represent +a spiritual force which might become dangerous to +those who relied on the power of armies, the traditions +of earthly kings, or the tricks of diplomatists. +Much, therefore, as he may have disliked the levelling +and liberating part of the policy of Joseph II., Metternich +shared the hostility of that Prince to the power +of the clergy.</p> + +<p>Nor was it purely from calculations of policy that +Metternich was disposed to check religious enthusiasm. +Like so many of the nobles of his time, he had come<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +under the influence of the French philosophers of the +eighteenth century; his hard and cynical spirit had +easily caught the impress of their teaching; and he +found it no difficult matter to flavour Voltairianism +with a slight tincture of respectable orthodox Toryism.</p> + +<p>The method by which he achieved this end should +be given in his own words: "I read every day one +or two chapters of the Bible. I discover new beauties +daily, and prostrate myself before this admirable +book; while at the age of twenty I found it difficult +not to think the family of Lot unworthy to be saved, +Noah unworthy to have lived, Saul a great criminal, +and David a terrible man. At twenty I tried to +understand the Apocalypse; now I am sure that I +never shall understand it. At the age of twenty a +deep and long-continued search in the Holy Books +made me an Atheist after the fashion of Alembert +and Lalande; or a Christian after that of Chateaubriand. +Now I believe and do not criticize. Accustomed +to occupy myself with great moral questions, +what have I not accomplished or allowed to be +wrought out, before arriving at the point where the +Pope and my Curé begged me to accept from them +the most portable edition of the Bible? Is it bold +in me to take for certain that among a thousand +individuals chosen from the men of which the people +are composed, there will be found, owing to their +intellectual faculties, their education, or their age, +very few who have arrived at the point where I find +myself?"</p> + +<p>This statement of his attitude of mind is taken +from a letter written to remonstrate with the Russian +Ambassador on the patronage afforded by the Emperor +Alexander to the Bible Societies. But how<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +much more would such an attitude of mind lead him +to look with repugnance on the religious excitement +which was displaying itself even in the Arch Duchy +of Austria!</p> + +<p>And, to say the truth, men of far deeper religious +feeling than Metternich might well be dissatisfied +with the influence of the person who was the chief +mover in this excitement.</p> + +<p>The Baroness de Krüdener, formerly one of the +gayest of Parisian ladies of fashion, and at least +suspected of not having been too scrupulous in her +conduct, had gone through the process which Carlyle +so forcibly describes in his sketch of Ignatius Loyola. +She had changed the excitements of the world for +the excitements of religion, and was now preaching +and prophesying a millennium of good things to come +in another world, to those who would abandon some +of the more commonplace amusements of the present. +The disturbance which she was producing in men's +minds specially alarmed Metternich; and, under what +influence it may be difficult to prove, she was induced +to retire to Russia, and there came in contact with +the excitable Czar.</p> + +<p>Under her influence Alexander drew up a manifesto, +from which it appeared that, while all men were +brothers, kings were the fathers of their peoples; +Russia, Austria, and Prussia were different branches +of one Christian people, who recognized no ruler save +the Highest; and they were to combine to enforce +Christian principles on the peoples of Europe. When +the draft of this proclamation was first placed before +Metternich it was so alien from his modes of thought +that he could only treat it with scorn; and Frederick +William of Prussia was the only ruler who regarded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +it with even modified approval. But with all his +scorn Metternich had the wit to see that the pietism +of Alexander of Russia had now been turned into a +direction which might be made use of for the enforcement +of Metternich's own system of government; +and thus, after having induced Alexander, much +against his will, to modify and alter the original draft, +Metternich laid the foundation of the Holy Alliance.</p> + +<p>But there still remained the troublesome question +of the aspirations of the German nation; and these +seemed likely at first to centre in a man of far higher +type and far more steady resolution than Alexander. +This was Baron von Stein, who, driven from office +by Napoleon, had been in exile the point of attraction +to all those who laboured for the liberty of Germany. +He had declared, at an early period, in favour of a +German Parliament. But Metternich had ingeniously +succeeded in pitting against him the local feeling of +the smaller German States; and instead of the real +Parliament which Stein desired, there arose that +curious device for hindering national development +called the German Bund.</p> + +<p>This was composed of thirty-nine members, the +representatives of all the different German Governments. +Its object was said to be to preserve the +outward and inward safety of Germany, and the +independence and inviolability of her separate States. +If any change were to be made in fundamental laws, +it could only be done by a unanimous vote. Some +form of Constitution was to be introduced in each +State of the Bund; arrangements were to be made +with regard to the freedom of the press, and the +Bund was also to take into consideration the question +of trade and intercourse between the different States.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> +All the members of the Bundestag were to protect +Germany, and each individual State, against every +attack. The vagueness and looseness of these provisions +enabled Metternich so to manage the Bundestag +as to defeat the objects of Stein and his friends, +and gradually to use this weakly-constituted Assembly +as an effective engine of despotism.</p> + +<p>But in fact Stein was ill fitted to represent the +popular feeling in any efficient manner. His position +is one that is not altogether easy to explain. He +believed, to some extent, in the People, especially the +<i>German</i> People. That is to say, he believed in the +power of that people to <i>feel</i> justly and honourably; +and, as long as that feeling was expressed in the +form of a cry to their rulers to guide and lead justly, +he was as anxious as anyone that that cry should be +heard. He liked, too, the sense of the compact embodiment +of this feeling in some institution representing +the unity of the nation. But, with the ideas +connected with popular representation in the English +sense, he had little sympathy. That the People or +their representatives should <i>reason</i> or act, independently +of their sovereigns, was a political conception +which was utterly abhorrent to him.</p> + +<p>In short, Stein's antagonism to Metternich was as intense +as that of the most advanced democrat; but it +was not so much the opposition of a champion of freedom +to a champion of despotism, as the opposition of an +honest man to a rogue. Metternich wrote in his +Memoirs, when he was taking office for the first time in +1809, "From the day when peace is signed we must confine +our system to tacking and turning and flattering. +Thus alone may we possibly preserve our existence +till the day of general deliverance." This policy had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +been consistently followed. The abandonment of +Andrew Hofer after the Tyrolese rising of 1809, +the adulterous marriage of Maria Louisa, the alliance +with Napoleon, the discouragement of all popular +effort to throw off the French yoke, the timely +desertion of Napoleon's cause, just soon enough to +give importance to the alliance of Austria with +Prussia and Russia and England, just late enough +to prevent any danger of defeat and misfortune; +these acts marked the character of Metternich's +policy and excited the loathing of Stein.</p> + +<p>As he had been repelled from Metternich by arts +like these, so Stein had been drawn to Arndt, +Schleiermacher, and Steffens by a common love of +honesty and by a common power of self-sacrifice; +but he looked upon them none the less as, to a large +extent, dreamers and theorists; and this want of +sympathy with them grew, as the popular movement +took a more independent form, until at last the +champion of Parliamentary Government, the liberator +of the Prussian peasant, the leader of the German +people in the struggle against Napoleon, drifted +entirely out of political life from want of sympathy +with all parties.</p> + +<p>But it was not to Stein alone that the Germans of +1813 had looked for help and encouragement in their +struggle against Napoleon. The People had found +other noble leaders at that period, and it remembered +them. The King of Prussia remembered them too, +to his shame. He was perfectly aware that he had +played a very sorry part in the beginning of the +struggle, and that, instead of leading his people, he +had been forced by them most unwillingly into the +position of a champion of liberty. It was not, therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +merely from a fear of the political effects of the +Constitutional movement, but from a more personal +feeling, that Frederick William III. was eager to +forget the events of 1813.</p> + +<p>But if the King wished to put aside uncomfortable +facts, his flatterers were disposed to go much further, +and to deny them. A man named Schmalz, who +had been accused, rightly or wrongly, of having acted +in 1808 with Scharnhorst in promoting the Tugendbund,<a name="Anchor-2" id="Anchor-2"></a><a href="#Footnote-2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> +and of writing in a democratic sense about +popular assemblies, now wrote a pamphlet to vindicate +himself against these charges.</p> + +<p>Starting from this personal standpoint, he went on +to maintain that all which was useful in the movement +of 1813 came directly from the King; that +enterprises like that by which Schill endeavoured +to rouse the Prussians to a really popular struggle +against the French were an entire mistake; that the +political unions did nothing to stir up the people; +that the alliance between Prussia and France in +1812 had saved Europe; and that it was not till the +King gave the word in February, 1813, that the +German people had shown any wish to throw off +the yoke of Napoleon.</p> + +<p>This pamphlet at once called forth a storm of +indignation. Niebuhr and Schleiermacher both wrote +answers to it, and the remaining popularity of the +King received a heavy blow when it was found that +he was checking the opposition, and had even singled +out Schmalz for special honour. The great centre of +discontent was in the newly-acquired Rhine province. +The King of Prussia, indeed, had hoped that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +by founding a University at Bonn, by appointing +Arndt Professor of History, and Görres, the former +editor of the "Rhenish Mercury," Director of Public +Instruction, he might have secured the popular feeling +in the province to his side.</p> + +<p>But Arndt and Görres were not men to be silenced +by favour, any more than by fear. Görres remonstrated +with the King for giving a decoration to +Schmalz, and organized petitions for enforcing the +clause in the Treaty of Vienna which enabled the +Bund to summon the Stände of the different provinces. +Arndt renewed his demand for the abolition +of serfdom in his own province of Rügen, advocated +peasant proprietorship, and, above all, Parliamentary +Government for Germany.</p> + +<p>The feeling of discontent, which these pamphlets +helped to keep alive, was further strengthened in the +Rhine Province by a growing feeling that Frederick +William was trying to crush out local traditions and +local independence by the help of Prussian officials.</p> + +<p>So bitter was the anti-Prussian feeling produced +by this conduct, that a temporary liking was excited +for the Emperor of Austria, as an opponent of the +Prussianizing of Germany; and Metternich, travelling +in 1817 through this province, remarked that it +is "no doubt the part of Europe where the Emperor +is most loved, <i>more even than in our own country</i>."</p> + +<p>But it was but a passing satisfaction that the ruler +of Europe could derive from this accidental result of +German discontent. He had already begun to perceive +that his opposition to the unity of Germany, +and his consequent attempt to pose as the champion +of the separate States, had not tended to secure the +despotic system which his soul loved.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p> + +<p>Stein had opposed the admission of the smaller +German States to the Vienna Congress, no doubt +holding that the unity of Germany would be better +accomplished in this manner, and very likely distrusting +Bavaria and Würtemberg, as former allies of +Napoleon. Metternich, by the help of Talleyrand, +had defeated this attempt at exclusion, and had +secured the admission of Bavaria and Würtemberg +to the Congress. But he now found that these very +States were thorns in his side.</p> + +<p>They resented the attempts of Metternich to +dictate to them in their internal affairs; and, though +the King of Bavaria might confine himself to vague +phrases about liberty, the King of Würtemberg +actually went the length of granting a Constitution. +Had this King lived much longer, Metternich might +have been able to revive against him the remembrance +of his former alliance with Napoleon. +But when, after his death in 1816, the new King of +Würtemberg, a genuine German patriot, continued, +in defiance of his nobles, to uphold his father's Constitution, +this hope was taken away, and the South +German States remained to the last, with more or +less consistency, a hindrance to the completeness of +Metternich's system.</p> + +<p>But the summary of Metternich's difficulties in +Germany is not yet complete. The ruler of another +small principality, the Duke of Weimar, had taken +advantage, like the King of Würtemberg, of the +permission to grant a Constitution to his people; and +had been more prominent than even the King of +Würtemberg in encouraging freedom of discussion +in his dominions. This love of freedom, in Weimar +as in most countries of Europe, connected itself with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +University life, and thus found its centre in the +celebrated University of Jena; and on June 18th, +1816, the students of the University met to celebrate +the anniversary of the Battle of Leipzig. There, to +the great alarm of the authorities, they publicly +burnt the pamphlet of Schmalz, and another written +by the play-writer Kotzebue, who was believed to +have turned away Alexander of Russia from the +cause of liberty, and now to be acting as his tool and +spy.</p> + +<p>The head of the Rhine police, conscious, no doubt, +of the ferment in his own province, remonstrated +with the Duke of Weimar on permitting such +disturbances.</p> + +<p>This opposition increased the movement which +it was designed to check. Jahn, who had founded the +gymnastic schools which had speedily become places +of military exercise for patriotic Germans during the +war, now came forward to organize a Burschenschaft, +a society which was to include all the patriotic +students of Germany. Metternich and his friends +had become thoroughly alarmed at the progress of +the opposition, but again events seemed to work +for him; and the enthusiasm of the students, ill-regulated, +and ill-guided, was soon to give an excuse +for the blow which would secure the victory for a +time to the champions of absolutism.</p> + +<p>The desire for liberty seems always to connect +itself with love of symbolism; and the movement +for reform, naturally led to the revival of sympathy +with earlier reformers. Actuated by these feelings, +the students of Leipzig and other German Universities +gathered at the Wartburg, in 1817, to revive +the memory of Luther's testimony for liberty of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +thought; and they seized the opportunity for protesting +against the tyranny of their own time.</p> + +<p>Apparently the enthusiasm for the Emperor of +Austria had not extended to Saxony; for an Austrian +corporal's staff was one of the first objects cast into +the bonfire, which was lighted by the students; while +the dislike to Prussia was symbolized by the burning +of a pair of Prussian military stays, and the hatred +of the tyranny which prevailed in the smaller States, +found vent in the burning of a Hessian pig-tail. The +demonstration excited much disapproval among the +stricter followers of Metternich; but Stein and others +protested against any attempt to hinder the students +in their meeting.</p> + +<p>In the following year the Burschenschaft, which +Jahn desired to form, began to take shape, and to +increase the alarm of the lovers of peace at all costs. +Metternich rose to the occasion; and boasted that +he had become a moral power in Europe, which +would leave a void when it disappeared. In March, +1819, the event took place which at last gave this +"moral power" a success that seemed for the moment +likely to be lasting.</p> + +<p>Ludwig Sand, a young man who had studied first +at Erlangen and afterwards at Jena, went, on March +23rd, 1819, to the house of Kotzebue at Mannheim, +and stabbed him to the heart.</p> + +<p>It was said, truly or falsely, that a paper was +found with Sand, declaring that he acted with the +authority of the University of ——. It was said +also that Sand had played a prominent part in the +Wartburg celebration. With the logic usual with +panic-mongers, Metternich was easily able to deduce +from these facts the conclusion that the Universities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +must, if left to themselves, become schools of sedition +and murder.</p> + +<p>The Duke of Weimar, with more courage, perhaps, +than tact, had anticipated the designs of Metternich +by a proclamation in favour of freedom of thought +and teaching at the Universities, as the best security +for attaining truth.</p> + +<p>This proclamation strengthened still further the +hands of Metternich. Abandoning the position +which he had assumed at the Congress of Vienna, +of champion of the smaller States of Germany, he +appealed to the King of Prussia for help to coerce +the Duke of Weimar, and the German Universities.</p> + +<p>Frederick William, in spite of his support of +Schmalz, was still troubled by some scruples of +conscience. In May, 1815, he had made a public +promise of a Constitution to Prussia; Stein and +Humboldt were eager that he should fulfil this +promise, and even the less scrupulous Hardenberg +held that it ought to be fulfilled sooner or later.</p> + +<p>But Metternich urged upon the King that he +had allowed dangerous principles to grow in Prussia; +that his kingdom was the centre of conspiracy +against the peace and order of Germany, and that, +if he once conceded representative government, +the other Powers would be obliged to leave him to +his fate.</p> + +<p>The King, already alarmed by the course which +events were taking, was easily persuaded by Metternich +to abandon a proposal which seemed to have +nothing in its favour except the duty of keeping his +word. Arndt was deprived of his professorship, and +tried by commission on the charge of taking part in +a Republican conspiracy; Jahn was arrested, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +Görres fled from the country, to reappear at a later +time in Bavaria as a champion of Ultramontanism +against the hateful influence of Prussia.</p> + +<p>Then Metternich proceeded to his master stroke. +He called a conference at Carlsbad to crush the revolutionary +spirit of the Universities. A commission +of five members was appointed, under whose superintendence +an official was to be placed over every +University, to direct the minds and studies of students +to sound political conclusions. Each Government of +Germany was to pledge itself to remove any teacher +pronounced dangerous by this commission; and if +any Government resisted, the commission would +compel it. No Government was ever to accept a +teacher so expelled from any other University. No +newspaper of less than twenty pages was to appear +without leave of a Board, appointed for the purpose, +and every state of Germany was to be answerable to +the Bund for the contents of its newspapers. The +editor of a suppressed paper was to be, <i>ipso facto</i>, +prohibited from starting another paper for five years +in any state of the Bund; and a central Board was +to be founded for inquiry into demagogic plots.</p> + +<p>These decrees seem a sufficiently crushing engine +of despotism; but there still remained a slight obstacle +to be removed from Metternich's path. The +13th Article of the Treaty of Vienna had suggested +the granting of Constitutions by different +rulers of Germany; and, vaguely as it had been +drawn, both Metternich and Francis felt this clause +an obstacle in their path.</p> + +<p>As soon, therefore, as the Carlsbad Decrees had +been passed, Metternich summoned anew the different +States of Germany, to discuss the improvement of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +this clause. The representatives of Bavaria and +Würtemberg protested against this interference with +the independence of the separate States; and, +although the representative of Prussia steadily supported +Metternich, it was necessary to make some +concession in form to the opponents of his policy.</p> + +<p>It was, therefore, decided that the Princes of +Germany should not be hindered in the exercise of +their power, nor in their duty as members of the +Bund, by any Constitutions. By this easy device +Metternich was able to assume, without resistance, +the Imperial tone, which suited his position. The +entry in his memoirs naturally marks this supreme +moment of triumph. "I told my five-and-twenty +friends," he says, "what we want, and what we do +not want; on this avowal there was a general declaration +of approval, and each one asserted he had +never wanted more or less, nor indeed anything +different."</p> + +<p>Thus was Metternich recognized as the undisputed +ruler of Germany, and, for the moment, of Europe.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /><small>FIRST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM, 1820-1832.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Effect of Napoleonic Wars on Italian Feeling.—Austrian +promises and performances in Lombardy.—Vincenzo Monti.—Ugo +Foscolo.—Alessandro Manzoni.—Federigo Confalonieri.—Position +of Sardinia.—Relations of Sardinia with Austria.—Reaction +under Victor Emmanuel.—Ferdinand I. of Naples.—The +Carbonari.—The Spanish rising.—The Spanish Constitution.—The +Neapolitan rising.—Guglielmo Pepe.—The Conference at +Troppau.—Palermo and the Constitution of 1812.—Divisions in +the Liberal Camp.—Ferdinand's attitude.—The movement in +Piedmont.—Santa Rosa.—Charles Albert.—"<span lang="it">Voleva e non +voleva.</span>"—The Students' rising.—The rising in Piedmont, and +causes of its failure.—Reaction in Italy.—The first martyr.—The +Greek rising.—Alexander of Russia.—George Canning.—Breaking +of the Holy Alliance.—The Movements of 1830-31.—The +Frankfort Decrees.—Metternich's second triumph.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>Of all the countries of Europe, none had been more +affected than Italy, both for good and evil, by the +Napoleonic wars; and in no part of Italy were the +traces of these wars so evident as in Lombardy. +Though settled liberty had been unknown there since +the cities of the Lombard League had fallen under their +petty tyrants; though any sense, even of national +independence, must have ceased since the sixteenth +century; yet the real misery of the position of a +conquered country, the sense of an absolutely alien +rule, seems hardly to have been fully realised by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +the Lombards, until the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, +had substituted the Austrian rule for that of the +Spaniards. The Spanish tyranny, however cruel, +had been softened to the Italians by the sense of +community of race and similarity of language; and +the readiness of the conquerors to inter-marry with +the conquered had given hopes of an ultimate +amalgamation between the races. But under the +German rule there were no such modifications of the +evils of conquest. The new rulers held aloof from +the Italians; and the latter were reminded at every +moment that they were not merely slaves, but slaves +to an alien and unsympathetic master.</p> + +<p>When, then, an Italian, at the head of a French +army, offered the Lombards deliverance from German +rule; when he organized them into a separate legion, +and showed special trust in them throughout his +wars; when he established the Government of the +Cis-Alpine Republic, and held out before their astonished +eyes the vision of an united Italy, it was +natural that such appeals should awaken hopes +of a newer life, and a prouder position in the councils +of Europe.</p> + +<p>It was true that their confidence had received +terrible shocks. The horrible treachery of the Treaty +of Campo Formio, the manipulation of the Constitution +of the Cis-Alpine Republic, the gradual +changes which tended to absorb it into the French +Empire; these had been tolerably clear signs to the +Lombards of what they might ultimately expect +from their so-called liberator.</p> + +<p>Yet amid all these acts of violence and treachery, +Napoleon had still kept before them the idea of a +separate kingdom of Italy, if not in the present, then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +in the not distant future. If Napoleon failed them, +Eugène Beauharnais might realise the ideal with +which his step-father had mocked them; if Eugène +Beauharnais proved false, King Joachim of Naples +might lead them to freedom.</p> + +<p>And then, most wonderful of all! came the announcement +that the Austrian might become, in +his turn, the liberator. In 1809, Archduke John +had promised to the Italians, in the name of the +Emperor Francis, "a Constitution founded on the +nature of things, and a frontier inaccessible to any +foreign rule. Europe well knows," continued the +Archduke, "that the word of this Prince is sacred, +and that it is as unchangeable as it is pure. It is +Heaven that speaks by his mouth."</p> + +<p>General Nugent, the leader of the Austrian forces, +followed up this proclamation, at a later time, by +equally strong promises of Italian independence, and +as late as April 26, 1814, Lord William Bentinck, +the founder of the Sicilian Constitution of 1812, had +added his guarantee for the liberty, prosperity, and +independence of Italy.</p> + +<p>The Italians, therefore, had some hopes of justice +from the Powers of Europe. These were shaken by +the Congress of Vienna; and the Lombards received +a new shock when they found how unreal were even +the seeming concessions made by that Congress. A +central Congregation of Lombardy, which had no +power of initiating reforms, and hardly leave to utter +complaints, was the sole embodiment of the principle +of Italian independence; and the "frontier guaranteed +against the foreigner" was unable to exclude, not +only Austrian soldiers from the garrisons of Lombardy, +but even Austrian judges from her tribunals, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +Austrian professors from her universities; secret +tribunals tried Lombards, who were arrested for +they knew not what cause; taxes out of all proportion +to the size of Lombardy drained the country for the +benefit of other parts of the empire; and police +dogged the footsteps of the most distinguished +citizens.</p> + +<p>Nor could Lombardy be even certain of her own +sons. The wisest Lombards might well have been +confused by the rapid changes of government which +had taken place in the short space of eighteen years. +They had seen Austrian tyranny give place to a Cis-Alpine +Republic; they had passed from republican +rule by somewhat confused stages under the despotism +of Napoleon, a despotism which had in its turn to +give way to the freer rule of Eugène Beauharnais; +and lastly they had seen Beauharnais overthrown, +and Austrian rule restored in a more crushing form +than before.</p> + +<p>Not merely their political judgment, but their +sense of right and wrong had been unsettled by such +changes. When men of high genius, like the poet +Vincenzo Monti, could begin his literary career by a +fierce poem against France, continue it by songs in +praise of the French conquerors as promoters of +liberty, then write eulogies on Napoleon's empire, +and finally join in the inauguration of a library, +which was to be the means of reconciling the Italians +to their Austrian conquerors, it can scarcely be wondered +at if men of lower intellect found themselves +equally ready to worship each new ruler as he rose into +power, and to trample on the memory of fallen heroes.</p> + +<p>A man of nobler type than Monti expressed, perhaps +still more clearly, the sense of despair which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +seemed likely to become the keynote of Italian feeling. +Ugo Foscolo was, from his very birth, an embodiment +of the confused state of Italy at that period. He was +born in 1778, in the Isle of Zante, then a colony of +the Venetian Republic, and in a condition of the +utmost lawlessness. He was sent from thence to +study at Padua, and thus grew up to manhood during +the period of those continual changes in Lombardy +which marked the period of the struggle against +France. At one time he thought of becoming a +priest, but soon devoted himself to literature.</p> + +<p>The sole models for the Italian dramatists, at that +period, were the writings of Vittorio Alfieri, whose +feelings and literary taste had led him to adhere, as +closely as he could, to the old classical traditions. +At the age of nineteen Foscolo chose, as his first +subject for a drama, the horrible story of Thyestes; +but though this work was received with great applause, +his literary career was, for a time, cut short by the +Treaty of Campo Formio.</p> + +<p>His political convictions seem already to have been +strongly developed, for he was forced to leave Venice +to escape the persecution of the new Government. +Yet the creation of the Cis-Alpine Republic revived +his hopes, and he hastened to Milan to take a share +in the new life. There he became acquainted with +the two leading poets of the day, Vincenzo Monti +and Giuseppe Parini. From the former he gained +several hints in style; from the latter he learnt the +nobler lesson of hatred of corruption and servility. +But the growing tyranny of Napoleon, the sense of +the fickleness of his own countrymen, and the loathing +of the rule of the Austrians, produced in Foscolo +a bitter tone of cynicism and despair.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was while in this state of mind that he fell in +with Goethe's romance of Werther; and on this he +modelled the strange rhapsodical story of Jacopo +Ortis, in which the hero, disappointed in love and +politics, takes refuge, like Werther, in suicide. But +while the German romance was merely the expression +of a passing feeling, which the author took pleasure +in throwing into an artistic form, the Italian story +was the deliberate expression of Foscolo's most permanent +state of mind, and was accepted as the embodiment +of the feelings of many other Lombard +youths.</p> + +<p>Foscolo, after fighting for the independence of +Italy against the Austrian invasion of 1815, withdrew +in disgust to England; but some of those who would +gladly have welcomed him as a fellow-worker still +remained in Lombardy, and tried to form a nucleus +of free Italian thought.</p> + +<p>Of these, the most remarkable was Alessandro +Manzoni, best known to foreigners as the author of +"<span lang="it">I Promessi Sposi</span>." Manzoni's influence was more +widely felt in Italy at a later period; but the presence +of such a man among the Lombard patriots of 1816-20 +is too remarkable a fact to pass without notice. He, +like so many other young nobles, had gone through +a phase of eighteenth-century scepticism. But in +1808 he had been attracted by a beautiful Protestant +lady, who, after her marriage to Manzoni, drifted +into Roman Catholicism, and eventually led her +husband to accept the same faith. Many of his old +comrades denounced his conversion, and some even +attributed it to evil motives. But they soon discovered +that his new faith, far from weakening his +Italian feeling, had strengthened, while in some<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +sense, it softened it. The hard classicism of which +Alfieri had set the fashion, and which Foscolo could +not shake off, was repugnant to Manzoni, who desired +to become the sacred poet of Italy, and who was +recognized by Goethe as being "Christian without +fanaticism, Roman Catholic without hypocrisy."</p> + +<p>Manzoni disliked Eugène Beauharnais for wishing +to derive his title to the kingdom of Italy from +Alexander of Russia; but he sympathized with the +attempt of Murat, and was ready to act with those +Lombards who wished to rouse Italian feeling in +literature and politics.</p> + +<p>But though men like Foscolo and Manzoni had a +wider and deeper influence in all parts of Italy, the +person who most attracted the hopes of the Lombards +and the fear and hatred of Metternich, at this period, +was a man whose name is now little remembered +outside his own country. This was Count Federigo +Confalonieri. He, like so many of the better men +of his country, had become equally disgusted with +French and Austrian rulers; and, when a proposal +was made by the Italian Senate in 1814 to secure +from the allies an independent kingdom of Italy, to +be governed by Eugène Beauharnais, Confalonieri +headed a protest against the proposal. The Austrian +spies seized the opportunity to stir up a riot against +the Senate; and in this disturbance Prina, one of +the ministers, was seized by the mob and murdered, +in spite of Confalonieri's indignant protest.</p> + +<p>The Senate fled; and the new Provisional Government +of Lombardy sent Confalonieri to Paris, to plead +for an independent kingdom of Lombardy. His +appeal, however, was in vain; and, when the +Austrians recovered their rule, Confalonieri was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +banished from Milan. He soon, however, returned, +and devoted himself to developing in all ways the +resources of his country. He had studied in London +and Paris the principle of mutual instruction; and +he founded schools for that purpose in Lombardy. +He succeeded in getting the first steamboat built in +Milan, introduced gas light, and encouraged all kinds +of improvements, both artistic and industrial.</p> + +<p>But his great work was the gathering round him, +for literary and political purposes, of the great writers +of Lombardy; and he founded a journal called "<span lang="it">Il +Conciliatore</span>," to which contributions were sent by +the poet Silvio Pellico, by the historians Sismondi +and Botta, by Manzoni and Foscolo, and, amongst +others, by a certain Lombard exile, who was afterwards +to earn a short and sad celebrity in Italian +history, Pellegrino Rossi. Thus, as a great noble +encouraging the material growth of his country, as +the centre of a literary movement, and above all as a +known champion of freedom, Confalonieri riveted the +attention of all who knew him.</p> + +<p>But, however zealous this small knot of Lombards +might be for the progress and freedom of their +country, none of them supposed that Lombardy +could throw off the yoke of Austria without assistance +from other Powers. The question therefore was, to +whom they should look for help.</p> + +<p>Their nearest neighbour, the King of Sardinia, had +some special grounds for grievance against the Emperor +of Austria, besides the tradition of dislike which +he had inherited from Victor Amadeus. That unfortunate +king had had reason to regret the prominent +part which he had taken in defying the French Republic +in 1796. For he found that Francis of Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +was eager on every occasion to take advantage of the +weakness of his ally. When Savoy was hard pressed +by the French, the Austrians had demanded that, in +return for any help that they might give to the King +of Sardinia, he should surrender to them part of the +territory in Lombardy which had been secured to +him by recent treaties. Victor Amadeus endeavoured +to resist this proposal as long as he could; but he +was induced by the pressure of English diplomatists +to consent that, if in the war any lands were taken +from Austria, he would compensate the Austrians by +part of the territory which they demanded.</p> + +<p>Victor Emmanuel found in 1815 that alliance with +Austria cost him as dear as it had cost his predecessor +in 1796. For, even in the last desperate struggle +against Napoleon, the Austrians demanded that the +treaty of alliance between Austria and Sardinia should +contain a clause for the destruction of the fortifications +of Alessandria; and in the Congress of Vienna +they tried to take from Victor Emmanuel the district +of Novara. By the help of Alexander of Russia +these intrigues were defeated; but the Austrians, in +revenge, made all the delay that they could devise in +evacuating Piedmont; and, when they finally left it +in 1816, they destroyed the fortress outside Alessandria. +Under these circumstances it was natural +enough that the King of Sardinia should bear a bitter +grudge against the House of Austria.</p> + +<p>But, on the other hand, there was great reason to +doubt whether Victor Emmanuel could be persuaded +to take the lead in any war that savoured of revolution. +For, hostile as he was to the claims of Austria, +the newly-restored king resented yet more strongly +the changes which had been introduced during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +French occupation. On his restoration in 1814, he +abolished by one sweeping Act all laws passed +since 1800 in Piedmont; primogeniture, aristocratic +privileges, ecclesiastical tribunals, tortures, secret +inquisitions, were all restored. Even at the universities +learned men were deposed, as likely to be +friendly to the French, and were replaced by men +who had no claim but their social rank. A system +of espionage was introduced, at least as inquisitorial +and degrading as that of Metternich, and it was soon +found that to maintain that system it was necessary to +sacrifice national dignity, and to have recourse to the +great master in the art of tyranny. Thus it came +about that Austrian officers were chosen to control +the police in Turin.</p> + +<p>In two important respects the government of Victor +Emmanuel was even worse than that of Austria. +Clerical injustice and oppression were as distasteful +to Francis and Metternich as they had been to Joseph +and Leopold; while in Piedmont, on the contrary, +friars and monks were allowed a licence which speedily +became a new source of evil. The other point of +difference was that, tyrannical and unjust as the +Austrian tribunals were in cases where political +questions were involved, they were perfectly pure in +cases between man and man unconnected with politics; +whereas in Piedmont judicial decisions were sold to +the highest bidder.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, the eyes of the champions +of Italian liberty naturally turned to that +kingdom from which the last effort had been made +for the unity of Italy.</p> + +<p>Naples had contributed a very large proportion of +those who had died for the cause of liberty in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> +earlier struggles, and even before that time had +produced at least one man who had left his mark on +sciences which tended to promote good government. +Gaetano Filangieri had been one of the most distinguished +writers on law and political economy, and +had gained great influence at one period over +Ferdinand I. of Naples. Ferdinand himself, though +intensely weak, and capable of cruelty under certain +circumstances, was not a man of habitually cruel +character, nor even of so despotic a temperament as +Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia.</p> + +<p>But, like most of the sovereigns of Italy, he found +himself compelled to rely more and more on Austria +for the re-establishment of his power. He appointed +Nugent, the Austrian general, as the head of his army, +and a central council interfered with the liberties +which had grown up in Naples. His refusal to carry +out the promises of liberty which he had made in his +time of difficulty naturally irritated his people against +him, while the recollections of Murat stirred in them +the desire for new efforts for freedom.</p> + +<p>But the great ally which Naples supplied at this +time to the cause of liberty was the Society of the +Carbonari. Connected by vague traditions with some +societies of the past, Carbonarism had received its first +distinct political shape in the year 1811, when Murat +was reigning in Naples. In 1814, when Murat had +shown signs of a despotic spirit, it transferred its +allegiance to King Ferdinand, then reigning only in +Sicily. When Ferdinand had been restored to the +throne of Naples, he found Carbonarism a dangerous +element in his kingdom, and he began to prosecute +the members of the Society. This had not, however, +deprived the Carbonari of their monarchical sympathies;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +they merely transferred them from Ferdinand +to his son Francis, who, having assisted at the establishment +of the Constitution of 1812 in Sicily, was +supposed to be committed to the cause of liberty.</p> + +<p>A vague talk about equality, and a more definite +demand for the independence of Italy, constituted +the programme of the Carbonari. But the Society +was surrounded by various symbols of an impressive +character, and its rules were enforced by a secret and +vigorous discipline. It was evident that, in some way, +it was suited to the wants of the time; for it spread +rapidly from Naples to other parts of Italy, and took +root both in Lombardy and Piedmont. In Lombardy +it speedily attracted the attention of the Austrian +police, and in 1818 several arrests were made; but +such attempts merely strengthened the growth of +the movement, and Carbonarism soon appeared in +Spain.</p> + +<p>In the latter country the betrayal of the Constitutional +cause had been, perhaps, baser than in any +other part of Europe.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Frederick William of Prussia, +no sovereign had owed more to the zeal of his people in +the struggle against Napoleon than Ferdinand of Spain. +In 1812, before he had been restored to his throne, he +had been forced to grant a Constitution to his people, +which, on recovering full power, he had abolished; +and anyone who ventured to speak of liberty had been +exiled or imprisoned. Among those who had been +forced to fly from the country was Rafael del Riego, +who had been one of the earliest to rise on behalf of +Ferdinand against Napoleon. He had succeeded, by +the help of the Carbonari, in establishing relations +with many of the discontented soldiers in the Spanish<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +army; and in January, 1820, he suddenly appeared +at Cadiz and proclaimed the Constitution of 1812.</p> + +<p>His success was rapid, and Ferdinand was compelled +once more to swear to maintain the Constitution.</p> + +<p>This, the first Constitution proclaimed since the +downfall of Napoleon, was remarkable for its democratic +character. Parliament was to have the power +of making laws in conjunction with the king, and if +they passed a law three times, the king was to lose the +right of vetoing it. Ministers were to be responsible +to Parliament. Freedom of the press was to be +secured, and a Council of State was to advise the +king on questions of peace or war and the making of +treaties. At the same time, the nation was to prohibit +the practice of any but the Roman Catholic religion.</p> + +<p>The news rapidly spread to Naples; for not only +was there continual communication between the +Carbonari of Spain and those of Naples, but even +official duty would make speedy communication +necessary, since Ferdinand of Naples was the next +heir to the Spanish throne, and it was therefore held +that this Constitution would be binding on him. The +Carbonari were ready for the emergency; and while +some of them, in the city of Naples, were demanding +concessions, the more revolutionary districts of +Calabria and Salerno had already risen in open +insurrection. Ferdinand was able to arrest some of +the leaders in the city; but he soon found that the +insurrectionary spirit had spread even among the +generals of his army. Officer after officer declared +for the Constitution; and even those who were not +ready to take that step were suspected by, and +suspicious of, their fellows. Guglielmo Pepe, known +as a supporter of the previous movement of Murat,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +and at one time sentenced to death for his opposition +to the Bourbon rule, was marked out by the Carbonari +as their leader. He at first hesitated to join them, +and was even chosen by Nugent to lead the king's +forces against the insurgents; but Ferdinand distrusted +him, and opposed his appointment, and Pepe +was finally driven to accept the leadership of the +revolution. On July 5th he gathered round him a +great body of the officers and soldiers, and led them +to Naples; and Ferdinand, finding that he had no +one to rely upon, yielded to the insurgents and consented +to the appointment of a provisional Junta +(composed to a great extent of the previous supporters +of Murat), and swore to accept the Spanish +Constitution.</p> + +<p>Metternich was greatly startled at the completeness +of this popular victory. He had been convinced +that, with a people like the Neapolitans, blood would +flow in streams; and he was alarmed to find that the +leading Carbonari were men of high character. He +at once assumed that Alexander of Russia was at +the bottom of the conspiracy; and he set himself to +convert him once more to the side of order. But +that fickle Prince seems never to have seriously +resumed the championship of liberalism in Europe, +after the death of Kotzebue; and though he may +have wished occasionally to play with the Carbonari, +and may have been flattered by their appealing to +him, he was much more anxious to put in force those +principles which M<sup>me</sup> de Krüdener had taught him, +which forbade kings to keep faith with those subjects +to whom they had granted liberties. He therefore +readily consented to come to Troppau, to consider +the best means of checking the Neapolitan insurrection.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the meantime, suspicions had arisen between +the Carbonari and the old followers of Murat, and +the want of organization in their forces seemed to +doom the insurrection to failure.</p> + +<p>But a still more fatal cause of division was the +attitude of Sicily. The news of the proclamation of +the Spanish Constitution had, at first, been welcomed +there; but the nobles of Palermo cherished the +recollection of that short time of independence when +Ferdinand, driven out of Naples, had ruled Sicily +as a separate kingdom; the Sicilian Constitution +of 1812, which was welcome to the nobles of +Palermo, as more aristocratic in its character than +the Spanish Constitution, was acceptable to all the +Palermitans as the symbol of Sicilian independence. +The cry, therefore, of "the Constitution of 1812" +was raised in Palermo, in opposition to the cry of +"the Spanish Constitution."</p> + +<p>A Neapolitan intriguer, named Naselli, did his +best to fan the flame of this division; riots arose; +and the news spread to Naples that the Sicilians +were enemies of Naples, and were opposing the +Spanish Constitution. The Palermitans, on their +part, appealed to the King by the memory of the old +fidelity which the Sicilians had shown him when +he was in exile. The King, and some others, might +have responded to this appeal; and General Florestano +Pepe, who was sent to suppress the rising, ended by +conceding to the Sicilians the right of deciding by +popular vote between the two Constitutions. But +the Neapolitan pride was excited; a cry arose that +the King was surrendering an important part of the +kingdom, and thereby violating the Constitution.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, however, it had become clear<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +that the preference of the Palermitans for the +Constitution of 1812 was not shared by the whole +body of the Sicilian people. Messina, followed by +other towns, rose on behalf of the Spanish Constitution; +and, while the Neapolitans were preparing +new forces to suppress the rising in Palermo, +the Palermitans were sending their troops against +Messina.</p> + +<p>During this state of confusion the news arrived +that the representatives of the Powers at the Congress +of Laybach had urged pacific means of intervention, +but at the same time had advised the Neapolitans to +modify their Constitution.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, considerable alarm +was caused by the news that the King intended to +go to Laybach. Ferdinand, to check this alarm, +declared to the Parliament that, whatever happened, +he would defend the fundamental principles of the +Constitution, freedom of the press, equality before +the law, sole right of representatives to vote taxes, +independence of judicial power, and responsible +ministry. This speech, instead of calming the fears +of the people, raised new alarms; for it seemed as +though the King were meditating already <i>some</i> +changes in the Government; and the people declared +that they could only allow him to depart if he went +to defend the Spanish Constitution. But Ferdinand +earnestly assured them that he had meant nothing +against the Constitution, and that, if he could not +defend the rights of the people and the crown by his +words at Laybach, he would return to defend them +by his sword.</p> + +<p>The Duke of Ascoli, an old friend and confidant +of the King, asked him privately for more specific<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> +directions; and Ferdinand urged him to try to +maintain peace; but, if it should be necessary, to +prepare for war. With such promises, Ferdinand +left Naples for Laybach in January, 1821.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the work of the Carbonari had +been spreading in Piedmont; and other sects of a +similar character, and with more definite objects, +had sprung up by their side. Unlike the Neapolitans, +the Piedmontese Liberals had no French political +traditions, either to encourage or to hamper them. +Although the House of Savoy was French in its +origin, both rulers and people had been forward in +their resistance to the aggressions of the French +Republic. Their ideas of liberty were derived, not +from France, but from their own poet, Vittorio +Alfieri; and these ideas had been strengthened by +the love of independence which they had developed +in the struggle against France, and which was now +wholly directed against Austria.</p> + +<p>The risings in Spain and Naples had attracted the +sympathies of the Piedmontese; and it was even +rumoured that Victor Emmanuel I. himself had said +that if his people demanded a Constitution he would +grant it. His minister, Prospero Balbo, who had +previously served under Napoleon, was supposed to +have Liberal leanings.</p> + +<p>But while all these circumstances tended to connect +the desire for liberty in the minds of the Piedmontese +with the support of monarchical principles, +and while the absence of any interest in political +affairs on the part of the peasantry, or the artizans, +prevented any strong democratic organization, it +was yet necessary, if the movement was to be successful, +that there should be some leader who was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +not afraid of revolutionary measures. Such a man +was Santorre di Santa Rosa, an officer who had +fought in the royal guard against the French, and +who was now a major of infantry in Turin. His +sympathies were not only monarchical, but in some +respects even aristocratic; and when the Spanish +Constitution was first proclaimed, he was inclined to +prefer some other Constitution like that of Sicily, or +even the charter which had been granted in France. +But, with keen insight, he quickly perceived that +the Spanish Constitution had become a watchword +which was thoroughly understood by the people, and +that any new cry would only cause division.</p> + +<p>Nor were the designs of Santa Rosa limited to his +own State. He knew that no struggle for Piedmontese +liberty could be successful which did not +aim at throwing off the yoke of Austria; and that +that could only be done by combining with the +other States, which were groaning under the same +oppression. The patriots of Lombardy were willing +enough to act with the Piedmontese, for Confalonieri +was already in communication with the Neapolitans +and other Italian Liberals, and was ready to provide +arms for the rising.</p> + +<p>But there was still needed a figure-head who +must be placed in front of the movement, if it was +to retain any appearance of monarchical Constitutionalism.</p> + +<p>Whatever casual remarks Victor Emmanuel may +have let fall, it soon became evident that <i>he</i> was +disposed to resist the Constitutional movement, and +he even began to increase the guards about his +palace. Charles Felix, his brother, the next heir to +the throne, was known to be a yet sterner champion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +of despotism than the King himself; and it was +under these circumstances that the eyes of the +Liberals of Piedmont were for the first time turned +to the head of the younger branch of the House of +Savoy, Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano.</p> + +<p>He had been brought up as a simple citizen in a +public school, and had specially attracted attention +by the favour which he had shown to Alberto Nota, +whom he had made his secretary. Nota was a +writer who had set himself to restore the national +comic theatre in Piedmont, who had excited the +suspicion of the courtiers of Victor Emmanuel by his +Liberal principles, and who had at last been banished +from Turin.</p> + +<p>But, though the favour shown by Charles Albert +to Nota was the fact in the Prince's life which +had most impressed the Piedmontese, other influences +had already been brought to bear on him; +for he had also studied at Paris under an Abbé, who +had impressed on him a loathing for the French +Revolution. He was only twenty-three, and was +still hesitating between the lessons of these rival +teachers.</p> + +<p>But before Santa Rosa and his friends could carry +out their schemes, the first sign of protest against +tyranny in Turin was given from a different quarter. +Although the desire for liberty had not yet penetrated +to the poorer classes of Italy, and though +the leadership of these movements naturally fell into +the hands of men of noble birth, like Confalonieri +and Santa Rosa, yet there was another class in the +State which was already full of the new ideas, and +which was eventually to play an important part as +a link between the more intelligent members of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +aristocracy and the still silent classes of the community. +The University students of Germany, +Austria, and Italy, from the time of the gathering +at Jena in 1816 down to the fall of Venice in +August, 1849, were to hold a position in the great +movements of the time which affected considerably +the character of those movements, both for good +and evil.</p> + +<p>The share of the Turin students in the Piedmontese +rising of 1821 was touched with a certain character +of boyish frolic. On January 11th, some of the +University students appeared at the theatre at +Turin in red caps. The police at once arrested +them. But their companions rose on their behalf +and demanded that they should be tried by the +tribunals of the University. In this demand they +hoped that the professors would support them; but +the rector of the college was opposed to the movement, +and the professors were unwilling to interfere. +Thereupon the students took matters into their own +hands, took away the keys of the University from +the door-keeper, placed guards at all the entrances, +defended the two principal gates with forms and +tables, tore up the pavements, and barred the +windows. Then they despatched two delegates to +Count Balbo, to entreat him to set free their +comrades, or to hand them over to the authorities +of the University.</p> + +<p>The representatives of the provincial colleges +flocked to the assistance of the Turin students; and +the sight of the soldiers, who were called out to +suppress their rising, only roused them to more +determined resistance.</p> + +<p>The delegates returned speedily, followed by Count<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +Balbo himself, who promised to defend the cause of +the students before Victor Emmanuel, if they +would in the meantime remain quiet. The students, +therefore, consented to wait for further news; but +the soldiers remained encamped outside the University. +Suddenly the attention of the soldiers +was attracted by some boys coming out of school; +and, irritated presumably at some boyish mischief, +they attacked the children with bayonets. The +students, indignant at the sight, threw stones at +the soldiers, who thereupon charged the barricades +of the University, and a general massacre followed.</p> + +<p>The news of this massacre caused the most furious +indignation in Turin, and tended to swell the +growing revolutionary feeling. Charles Albert paid +a special visit to the hospitals to console those who +had been wounded by the soldiers.</p> + +<p>But in the meantime the proceedings at the Congress +of Laybach were alarming the lovers of liberty. +The King of Naples, by all sorts of pretences, had +tried to lull to sleep the vigilance of the Junta at +home; but it soon became known that the Powers +had resolved to suppress the Neapolitan Constitution, +and in February, 1822, their forces were on the +march to Naples. The Piedmontese Liberals were +eager to protest against this violation of national +independence; and their fears were further roused +by a rumour that Austria was renewing her demands +for the surrender of the Piedmontese fortresses. These +rumours were specially rife in Alessandria, which +had known the degradation of an Austrian occupation; +and Victor Emmanuel in vain tried to convince +the Alessandrians of the unreasonableness of this +panic.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span></p> + +<p>On March 6th, Santa Rosa and his friends went to +Charles Albert and asked him to put himself at the +head of the movement; and it was now that Santa +Rosa discovered the character of the man with whom +he had to deal, and left on record that saying which +summed up the whole life of that unhappy Prince—"<span lang="it">Voleva +e non voleva</span>" (He would and would not). +On March 6th, says one writer, "I do not know if +Charles Albert <i>con</i>sented, but he certainly <i>as</i>sented" +to the proposals of Santa Rosa.</p> + +<p>The rising was fixed for the 8th, but on the 7th +Charles Albert had changed his mind and wished +to delay the movement. Again Santa Rosa and +his friends urged him to act with them, but without +telling him on which day the insurrection was to +break out.</p> + +<p>There was, indeed, no time to be lost; for suspicions +had already arisen of the designs of the +Liberals, and arrests were being made. On March +10th, therefore, Count Palma seized on the citadel +of Alessandria and proclaimed the Spanish Constitution. +Almost at the same time Captain Ferrero +occupied the little town of San Salvario and unfurled +the Italian flag in the church. Students and soldiers +readily joined the insurgents, and both King and +Ministers in Turin were seized with panic. Orders +came from the Powers at Laybach that Victor Emmanuel +should march to Alessandria, and Balbo +called on all loyal soldiers to return to Asti.</p> + +<p>But Santa Rosa was as firm in his purposes as the +Royalists were undecided. The Spanish Constitution +was proclaimed in the fortress of Turin, and the +soldiers, who were sent to attack the people, fled +after a few shots; Charles Albert represented to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +King the wishes of the people; and on the night of +March 14th, Victor Emmanuel abdicated in favour +of his brother Charles Felix, appointing Charles +Albert Regent in Turin. On the following day +Charles Albert, in his capacity of Regent, swore to +accept the Spanish Constitution.</p> + +<p>But it was soon apparent that one vigorous man +could not make a revolution successful, when he had +to depend on a nobility many of whom were servile +admirers of Austria, and on a Regent who "would +and would not." Men were appointed to posts in +the new administration who had no claim to their +office except their rank. The leaders in Alessandria +suspected the leaders in Turin; while the hopes of +persuading Charles Albert to declare war on Austria +grew fainter and fainter.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the new King, Charles Felix, was +residing in Modena, under the protection of the +Grand Duke. Francis IV. of Modena had shown +himself the most distinctly tyrannical of all the +princes of Italy; while his extravagance and indifference +to the welfare of his people had startled even +Metternich. His relationship to the House of Savoy +had led him to sympathise at first with Victor +Emmanuel in his irritation at the arrogance of +Austria; but that very same relationship now led +him to hope that he might succeed to the throne +instead of Charles Albert, if the latter offended +the ruling Powers. He therefore readily supported +Charles Felix in his protest against the proceedings +of the new Regent.</p> + +<p>Charles Felix, on his side, was a man of more +rugged and narrow spirit than Victor Emmanuel, +and had none of the sense of national dignity which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +occasionally interfered with the despotic inclinations +of his brother. When, therefore, he issued from +Modena a denunciation of the new Government, he +did not scruple to add that, if order were not +soon restored, his august allies would come to his +rescue. In the same letter he ordered Charles Albert +to go to Novara and place himself under the orders +of Della Torre. "I shall see by this," said Charles +Felix, "if you are still a Prince of the House of +Savoy, or if you have ceased to be so." Charles +Albert concealed this letter from his Ministers; +and, after a few days of hesitation, fled secretly to +Novara.</p> + +<p>The feeble officials of Turin would have at once +deserted the cause; but, in defiance of their opinion, +Santa Rosa published a proclamation declaring that +the King was a prisoner in the hands of the enemy, +and that <i>he</i>, as Minister of Charles Albert, called on +them to stand by the Constitution and declare war +on Austria. One or two of the generals fled to Della +Torre, at Novara; but at the same time the Genoese +rose on behalf of the Spanish Constitution. Della +Torre sent orders to Santa Rosa, in the name of the +King, to resign his authority. Santa Rosa refused +to recognize the King while he remained in a +foreign country, and despatched a force against +Novara.</p> + +<p>But, in the meantime, the news came that General +Pepe had in vain tried to rally his forces in defence +of the Neapolitan Constitution; that his bands had +been dispersed at the first attack of the Austrians; +and that the Austrians, having crushed out the freedom +of Naples, were marching northwards. The +Russian Ambassador thereupon entreated the Junta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +to modify the Spanish Constitution. Some of the +Ministers were inclined to consent; but Santa Rosa +knew that to lose the Spanish Constitution was to +lose the watchword of the Revolution; and no doubt +he felt the indignity of yielding to a foreign ambassador. +He therefore refused this proposal, and once +more despatched forces against Della Torre, who +was now preparing to march on Turin.</p> + +<p>Colonel Regis, the leader of the Constitutional +forces, succeeded in reaching Novara before Della +Torre had begun his advance. The armies met outside +the town; but in the middle of the battle the +news arrived that the Austrians had crossed the +Ticino and were marching into the country. Regis +and Ferrero fought gallantly; but the double forces +against them were too strong; and though they once +or twice repelled the Austrian attack, the want of +discipline of the Piedmontese soldiers, combined with +the superior force of the enemy, led to a crushing +defeat. Santa Rosa, finding it impossible to defend +Turin, retreated first to Alessandria and then to +Genoa; but the men on whom he relied had lost +courage and hope; and he and such of his friends +as were fortunate enough to reach Genoa were soon +obliged to leave it again and to fly from Italy, most +of them to fight in foreign countries for the liberty +which they had lost at home.</p> + +<p>The reaction set in with the greatest fury. In +Piedmont the system of espionage was resumed with +double force. The University was closed. Under +the influence of favouritism, and in the absence of +any free expression of public opinion, corruption of +tribunals revived, and the Jesuits, who had lost +power during the Liberal interregnum, speedily recovered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> +it. In Naples, the Austrians, after recommending +mildness to Ferdinand, yielded to his demands +for the right to punish; and the sense of his +dishonourable position seems to have called out in +him a savagery which he had not previously shown; +while the presence of the Austrian troops irritated +the country into a state of intermittent insurrection.</p> + +<p>Lord William Bentinck attempted a protest in the +English House of Commons against a second destruction +of Sicilian independence; but Castlereagh defeated +the motion, and Sicily fell back under Neapolitan +rule.</p> + +<p>Metternich specially devoted himself to restoring +order in Lombardy. He established an Aulic Council +at Vienna to superintend the affairs in that province, +so as to crush out still further any local independence. +At the same time a special committee was formed at +Milan to enquire into the conspiracy. Several leading +conspirators were arrested. One tried to save his +friends by confessing his own fault; but the confession +was used as a new clue by the police. Confalonieri +was urged to save himself by flight; but he +answered, "I will not retire in face of the storm +which I wish to confront. Let what God will become +of me!" He was soon after arrested; and, after being +kept in doubt of his fate for nearly two years, he +was condemned to death. His case excited sympathy +even in Vienna, where the Empress interceded for +his life; and at last, after long entreaty, his sentence +was commuted to imprisonment for life in the fortress +of Spielberg. There Metternich in vain tried to extort +from him the betrayal of his fellow-conspirators. +But the crafty statesman little knew the result of +this treatment. One of those who suffered imprisonment<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +about the same time describes the effect of +Confalonieri's influence by contrasting him with the +head of the Austrian police in Lombardy. "Confalonieri +and Salvotti seemed to represent, in the eyes +of the Milanese, the angel of Liberty and the demon +of Slavery, striving not more for the success of their +respective causes than for the triumph of their individual +personalities. About Confalonieri gathered +the prayers of honest people, of men of feeling hearts, +who saw in him an unfortunate persecuted being +whom adversity clothed with all the lustre of devotion +and courage."</p> + +<p>This passage strikingly exhibits that noble, but +illogical, popular instinct which so often confuses the +hero and martyr with the mere victim of unjust +oppression. Confalonieri had undoubtedly organized +an insurrection, and his arrest and imprisonment +might fairly be justified by the ordinary rights of +self-defence which exist in every Government. Yet +the instinct of horror and pity for this imprisonment +had a truth deeper than logic. Under the system +of government then prevailing, the prison or the +scaffold was the natural place for such men; but the +pity of it was that a system of government should +prevail which logically necessitated the imprisonment +of Confalonieri and the triumph of Metternich. And +it was a sign of the deep folly of the latter that he +called the attention of the public to this fact, and +provided the cause of Italian unity with its first prominent +martyr. The stories of Confalonieri's imprisonment +spread from mouth to mouth, and were +preserved as tender memorials. It was told, for +instance, how, when his wife had visited him, he had +tried to preserve the cushion on which her tears had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +fallen, and how the guards had insisted on taking it +from him; how his friends had devised a plan for +his escape, and he had refused to avail himself of it +because his fellow-prisoners would not be able to +escape with him; and lastly, of the continual pressure +which had been brought to bear upon him to reveal +the secrets of his fellow-conspirators, and his steady +refusal to purchase health and liberty by their betrayal.</p> + +<p>The defeat which despotism had sustained by the +imprisonment, and still more by the persecutions, +of Confalonieri would hereafter be plain. At present +Metternich might think that he had conquered in +Lombardy; but elsewhere he could not feel sure of +victory, for there came to him at this time two unmistakeable +warnings that he was no longer to be +allowed to reign undisturbed in Europe.</p> + +<p>Even at that very Congress of Laybach which +succeeded in crushing out the independence of Naples, +the question of Greece, which could not be so easily +disposed of, came before the Powers, and puzzled +considerably the mind of Metternich. The pietistic +maunderings of Alexander might be made use of in +defence of the rights of Roman Catholic kings, but +he could not be persuaded that the principles of the +Christian religion justified him in supporting the +tyranny of the Turks over Christian populations. +He had indeed abandoned the Wallachian leader, +Alexander Ypsilanti, when he discovered that the +rising in Wallachia was simultaneous with the risings +in Naples and Piedmont; but the Greeks could not +so easily be persuaded that their patron, the Czar of +Russia, had deserted their cause.</p> + +<p>The Hetairiai of Wallachia and Greece had done +the same work which the Carbonari had accomplished<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +in Spain and Italy; and on April 4, 1821, the Greeks +suddenly rose at Patras and massacred the whole +Turkish population. In three months the southern +part of Greece was free; and by January, 1822, a +Provisional Government had been formed, with Alexander +Mavrocordatos at its head.</p> + +<p>Religious feeling, classical sentiment, and the loathing +of the barbarous rule of the Turks combined to +rouse in Europe an amount of sympathy which +Metternich could not afford to disregard. He admitted +the right of Alexander of Russia to sympathise +with the Greeks, both on the ground of Christian +sentiment and on the pretext of rights granted by +previous treaties with Turkey; and he even intervened +diplomatically to secure concessions from the +Porte to its Christian subjects.</p> + +<p>But, though he felt the danger of the precedent +which even this amount of concession to the revolutionary +spirit would cause, Metternich yet believed +that, by timely compromise and judicious diplomacy, +he could bring back Alexander to sounder principles. +The influence of Capo d'Istria was indeed an antagonistic +power in the Court of St. Petersburg; but, on +the other hand, Tatischeff, the rival minister at the +Russian Court, seems to have been a mere tool of +Metternich, and could be used effectively for the +interests of Austria.</p> + +<p>So successfully did this diplomacy work, in Metternich's +opinion, that on May 31, 1822, he writes exultingly +in his memoirs, that he has "broken the +work of Peter the Great, strengthened the Porte +against Russia, and substituted Austrian and English +influence for Russian in Eastern Europe." So he +wrote in May; in August of the same year "that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +upright and enlightened statesman," Lord Londonderry, +committed suicide. Then George Canning +became Minister for Foreign Affairs, and hastened +to cut the knot which linked the interests of Austria +with those of England.</p> + +<p>The change in England's policy soon became +evident. No doubt the feeling of dislike to Metternich +had been gradually growing in that country. +Its representatives had held aloof even from the +Congress of Laybach; and when, in 1822, the Powers +met again at Verona to encourage the French Cabinet +in their attempt to restore Ferdinand of Spain, England +entered a decided protest against the proceedings +of the Congress. Nor did the protest remain a barren +one. The invasion of Spain by the French was followed +by the recognition of the independence of the +Spanish colonies by England; and when the absolutist +movement threatened to spread to Portugal, Canning +despatched troops to protect the freedom and independence +of that country.</p> + +<p>It is amusing to note the growth of Metternich's +consciousness of the importance of the opponent who +had now arisen. "A fine century," he writes at +first, "for these kinds of men; for fools who pass +for intellectual, but are empty; for moral weaklings, +who are always ready to threaten with their fists +from a distance when the opportunity is good."</p> + +<p>But in the following year he writes: "Canning's +nature is a very remarkable one. In spite of all his +lack of discernment, the genius which he undoubtedly +has, and which I have never questioned, is never +clouded. He is certainly a very awkward opponent; +but I have had opponents more dangerous, and it is +not he who chiefly compels me to think of him."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +And in 1824 he sums up this difficulty, satisfactorily +to himself, in these words: "What vexes me with +the English is that they are all slightly mad. This +is an evil which must be patiently endured, without +noticing too much the ludicrous side of it."</p> + +<p>This outburst of insanity on the part of England +naturally drove Metternich back into the arms of +Russia; and this change became more congenial to +him when, in 1825, the fickle Alexander died and +was succeeded by the stern despot Nicholas.</p> + +<p>It seemed, too, as if the Greek rising might end +about that time in the success of the Turks. Ibrahim, +the Pasha of Egypt, had come to the rescue of the +Sultan, and was carrying all before him. Marco +Botzaris, the chief general of the Greeks, had been +killed in battle; and in 1826 the garrison of Messolonghi +blew up their fortress and themselves to avoid +surrendering to the Egyptian forces.</p> + +<p>But Metternich soon found that, whatever objection +Nicholas might have to revolution elsewhere, he felt +as much bound to protect the Greeks as had Alexander +before him; and in August, 1827, Nicholas +consented to Canning's proposal that England, France, +and Russia should send a fleet to the Bay of Navarino +to enforce an armistice between the Greeks and +the Turks. Then followed the celebrated battle +which Wellington afterwards described as "that +untoward event." This convinced even Metternich +that the results of the Greek insurrection would have +to be recognized by the Powers, and perhaps even +secured by force. The Russian war of 1828 followed, +and Metternich had to admit that the European +alliance of 1814-15 was practically broken.</p> + +<p>But though the effect of the Greek insurrection in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +weakening the chances of Metternich's system was +certainly important, it soon began to be doubtful +whether the change would be permanent. England, +indeed, in spite of the death of Canning and the +short rule of Wellington, was evidently hopelessly +lost to the cause of despotism. But the revolutionary +movements of 1830-31 seemed to leave far less trace +of freedom in Europe than the previous risings of +1820-22. The July monarchy of Louis Philippe +was soon forced to become Conservative; and the +Belgian revolution seemed to have little connection +with the other movements of Europe. The Polish +rising and its sudden collapse only secured Nicholas +to the side of despotism. The treachery of Francis +of Modena to Ciro Menotti destroyed for a time the +tendency to believe in revolutionary princes. The +rising in Bologna, by compelling the intervention of +the Austrians, strengthened their hold over the +Papacy, and even enabled Metternich cheaply to pose +as the adviser of reforms which, out of respect for +the independence of the Papacy, he would not enforce.</p> + +<p>But his greatest triumph of all was in Germany. +There Constitutions had been proclaimed in Bavaria, +Würtemberg, and Saxony; and Metternich resolved +to follow up the Carlsbad Decrees by a still more +crushing enactment. So it was decided at the Federal +Diet of 1832 that a German prince was <i>bound</i>, "as a +member of the Confederation, to reject petitions tending +to the increase of the power of the Estates at the +expense of the power of the Sovereign," and further, +"that the internal legislation of the States belonging +to the German Confederation should in no case be +such as to do prejudice to the objects of the Confederation."</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + +<p>Thus Metternich had again triumphed; but it was +for the last time. Two forces of very different kinds +were already in motion, to undo the work of his life. +Two men were about to cross his path, very different +from each other in moral calibre, in width of sympathy, +and in the means at their disposal, but alike +in that power of reaching the heart of a People, for +want of which the leaders of the previous Liberal +movements had failed in their objects. These men +were Giuseppe Mazzini and Louis Kossuth.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /><small>FAITH AND LAW AGAINST DESPOTISM. 1825-1840.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Tuscany under Fossombroni.—"<span lang="it">Il Mondo va da se.</span>"—The +<span lang="it">Antologia</span>.—Romanticism v. Classicism.—Domenico Guerrazzi.—Giuseppe +Mazzini.—His early career.—His experiences as a +Carbonaro.—His plans in the fortress of Savona.—His first +banishment.—Louis Philippe and the Italian Revolutionists.—Collapse +of the rising of 1831.—Accession of Charles Albert.—Italian +belief in him.—Mazzini's letter.—Charles Albert's position.—Mazzini's +second banishment.—His influence.—<span lang="it">La Giovine Italia.</span>—Its +enemies and friends.—Charles Albert's cruelties.—The +expedition to Savoy.—Menz and Metternich v. Mazzini.—The +special position of Hungary.—The County Government.—The +Germanization of the nobles.—The Diet of 1825.—Szechenyi.—The +Magyar language.—Material reforms.—Metternich and +Szechenyi.—Wesselenyi.—The Transylvanian Diet.—Poland +and Hungary.—Serfdom in Hungary.—The Urbarium.—Francis +Deak.—Wesselenyi at Presburg.—Louis Kossuth.—His character.—His +first work.—Arrest of Kossuth and Wesselenyi.—The +protest.—Metternich's defeat.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>While Piedmont and Naples had been vibrating +between revolution and despotism; while the government +of the popes had been steadily growing more +tyrannical and unjust; and while the rulers of Parma, +Lucca, and Modena had remained (with whatever +occasional appearance to the contrary) the mere tools +of Austria, the government of Tuscany had retained +a peculiar character of its own.</p> + +<p>The vigorous programme of reform, introduced by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +Leopold I. when the government first passed into the +hands of the House of Austria, had not been further +developed by his successors. But a tradition of +easy-going liberality had been kept alive both under +Ferdinand III. and Leopold II. Fossombroni, the +chief minister of Tuscany, took for his motto "<span lang="it">Il +mondo va da se</span>" (the world goes of itself); and thus +a certain liberty of thought and expression continued +to prevail in Tuscany that was hardly to be found in +other parts of Italy.</p> + +<p>This might have excited the alarm of the Austrian +Government, and of the other princes of Italy; for +conspirators condemned by them took refuge in +Tuscany. But two circumstances protected this +freedom. The fact that the ruler of Tuscany was a +member of the House of Austria seemed to exclude +him from the chance of ever becoming the leader of +a purely Italian movement; and Metternich was, +perhaps, not sorry to be able to show the opponents +of Austria that an Austrian prince could be the most +popular ruler in Italy. Secondly, Fossombroni, while +so easy-going in internal matters, maintained a dignified +independence in foreign affairs; and Ferdinand +and Leopold had enough of the spirit of the founder +of the dynasty to second the efforts of their Minister.</p> + +<p>Thus, when the Austrian officials sent to Ferdinand +a list of the Carbonari in Tuscany, with the request +that he would punish them, he simply burnt the list; +and when, on the death of Ferdinand in 1824, the +Austrian Minister demanded that Leopold's accession +should not be publicly notified until the terms of the +notice had been approved by Austria, Fossombroni +at once announced Leopold's accession as the only +answer to this insolent demand. Lastly, in 1831,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +when the Austrians were trampling out the liberties +of Bologna, Fossombroni prevented them from extending +their aggressions in Italy by an invasion of +Tuscany.</p> + +<p>Here, then, it was natural that the thought of Italy, +whether taking a literary or political form, should +find its freest expression. The <span lang="it">Conciliatore</span> of Manzoni +and Confalonieri had been suppressed in Lombardy, +but its work was revived by the Florentine journal +called the "<span lang="it">Antologia</span>." Manzoni's influence gained +much ground here among the literary men, who connected +the struggle between the old classicism of +Alfieri, and the freer and more original writing to +which the name of Romanticism was given, with the +struggle for a freer life in Italy against the traditions +of the past.</p> + +<p>The writer who attracted the most attention, and +whose name became most widely known among the +Romantic School, was Domenico Guerrazzi. It is, +perhaps, a little difficult for an Englishman to +understand the attraction of this author's novels; +but an Italian writer thus explains it: "The singularity +of his forms and the burning character of his +style, the very contradiction of principles that are +perceived in his writings, gave to Guerrazzi the appearance +of something extraordinary, which struck upon +imaginations already excited by misfortunes and +grief." Moreover, perhaps, Guerrazzi, more definitely +than most of these writers, connected the literary +movement with the political; and even in Tuscany +he became an object of some alarm from his desire +for Italian freedom.</p> + +<p>He naturally gathered round him a knot of young +men of more decided type than the ordinary contributors<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> +to the "<span lang="it">Antologia</span>;" and it was to him, +therefore, that the proposal was addressed to revive +in Leghorn a Genoese journal which had been just +suppressed by the Sardinian Government. The proposal +was probably made to Guerrazzi in the first +instance by a young and enthusiastic Livornese named +Carlo Bini; but the chief promoter of the enterprise +was a young Genoese of between twenty and thirty +years of age.</p> + +<p>This youth was chiefly known as having recently +sent to the "<span lang="it">Antologia</span>" at Florence an article on +Dante which had been rejected by them, but which +was subsequently inserted in another paper. Among +his contemporaries at the University the new comer +had already excited an enthusiasm which was not yet +understood by the outer world. Such was the first +appearance in public life of Giuseppe Mazzini.</p> + +<p>Under the influence of a very earnest and remarkable +mother, he had early been interested in the cause +of Italian liberty, and he dated his first impression of +the importance of this cause from an interview with +one of the exiles who was about to leave Italy on +account of his share in the struggle of 1821.</p> + +<p>Mazzini had been intended by his father for the +profession of the law; but he had already shown a +decided preference for literature and politics; and +while still at the University he had been influenced +by the gloomy romance of Jacopo Ortis. But, though +that strange book had deepened his feeling for the +miseries of his country, the scepticism and despair +which were its keynote could not long hold him in +slavery. On him, as on all the greatest minds of +Italy, Dante soon gained a powerful hold; and while +he profoundly admired the "<span lang="it">Divina Commedia</span>," he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +learned from the "<span lang="la">De Monarchiâ</span>" that mystic enthusiasm +for Rome and that belief in the theological basis +for political principles which was to colour so deeply +his later career.</p> + +<p>The journal which, with Guerrazzi's help, Mazzini +started at Leghorn was called the "<span lang="it">Indicatore Livornese</span>." +It soon became so alarming even to the mild +Tuscan Government that after some warnings it was +suppressed.</p> + +<p>Shut out for the moment from the literary expression +of his faith, Mazzini turned to more directly political +action. He felt that it was his duty to make use +of whatever existing machinery he could find for +carrying on the struggle for Italian freedom; and +he therefore joined the Carbonari. The very formula +of the oath which was administered to him, +on entering this Society, seemed to suggest the inadequacy +of this body for stirring up the faith of a +people. For, instead of speaking of work to be done +for the freedom or unity of Italy, the words of the +oath merely exacted implicit obedience to the Order. +Mazzini's spirit revolted alike against this slavery, +and against the solemn buffooneries with which the +rulers of the Order tried to impress those who joined +it with the sense of its importance.<a name="Anchor-3" id="Anchor-3"></a><a href="#Footnote-3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> His irritation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +at the uselessness and tyranny of the Carbonari +brought on him the stern rebuke of some of their +leaders.</p> + +<p>The July Insurrection of 1830, in France, woke +new hopes in Mazzini, as in other Italians; but +before he could join in any active movement, he was +arrested at Genoa, and, without trial, was soon after +imprisoned in the fortress of Savona. The explanation +given to Mazzini's father, by the Governor of +Genoa, of the reasons for this arrest affords a +striking picture of the despotism of the time. The +Governor said that Giuseppe was a young man of +talent, very fond of solitary walks by night, and +habitually silent as to the subject of his meditations; +and that the government was not fond of young men +of talent the subject of whose musings was unknown +to it. The real cause of the arrest was Mazzini's connection +with the Carbonari, which had been betrayed +by a pretended member of the Society, who, however, +declined to support his charge in public.</p> + +<p>It was during this imprisonment that Mazzini came +to the conclusion that the Society of the Carbonari +had failed to accomplish the purpose for which it was +founded, and that some new organization was required +in its place. While he was considering the objects +which such an organization should set before itself, +there arose before his mind the idea of Italian unity. +The failure of the local efforts of 1821 and 1831 had +been due to the want of common action between the +different Italian States; and the mystic enthusiasm +for Rome supplied a poetical argument in favour of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +the practical conclusion which he drew from these +failures. While too the treachery of Charles Albert +and of Francis of Modena had left on Mazzini a deep-rooted +distrust of kings, and inclined him to believe +that a republic was necessary to solve the difficulties +of his country, he was willing, as will presently appear, +to accept any leader or form of government which +should bring about the unity of Italy. Anarchy he +loathed with all his heart. He thoroughly disliked +the French doctrine of the Rights of Man; and he +desired to assert authority when legitimately established.</p> + +<p>But the great distinction between Mazzini and the +other political leaders of his time was, that his aim +was not merely to establish a form of government, +but to imbue the people with a faith. The unity of +Italy was not with him a mere political arrangement, +but the working out of God's government over the +world, a development of a nobler and better life.</p> + +<p>This affected his attitude to the question both of +the relation of classes to each other, and of the +relation of Italy to the rest of Europe. Though he +appealed to the working men of Italy with an effect +that no previous politician had produced, he never +appealed to them on the ground of purely selfish +interests; for he felt that the special motives for +improving their condition should always be subordinated +to the general welfare of the nation. And it +is a striking proof of the extent to which this side of +his teaching has taken hold of his followers, that, in +the demonstration to his memory at Genoa in the year +1882, among the banners borne in the procession, and +inscribed with quotations from his works, was one on +which were written the words "Fight not against the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +bourgeoisie, but against egotism, wherever it grows, +under the blouse of the workman, as under the coat +of the capitalist."</p> + +<p>Italy too was to help in the regeneration of Europe, +but not after the manner of the French Republic, by +merely establishing a foreign tyranny, calling itself +Republican, in the place of native kings. Patriotism, +with Mazzini, was not the hard, narrow thing which +it became in the minds of too many of the leaders of +the revolution. The Peoples were to help each other +in developing their own national life after their own +fashion, and to respect each other's national claims +as they claimed respect for their own.<a name="Anchor-4" id="Anchor-4"></a><a href="#Footnote-4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p> + +<p>After long delay Mazzini was acquitted of the +charge laid to him, no evidence being brought forward +against him. Thereupon the Governor of +Genoa appealed to Charles Felix to set aside the +decision of the judges, and to condemn Mazzini. The +King consented; and Mazzini was ordered to choose +between banishment from Italy and confining +himself to a place of residence in one of the small +towns in the centre of Piedmont. He believed that +the former alternative would offer him freer scope +for action; and he sailed for France.</p> + +<p>The hopes of the Italian exiles had been roused,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +first by the July Revolution in France, and secondly +by the risings at Modena and Bologna. General +Regis, who had played such an important part in +the Piedmontese insurrection of 1821, was organizing +with other exiles an expedition, composed of Italians +and French, to go to help the insurgents who were +still holding out in Bologna.</p> + +<p>But the hopes of the insurgents were doomed to +disappointment. Louis Philippe, after playing with +them for some time, came to the same sagacious +conclusion about Revolution that he afterwards +announced with regard to war, viz., that to talk +about assisting a Revolution, and to assist a Revolution, +were two different things.<a name="Anchor-5" id="Anchor-5"></a><a href="#Footnote-5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Just as the +expedition was on its march, orders were issued to +abandon it, and a body of cavalry were sent to enforce +the command. Some abandoned the attempt; but +Mazzini and a few friends escaped to Corsica, which +was still Italian in feeling, though French in government; +and there they hoped to organize an expedition +to help the Bolognese.</p> + +<p>The Bolognese, however, though gallant enough +in their own struggles, were unwilling to commit +themselves to a wider programme than the defence of +their own State. So they refused to send to Corsica +the money which was necessary for the expeditionary +force. The Austrians soon after entered the Papal +territory; and when they had crushed out the +insurrection they were in many cases welcomed by +the inhabitants as a protection against the cruelties +of the Papal troops.</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> +<p>Two other points in the insurrection alone need +notice. One was, that at the surrender of Ancona +Terenzio Mamiani, already known as a philosophic +writer, refused to sign the conditions of capitulation, +and was consequently forced to go into exile. The +other was that, while the representatives of the Pope +showed themselves, as a rule, utterly reckless in +violating the conditions under which the surrender +of the towns was made, one honourably distinguished +himself by keeping his word. This +was the Governor of Imola, Giovanni Mastai Ferretti, +afterwards Pius IX.</p> + +<p>The movement, however, in spite of its scattered +and disconnected character, had excited attention in +Piedmont, and several leading Piedmontese Liberals +had determined to press Charles Felix to grant a +Constitution. Of these Liberals, the most remarkable +were Angelo Brofferio, the future historian of Piedmont; +Augusto Anfossi, hereafter to play so brilliant +a part in the rescue of Milan from Austria; and +Giacomo Durando, whose book on Italian nationality +was afterwards to hold an honourable place among +the writings which stirred up Italian feeling. The +conspiracy was, however, discovered; the leaders of +the movement were arrested; and, while the prisoners +were still awaiting their trial, Charles Felix died, and +Charles Albert succeeded to the throne.</p> + +<p>During the time between the failure of the insurrection +of 1821 and his accession to the throne, +Charles Albert's only important public act had +been his service in the French Army, which was +suppressing the liberties of Spain. Yet, in spite +of this act of hostility to the Liberal cause, and in +spite of the recollections of his previous desertion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +in 1821, the Liberals still had hopes that he would +become their champion.</p> + +<p>This is a fact which requires more explanation +than can be found in the mere desire on the part of +the reformers of Italy to choose some King to lead +them against Austria. After the treachery of Francis +of Modena, no Liberal expected <i>him</i> to return to the +cause which he had deserted; and, when Francis of +Naples had succeeded Ferdinand I., none of the +passing hopes, which had pointed him out in earlier +life as a possible constitutional champion, could save +him from the hatred which his tyranny deserved.</p> + +<p>Nor must we be misled by the subsequent history +of Italy into the theory that there was anything +special in the traditions of the kingdom of Sardinia +which should lead Liberals to fix their hopes on a +ruler of that country. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia +had been the foremost of the allies of Austria in the +war against the French Republic; and though there +were continual causes of irritation between the aggressive +House of Austria and the rulers of the little +monarchy, these were not of a kind to have attracted +the sympathy of any large body of Liberals outside +Piedmont. The only movement for the unity of +Italy, previous to the movement of 1821, had come +from Naples; unless, indeed, Eugène Beauharnais +had intended Lombardy to be the centre of a similar +attempt.</p> + +<p>When we take all these points into consideration +we must come to the conclusion that there was +something in the personal character of Charles +Albert which riveted the attention of Italian Liberals +almost in spite of themselves; nor could any appearances +to the contrary induce them to doubt<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +that he had at heart a desire for the liberty and +unity of Italy such as no previous Italian Prince +had entertained.</p> + +<p>It was, perhaps, the greatest proof of this strange +fascination that Mazzini, Republican as he was, yet +thought it well to yield to the strong feeling of the +Liberals of Italy, and to give Charles Albert one +more chance of playing the part of a leader.</p> + +<p>Mazzini, therefore, addressed to the new King a +letter in which he called his attention to the enthusiasm +with which his accession was greeted. +"There is not a heart in Italy whose pulse did not +quicken at the news of your accession. There is +not an eye in Europe that is not turned to watch +your first steps in the career now open to you." +He told him that the Italians were ready to believe +that his desertion of their cause was the mere result +of circumstances; and that, being at last free to act +according to his own tendencies, the new King would +carry out the promises that he had first made as a +Prince. He warned him that a system of terror +would only provoke reprisals; and that a system +of partial concessions would not only fail to satisfy +the wishes of the people, but would have an arbitrary +and capricious character which would increase the +existing irritation. "The people are no longer to +be quieted by a few concessions. They seek the +recognition of those rights of humanity which have +been withheld from them for ages. They demand +laws and liberty, independence and union. Divided, +dismembered, and oppressed, they have neither name +nor country. They have heard themselves stigmatised +by the foreigner as the Helot Nation. They have +seen free men visit their country, and declare it the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +land of the dead. They have drained the cup of +slavery to the dregs; but they have sworn never to +fill it again." Mazzini then calls on Charles Albert +to put himself more definitely at the head of a +movement for Italian Independence, and to become +the King of a united Italy. The letter concludes +with these words: "Sire, I have spoken to you +the truth. The men of freedom await your answer +in your deeds. Whatever that answer be, rest +assured that posterity will either hail your name as +the greatest of men, or the last of Italian tyrants. +Take your choice."</p> + +<p>Before we consider Charles Albert's answer, we +must call to mind, once more, his position. He came +to the throne in the very crisis of a conspiracy against +his predecessor, and had hardly been able to realize +what had been the intention of the conspirators towards +himself. The Duke of Modena, who had +plotted to remove him from the succession (a proposal +discussed at some length in the Congress of +Laybach), had just recovered his own Dukedom +by Austrian help, and was no doubt watching with +eager eyes any false step which his rival might make. +Charles Albert, with all his liberal sympathies, was +proud of being a prince of the House of Savoy; and +he was surrounded by the courtiers of Charles Felix, +who must have persuaded him that the dignity and +independence of that House could only be maintained +by opposition to the movement for reform.</p> + +<p>There was, too, another influence which must +never be forgotten in estimating the difficulties of +Charles Albert. He was a strong Roman Catholic, +at a time when the connection between reverence for +the Pope and reverence for the Church was, perhaps,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +closer than it had been at most previous periods of +the history of the Papacy. The commonplace +tyrannies of Leo XII. and Pius VIII. had not +wholly dispelled the halo which the heroic attitude +of Pius VII.'s early days had shed round the +Papacy; and it seems highly probable that the most +puzzling act of Charles Albert's life, his share in the +French invasion of Spain, had been due, to a large +extent, to that strong religious sentiment which +gathered in so peculiar a manner round the kings of +Spain. A man influenced by such sentiments could +not fail to remark that the most vigorous and determined +of the insurgents of 1831 had directed their +attacks against the Papacy; and it might well seem +to him that a letter which called on him to oppose +the Austrian restorers of the papal power was the +utterance of an enemy to the religion of the country.</p> + +<p>But the fact was, as Mazzini afterwards confessed, +that any king who was to undertake the work which +he had suggested to Charles Albert must possess at +once "genius, Napoleonic energy, and the highest +virtue. Genius, in order to conceive the idea of the +enterprize and the conditions of victory; energy, +not to front its dangers—for to a man of genius they +would be few and brief—but to dare to break at once +with every tie of family or alliance, and the habits +and necessities of any existence distinct and removed +from that of the people, and to extricate himself both +from the web of diplomacy and the counsels of wicked +or cowardly advisers; virtue enough voluntarily to +renounce a portion at least of his actual power; for +it is only by redeeming them from slavery that a +people may be roused to battle and to sacrifice."</p> + +<p>If such were the qualities required by any prince<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +who undertook this office, what must have been +needed from one who had to contend with a Power +which had ten years before helped to crush out the +aspirations of his people, and which was just then +triumphantly ruling in the centre of Italy? A man +of genius might have undertaken the task; Charles +Albert was only a man who "would and would not." +But, if Charles Albert refused to listen to Mazzini's +appeal, he had no alternative but to protest against +it; and he did so by banishing Mazzini, under pain +of imprisonment if he should return to Italy.</p> + +<p>Nevertheless, the letter had produced its effect on +the nation. The demand for the unity of Italy had +been openly and definitely made, and put forward as +a boon to be struggled for by Italians, and not to be +conferred by a foreign conqueror. The attention of +the youth of Italy was at once attracted to the writer +of the letter, and none the less that he was an exile. +The personal fascination which he exercised even over +casual observers may be gathered from the following +letter, which seems to refer to this period. It was +written by one of his fellow-exiles, describing his +first sight of Mazzini in the rifle ground at Marseilles.</p> + +<p>"I went into the ground, and, looking round, saw +a young man leaning on his rifle, watching the shooters, +and waiting for his turn. He was about 5ft. 8in. high, +and slightly made; he was dressed in black Genoa +velvet, with a large Republican hat; his long curling +black hair, which fell upon his shoulders, the extreme +freshness of his clear olive complexion, the chiselled +delicacy of his regular and beautiful features, aided +by his very youthful look, and sweetness and openness +of expression, would have made his appearance +almost too feminine, if it had not been for his noble<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +forehead, the power of firmness and decision that was +mingled with their gaiety and sweetness in the bright +flashes of his dark eyes, and in the varying expression +of his mouth, together with his small and beautiful +moustache and beard. Altogether, he was at that +time the most beautiful <i>being</i>, male or female, that I +had ever seen, and I have not since seen his equal. +I had read what he had published; I had heard of +what he had done and suffered, and the moment I +saw him I <i>knew</i> it could be no other than Joseph +Mazzini."</p> + +<p>It was under such auspices that the Society of +Young Italy was founded. The general drift of the +principles of that Society has already been sufficiently +indicated in the account of Mazzini's meditations in +the fortress of Savona. It was to make Italy free, +united, Republican, recognizing duty to God and +man as the basis of national life, rather than the +mere assertion of rights. But the great point which +distinguished it from all the other societies which +had preceded it was that, instead of trusting to the +mysterious effect of symbols, and the power of a few +leaders to induce the main body of Italians blindly to +accept their orders, it openly proclaimed its creed +before the world, and even in the articles of association +set forth the full arguments on which it grounded +the defence of the special objects which it advocated. +And the principles were further to be preached in a +journal which was to be called, like the Society, +"<span lang="it">Giovine Italia.</span>"</p> + +<p>But while he put forward a definitely Republican +programme, Mazzini never fell into the French mistake +of thinking that a knot of men, monopolizing +power to themselves, can, by merely calling themselves<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +Republicans, make the government of a nation +a Republic. While he fully hoped, by education, to +induce the Italians to accept a Republican Government, +he was quite prepared to admit the possibility +of failure in that attempt, and to accept the consequence +as a consistent democrat. This is distinctly +stated in the first plan of Young Italy.</p> + +<p>"By inculcating before the hour of action by what +steps the Italians must achieve their aim, by raising +its flag in the sight of Italy, and calling upon all +those who believe it to be the flag of national regeneration +to organize themselves beneath its folds—the +association does not seek to substitute that flag +for the banner of the future nation."</p> + +<p>"When once the nation herself shall be free, and +able to exercise that right of sovereignty which is +hers alone, she will raise her own banner, and make +known her revered and unchallenged will as to the +principle and the fundamental law of her existence."</p> + +<p>Plentiful as was the scorn and misrepresentation +showered upon Mazzini and his doctrines, the two +years from 1831 to 1833 brought a vast number of +supporters to the Society of Young Italy; and the +revolutionary movement in other countries gained +organization and definiteness of purpose from this +model. In the meantime, the Government of Louis +Philippe was becoming more and more definitely +committed to the cause of reaction; and every kind +of slander was being circulated by Frenchmen against +the Society of Young Italy. The theory that this +Society undertook to exterminate all who disobeyed +its orders was supported, by attributing to its action +any casual violence which might take place in the +streets of Paris; and though Mazzini prosecuted one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> +of these slanderers for defamation a few years later, +and compelled him to make a complete retractation +in the law courts, the slander was too convenient to +be allowed easily to drop.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, men of the older type of revolutionist, +who had drawn their ideas from the first French +Republic, and had afterwards hoped to find their +realization in the methods of the Carbonari, objected +to Mazzini as "too soft and German" in his ideas.</p> + +<p>But nevertheless some who were afterwards known +in other ways came forward to contribute to the +Journal of Young Italy. Amongst them may be +mentioned the historian Sismondi and a future +opponent of Mazzini, the Abate Vincenzo Gioberti. +By 1833 the Society had established centres in Lombardy, +Genoa, Tuscany, and the Papal States, and it +was resolved to attempt an invasion of Savoy.</p> + +<p>For, in spite of the promises which Charles Albert +had held out of reforms in the government, the +prosecutions for the conspiracy of 1831 were being +carried on with renewed rigour, and the prisons of +some of the chief towns of Piedmont were filled with +men in many cases arrested on the barest suspicion, +and who were threatened with death if they would +not reveal the secrets of their fellow-conspirators. +Such cruelties were used to extort confessions that +Jacopo Ruffini, a young friend of Mazzini's, committed +suicide in prison for fear he should be compelled to +betray his friends.</p> + +<p>The news of these acts quickened the eagerness of +the Italians for the invasion of Savoy, and they desired +to co-operate with men of other countries. Among +these, there were few from whom they expected so +much sympathy as the Poles. Unable to organize<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +successful insurrections in their own country, the +Poles were scattered over Europe, a revolutionary +element in every land in which they were to be +found. They, like the Italians, had at first expected +sympathy from the July monarchy in France. They, +too, had been bitterly disappointed. But this had +not prevented them from maintaining a centre at +Paris; and many of those who had fought in vain in +1830 for the liberty of Poland came back to Paris +to learn there what further was to be done.</p> + +<p>Amongst these came a man named Ramorino, a +Savoyard by birth, who had acted as a general in the +Polish struggle of 1830. The part which he had +played in that insurrection was only known very indistinctly +to most of the Italians who were organizing +the new expedition; but the mere fact that he had +been a leader in a war for liberty was enough to +make them desire his help. Mazzini had gathered +from the Polish exiles the opinion generally held of +Ramorino by those who knew the facts of the insurrection +of 1830. He found that the reputation which +Ramorino had held at that period was very low, +both for trustworthiness and military ability; and he +opposed his election as leader of the expedition to +Savoy. The only result of the opposition was a +charge against Mazzini of personal ambition.</p> + +<p>The expedition had already been weakened by the +opposition of one of those fanatical revolutionists who +had before denounced Mazzini as too soft and German +in his ideas. This man, who bore the honoured name +of Buonarotti, had complained of the members of the +expedition for admitting men of noble rank and some +wealth to the position of leadership in it, and he had +succeeded in detaching from the movement an important<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +section of its supporters. Mazzini, therefore, +saw that, under these circumstances, to lose the +friends of Ramorino would ruin the chances of the +expedition; and, feeling that any further opposition +would only excite division, he consented to act with +Ramorino.</p> + +<p>The new leader soon showed his true character by +hindering the expedition as long as possible; but in +February, 1834, he yielded to the pressure of +Mazzini and began the march. Unfortunately, +Mazzini was seized with a fever on the route, and +Ramorino, finding this obstacle to his treachery removed, +ordered the columns to be dissolved and +rode away.</p> + +<p>Plenty of scorn was heaped upon the failure of this +first expedition of Young Italy. But Metternich, at +any rate, judged more truly. In April, 1833, he had +written to the chief of his spies in Lombardy to warn +him against the growth of a new revolutionary party, +and particularly against the advocate Mazzini, one of +the most dangerous men of the faction; and he told +him to procure copies of the journal called "<span lang="it">La +Giovine Italia</span>," and two copies also of Mazzini's +pamphlet about guerilla warfare. Menz, the spy in +question, while believing that the journal of Young +Italy was losing ground, yet considered that it was +the most dangerous of the newspapers which circulated +in Lombardy.</p> + +<p>This request of Metternich's was, indeed, made a +few months before the actual invasion of Savoy, and +Menz, no doubt, began to think that after that failure +the power of Mazzini would decline; but it is tolerably +clear that Metternich did not share that delusion, +and kept his eye steadily on the new leader. Nor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +did even Menz believe that mere repression would +now suffice to win the sympathies of the Lombards +to Austria, and he proposed to divert the intellectual +zeal of disaffected Lombards into a direction favourable +to the State by offering prizes for the solution +of questions in different branches of human knowledge. +From the winners of these prizes, he thought, +might be chosen professors, inspectors, and directors +of studies, and encouragement might be given to +compositions of poems and paintings, of which "the +subject, and even the colour," was to be dictated by +Government.<a name="Anchor-6" id="Anchor-6"></a><a href="#Footnote-6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></p> + +<p>He further proposed that, with this object, an +Academy of Poetry should be founded in Lombardy, +under the absolute direction of the Austrian Government, +who are to see that the nation should take part +in an intellectual movement "with a correct view, +and that these productions of the imagination, bearing +the impress of a tendency profitable to the well-being +of society, would, in their turn, act in a very favourable +manner on the public spirit."</p> + +<p>Further, as "the Circus was in the time of the +Romans the secret means of the State for rendering +the people submissive to the Government," ... +so "the Austrian Government should give a very +generous subsidy to the theatre of La Scala (at +Milan); but it would be also desirable that it should +make some sacrifice for the provincial theatres." A +few modifications of the Austrian code, some reduction +on customs duties, and lessening of the +restrictions on passports, are also suggested in the +Report. Such were the means by which the trusted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span> +servant of Metternich hoped to counteract the influence +of Mazzini and Young Italy.</p> + +<p>But in the meantime another form of opposition +to the power of Metternich was growing up in a +country very different from Italy, both in its circumstances +and the character of its people.</p> + +<p>While, in all other countries of Europe, Metternich +looked upon every approach to self-government with +suspicion, and tried to crush it out either by force or +diplomacy, both he and Francis recognized that in +Hungary there were reasons for maintaining and even +encouraging Constitutional feeling.</p> + +<p>For here the Constitutional rights did not rest +upon any revolutionary basis; at any rate, not upon +any revolution of modern times. They were not +connected with the sort of national aspirations +which made the movements in Italy and Germany +so alarming to Metternich. There was, as yet, no +desire here to redistribute the country according to +popular aspirations; all rights rested on clearly +defined laws handed down from a distant past, and +in many cases these rights had been the subject of a +peaceable contract between the previous rulers of the +country and the House of Austria. So much was this +felt by Francis that he even appealed on one occasion +to the Hungarian Diet for sympathy against the +revolutionary methods of Liberal leaders of other +countries.</p> + +<p>But, indeed, had the liberty of the Hungarians +depended, like that of other nations, on the assertion +of the power of a central parliament, they might +have been crushed as the other peoples had been; +for from 1813 to 1825 no Diet met in Hungary. +But the full force of Hungarian liberty dwelt in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +organization of those county assemblies which the +Magyars had probably derived from the conquered +Slavs. The Government could not enforce its laws +except through the county officers, all of whom, with +one exception, were elected by the landholders of the +district. That one Government official was bound to +call together once a year a meeting of the nobles and +clergy of the county. <i>There</i> the wants and grievances +of the district were discussed, and orders were sent +to the representatives of the county in the Diet at +Presburg to introduce bills to remedy those grievances.</p> + +<p>These county assemblies could raise taxes and +levy soldiers; and they not only possessed, but +exercised the right to refuse to obey the orders of +the King himself if, after discussion, such orders +proved illegal.</p> + +<p>In the county elections all freeholders of Hungary +had votes; and in the smaller village elections the +suffrage was still wider. The electors in the villages +chose, not only legislators, but judges of their village +concerns. The non-freeholding peasantry were, +indeed, often oppressed; the towns were in a +backward state as regards self-government; but yet +this system of county organization secured a wider +diffusion of general interest in political affairs than +prevailed in any other country of Europe.</p> + +<p>At the same time, there were elements in Hungary +which might give Metternich some hopes that he +could drain out the forces of Hungarian liberty. +The Magyar nobles were drawn more and more to +Vienna; and a process of Germanization was going +on of so effective a kind that many of the nobles had +almost forgotten their own language. Thus, though<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +the Magyar aristocracy had more often acted as +champions of independence than the nobles of any +other country in Europe, they were gradually being +drifted away from the main body of the people, and +were becoming absorbed in the ranks of Austrian +officialism. But when the Spanish Revolution of +1820 began to stir men's minds, the discussions in +the Hungarian county assemblies took a wider range, +and representations were made to Francis which he +could not long resist. He did not at first, indeed, +realize the full force of the opposition, and in 1822 +he tried to levy new taxes on the Hungarians without +summoning the Diet. But this attempt failed, and +in 1825 the Diet at Presburg was once more called +together.</p> + +<p>It seemed, indeed, to some of those who afterwards +played a prominent part in the struggles of 1848 as +if little was gained by this Diet; and as if it was +even less satisfactory than its predecessor of 1791. +But a movement was inaugurated on this occasion +which, though it may have contained in it the seeds +of future misunderstanding, and even of civil war, +was yet in its beginning as noble in its intention as +it was necessary to the welfare of Hungary; and, +had it been pursued in the spirit of its first leader, +might have produced in time all the blessings +which have since been secured to Hungary, without +any of those terrible divisions and bitternesses that +hinder those blessings from producing their full +effect.</p> + +<p>The leader of this new movement was Count +Stephen Szechenyi, a member of one of the great +families of Hungary. His father had held office at +the Court of Vienna, but had grieved over the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +process of denationalization which was going on +among the nobles of Hungary.</p> + +<p>Count Stephen was early trained to sympathize +with the desire for the restoration of Hungarian life. +He saw that the withdrawal of the great nobles from +Hungary to Vienna led to the mismanagement of +their estates, the growth of an evil class of money-lenders, +and the separation between the aristocracy +and the rest of the nation.</p> + +<p>The abandonment of the Magyar language was, +in his eyes, the great source of all evil; and the Diet +of 1825 afforded him the first opportunity of protesting +against it. While the Hungarian nobles talked +German in private, they used Latin in the management +of public affairs; and Szechenyi, as a protest +against this practice, spoke in the Magyar language +in bringing forward a question in the House of +Magnates.</p> + +<p>But, before the Diet had risen, he gave a much +more solid proof of his zeal for his native tongue. +On November 3rd, 1825, he offered, in the House +of Magnates, to give a whole year's income, 60,000 +gulden, to found a Society for promoting the Study +of the Magyar Language. His example was followed, +with more or less zeal, by other nobles; and in 1827 +a Hungarian Academy was established by Royal +Decree.</p> + +<p>The movement which Szechenyi had stirred up +was in danger of being brought to ridicule by some +of its supporters, for Count Dessewfy actually proposed +that a law should be passed forbidding the +marriage of any Hungarian maiden who did not +know her native tongue; but this was resisted as too +strong a measure.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> + +<p>But though Szechenyi opposed these wilder schemes +of his supporters, he was none the less ready to use +all possible attractions for carrying out his chief +object, the drawing Hungarian nobles back to their +country. As one of these means, he established a +horse-race at Pesth, and founded a union for training +horses. He promoted, too, the material advantages +of Hungary by introducing steamships on the +Danube.</p> + +<p>The work to which he devoted most attention +was the erection of a suspension bridge, to connect +Pesth with Buda. Szechenyi's enthusiasm in this +matter seemed to many ludicrously disproportionate +to the result to be obtained; but the fact was that +he intended this work to give the opportunity for +the first blow at that great injustice, the exemption +of the Hungarian nobles from taxation. If he could +induce the Magnates to consent that the burden of +so important a national undertaking should fall in +part upon them, they might be willing hereafter to +accept a more just distribution of the whole burdens +of the State.</p> + +<p>While, however, Szechenyi was labouring to promote +Hungarian national life, and was willing to sacrifice +personal comfort, and any unjust privileges of his +order, for the sake of that object, he remained +essentially the Conservative Magyar Magnate. He +not only shrank from any movement for Constitutional +reform, but even hoped to accomplish his ends with +the sympathy of the Austrian Government.</p> + +<p>It was not indeed that he was deficient in courage, +or in the tendency to speak his mind plainly in +private conversation. He said boldly that "the +promises of the King are not kept, that the law is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +always explained in favour of the King to the disadvantage +of the people; and, to speak plainly, +affairs just now have the appearance as if the +Constitution were being overturned." And in the +same conversation he further nettled Metternich by +suggesting to that statesman that his high position +might prevent him from seeing some things.</p> + +<p>Yet it was not merely offended vanity that irritated +the ruler of Europe against Szechenyi. Metternich +seems always to have had a preference for the thorough-going +men among his opponents. He might hate and +desire to crush them; but what pleased him was that +he understood the logic of their position and, as he +supposed, their motives. The moderate and Constitutional +Liberals were always a puzzle to him. But +when a man like Szechenyi actually thought that he +could work with him, while undermining the centralization +which was the essence of his schemes, and +appealing to that positive form of patriotism which it +was the object of Metternich to crush out, so inconsistent +a position drove the Prince beyond the bounds +of ordinary courtesy.</p> + +<p>Taking advantage of his own high position and +Szechenyi's youth, he told him that he was a man +lost through vanity and ambition, asked him if he +could really confess to his friends the kindly feeling +to the Austrian Government which he had expressed +to Metternich; and, on Szechenyi making some admission +of the difficulties of such a course, "Then," +said Metternich, "you must be a traitor either to me +or to your friends, that is to yourself."</p> + +<p>But if Szechenyi's position was unintelligible to +Metternich, he found it far easier to understand +another nobleman who came forward a little later<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +and played a different, but hardly less important, +part. This was Nicolaus Wesselenyi, the descendant +of a family of nobles who had constantly held their +own against both king and People. The father of +Nicolaus had been a fiery, overbearing man, who had +indulged in private feuds, and who had fought scornfully +for the special privileges of the nobles. His son +had all the fire of his family, and the same love of +opposition, but directed by the circumstances of the +time into healthier channels.</p> + +<p>It was not, however, at Presburg that the Wesselenyis +had hitherto played their principal part, but +at the Diet which met at Klausenburg, in Transylvania. +The circumstances and organization of that +peculiar province will be more naturally considered +in connection with the movements which arose a few +years later. For the present, the important point to +remember in connection with Wesselenyi's position is, +that the Austrian Government tolerated an unusual +amount of freedom in the Transylvanian Diet, in the +hopes thereby of weakening that larger Hungarian feeling +which gathered round the central Diet at Presburg. +When both the Hungarian and the Transylvanian +Diets were called together in 1830, and a demand +was made by the Emperor for new recruits for the +army, the House of Magnates in Transylvania showed, +under Wesselenyi's leading, a bolder and firmer +opposition than the House of Magnates at Presburg. +In the central Diet, indeed, the chief opposition to +the Emperor came from the Lower House, and the +nobles were disposed to yield to the demands of +Francis. But Wesselenyi, with his splendid bearing +and magnificent voice, stirred up a far more dangerous +opposition in Transylvania; and the Government at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +Vienna began to mark him out as their most dangerous +opponent.</p> + +<p>But in the meantime new questions were coming +to the front in Hungary, and new leaders were being +called forth by them. The Polish insurrection of +1830 had roused more sympathy in Hungary than +probably in any other country of Europe; and a +connection between the two nations was then established +which had a not unimportant influence on the +subsequent history of Hungary.</p> + +<p>The wiser men among the Hungarian leaders +saw the great defect which marred all struggles for +liberty in Poland. Whatever aspirations may have +been entertained by the Polish patriots of 1791, +certain it is that, when Poland fell before the intrigues +of Russia and Prussia, the new Constitution had not +had time to bring about any better feeling between +noble and peasant; and the Polish peasantry looked +with distrust and suspicion on movements for freedom +inaugurated by their oppressors.</p> + +<p>The Hungarian reformers saw that, if they were +to make the liberties of Hungary a reality, they must +extend them to the serf as well as to the noble. In +spite of the air of freedom of discussion which the +County Assemblies of Hungary spread around them, +there were, at this time, out of the thirteen millions +of Hungarians, about eleven million serfs. These +were not allowed to purchase an acre of the soil +which they cultivated; they paid all the tithes to the +clergy and most of the taxes to the State, besides +various payments in kind to their landlords; their +labour might be enforced by the stick; while for +redress of their grievances they were obliged, in the +first instance, to apply to the Court over which their +landlord presided.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span></p> + +<p>The reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II., while +modifying the evils of the position of the serf, had +taught him to look to the Court of Vienna, rather than +to the Diet of Presburg, for help in his troubles.</p> + +<p>The Edict of Maria Theresa, called the Urbarium, +had granted the peasant the right of leaving the land +when he pleased, or of remaining if he liked, while +he complied with certain conditions; and by this +act he was allowed to bequeath the use of his land to +his descendants. Further, a right of appeal had been +granted from his landlord's decision to the official +court at Buda, known as the <span lang="de">Statthalterei</span>. By the +same law the labour to be performed by the peasantry +had been fixed, instead of being left to the will of the +lord, as heretofore.</p> + +<p>The reforms of Joseph II. had, like most of his +attempts, been too vigorous to be lasting; but he +had done enough to strengthen in the minds of the +oppressed peasantry of Hungary the desire to look to +the Emperor as their liberator. Thus the satisfaction +of the claims of humanity had tended to weaken Constitutional +freedom.</p> + +<p>The bitter feeling between noble and peasant was +illustrated most painfully in the year 1831, when an +outbreak of cholera in Hungary was attributed by +the peasantry to the poisoning of the wells by the +nobles. Agrarian risings had followed, and more +than fifty peasants had been hung without trial.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of feeling when the Diet of +1832 met at Presburg. Had the leader of the movement +for agrarian reform been a mere champion of +Constitutionalism, the work of drawing together the +peasant and noble might have been more difficult. +But fortunately the work fell into the hands of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +man who, though not deficient in powers of oratory, +was far less a popular leader than a thoughtful and +humane student of affairs. This was Francis Deak, +then thirty years of age, trained, like so many leaders +of the time, for the bar, and already known as a +speaker in the County Assembly of Zala. He was +not a man of the delicate, cultured type of Szechenyi; +nor did he possess the commanding figure and lion +voice of Wesselenyi. He was broad and sturdy in +figure, his face was round and humorous, and his eye +twinkled with fun. Yet he was not without a deep +shade of melancholy. He was a man who inspired +in all who came near him a sense of entire trust in +his honesty and steadiness of purpose; and this feeling, +though unlike the enthusiasm which is roused alike +by the highest genius and by merely popular gifts, +was yet exactly the form of confidence needed to +enable Deak to do the special work which lay before +him.</p> + +<p>The question of the reform of the Urbarium he at +once made his own. Besides the miseries of the +peasantry above mentioned, they were continually +exposed to all kinds of petty tyrannies. Their horses +were liable to be seized by tourists through the +country, and soldiers were billeted upon them. Deak +demanded the extension to the peasant of the right +of buying land, and better security for person and +property.</p> + +<p>But it soon became evident that, whatever exceptions +there might be to the rule, the Magnates of +Hungary were not prepared to surrender their privileges. +The point which the reformers specially +insisted on in the new Urbarium was a clause +enabling the peasant to free himself from his feudal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +dues by a legal arrangement with the landlord. +Thirteen times the Lower House of the Diet passed +the clause; thirteen times the House of Magnates +rejected it; and when at last that House consented +to pass it, the Emperor vetoed it.</p> + +<p>The reformers were now clearly justified in calling +on the people to recognize them as their champions +against both nobles and sovereign. But in order to +prevent this recognition the Government had forbidden +any publication of the debates.</p> + +<p>Wesselenyi had met this difficulty in the Transylvanian +Diet by introducing a private press of his +own, with the help of which he circulated a report of +the proceedings. This so alarmed the Government +that they dissolved the Transylvanian Diet and established +an absolute ruler in that province. Wesselenyi +then transferred his eloquence to the House of +Magnates in Presburg, where he thundered against +the Government for opposing the liberties of the +peasantry, denouncing them in the following words: +"The Government sucks out the marrow of nine +million of men (<i>i.e.</i>, the peasantry); it will not allow +us nobles to better their condition by legislative +means; but, retaining them in their present state, it +only waits its own time to exasperate them against +us. Then it will come forward to rescue us. But +woe to us! From freemen we shall be degraded to +the state of slaves."</p> + +<p>But the work which Wesselenyi had half done for +Transylvania was to be carried out for Hungary +more thoroughly by a man who had been gradually +rising into note. This was Louis Kossuth, of whom +it may be said that, more than any other man in +Europe, he was the author of the Revolution of 1848.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +He was a few years older than Francis Deak, and, +like him, was trained as a lawyer. He had been +appointed, in the exercise of his profession, arbitrator +between several wealthy proprietors and their +dependants. In this position he gained the confidence +of many of the peasantry, and he was also able +to give them help in the time of the cholera.</p> + +<p>He possessed a quick and keen sensibility, which +was the source of many of his faults and of his +virtues. A curious illustration of this quality is +shown in his renunciation of field sports, in consequence +of reading a passage in a Persian poet on the +duty of humanity to all living things. No doubt it +was to this sensibility that he owed a large part of +that matchless eloquence which was to be so powerful +an engine in the revolutionary war. It was connected, +too, with the keen statesmanlike instinct which +enabled him to see so often the right moment for particular +lines of action; and which, had it been united +with a wider sympathy, stronger nerves, and a more +scrupulous conscience, might have made his career as +useful as it was brilliant.</p> + +<div class="center"> + <a name="illo_lajos" id="illo_lajos"></a> +<a href="images/illo_lajosh.jpg"> +<img src="images/illo_lajos.jpg" width="413" height="600" + alt="" + title="" /> + </a> + <p class="caption"> KOSSUTH LAJOS.</p> +</div> + +<p>This instinct it was which enabled him to see at +this crisis that nothing could be effected for Hungary +until the work done in the Diet was better known to +the main body of the people. The private press +which he now started may have been suggested to +him by Wesselenyi's attempt in Transylvania; but +its work was carried out with an ingenuity and +resourcefulness which were altogether Kossuth's +own. The Government became so alarmed at this +press that they wished to purchase it from him, +but, wherever print was hindered, he circulated +written correspondence. Nor did he confine his +reporting to the debates in the Diet of Presburg, +for he circulated also reports of the county meetings.</p> + +<p>The Count Palatine, the chief ruler of Hungary, +tried to hinder this work; but the county officials +refused to sanction this prohibition, and thus deprived +it of legal force.</p> + +<p>The Government was now thoroughly roused; and +in May, 1837, Kossuth was indicted for treason, arrested, +and kept for two years in prison without +any trial.</p> + +<p>But great as was the indignation excited by this +arrest, it was as nothing compared to the storm which +was aroused by the prosecution and imprisonment of +Wesselenyi. The Government had marked him out +during the Transylvanian debates as an enemy who +was to be struck on the first opportunity. The printing +of the Transylvanian reports would have been +followed very speedily by a prosecution, had he not +escaped into North Hungary; but his speech against +the Government in the Presburg Diet gave a new +opportunity for attack.</p> + +<p>The enthusiasm which his prominent position, impressive +manner, and high rank had caused had been +strengthened in Transylvania by the extreme personal +kindness which he had shown towards his peasantry; +and one of them walked all the way from Wesselenyi's +Transylvanian estate to Vienna to petition, on his own +behalf and that of one hundred fellow-peasants, that +their landlord might be restored to them.</p> + +<p>Had Francis been still on the throne, it is possible +that Metternich would have offered further resistance +to the popular demands. But Francis had died in +1835, the year before the closing of the Diet. His +successor, Ferdinand, though, chiefly from physical<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a><br /><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> +causes, too weak to hold his own against Metternich, +was a kindly, easy-tempered man, not without a sense +that even kings ought to obey the law.</p> + +<p>But whether Metternich or Ferdinand were to +blame in the matter, the concessions of the King +were made in a hesitating and grudging manner +which took away their grace, and made the defeat +more vividly apparent both to victors and spectators.</p> + +<p>A more popular Chancellor of Hungary, Anton +Mailath, was appointed; another member of the +same family was made chief justice; and about the +same time the Transylvanian Diet was restored. +Hoping that he had now conciliated popular feeling, +Metternich, in 1839, called together the Diet of +Presburg and demanded four million florins and +thirty-eight thousand recruits.</p> + +<p>But the members of the Assembly had been instructed +by their constituents to oppose any demands +of the Government until Wesselenyi, Kossuth, and +the members of a club who had been arrested at the +same time, were liberated. And while Deak still led +the opposition in the Lower House, Count Louis +Batthyanyi came forward as the champion of freedom +in the House of Magnates. Finally, the Emperor +consented, not only to grant an amnesty to Wesselenyi, +Kossuth, and others, but to pass that clause +about the peasants' dues which he had vetoed in 1836. +The Diet then voted the money, and was dissolved.</p> + +<p>Thus, while in Italy a new faith was springing +up which was to supply a force to the struggles for +liberty that they had previously lacked, in Hungary +the different, but hardly less effective, power of old +traditions of Constitutional freedom was checking +Metternich in his full career of tyranny, and forcing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +him to confess a defeat inflicted, not by foreign diplomatists, +but by that very people who had rallied +round Maria Theresa in her hour of danger, and who +had sternly rejected the advances of Napoleon when +he had invited them to separate their cause from that +of the House of Austria.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /><small>LANGUAGE AND LEARNING AGAINST DESPOTISM. 1840-1846.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Contrast between position of German language in North +Germany and in Austrian Empire.—Condition of Germany +between 1819 and 1840.—Literary movements.—Protest of the +Professors of Göttingen against abolition of Hanoverian Constitution.—Effect +of the protest on other parts of Germany.—Position +and character of Frederick William III.—His struggle +with the Archbishop of Cologne.—Accession of Frederick +William IV.—His character and policy.—Ronge's movement +of Church Reform.—Robert Blum's share in it.—Language +movement in Hungary.—Position and history of Croatia.—Louis +Gaj and the "Illyrian" movement.—"The Slavonic +ocean and the Magyar island."—Kossuth's treatment of the +Slavonic movement.—Count Zay's circular.—The "taxation of +the nobles."—Szechenyi's position.—Deak's resignation.—The +Croats at Presburg.—Kossuth's inconsistency.—Ferdinand's +intervention in the struggle.—The struggle of races absorbs +all other questions.—History of Transylvania.—The "three +nations."—The position of the Roumanians.—Effect of Joseph +II.'s policy in Transylvania.—The "<span lang="la">Libellus Wallachorum.</span>"—Andreas +Schaguna.—Stephan Ludwig Roth.—General summary +of the effect of the revival of national feelings.</p></blockquote> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">'Twas from no Augustan age,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">No Lorenzo's patronage,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">That the German singers rose;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">By no outward glories crowned,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">By no prince's praise renowned,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">German art's first blossom blows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span><br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">From her country's greatest son,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From the mighty Frederick's throne,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Scorned, the Muse must turn away.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"<i>We</i> have given thy worth to thee;"<br /></span> +<span class="i0">"Let our heart-beats prouder be;"<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Can each German boldly say.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">So to loftier heights arose,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">So in waves more swelling flows<br /></span> +<span class="i0">German poet's minstrelsy.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">He in ripeness all his own,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">From his heart's deep centre grown,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Scorns the rule of pedantry.<br /></span> +</div></div> + + +<p>So sang Schiller; and, while in Germany the Muse +was ascending to the heights in which Schiller gloried +to see her, the opposite process had been producing +opposite results under the rule of another German +sovereign. Frederick II. of Prussia preferred bad +French to the best utterances of his own country; +and so the German Muse was free to develope in +her own way. Joseph II. of Austria felt his heart +warmed with the greatness of German traditions; he +looked round on dominions inhabited by men of +different races and languages, and, perceiving that +these differences led to continual misunderstandings, +and hindered any great work of common reform, +resolved to extend the blessings of German language +and literature to all the races of his dominions. To +them, he thought, a change would prove a bond of +union; while neither Bohemian, Hungarian, nor +Croat could claim for their native tongues, however +dear to them, such glorious associations and traditions +as were already connected with the language which +was to take their place.</p> + +<p>The consequence of this nobly intended effort has +been that German is, to this day, a badge of tyranny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +to the majority of the people of the western half of +the Austrian Empire; and if it has almost ceased to +be so in the eastern half, that is simply because its +supremacy has been replaced by the no less crushing +tyranny of another language which was offered to +the various populations of the Hungarian kingdom +by its rulers, as a symbol of national freedom and +unity.</p> + +<p>The spirit of literary independence in North +Germany, and the rivalry of languages in the +Austrian Empire, were both forcing themselves on +the attention of the public during the period of +Metternich's rule. To outward appearance there +was no time at which the condition of Germany +must have seemed more helpless and hopeless than +between 1819 and 1840. The German insurrections +of 1831 could not be compared for their historical +importance with either the English reform movement +of the same period, or with the Italian uprisings; +nor for dramatic brilliancy with the Polish insurrection +of 1830. Even the Hanoverian Constitution +of 1833, which seemed to be firmly established, went +down four years later without a sword being drawn +in its defence; while the heavy burdens of the +Carlsbad decrees of 1819 and the Frankfort decrees +of 1832 were made still heavier in 1834 by a new +Edict, passed at Vienna, establishing courts of +arbitration, elected by members of the Bund, to +decide questions at issue between sovereigns and +parliaments. If the Assemblies, in defending their +rights of taxation, should refuse to appeal to this +Court, the sovereign might then proceed to levy, +without further delay, the supplies which had been +granted by the previous Assembly.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span></p> + +<p>Yet Germany was not dead. Apart from the continual +assertions of independence by the South +German States, the growth of German literature +was keeping alive the sense of union between the +different parts of the nation. Stein, after his retirement +from political affairs, had devoted himself to +the encouragement of German literature, and particularly +of German history. For this purpose he +brought together historians from different parts of +Germany; and Perthes, the bookseller, who had +helped to defend Hamburg against the French, +exerted himself to promote a book trade which was +to unite the North and South of Germany. Occasionally, +some prince, like the Duke of Saxe-Coburg +Gotha, would show an inclination to play the part of +the Duke of Weimar as a patron of literature, but +could only call attention thereby to such life as still +remained, not evoke any new life. The German +Muse was still to thrive by her own labours, and the +great proof of the existence of a still independent +literary class was given in 1837, when the King of +Hanover suppressed the Constitution which his +predecessor had established.</p> + +<p>On November 17th, 1837, seven professors of +Göttingen University drew up against this act of +tyranny a protest which so ably connected the +feeling of the true literary man and the true teacher +with that of the independent citizen that it deserves +to be given at length. They said that the whole +chance of the success of their work depended not +more certainly on the scientific worth of their +teaching than on their personal blamelessness. +Should they appear before the young students as +men who would play carelessly with their oaths,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +then at once the blessing of their work would be +gone; and what importance could the oath of +homage possibly have, if the King had received it +from men who just before had audaciously violated +another oath? This protest was signed by Dahlmann, +Albrecht, Gervinus, the brothers Grimm, Weber, and +Ewald. They were summarily dismissed from their +offices by the King, who declared that he could buy +professors anywhere for money, as easily as dancers. +At once the greatest enthusiasm broke out in +different parts of Germany. In Leipzig and Königsberg +subscriptions were opened for the professors, +and in twelve hours the Leipzigers had subscribed +nearly 1,000 thalers. The subscription of Leipzig +was followed by a public reception given to Albrecht +and Dahlmann; an address was delivered in which +the professors were told that the whole heart of +the German people beat with them. The man who +delivered this address, and who thus first made his +appearance before the public, was the Leipzig bookseller, +Robert Blum. In Saxony the Constitution +which had been won in 1831 was still nominally +in existence, and the Prime Minister was even called +a Liberal. The Members of the Parliament hoped +to seize this opportunity of putting Saxony forward +as the champion of German rights; but the Government +shrank from that position, and seemed +disposed even to check the independent movement +among the people.</p> + +<p>Now in spite of the steady courage that had shown +itself among the literary men of Germany, the bulk +of the nation was still essentially monarchical, and +they needed some king at the head of the movement +for freedom and unity. However much of Liberalism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +might occasionally have been shown by some of the +smaller princes of Germany, none of them were in a +position to take the leading part in any common +German movement. The Emperor of Austria, even +had his policy tended in that direction, was hindered +by his connection with non-German territories from +assuming such a leadership. And the memories of +1813 gathered, if not round the King of Prussia, at +least round his kingdom. The institution of the +Zollverein formed one point of attraction between +Prussia and the Liberals of Germany; the position +of Prussia as the great Protestant Power strengthened +her influence in Northern Germany; and just at the +time when the King of Hanover was dismissing the +professors of Göttingen, the King of Prussia was +supporting at the University of Bonn professors +whom the Archbishop of Cologne was trying to +suppress. The prohibition of mixed marriages by +the same Archbishop further excited Frederick +William's opposition; and, unable to secure obedience +by other methods, the King seized and imprisoned +the Archbishop. An act of tyranny in the +interests of liberty seems to commend itself more +readily to Continental revolutionists than to those +who have been bred up under the principle of +mutual forbearance produced by Constitutional life; +and there can be little doubt that much of the +strongest part of North German feeling was enlisted +on the side of the King of Prussia. But Frederick +William III. was not a man to take the lead in anything. +By the mere accident of his position he had +become the figure-head of the rising of 1813; and +by the same accident he continued to attract the +wishes, one can hardly say the hopes, of those who<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +desired to counteract in Germany the policy of +Metternich. He could at no time have done much +to help forward the unity of Germany; and he had +long since abandoned any wish to work in that +direction.</p> + +<p>But while the excitement arising from the tyranny +of the King of Hanover, and the struggle of the King +of Prussia with the Archbishop of Cologne, were still +distracting Germany, Frederick William III. died, +and was succeeded by Frederick William IV. The +new King was a man of somewhat poetical and enthusiastic +temperament, with a strong religious bias, +desirous in a way of the welfare of his people, and +not ill disposed to play a Liberal part within due +limits. He restored Arndt to his position at Bonn; +he set free not only Jahn, but also the Archbishop +of Cologne; he found a post for Dahlmann in the +University of Bonn; and he began also to talk Constitutionalism +in a way which roused new hopes in +Germany. He inspired no confidence in those who +looked more closely into matters; but his career began +at a time when the Germans were in a state of eager +expectation, which had been quickened by a movement +already preparing in other parts of Germany. +The first utterance of the new reformers was a protest +against religious superstition. A Roman Catholic +priest, named Ronge, denounced the famous worship +of the Holy Coat at Treves. This protest attracted +attention, and was followed by an attack on a number +of other corruptions of the Roman Catholic Church. +The movement spread; a reformed Catholic Church +was founded in Posen and Silesia, and Ronge was +appointed minister of the first congregation of the +new faith.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> + +<p>It was in 1845 that the movement reached Saxony. +Two years before, the Liberal Ministry had retired; +a complete reaction had set in, and Robert Blum had +been subjected to a fine and four weeks' imprisonment +for an article in which he had advocated publicity of +trial. Nothing daunted by this, Blum threw himself +heartily into the new movement, and, although a +Roman Catholic himself, denounced the practice of +the confessional and the celibacy of the clergy. The +Ultramontanes raised a riot in which Blum was personally +attacked, and the Saxon Ministry declared +their determination to put down "the sects." Such +a threat naturally gave new force to the reformers, +and they raised the cry, so often to be heard in the +coming Liberal movements, of "Down with the +Jesuits!" That unfortunate Society, so often the +object of hatred both to kings and Peoples, was in +this case specially obnoxious to the Liberals from the +patronage which was extended to it by the heir to the +throne. When the Prince appeared to review the +troops at Leipzig he was received in silence, and +when he had retired to his hotel the crowd gathered +round it with cries of "Long live Ronge!" and "Down +with the Jesuits!" accompanied by the singing of "<span lang="de">Ein +fester Burg ist unser Gott</span>," and followed by songs of +a different description. Stones soon began to fly. +Then the soldiers were called out, they fired on the +crowd, and many were killed.</p> + +<p>On the following day the students of Leipzig +gathered to hear an address from Robert Blum. +He urged them to abstain from violence, but to put +into form their demand for legal remedies; and for +this purpose a committee was chosen. The following +demands were laid before the Town Council—viz.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +that the preservation of order should be entrusted +to the civic guard; that the soldiers should be removed +from the town; that inquiries should be made +into the circumstances of the riot, and a solemn burial +given to those who had been shot. The Town Council +yielded, and though the soldiers were soon sent back +into Leipzig, a beginning had been made which might +lead to a larger reform. Blum then founded a debating +society; and, at the end of 1845, he was chosen +representative of Leipzig in the Lower House of +Saxony.</p> + +<p>But while the national feeling of Germany was +gathering round the intellectual leaders of that +country, the feeling for national peculiarities and +national language was producing widely different +results in those countries where the unfortunate +policy of Joseph II. had made the German language +a symbol of division rather than of unity. The +movement for substituting the Magyar language for +the Latin (which had previously been customary in +the Diet at Presburg) was the revival of a struggle +which had begun in the very time of Joseph II.; +and, had Hungary been a homogeneous country, the +movement might have passed as naturally into a +struggle for freedom as the enthusiasm for German +poetry and German learning had chimed in with the +desire for German political unity. But Hungary had +never been a country of one race or of common +aspirations. Several waves of conquest and colonization +had passed over different parts of it, without +ending, in any case, in that amalgamation between +the different races which alone could secure national +unity.</p> + +<p>Yet it is just possible that, had the leadership of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +the Magyars fallen into the hands of a man of wider +sympathies and more delicate feeling than Kossuth, +an understanding might have been effected between +the different peoples of Hungary. During the +struggle against Joseph II., the other races seem to +have submitted to the leadership of the Magyars, +and to a great extent to have adopted the Magyar +language, because it was not then thrust on them by +force. But when, after the Diet of 1830, Hungary +began to reawaken to the desire for liberty, signs of +national feeling soon showed themselves among other +races than the Magyars.</p> + +<p>The first race who felt the new impulse were the +Croats. They, more than any of the other peoples +who had been annexed to the Kingdom of Hungary, +had preserved their separate government and traditions +of independence. In 1527 they offered the +throne of Croatia to the Hapsburgs, without waiting +for any decision by the Magyars; and when Charles VI. +was submitting to the Powers of Europe and to the +inhabitants of his different dominions the question of +the Pragmatic Sanction, Croatia gave her decision +quite independently of the Diet at Presburg.</p> + +<p>But apart from her actual legal rights to independence, +there remained a tradition of the old +period when the Kingdom of Croatia had been an +important Power in Europe, and had extended over +Slavonia and Dalmatia. But these claims were not +undisputed. The hold which Venice had gained +over Dalmatia and Istria had introduced into those +provinces an Italian element; and when, in the sixteenth +century, the Serbs were called into Hungary +in large numbers, Slavonia had developed a variety +of the Slavonic tongue which must have weakened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +the absolute supremacy of the Croats. The sense, +however, of a connection between the dialects of the +different Slavonic States was a bond of union between +those States which might at any time be drawn closer.</p> + +<p>When, then, Szechenyi began to stir up the Magyars +to develop their language and literature, it occurred +to a Croatian poet to link together the different +dialects of the Southern Slavs into one language. +The Croatians had been so far in advance of their +neighbours the Serbs that they had abandoned the +Cyrillic alphabet, which had been introduced at the +time of their first conversion to Christianity, and +had adopted the ordinary Latin alphabet. But the +Croatian dialect, by itself, would not have been +accepted by the other Slavs; and the softer language +and higher culture of the old Republic of Ragusa +supplied a better basis for the development of the +new language. Louis Gaj, the Croatian poet, had +studied at the University of Leipzig, which seems to +have been the centre of a good deal of Slavonic +feeling; and he hoped to link together, not merely the +three provinces of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, +but several, also, of the south-west provinces of +Austria; and, on the other hand, he wished to draw +into this bond of sympathy those Slavonic countries +which still groaned under the Turkish yoke. It was +necessary, however, to find a new name for a language +which was a new combination of dialects. To call it +the Croatian language would have implied a claim to +superiority for Croatia which it was most desirable +to avoid; and as none other of the Slavonic provinces +could well be treated as the godmother of the new +language, Gaj went back to the seventeenth century +for a name.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> + +<p>At that period Leopold I. of Austria had granted +special privileges to the <i>Illyrian</i> nation, and it was +only in the eighteenth century that the <i>Illyrian</i> +Chancellery at Vienna had been abolished. Here, +then, was a name, recognized by Imperial authority +in legal documents, and giving no superiority to any +one of the Slavonic provinces over the others. To +carry out his purposes, Gaj started a journal in 1835 +to which at first he gave the name of the "Gazette of +Croatia," but which he soon renamed the "National +Gazette of Illyria." This newspaper was written +in the new language, and the Hungarian authorities +refused to sanction it. Nor were they the only +opponents of the new movement. The Turkish +Pasha in Bosnia was alarmed at the attempt to draw +the subjects of the Sultan into closer alliance with +the Slavs in Hungary; and he tried to persuade +Francis that Gaj was attempting to shake the Imperial +authority and found a separate kingdom. At the same +time the Bishop of Agram warned the Pope of the +evident tendency of this movement to give the upper +hand to the members of the Greek Church, who +formed the majority of the Southern Slavs, over the +Roman Catholics of Croatia. But these efforts failed. +Metternich saw in Gaj's movement an opportunity of +weakening the Magyars; Francis sent a ring to Gaj, +as a sign of his approval; and Gregory XVI. was so +far from being influenced by the Bishop of Agram's +appeal that he removed him from his see for having +made it.</p> + +<p>The fact that Francis had encouraged, and Metternich +at all events not disapproved, this movement +was enough to alarm the sensibilities of the Magyars; +and when Gaj appeared in the Hungarian Diet of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +1840, Deak rebuked him for his work. Gaj answered +in words which became afterwards only too memorable. +"The Magyars," he said, "are an island in the +Slavonic ocean. I did not make the ocean, nor did +I stir up its waves; but take care that they do not +go over your heads and drown you." The words +were certainly not conciliatory; but they had been +provoked by the evident signs of hostility on the part +of the Magyars. If the latter had been content to +ignore the movement, it might have remained, for +their time at least, a purely literary effort; or, if it +had taken a political form, it might have drifted into +union with the Bohemian struggle against German +supremacy, or even into a crusade against the Turks. +It is, however, more than probable that the attempt +to found this new language would have been earlier +abandoned had it not been for the opposition which +it called forth. For Gaj, however zealous as a patriot, +and however ingenious as a philologer, seems to have +been deficient in the power of producing such a great +work of imagination as that which enabled Dante to +unite the not less diverse elements of the Italian +language.</p> + +<p>But the Magyar cry of alarm at the demands of +the Slavs was now echoed by a fiercer voice than +that of Deak. In 1841, the year after the dissolution +of that Presburg Diet by which Metternich had been +so signally defeated, Kossuth started a paper called +the "<span lang="hu">Pesti Hirlap</span>" (the Gazette of Pesth), which +soon became at once the most determined champion +of those liberties which Kossuth desired for his +countrymen, and the bitterest opponent of those +liberties which he grudged to the other races of +Hungary. For it was not merely in provinces<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +marked off from the Magyar world like Croatia, +Slavonia, and Dalmatia, that a movement like Gaj's +would produce effect. The Slavs were scattered +about in nearly all the districts of Hungary, and +though they might not all desire separate political +organizations like those which the Croats demanded, +the question of the preservation of their language +concerned even those who had no separate political +existence; and they too resented any attempt on the +part of the Magyars to substitute for it the language +of the ruling race. Kossuth was as indignant at +this hindrance to his schemes of national unity as +Joseph II. had been at the hindrances which had +been thrown in the way of the Germanizing of the +Empire. The same year, 1841, which saw the +starting of the journal in which Kossuth was to +vindicate the liberties of Hungary against Metternich, +was also the year in which he dealt his first decided +blow against the liberties of the Slavonic races of +Hungary. At a general convention of the Hungarian +Protestants, he proposed that certain of the +schools in which the Slavonic clergy studied physical +science, and other branches of knowledge, should be +deprived of these teachings, and that mere practice in +writing sermons should be substituted. This proposal +was defended on the ground that Slavonic gatherings, +unless carefully limited, must be a source of danger +to the country. Any one who ventured to defend +the Slavonic cause at this meeting was howled down, +and Kossuth's motion was carried.</p> + +<p>Fierce attacks on the Slavs and their language +now appeared in the "<span lang="hu">Pesti Hirlap</span>," and Kossuth +refused to insert the answers to these attacks. Count +Zay, who had just been appointed chief inspector of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +the Protestant Congregations and Schools, openly +announced in a public circular his determination to +Magyarize the Slavs. The Slavonic speech, he said, +would prevent the Slavs from being firm in the +Protestant faith; and while they used that speech +they would not be capable of freedom, and could +not even be considered to have a proper share in +humanity. The Magyarizing of the Slavs was the +holiest duty of every genuine patriot of Hungary, +every defender of freedom and intelligence, and +every true subject of the Austrian House. Others +accused the Slavs of offering sacrifices to their old +deity Svatopluk; while that great bugbear, the fear +of Russian influence, was pushed forward on every +occasion. Slavonic hymns, previously sung in the +churches, were prohibited; and Magyar preachers +were thrust upon congregations who did not understand +a word of the Magyar language.</p> + +<p>It was while this bitter feeling was at its height +that the elections began for the Diet of 1843 at +Presburg, and for the Croatian Assembly at Agram. +The Hungarian elections turned, to some extent, on +the quarrel with the Slavs; but partly also on the +question, which was now coming to the front, of the +exemption of the so-called nobles of Hungary from +taxation. These "nobles" were not confined to +the great families who sat in the House of Magnates, +but included all the freeholders of the country; and +great injustice had arisen from the fact that the men +who laid on the taxes were, in the main, not those +who paid them. Szechenyi, as before mentioned, +had tried to diminish this injustice; but the fiery +methods of Kossuth, and the growing tendency to +opposition to the Austrian rule, had alarmed Szechenyi;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +and he shrank more and more from the +leaders of the popular movement. It was not, +however, merely the extreme character of their aims, +nor their rough-and-ready methods, which alienated +him; it was also their growing injustice to the Slavs. +Szechenyi, who had been so much the first in reviving +an interest in Magyar language and literature, +now came forward, as President of the Hungarian +Academy, to denounce any step for spreading the +Magyar language which could offend the Croats. +On the other hand, the peasant nobles of Hungary +protested fiercely against the attempt to deprive +them of their exemption from taxation, and they +gathered at the county meetings in a riotous manner, +breaking, in one case, into the Hall of Election, with +knives in their hands, and shouting, "Freedom for +ever! We will not pay taxes."</p> + +<p>This fierce intimidation on the part of the opponents +of reform provoked reprisals from the +reformers. And, where they were unable to hold +their own by intimidation, they resorted to bribery. +One protest was made against this defection from +the true principles of liberty which was of vital +importance to the future history of Hungary. The +election of Zala county had ended once more in the +return of Francis Deak; and the electors were +gathered to hear the announcement of the election, +when, to their dismay, Deak came forward and +stated that, in consequence of the way in which the +election had been conducted, he should refuse to sit +as their representative. His friends pressed round +him, some entreating him not to desert their cause; +some even venturing to reproach him with cowardice +in shrinking from the struggle. But he replied that,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> +if he went to the Diet after this election, he should +always "see bloodstains on his mandate." Thus, +at a crisis when they most needed a man who would +combine genuine popular feeling with moderation +and justice, the reformers were deprived of <i>the</i> leader +in the Lower House who possessed those qualities +in the largest degree. As for Deak himself, it must +be remembered that he was sacrificing the undoubted +position of leader of the reforming party, at the time +when its objects were becoming more and more +definite, and its leadership was in consequence +growing more attractive to a man of courage and +patriotism. Though he was still to play a useful +part in the coming struggles, it was of necessity a +secondary one; and it was not till twenty-three +years later that he was to resume the first place in +the Hungarian national movement.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Croatian question had become +more complicated by an element of internal division. +In a district not far from Agram, there was established +a complete settlement of Croatian "nobles," +of a similar type to those who had been raising the +cry against equal taxation in the Hungarian counties. +These men claimed the right, much disputed by the +other Croats, to attend the county meetings at +Agram <i>en masse</i>, instead of returning representatives +like other citizens. In this Diet of 1843, Count +Jozipoviç, leader of this band of "nobles," asserted +their right in a very imperious manner; and a fierce +fight followed in the streets of Agram. Thus began +a contest which extended, with various degrees of +violence, over several years. The Croatian Assembly, +however, at first attempted to place their +claims in a moderate manner before the Magyars;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +and instructed Haulik, Bishop of Agram, to assure +the Magyars of their desire to live on good terms +with them, if they were secured in those rights +which had been granted by law, and guaranteed by +the oath of the King. They pointed out that many +of them were ignorant of the Magyar language, and +that the Magyars were in many cases ignorant of +theirs. On the former ground they desired to +maintain the right of their representatives to speak +Latin in the Hungarian Diet. On the latter ground +they objected to censors being appointed over the +Croatian press, who were ignorant of the Croatian +language. The former right was the first to be +tested; for no sooner did the Croatian deputies begin, +according to old custom, to speak Latin in the Diet +of Presburg than they were interrupted by a +clattering of sabres from the Magyar members, and +a demand that they should speak in the Magyar +language. Thereupon Jozipoviç saw an opportunity +of making new friends for his cause; and, while he +disputed the legality of the election of his opponents, +he declared that he and his supporters were "body +and soul Hungarian." Kossuth at once assumed the +justice of the cause of Jozipoviç; and, while he was +eagerly opposing the privileges of the nobles in +Hungary, he thus supported in Croatia an aristocratic +privilege of doubtful legality, and undoubtedly +disorderly and unjust in its effects. The Magyars +responded to Kossuth's appeal; and the Lower +House of the Hungarian Diet passed a resolution +forbidding the use of any language but Magyar +in the Diet. The House of Magnates, doubtless +under the influence of Szechenyi, were disposed +to make concessions to the Croats; but even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +they were not able to do much to check the +storm.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Emperor had been trying to +exercise a moderating influence on these conflicts. +Finding the bitterness caused in Hungary by Gaj's +movement, Ferdinand prohibited the use of the name +"Illyrian" in newspapers and in public discussions; +but at the same time he promised to encourage the +development of the Croatian language, and urged the +Magyars to suspend for six years their prohibition of +Latin in the Hungarian Diet. While, too, the Magyar +language was to be used in Church boards and legal +tribunals of Hungary, Hungarian officials were to +accept Latin letters from Croatia and the other outlying +districts that were united with Hungary. But +these proposals, unfortunately, did not satisfy the +feeling of the Magyars; and some of them actually ventured +on the extraordinary statement that, if the Croat +boards could understand letters written in the Magyar +language, they must necessarily be able to compose +Magyar letters in answer; and they maintained that +the Croats ought not to be allowed to elect any +members to the Diet who could not then speak the +Magyar language.</p> + +<p>Thus, although in all parts of the Kingdom of +Hungary there was a growing demand for freedom +and equality, each question in turn became complicated +by this quarrel between the members of the +different races. On the one hand, a proposal for +admitting men not hitherto recognized as "nobles" +to the possession of land was met by an amendment +to limit this concession to those who knew Magyar; +and this exclusion was rejected by only twenty-eight +votes against seventeen; while a proposal to limit<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +offices to those who could speak Magyar was rejected +by a majority of only two. On the other hand, +the Croats successfully resisted a proposal to +allow Protestants to settle in Croatia as a part +of the scheme for Magyarizing their country. But +though these divisions hindered the co-operation of +the members of the different nations who might have +worked together for freedom and progress, it should +always be noted that the desire of each nation was, +in the first instance, for the development of a free +national life, connected with true culture and learning, +and independent of mere officialism. If the Magyars +were tyrannical and overbearing towards the Croats, +it was partly because they believed that these divisions, +(the fault of which they attributed to the Croats) +were tending to strengthen the hands of their common +oppressors. If, on the other hand, the Croats appealed +to the Emperor for protection against the Magyars, +it was not from any courtier-like or slavish desire to +strengthen the hands of despotism; but partly because +they felt that the position of the Emperor enabled +him to judge more fairly between the contending +parties, partly because they found from experience +that Ferdinand of Austria was a juster-minded man +than Louis Kossuth.</p> + +<p>While the growth of national feeling in Hungary +and Croatia was tending at once to a healthier life +and to dangerous divisions, a much more remarkable +awakening of new and separate life was showing +itself in the province of Transylvania. The geographical +isolation of that province from the rest of +Hungary is very striking, even now that railways +have connected the different parts of the kingdom; +but in 1848 this isolation was far greater, and had a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +considerable effect on the political history of the time. +The Carpathians almost surround the country, and +form a natural bulwark. Between this high wall of +mountains on the north-east and Buda-Pesth stretches +a vast plain. No province of the Empire contained a +greater variety of separately organized nations. The +Transylvanian Diet was not, like the other local +assemblies, the result of an attempt to express the +feelings of a more or less united people, but arose +merely from the endeavour to give reasonable solidity +to an alliance between three distinct peoples. Of +the three ruling races, the first to enter Transylvania +were the Szekler, a people of the same stock as the +Magyar, but slower to take the impress of any permanent +civilization. They conquered the original +inhabitants of the country, a race probably of mixed +Dacian and Roman blood, called Wallachs or Roumanians. +Towards the end of the ninth century +came in the Magyars, before whom the Szekler retreated +to the north-east, where the town of Maros-Vasarhely +became their capital. This town is on +the River Maros, which, rising in the Carpathians, +flows all across Transylvania.</p> + +<p>The Magyars in the meantime extended their rule +over all parts of Hungary, but the position which +they gained in Transylvania was one of much less +undisputed supremacy than that which they established +in Northern Hungary; for in the former +province they remained a second nation, existing by +the side of the Szekler, neither conquering nor +absorbing them.</p> + +<p>Much of the country, however, was still uncolonized, +and was liable to inroads from dangerous neighbours; +so in the twelfth century a number of German citizens<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +who lived along the Rhine, and some of the German +knights who were seeking adventures, came into +Transylvania to offer their services to the King of +Hungary. The German knights were unable to +come to a satisfactory agreement with the King, and +went north to try to civilize the Prussians; but the +citizens remained, acquired land, developed trade, +and developed, also, a power of self-government of +which neither Szekler nor Magyar were at that time +capable. That portion of the country which has +been colonized by the Saxons has a look of greater +neatness and comfort than the rest. The little +homesteads are almost English in their appearance, +with, occasionally, gardens and orchards. Hermannstadt, +the capital of this district, bears traces of its +former greatness in several fine old churches, a law +academy, and picture gallery. Its fortifications must +have been almost impregnable in old times, with +strong watch-towers and walls of great height. The +portions of the walls that remain show marks of the +sieges of 1849. The Carpathians, on the south-east, +are many miles distant, but the Rothenthurm Pass, +through which the terrible Russian force made its +way into the country, is visible in some lights.</p> + +<p>These three ruling nations—the Magyar, the Szekler, +and the Saxon—though separate in their organization, +had more than one common interest. They +were united by a common love of freedom and a +common temptation to tyranny. In 1438 they +formed a union against the Turks, which in 1459 +was changed into a union in support of their freedoms +and privileges, "for protection against inward +and outward enemies, against oppression from above +or insurrection from below." And when, in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +seventeenth century, they separated for a time from +Hungary, the three nations accepted the Prince of +Transylvania as their head. When Transylvania +and Hungary had both passed under the rule of +Austria, Leopold I., in 1695, established a separate +Government for Transylvania, and Maria Theresa +increased the importance and the independence of +this position. It will be noted that among the +objects for which the three nations combined is +mentioned "insurrection from below;" and this was +a bond of great importance; for, while the Magyar, +Szekler, and Saxon were enjoying an amount of +freedom and independence in Transylvania not +generally allowed by the House of Austria to its +subjects, the original population of the country, the +Wallachs, or Roumanians, as they prefer to be called, +were hated and attacked by the Szekler, made serfs +of by the Magyar, excluded from their territory by +the Saxons, and despised by all. Even the full +benefit of the village organization, which was the +great protection of the Hungarian peasant, was not +extended to the Roumanians in Transylvania, for +they were never allowed to choose one of their own +men as president of the village community; and +while the landowners oppressed them in the country, +the Saxon guilds excluded them from the trade of +the towns. So they remained a race of shepherds, +without culture and wealth, among the warriors of +the Magyar and Szekler, and the prosperous traders +of the Saxons.</p> + +<p>When, then, the reforming zeal of Joseph II. was +extended to Transylvania, the Roumanians alone +hailed it with delight; for, while, in his eagerness for +a united Empire, the Emperor tried to sweep away<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +all the special organizations of separate self-government +so dear to the ruling races, he introduced +sweeping reforms in favour of the serfs. He put +forth an Edict, securing to the peasant an amount +of liberty not hitherto enjoyed by him. No peasant +was to be hindered from marriage, or from studying +in other places, or from following different kinds of +work; none was to be turned out of his village or +land at bidding of the landlord; the power of the +landlord to impose new burdens (already restricted +by the Urbarium of Maria Theresa) was to be still +further limited; and the county officials were to +protect the dependant from any oppression of his +landlord. The hopes of the Roumanians were +naturally raised by this Edict; and many of them +believed, when a general conscription followed, that +by entering the army they could escape serfdom. +The lords, backed by many of the officials, hindered +this attempt, and interfered to prevent the carrying +out of the Edict. Thereupon the Roumanians rose +in insurrection, under two leaders, Hora and Kloska; +and all those horrors followed which are naturally +connected with an agrarian rising of uncivilized serfs, +and the violent suppression of it by hardly more +civilized tyrants.</p> + +<p>But among the bishops of the Roumanians, to +whom they always granted great authority, were +some who saw a better way than insurrection for the +cure of the sufferings of their countrymen. Having +observed that when the three dominant races were +protesting against the reforms of Joseph II. they +had appealed continually to historic rights, these +Roumanian leaders drew up a petition, which was +called the "<span lang="la">Libellus Wallachorum</span>," and was presented<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +to the Diet of 1791. It was in this document +that the Roumanians first put forward that claim to +descent from the ancient Romans which has ever +since exercised such influence on the imagination +of this singular race. The petition further declared +that, in the first inroad of the barbarians, the Roumanians +had continued to maintain that Christianity +which they had learned under the Roman Empire; +and that when the Magyars came into the country, +the Roumanians had voluntarily accepted the Magyar +chief as their leader; that though their name was +then changed by the invaders from Roumanians into +Wallachs, their independent rights were still secured. +They went on to say that even the union of the +three ruling races in 1438 had not been intended +originally to deprive the Roumanians of their rights; +it was not till the seventeenth century that they had +been crushed down into their present position. They +therefore entreated that they might be restored to +all the civil and political rights which they had +possessed in the fifteenth century; that the clergy of +the Greek Church, to which they belonged, might be +placed on an equality with those of other religions; +and that, wherever the Roumanians had a majority +in any villages, those villages might be called by +Roumanian names. The reading of this petition +was received by the representatives of the three +ruling races, after a brief silence, with fierce protests; +only the Saxons thought it necessary to make +even vague promises of concession; and those promises +were not fulfilled.</p> + +<p>But, when this demand had once been put into +form, the memory of it lingered on among the +Roumanians; and in 1842, during the general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> +wakening of national feeling, they attempted again +to make an appeal to the Transylvanian Diet for +special recognition. Again they failed; but their +leaders did not, therefore, lose heart. Some of them, +indeed, were disposed to resort to their old method +of insurrection; and a few years later they rose, +under the leadership of a woman named Catherine +Varga, and for a long time held their own against +the Magyar officials. But it is to the suppressor of +this movement, rather than to its leader, that the +Roumanians look back as their national hero. This +was Andreas Schaguna, who, at the time of Catherine +Varga's insurrection, was holding the position of +Archimandrite. He came down to the village, where +the Magyar officials had not dared to penetrate, +rebuked the Roumanians for their turbulence, and +carried off Catherine Varga from their midst, +no one daring to resist. But this, though a +striking, was not a characteristic exercise of his +authority. He was far from thinking that force was +a remedy for the grievances of the Roumanians; and +he devoted time and thought to the foundation of +schools and the education of the people. This +education he carried out, not by mere teaching, but +by seeking out and advising those whom he saw +fitted for more intellectual occupations, and helping +them to become lawyers and doctors. Last, but by +no means least, he tried to reduce into a more literary +form the Roumanian language.</p> + +<p>But it was not only in their own ranks that the +Roumanians were now finding champions for their +national cause. In 1842 appeared a pamphlet by +a Saxon clergyman, named Stephen Roth, in which +the writer protested against the attempt of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +Magyars to crash out the rival languages in Transylvania; +for this, as he pointed out, was a new form +of tyranny. In North Hungary, indeed, the movement +had been accompanied by an attempt to improve +the condition of the peasant; and the Magyar +language was held out to him as a new boon to +be added to the abolition of feudal dues. But in +Transylvania little or nothing had been done by the +Magyars to improve the condition of the peasant; +and therefore there could be no talk of <i>benefits</i> +there. If there were to be one official language in +Transylvania, it ought, urged Roth, to be the +language of the majority of the population, that is, +Roumanian; and though it was undesirable to make +this or any other language universal, it was certain +that the ruling race would never be able to Magyarize +the Roumanians; who might, however, be pacified +by greater respect for their dignity as men, completer +recognition of their form of Christianity, better +means of education, provision for material need, +and a freer position. This pamphlet of Roth's was +notable, as a sign of sympathy felt by a member of +the most cultivated race in Transylvania for the +complaints of the most uncivilized one. But it is +no reproach to Roth to say that he was thinking, +at the time, as much of maintaining the rights of his +own race as of redressing the wrongs of the Roumanians. +For though the Magyars did not, as yet, +venture to lord it over a German People as they did +over Slav and Roumanian, they were yet trying, by +various underhand methods, to weaken the devotion +of the Saxons to their race and language. Roth and +his friends tried to counteract this, partly by founding +unions for the encouragement of German culture;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +and also by the more effective way of introducing +German immigrants from the old country. A movement +of a similar kind had been inaugurated by +Maria Theresa about 1731; and for more than forty +years it had been carried on with success; the German +Protestants, who had been driven out of other +countries, finding a natural refuge in the wholly +Protestant Saxon settlement of Transylvania. Strange +to say, Joseph II. does not seem to have carried on +his mother's work; perhaps he had made himself too +unpopular in Transylvania to do it with success. +But Roth had special friends in the University of +Würtemberg; and in spite of the Liberal tendencies +of the King of that State, the taxation in that country +was specially heavy. When, then, in 1845, Roth +went to Würtemberg, so many citizens of that State +consented to emigrate to Transylvania in the following +year that the Government at Vienna and the +Magyars at Pesth became alike alarmed. Ferdinand +was persuaded that this was a Protestant invasion, +and probably, also, a Communistic attempt. The +Magyars, on the other hand, cried out that this was +part of an attempt to Germanize Transylvania. Roth +defended his cause, and refuted the charge of Protestant +propagandism by showing that Roman +Catholic families were among the emigrants; while, +as to the idea of a Communistic proletariat, many +of those who had emigrated were well provided +with money, and some had been encouraged by the +former impulse given to the movement by the +Viennese Government. But a vague prejudice, once +excited, is rarely got rid of by mere statements of +fact; and the Governments, both at Vienna and +Pesth, threw such difficulties in the way of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +emigrants, that they had to suffer great misery on +their journey; and these sufferings tended (with +other grounds of prejudice) to excite much indignation +against Roth. Nor would the Magyars, at +any rate, feel more friendly to him when they found +that an organ of the Croatian patriots at Agram +claimed him as an ally against the overbearing +demands of the Magyars.</p> + +<p>Thus, then, it is clear that, during the period from +1840 to 1846, there was a general awakening both +in Germany and Hungary of strong national feelings. +In Germany those feelings, gathering round a common +language and literature, prepared the way directly +for a movement towards freedom; while in Hungary +the divisions of races and languages hindered the +full benefits of the revival, and gave a handle to +the champions of despotism. Yet whether among +Magyars, Croats, Roumanians, or Saxons, the movement +was in itself a healthy one, tending to newer +and more natural life, and weakening the traditions +of Viennese officialism.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /><small>DESPOTISM RETIRING BEFORE CONSTITUTIONALISM, +1844-DECEMBER, 1847.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>The Bandiera insurrection. Its results.—Career of Cesare +Balbo, "<span lang="it">Le Speranze d'Italia.</span>"—Vincenzo Gioberti. "<span lang="it">Il Primato +degli Italiani.</span>"—The insurrection of Rimini. "<span lang="it">Ultimi casi di +Romagna.</span>"—The risings in Galicia.—History of Cracow since +1815.—Causes of the failure of the Galician movement.—The +seizure of Cracow. Palmerston's utterances thereon.—Change +in Charles Albert's position.—The Ticino treaties.—Mistake of +Solaro della Margherita.—"Long live the King of Italy!"—D'Azeglio's +policy.—Aurelio Saffi.—Death of Gregory XVI.—State +of Roman Government.—Parties in the Conclave.—Election +of Pius IX.—His character and career.—The amnesty. +Its effect.—Ciceruacchio. His work.—The Congress at Genoa.—Charles +Lucien Bonaparte.—Death of Confalonieri.—State of +Milan.—Pio Nono's reforms.—The clerical conspiracy.—The +occupation of Ferrara. Its effect on Italian feeling.—State of +Tuscany.—The Duke of Lucca.—Absorption of Lucca in Tuscany.—The +struggle with Modena.—The massacre of Fivizzano.—Occupation +of Parma and Modena by Austria.—State of Switzerland.—Position +of Bern and Zurich.—The Concordat of Seven.—The +refugee question in 1838.—The Aargau monasteries.—The +Sonderbund.—The Jesuit question.—Metternich's feelings, +real and pretended.—Palmerston's attitude.—Relations between +Metternich and Guizot.—The decision of the Swiss Diet.—The +Sonderbund war.—Effect of the Federal victory.—The Schleswig-Holstein +question.—The official view and the popular view.—Metternich's +way out of the difficulty.—Effect of the movement +on Germany and Prussia.—State of Europe at outbreak of +Sicilian insurrection.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>The divisions of opinion, which had been hindering +progress in Hungary, had, in the meantime, been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +growing less prominent in Italy; so that the more +active political leaders in the latter country were, +for a time at least, aiming at a common programme. +Yet this point had only been reached after much +suffering and failure. Conspiracies with various +objects had been rife in Italy, especially in the Papal +States; but, though some passing attention was attracted +by the cruelties exercised in their suppression, +these risings had left apparently little mark on the +country. But an insurrection took place in 1844 +which proved a turning-point in Italian politics. The +character and circumstances of the leaders excited a +sympathy which impressed their memories on the +hearts of their countrymen; while the failure of the +rising led to a change in the general tactics of the +Italian Liberals.</p> + +<p>The rising in question was that organized by the +brothers Emilio and Attilio Bandiera. These youths +were the sons of a Venetian nobleman who was an +admiral in the Austrian service, and who had attracted +attention in 1831 by violating the terms of the capitulation +of Ancona, and attempting to seize the exiles +who, under protection of that treaty, were on their +way to France. Emilio and Attilio had been compelled, +while still boys, to enter the service of Austria; +but they soon began to feel a loathing for the foreign +rulers of their country; and, while in this state of +mind, they came into contact with some of those who +were already acting with the <span lang="it">Giovine Italia</span>. At +last, in 1842, Attilio Bandiera wrote to Mazzini expressing +the esteem and love he had learned to feel +for him, his desire to co-operate with him, and his +belief that the Italian cause was but a part of the +cause of humanity.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p> + +<p>This correspondence with Mazzini was maintained +by means of another naval officer in the Austrian +service, Domenico Moro; in the following year a +passing struggle in Southern and Central Italy gave +new hopes to the brothers. They fled from their +ships and met Domenico Moro at Corfu. But a +stronger influence than the fear of Austrian tyranny +was put forward to hinder the brothers Bandiera from +their attempts. Their mother wrote from Venice +calling on them to return, and denouncing them as +unnatural for their refusal. Even this pressure, however, +they resisted, and they prepared to make their +first rising in March, 1844.</p> + +<p>The desire to free the Neapolitans, already distracted +by so many insurrections, gave rise to this attempt, +of which Cosenza was the head-quarters. Unfortunately, +the plan of the rising had not been understood +by some of the insurgents, and a preliminary effort +was easily suppressed by the Neapolitan troops. +Nothing daunted by this, the Bandiere planned a new +march on Calabria. It was, unfortunately, on this +occasion that the correspondence of the Bandiere with +Mazzini was opened by the British Postmaster-General, +and communicated by him to the Austrians. When, +then, the brothers, accompanied by many recruits +from various parts of Italy, marched upon Cosenza to +deliver the prisoners who had been taken in the +former unsuccessful attempt, they found guides prepared +to deceive them; and in a wood near Cosenza +they were met by a large body of gensdarmes, who +had been warned of their coming. They repelled the +attack, however, and retreated to Corfu to gather +new forces; but the authorities had filled the minds +of the inhabitants with the belief that the Bandiere<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +and their followers were Turks. The people rose +against them; and when they again marched on +Cosenza they were easily overpowered and imprisoned, +and soon after condemned to death. The brothers +received the news of their condemnation with cries of +"Long live Italy! Long live Liberty! Long live +our country!" And, to the priests who tried to +exhort them to repentance, they answered that they +had acted in the spirit of Christ in trying to free +their brethren.</p> + +<p>The effect of their death, and of all the circumstances +of their rising, was deep and wide; and their +memory seems to have lived longer than that of any +previous martyrs for Italian freedom. The bullets +with which they were shot were collected as sacred +relics; and it was felt that a new impulse had been +given to the struggle against Austrian tyranny. But +with the indignation at the treachery by which the +Bandiera brothers had suffered, and with the reverence +for their memories, there arose in Italy a passing +wave of suspicion against Mazzini and the leaders of +the <span lang="it">Giovine Italia</span>, as people who wasted the lives +of the heroic youth of Italy in useless and ill-organized +attempts.</p> + +<p>It was at this period that two books, written in +1843, began to attract attention. These were the +"<span lang="it">Speranze d'Italia</span>" of Cesare Balbo and the "<span lang="it">Primato</span>" +of Vincenzo Gioberti.</p> + +<p>Cesare Balbo was the son of that Count Prospero +Balbo who was supposed, in the reign of Victor +Emmanuel I., to have supplied a Liberal element to +the Government. There had been, however, little in +Count Prospero's career to inspire any reasonable +confidence in him. He served under Victor Amadeus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +till the fall of Piedmont before the French; but after +the establishment of Napoleon's power he had returned +to Piedmont and become head of the University of +Turin. After the restoration of the House of Savoy +he had taken office again under Victor Emmanuel, +and had played the somewhat doubtful part, described +above, in the movement of 1821. Cesare had been +presented by his father, when a boy, to Napoleon; +and though Count Prospero had considered it a dangerous +step, the young man had accepted office in +Napoleon's Council of State in Turin, and subsequently +had served under the same ruler in Tuscany. +Although shocked at the kidnapping of Pius VII., he +did not abandon the service of Napoleon until the +fall of the French Empire in 1814. Yet, after the +restoration of the House of Savoy, he entered the +army of the King of Sardinia, and fought, first against +Napoleon, and then against Murat. In 1821 he +managed to remain on friendly terms with Santa +Rosa, while he was at the same time advising Charles +Albert to break with the Revolutionists, and was also +trying to hinder the proclamation of the Spanish +Constitution at Alessandria. Such was the man who +now tried to tell Italy of her hopes.</p> + +<p>While appealing to Gioberti as his master, and +declaring his preference for a moderate party, Balbo +dwelt on the want of national independence as the +chief source of the evils of Italy, and particularly on +the control exercised by the Austrians over the Pope. +He urged his countrymen to put aside the old ideas +of Dante, and not to go back further than 1814 for +their conception of Italian Unity. He then proceeded +to examine the different schemes for attaining this +unity, and, rejecting alike the schemes of Monarchists<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +and Federalists, as well as the plan for a closer unity +put forward by the Republicans of the <span lang="it">Giovine Italia</span>, +he pointed out as the only real hope for Italy the +possibility of the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the +consequent chance that Italy might be freed in the +scramble which would follow.</p> + +<p>It is well to dismiss this book of Balbo's first, +because its only worth is that it shows what scraps +of comfort were caught at eagerly by Italians at this +period; but, as a matter of fact, its publication was +slightly later than that of the "Primato" of Vincenzo +Gioberti, to which Balbo alludes in the preface to +his book.</p> + +<p>Gioberti has already been mentioned as having +been a contributor to the journal of the <span lang="it">Giovine +Italia</span>. Previously to that time, he had chiefly been +known as a writer on ecclesiastical or theological +subjects. Before the age of twenty, he had written +a philosophical treatise on Man, God, and Natural +Religion; and early in life he had also written on +the "Wickedness of the Popes," and had tried to +prove that that wickedness was due to their temporal +power. At the University of Turin, the Professor +to whom he looked up with the greatest reverence +was driven from his post by the Jesuits, and this +event awakened in Gioberti his bitter hostility to +that Order. Gioberti's connection with the <span lang="it">Giovine +Italia</span> brought him under the suspicion of the Piedmontese +Government; and he was banished from the +country shortly before Mazzini's expedition to Savoy.</p> + +<p>In that expedition, however, Gioberti had refused +to join; and he remained at Paris, where many of the +Italian exiles were gathered. Among these, two of +the most prominent were Pellegrino Rossi and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +Terenzio Mamiani. Both of these writers may have +confirmed him in his dislike of the Jesuits; though +they may also have exercised some influence in +alienating him from the Republicans. He returned, +indeed, at this period to those philosophical writings +for which he was much better fitted than for the +active life of politics; and, in 1842, he was offered a +Chair of Philosophy at Pisa. But Solaro della +Margherita, the Minister of Charles Albert, succeeded +in persuading the Grand Duke of Tuscany to withdraw +this appointment. Such had been Gioberti's +career up to the time when he brought out the book +which, by a curious combination of circumstances, +was to make his name famous.</p> + +<p>This book, "<span lang="it">Il Primato Morale e Civile degli +Italiani</span>," professes to show why, and how, the +Italians should take the lead in the affairs of Europe. +The writer begins with a glorification of Italy, +though, at the same time, he complains that she has +too often neglected her mission; and he maintains, in +this connection, the necessity of combining philosophy +with political discussion. Very early in the argument +he goes back to Romulus; but, not content +with the comparative antiquity of that allusion, he +thinks it necessary to deduce the origin of civilization +from Noah. He then considers the relation between +the Papacy and the Empire after the time of Charles +the Great, and the attitude of various Italian writers +and patriots towards the Papacy. He incidentally +notices the fascination of Abelard for Arnold of +Brescia as one of the causes of that reformer's hostility +to the Papacy, and as a warning to Italians not +to yield to the influence of French ideas. It is to the +Guelphs that Gioberti looks for the embodiment of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +the political wisdom of the Italians of the Middle +Ages. Without the Papacy, there could be no real +political unity for Italy, since through its influence +alone could there be produced a union of morality, +religion, and civilization. He deprecates all revolution, +all encouragement of invasion, all imitations of +foreign ideas. Unity, in the complete sense in which +it was known in England and France, was, says +Gioberti, an impossibility, because of differences in +Government and dialect between the different States +of Italy. He expresses a belief that Alfieri would +have repented of his attacks on Popes and Kings if +he had lived to see the dignified resistance of Pius +VII. to Napoleon. The Pope would be obliged to act +by peaceful means; and while forming an Italian +Navy, and developing Italian colonies, he should +carry on his work through a Federal Union, of which +he would be the President. But, as the Pope must act +by pacific means, there would be need of a military +leader also for Italy; and he must be found in Piedmont. +Literature had been slower in growth in +Piedmont than in other parts of Italy; but in proportion +to its backwardness in this respect was its +superiority in military matters. Further, the House +of Savoy had been softened by religion, and had +never produced a tyrant. But moderate reforms +were necessary in order to make the leadership +palatable; especially a modification of the censorship +of the Press, and greater encouragement to science +and literature. In urging that Italy must take the +lead of Europe, not merely in matters of civilization, +but in thought, he dwells emphatically on the connection +between philosophy and politics. But, above +all, Italy should hold this position because she has<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +never fallen into the errors of Protestantism. +Passing from the independent States of Italy, he +dwells on the necessity of a union between Lombardy +and Piedmont; and then, after discussing what +qualities the different parts of Italy will contribute to +the general character of the whole, and dwelling on +the possible union among the literary men of Italy, +he concludes by insisting that religion can be the +only uniting force; and therefore that the Head of +the Christian World must be the Head of the Italian +League.</p> + +<p>This curious book attracted considerable attention; +but although many expressed admiration for the +author, few committed themselves definitely to its +doctrines. The idea of a Pope as a liberator and +uniter of Italy clashed with all the experiences which +Italy had had of the Government of Gregory XVI., +and Gioberti was forced to modify his words, and to +deny that he looked to the Pope then on the throne +to carry out his programme. This explanation led +him into a controversy with the Jesuits, which must +considerably have increased his popularity.</p> + +<p>A third writer, who attracted some attention, +though far less than Balbo and Gioberti, was Giacomo +Durando, already mentioned as one of the conspirators +of 1831. He demanded a league between Peoples +and Princes, but utterly denied that any initiative of +Italian independence could come from the Pope. +His idea was a Kingdom of Italy divided into three +parts—Northern, and presumably Central, Italy to +be under the House of Savoy; the city of Rome and +some islands to be left to the Pope; and Southern +Italy to the King of Naples. He did not, however, +desire that the League should make war upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +Austria, but that it should wait, and be ready to +resist attacks from that Power.</p> + +<p>But while these writers were trying to formulate, +in a literary manner, the programme of the Constitutional +Liberals, the more fiery members of that party +were anxious to show that they too could do something +in the way of a political movement of a more +determined kind; and it was in the Papal States, +again, as the centre of the worst government of +Italy, that this new programme of insurrection was +put forward. A man named Pietro Renzi undertook +to formulate the demands of this section of the party. +The petition drawn up by Renzi went back to the +time of Pius VII., to show that hopes of reform had +once been held out, even in the Papal States. It +dwelt on the fact that, from the time of the insurrections +of 1821 to the death of Pius VIII. in 1831, there +had been a steady growth of tyranny; that in 1831 +the Papal Government would have fallen but for the +intervention of Austria; that, when Gregory XVI. +had been restored to his power, demands had been +made for reform in the Papal Government which had +been steadily opposed; that the Pope and Cardinal +Albani were now encouraging robbers and murderers +on the ground of the support which such men gave +to the faith. "For eight or ten years past," Renzi +declared, "it had not been the Pope or Rome or +the Cardinals who had been governing the people of +the Legations; but a sanguinary faction of the +brutalized populace has been wearing the dress, and +performing the functions of government." Many +young men had been driven from the universities, or +shut out from liberal professions, by the influence of +the Jesuits; and the clergy had usurped the control<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +of all education. The leaders of the new party, +therefore, demanded twelve concessions.—1. +A general amnesty for all political offences from +1821 to that time. 2. Publicity of Debate; trial +by jury, and abolition of confiscations and capital +punishment for political offences. 3. That laymen +should not be subjected either to the Inquisition nor +any other ecclesiastical tribunal. 4. That political +offences should be tried by the ordinary tribunals. +5. That municipal councils should be freely elected +subject to the approval of the Sovereign; that these +municipal councils should elect the provincial councils, +and the provincial councils the Supreme Council +of State. 6. That the Supreme Council should +reside in Rome, superintending the public funds, and +should have a deliberative power in some matters, a +consultative in others. 7. That all offices, civil, +military, and judicial, should be held by laymen. +8. That public instruction, other than religious, +should be taken away from the clergy. 9. That the +censorship of the Press should be only employed in +the case of offences against God, the Catholic Religion, +and the Sovereign, and the private life of citizens. +10. That foreign troops should be dismissed. 11. +That the Civic Guard should be instituted, and entrusted +with the maintenance of the laws and of +public order. 12. That the Government should enter +on all those social reforms which are required by the +spirit of the age, and of which all the <i>civil</i> governments +of Europe have given an example.</p> + +<p>Renzi resolved to enforce this programme by a +sudden attack on Rimini, in which he was completely +successful; but an ally of his, who had raised +a revolt simultaneously in the lower Romagna, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> +compelled to retire before the Swiss troops of the +Pope; and Renzi, apparently panic struck, retreated +into Tuscany. Unfortunately, a reaction was then +taking place there. Fossombroni had died in 1844, +Corsini, the Minister who was most in sympathy +with Fossombroni's policy, resigned in 1845; and the +chief of the Jesuit party took his place. The Grand +Duke Leopold himself was at first disposed to be +friendly to Renzi; but, as the best protection to him, +he advised his escape to France. Renzi soon returned, +and Metternich, alarmed at the intensity of Italian +feeling, denounced the Duke for protecting rebels, +and, under the influence of Austrians, Jesuits, and of +the Pope, Leopold consented to surrender Renzi to +Gregory XVI.</p> + +<p>The attention of the country was still further +directed to this attempt by a pamphlet which came +out immediately after, and which was written by a +young Piedmontese nobleman, Count Massimo +Tapparelli D'Azeglio. In this pamphlet D'Azeglio +complained that the Rimini movement had been +much misrepresented; but that the action of the +insurgents had no doubt been a blunder, because the +movement had been purely local, and they had not +considered how to use the forces of the whole of +Italy. He then proceeded to denounce the corruptions +of the Papal Government, and the cruelties +which had followed the suppression of this rising; +particularly the gross injustice of imprisoning a +lawyer because he had defended some of the prisoners. +After a denunciation in detail of the evils of the +Papal Government, he goes on to repudiate the use +of secret societies, as having failed in their purpose; +calls on the Italians to unite in peaceable protest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +against abuses, rather than in insurrection; and +points to the Tugendbund of Germany as a model for +Italian combinations. The pamphlet had little that +was new in it, but attention was fixed upon the +author, by the fact that he was immediately banished +from Tuscany by the Grand Duke, and was, shortly +after, welcomed in Piedmont.</p> + +<p>Metternich's protest against this welcome might +have been more decided had he not been hampered +by the events which were occurring in Galicia. Ever +since the insurrection of 1830, there had been a +steady feeling of sympathy towards the Poles, not +merely as an oppressed nation, but as <i>the</i> nation +whose restoration was the chief duty and necessity of +the champions of liberty. Kossuth declared, at a +somewhat later time, that there was a close connection +between the liberties of Hungary and those of +Poland. Mazzini had been eager to co-operate, +where it was possible, with the exiled Poles. Robert +Blum had shown a special enthusiasm for their cause, +and was ready to help in a rising in Posen. Every +Slavonic race looked on the wrongs of the Poles as +the typical instance of the oppression of the Slavs by +the Great Powers of Europe; while, at the same +time, they honoured them as the most famous fighters +in the cause of Slavonic freedom. But it was in +France that the greatest enthusiasm was felt for +the Poles, and the most complete organization of +the exiles existed. There a special military school +was founded for them in 1843; and in 1846, after a +preparation of three years, the democratic section +among the Poles resolved to strike a decisive blow +against Austria.</p> + +<p>The city of Cracow, on the borders of Galicia, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +the one part of Poland which still maintained a +nominal freedom. The political independence of +Cracow had been secured by the Treaty of Vienna. +The Austrian Government even then wished to +absorb it into their own dominions; but, under pressure +from Russia, Francis consented that Cracow +should be a free town, governed by its own elected +Chamber of Representatives, and surrounded by a +district which was not to be occupied by Austrian +troops; and it was also to exercise complete control +over its army and police. The usual Austrian interpretation +of liberty, however, was soon to be applied +to the Republic of Cracow. Although free trade +between Cracow and Warsaw had been secured by a +regular treaty, the protecting Powers, as they were +called (Austria, Russia, and Prussia), began soon +to insist on prohibitive duties being introduced on +the frontiers of Cracow. Its University, dating from +the fourteenth century, had been secured in its properties +and liberties by the Treaty of Vienna; but, +unfortunately, a large portion of the lands from which +the University drew its income lay within the +dominions of the three protecting Powers, each of +whom refused, under various pretexts, to give up +its share of the land. As to the liberties of the +University, the Austrian Government, in 1817, had +declared that it would inflict a fine of 100 ducats on +any parent who sent his sons to the University of +Cracow; in 1822, the Russian Government followed +this example by a decree forbidding Polish youths to +study in any foreign country, under which title they +specially included Cracow. In the meantime, the +organizing Commission, which had been appointed by +the Powers, was gradually destroying the Constitution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +which had been established by the Treaty of +Vienna. The right to modify laws sent from the +Senate was first taken from the Chamber of Representatives; +while, as to the control of the finances, +which had been specially mentioned in the Treaty, +the House of Representatives was informed that the +accounts were only to be shown to the Chamber in +order to convince them that the Senate had spent the +money, and that the Treasury was empty; though +the Commission graciously allowed the Chamber to +examine and make observations on the accounts, and +assured them that these observations should be sent +to the Senate. The self-government of the University +was, in a similar manner, gradually taken from it; +and, under the excuse of a riot in 1820, the +great Powers, six years later, sent a Russian colonel +to act as supreme ruler of the University. The insurrection +of 1830 in Warsaw had, of course, given +excuse for further interference with the liberties of +Cracow; and, in 1831, Russian soldiers, for a time, +occupied the city. It is hardly necessary to add that +the liberty of the Press, which had been specially +guaranteed by the Treaty of Vienna, had been +gradually crushed out; and a new Commission, +appointed by the three Powers in 1833, revised the +Constitution of Cracow, thereby setting aside the +claims of England and France to have their opinions +considered in any revision of the Treaty. Torture +was revived for the purpose of extorting revelations +of crimes which had never been committed. The +judges had, indeed, retained, for a time, the independence +secured them by the Treaty; but in March, +1837, the Conference, as it was called, of the three +Powers abolished the offices of Mayors of the Commune<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> +and Judges of First Instance, and transferred +their duties to officers of police. In December of the +same year, the protecting Powers decided that the +question of the amount to be expended on the police +and militia should not be submitted to the Chamber. +Then the Chamber, at last, attempted an appeal to +the two Powers whose opinions had been wholly +ignored by the other signatories to the Treaty of +Vienna; but the appeal was, apparently, in vain, and +there seemed no remedy left but insurrection.</p> + +<p>The centralizing principles of the Austrian Government, +on this as on later occasions, paralyzing their +power of action in emergencies, Cracow was seized +and occupied by the democratic leader Tyssowski. +The Government Boards in Galicia were little able to +make head against the movement; and, if Tyssowski +had known how to appeal to the popular sympathies, +he might have been completely successful. Unfortunately, +however, the leaders of the insurrection +had not yet been able to establish that sympathy with +the peasantry of Galicia which alone would have +enabled them to carry out a really popular insurrection; +and, instead of trying to enlist the sympathies +and interest of the peasants on behalf of the movement, +Tyssowski's only idea was to terrorize them +into obedience. He issued a proclamation, announcing +that the whole Empire, during the time of revolution, +is one and common property in the hands of the +revolutionary Government. Every priest who opposed +the rising was to be deprived of his office; anyone who +refused to subscribe to the national cause was to be +seized and brought before a Governor chosen by the +insurgents; every inhabitant, on pain of death, was to +go to the place appointed him, as soon as he knew of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +the outbreak of the insurrection. The peasantry, +alarmed at hearing that many of them had been condemned +to death for their unreadiness to assist the +revolution, appealed to the officials to defend them; +nor could they be conciliated by hearing that the +insurgents were about to abolish all feudal dues and +titles of rank, and to secure a certain amount of land +to every peasant. These offers from unknown people +could not induce the peasants to make friends with +those who were threatening them with death. From +more than seventy districts representatives came from +the peasants to the official authorities at Tarnow +to ask for military help against the revolutionary +leaders; and they were advised to defend themselves +and to arrest the agitators. On February +18th, 1846, the insurrection broke out, and one of +the first actions of the conspirators was to fire on the +peasants who had refused to join them. Then the +peasants, stirred to desperation, rose; and a general +massacre of the nobles began. The dark and underground +methods of the Austrian Government, and +the centralizing principle which had drained out the +strength of the different local governments, had +brought a double Nemesis on its founders. For +while on the one hand the powerlessness of the local +boards caused the early successes of the insurgents, +on the other hand the world at large thought that +the massacre of the nobles of Galicia must have been +organized from Vienna, as a part of the regular +Austrian policy.<a name="Anchor-7" id="Anchor-7"></a><a href="#Footnote-7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> This belief was likely to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +further strengthened by the events which followed. +While Mieroslawski and some of the leaders of the +insurrection surrendered to the Prussian troops, +which had been despatched to prevent a rising in +Silesia and Posen, Metternich struck the final blow +at the independence of Cracow. The account given +above shows that there was little independence left +to be destroyed in that unfortunate city; but somehow +the actual destruction of liberties never excites +so general a horror, especially in the diplomatic +world, as the final removal of the <i>forms</i> of liberty. +And Lord Palmerston, who does not seem to have +responded to the previous appeal from the Assembly +of Cracow, now addressed indignant remonstrances +to Metternich, and uttered the remarkable words, +"If the treaties of 1815 are null on the Vistula, they +may be null on the Rhine and the Po."</p> + +<p>Thus the occupation of Cracow seemed to many to +be an abandonment by Metternich of the semi-legal +position which till then he had, in the eyes of diplomatists, +maintained; while his supposed complicity in +the massacre in Galicia roused against him the feelings +of those humanitarians who do not understand the +wickedness of choking out the moral and intellectual +life of a nation, but who shrink with horror from any +physical cruelty. It is, therefore, no unnatural inference +that the delay which Metternich showed in +making any stern protest against Charles Albert's +new position in Italy may have been due to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +paralysis caused by the storm of indignation roused +against Austria by the Galician massacres and the +annexation of Cracow. Charles Albert profited by +this weakness. He had been shifting as usual in his +policy, encouraged on the one side in moderate +reforms by the Liberal minister, Villamarina, and +dragged, on the other side, into extreme clericalism +by Solaro della Margherita. But, just about the time +when D'Azeglio arrived in Piedmont, events were +occurring which riveted on Charles Albert the hopes +of many who had not hitherto believed in the sincerity +of his desire for reform; and the same circumstances +gave him that position of champion of Italian independence +which, in the eyes of perhaps a majority of +Italians, he continued to maintain till the fall of +Milan in 1848. The chief cause of this change of +feeling is to be found in the following circumstance.</p> + +<p>In the year 1751 a treaty had been made between +Austria and Piedmont by which the former granted +to the latter the right of sending through Lombardy +the salt which they were selling to the Republic of +Venice. In consideration of this boon the King of +Sardinia renounced his trade with the Swiss cantons; +and the treaty was renewed in 1815, after Venice had +passed under the Austrian rule. In 1846 Ticino, +desiring to open a trade in salt with Marseilles, +asked the Piedmontese Government to allow them to +transmit their salt through Piedmont, and Charles +Albert consented.</p> + +<p>The Austrian Government had for some time past +looked with suspicion on Charles Albert. Metternich +had never forgotten his passing outburst of Liberalism +in 1821; and the continual search of the Italian +Liberals for some leader in the War of Independence<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> +was naturally drawing people's eyes to Piedmont. +Few, and comparatively unimportant, as were the reforms +that he introduced, they were enough to increase +the suspicions of Metternich; and, reformer or not, the +King of Sardinia was necessarily an enemy to the +House of Austria. Moreover, Charles Albert had +recently given a tolerably clear hint of his own feelings; +for he had struck a medal representing a lion +(the well-known badge of the House of Savoy) trampling +on an eagle; and on the reverse side of the medal +appeared, "<i lang="fr">J'attends mon astre</i>."</p> + +<p>The concession to the Canton Ticino lighted the +spark which had been smouldering in the breasts of +the Austrian rulers. For of all the States of Europe, +this little canton had become specially obnoxious to +Austria in the last few years; and not long before +this Metternich and Charles Albert had worked +together to stamp out its freedom, and deprive it of +the right of sheltering those Italian exiles who were +dear to the Italian-Swiss from similarity in race and +language. Metternich had failed in that effort, and +the Liberals had risen in the canton and overthrown +the Conservative Government and Austrian influence +together. Any sign, therefore, of friendliness shown +by Charles Albert to the Ticinese was a special cause +of alarm to the Austrians. They declared at once +that the treaty of 1751 had been violated; in April, +1846, they increased the custom duties on the wine +sent from Piedmont to Lombardy; and in order to +mark the hostility of the Act more plainly the same +decree declared that there would be no change with +regard to the wines coming from several of the other +Italian States.</p> + +<p>Solaro della Margherita, though his Conservatism<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> +naturally inclined him to sympathize with the Austrian +Government, was a man who valued the independence +and dignity of Piedmont; and he therefore consented +to Charles Albert's proposal at once to lower the +duties between Piedmont and France, in order to +facilitate the commerce between those countries. +The meaning of this act could not be misunderstood; +and the Austrian ambassador, alarmed at the sudden +defiance, made a proposal to recall the duty on Piedmontese +wines, on condition that Charles Albert +would consent to withdraw his concession to Ticino. +Solaro della Margherita, in his anxiety for a friendly +understanding with Austria, did not perceive that +such a concession would give up the whole principle +at stake, since it would admit the right of Austria to +forbid Charles Albert to make what terms he pleased +with the canton; so Solaro actually urged the King +to agree to the proposal. But Charles Albert stood +firm, and, greatly to Margherita's horror, D'Azeglio +succeeded in persuading the people to get up a +demonstration in Turin, at which cries were heard of +"Long live the King of Italy!"</p> + +<p>Charles Albert, however, though showing some +signs of his usual irresolution, did not draw back from +his policy of hostility to Austria; and he set himself +to promote a railway which should connect Lombardy +and Venetia more closely with Piedmont. The Austrians +made some difficulty with regard to this railway, +and it was on this occasion apparently that the point +was carried against the rulers of Lombardy, to a great +extent, by the energies of a Venetian lawyer, Daniele +Manin, a name afterwards memorable in the records +of Venice. In the meantime D'Azeglio had been +working hard to convince the rest of Italy that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +Charles Albert was preparing to put himself at the +head of an Italian movement and to attack Lombardy. +In Tuscany Professor Montanelli had already formed +a Society for promoting the unity of Italy. Demonstrations +were being made against the Jesuits, and +petitions for changes in taxation and education were +drawn up.</p> + +<p>But it was in the Papal States that D'Azeglio most +hoped to gain ground; and in Forli he came in contact +with Aurelio Saffi, who, with D'Azeglio's encouragement, +prepared an address from the people of Forli to +one of the clerical rulers, calling attention to the +growth of Italian feeling and the desire for action +against the foreigner. The authorities became alarmed +and Saffi's arrest and imprisonment were determined +on, when the death of Gregory XVI. suddenly +changed the whole position of affairs; and Charles +Albert's newly-won fame was for a time dimmed by +that of another hero of the popular imagination; while +Gioberti's teaching, hitherto admired only in a small +circle, and laughed at by many, was suddenly accepted +as the utterance of an inspired prophet, and as embodying +the conception of a profound statesman.</p> + +<p>The state of Roman government at the death of +Gregory XVI. was as follows:—The management of +affairs was entirely in the hands of cardinals, or of +laymen appointed by the Pope. The nobles and the +rich were indeed conciliated to some extent by +appointments which seemed a concession to lay +feeling. The provincial councils, nominated by the +Pope, laid taxes partly on property and partly on +articles of consumption. The study of political +economy was prohibited in the schools; and the +study of law and medicine was but little provided for.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +The press was under a triple censorship, that of the +Inquisition, of the Bishop, and of the Governor of +the province. The police, though vigorous in repressing +political conspirators, were utterly unable to +check highway robbery. In the tribunals which were +administered by the clergy, the grossest corruptions +prevailed. As a natural result of all this, the ablest +and best men of the States were to be found, not in +Rome, but some in France, some in Tuscany, and +some in Piedmont. The government of Rome and +its immediate neighbourhood was corrupt; and the +government of the Legations in some cases became +so cruel as to excite shame even in the Pope himself. +And Monsignore Savelli, one of the worst of these +tyrants, had been guilty of such a combination of +corruption and cruelty that Gregory had been compelled +to remove him from office.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of affairs when Gregory XVI. +died. Tremendous expectation was roused in the +different provinces of the Papal States; an insurrection +broke out in Ancona; and a colonel, who had +distinguished himself for cruelty in that town, was +killed. The cardinals at once despatched Savelli to +suppress the rising. In the meantime the Conclave +met, and the ambassadors of the different Powers +began to intrigue for their respective candidates. +Cardinal Lambruschini was one of the most powerful +members of the sacred college; but he was hated +for his injustice and partisan distribution of offices; +and no sooner had the Conclave opened than attacks +were made on him by Cardinal Micara, on this very +ground. Lambruschini had been appointed by the +influence of the Austrian Court, and might have been +supposed to be their candidate. But whether it were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> +that even the Austrians desired certain concessions +to the policy of reform, which they had themselves +supported after the rising of 1831, or whether it were +that their influence was weakened by the events +which had recently occurred in Galicia, they do not +seem to have used very great pressure on behalf of +Lambruschini.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there had recently arrived in +Rome, as French ambassador, that same Pellegrino +Rossi who had formerly been driven into exile by +the success of the Austrians in 1815, who had contributed +to the <span lang="it">Conciliatore</span> of Confalonieri, and who +had played so important and influential a part among +the Italian exiles in Paris. Rossi declared in favour +of reform in the church, and demanded the election +of someone who both wished and knew how to reform +prudently and efficiently. The person naturally +marked out as the candidate of the Liberals was +Cardinal Gizzi, who had been known for milder +government than that of any of the other Cardinals, +and who had been singled out for exceptional praise +by Massimo D'Azeglio. But where a bitter conflict +of interests arises between the leading candidates, it +is only natural that some unknown man should slip +in; and, as the reformers were probably more in +earnest and more united than the majority of the +opponents of reform, other Liberal candidates were +withdrawn; Giovanni Mastai Ferretti was elected +Pope on June 16th, 1846, and, out of respect for Pius +VII., took the name of Pius IX.</p> + +<p>He was then fifty-four years old and had been +originally intended for the Papal guard; but, being +liable to epileptic fits, he had been refused admission. +He had thereupon become a priest, and had, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> +already mentioned, distinguished himself in 1831 by +the honesty with which he had carried out the terms +of the surrender of Imola. He was so little known, +however, to the general public that a rumour arose, +after his election, that it was really Cardinal Gizzi +who had been chosen. Nor were his future opponents +startled at the choice. Princess Metternich +wrote of him in her diary that he was a man of +exemplary piety, "<i lang="fr">toute fois sans être exalté</i>." Nor +was it till a month later that Pio Nono took the step +which was the foundation of his future popularity. +It was then that he issued a general amnesty in +favour of all those who had been condemned for +political offences. The amnesty, indeed, was carefully +guarded; for only those were admitted to it +who would sign a declaration confessing their previous +offences, and promising future improvement. +Mamiani and others refused to sign this declaration, +and it would have been obvious to anyone who had +thought over the question that this was a demand +which could not be accepted by any men of spirit +and consistency. But men's minds had been excited +by previous events; and the teaching of Gioberti led, +not only the Romans, but Italians in all parts of the +peninsula, to place a meaning upon this amnesty +which was certainly not intended by the Pope himself. +This belief in the reforming intentions of the +Pope was further increased by the bitter hostility +that he excited in that extreme party which had +thriven under Gregory XVI., and which was urged +on by Lambruschini, who, in his disappointed ambition, +began to throw discredit on the election of his +rival and to plot against his authority.</p> + +<p>The appointment of Cardinal Gizzi as Secretary of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +State roused the hopes of the Liberals still further, +and commissions were appointed to examine into the +question of reforms. Yet Gizzi, who was the only +cardinal with the most remote claims to the confidence +of the Liberals, does not seem to have desired +anything more than some slight administrative reforms. +And it may be doubted whether the enthusiasm +for Pius IX. would long have been sustained, +had it not been fostered and directed by a man of a +very different type from any of the philosophical +writers on the politics of Italy.</p> + +<p>This was Angelo Brunetti, better known by his nick-name +of Ciceruacchio. He was a man of poor birth, and +simple habits, who by hard work had made a certain +amount of money, while, by personal beauty, a +peculiar kind of eloquence, and a thorough honesty of +character, he had gained a special influence among +the poorer classes in Rome. A kind of imaginative +enthusiasm had evidently possessed his whole mind; +and this was kindled to the highest degree by the +idea of a reforming Pope. It was to Ciceruacchio, +then, rather than to any utterance of the Pope himself, +that the popular conception of Pius IX. was due. +A kindly priest, wishing to do more justice than his +predecessors, was reflected in Ciceruacchio's mirror +as the liberator and reformer of Italy. The myth +quickly grew. Demonstrations in honour of the Pope +were organized by Ciceruacchio; and, as each new +difficulty or hindrance arose in the path of progress, +he was ready to assure his countrymen that these +hindrances were all due to the wicked cardinals, and +that Pius IX. was eager to remove them. And so, +while the other princes of Italy were being asked to +concede various limitations on their power, in Rome<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> +was heard continually the cry of "<span lang="it">Viva Pio Nono +Solo</span>."</p> + +<p>Thus it came about that this quiet and unpretending +priest found himself magnified in the popular +imagination into a leader of heroic proportions, half +saint, half crusader. It was impossible for him to +resist altogether the fervour of popular enthusiasm, +and it soon spread far beyond the limits of the +Roman State. In December, 1846, a Congress, +nominally intended for scientific discussion, met at +Genoa. These congresses had already begun to give +opportunity for the expression of political opinion, and +two circumstances tended to increase the importance +of this particular meeting. One was, that 1846 was +the centenary of the expulsion of the Austrians from +Genoa, at the close of their temporary occupation +during the Austrian War of Succession. The other +was the presence in this Congress of Charles Lucien +Buonaparte, Prince of Canino. He had already +gained some reputation as a student of physical +science, but his interest in politics was even greater +than his zeal for learning; and he now came to the +Congress to invite the men of science to carry on +their discussions in the Papal States. From this he +naturally passed to the praise of Pius IX. and of +Charles Albert, and to the denunciation of Austria +and Metternich.</p> + +<p>Such an oration, especially when delivered on a +non-political occasion, naturally excited the alarm +of the Austrian Government; and that alarm was +still further increased by the reappearance in +Lombardy of the old feeling of irritation against +Austrian rule. An attempt on the part of the +Austrian Government to seize upon the funds of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> +the Benevolent Societies of Lombardy, in order to +appropriate them for their own purposes, had caused +such a storm of indignation in the provincial Lombard +Councils, that the Government had been compelled +to withdraw the proposal. And as if this awakening +of life had not been sufficiently significant, it was +followed in December, 1846, by a still more alarming +sign of popular feeling.</p> + +<p>Count Confalonieri had been released from the +prison at Spielberg by Ferdinand on his accession +to the throne in 1835, but had been deprived of his +civil rights, and sent to America. The news now +reached Milan that, hearing of the new hopes aroused +by the accession of Pius IX., Confalonieri had set +sail for Italy, but had died on the way. Instantly a +demonstration was organized in his honour, and +Count Gabrio Casati, <span lang="it">Podestà</span> of Milan, took part in +the funeral procession. Bolza, one of the group of +Austrian officials who ruled Milan, took note of all +who attended the ceremony; and when it was +followed by a proposal to form a committee for +erecting a statue to Confalonieri, Bolza threatened +to prohibit the committee altogether. He was not, +however, able to hinder the growing popular feeling +in Milan, and early in the following year, 1847, the +bitterness was increased by a famine. Grain riots +followed; and the Governor of Milan, as the only +method for relieving the distress, prohibited the +export of grain to foreign parts, except to the +German provinces of Austria. Again that terrible +canton of the Ticino protested against this infringement +of a commercial treaty, made between herself +and Austria; and again the Austrian Government +was compelled to yield, and to re-open the grain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> +trade with the Ticinese. Hymns to Pio Nono were +answered with cheers in the Milanese theatre; while +the Viceroy and his family were received, in the +same theatre, in dead silence.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, Pio Nono's reforms, if not important, +were numerous. On March 12th, 1847, +came out a modification of the censorship of the +press, of which the most important point was that +the censorship was to be administered in future by +four laymen and one ecclesiastic. On April 14th, +a Council of State was formed, to be chosen by the +Pope from delegates elected by the provinces; and +this Council was to be allowed to propound opinions +on certain questions of State. Finally, on July 5th, +the Pope granted a civic guard to Rome, and promised +one to the provinces.</p> + +<p>Metternich had now become thoroughly alarmed, +and, whether he sanctioned or not the attempt which +was now made in Rome, there seems to be little +doubt that the friends of Lambruschini did actually +organize a conspiracy against the Pope. The anniversary +of the amnesty of 1846 was the occasion of +the discovery of this conspiracy. A popular demonstration +had been prepared in honour of the day; +but when the organizers of this demonstration appeared, +their first act was to call out the civic guard +to arrest the conspirators. Ciceruacchio paraded +the streets, attended by a great number of people. +Several of the conspirators were seized and imprisoned, +others fled, and none attempted any resistance.</p> + +<p>How far Metternich had sympathized with this +conspiracy can never be known; but its failure +seemed to decide him to strike the blow which he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> +had been meditating. It has already been mentioned +that the Austrians had succeeded in introducing +into the Treaty of Vienna a clause, permitting them +to occupy some part of Ferrara. Pius VII. had +protested against this, as an injury to the Holy See. +Cardinal Consalvi had expressed this protest in the +following words:—"This clause," he said, "is an +unprovoked aggression, deprived of all that could +make a war legitimate under the rights of nations; +an aggression against a weak and innocent State, +which had solemnly proclaimed its neutrality in the +war that agitates other States; an act outside every +human right; and a treaty that is the consequence +of an aggression of such a kind is essentially null +and void."</p> + +<p>Such a protest, and the fact that it was disregarded, +emphasized the important truth that treaty rights, +as understood in Europe, are simply the rights of +the strong to divide the territories of the weak. +Pius IX. had committed no act of aggression against +Austria; and nothing new had arisen to justify the +enforcement of a clause which had been allowed to +remain in abeyance so long. When the Powers of +Europe had desired to compel Gregory XVI. to +reform his dominions after the insurrection of 1831, +Metternich had shrunk, with holy horror, from +the idea of putting pressure on an independent +Prince; but now that Pius IX. had introduced +reforms far short of those recommended by the +Powers in 1833, Metternich seized the opportunity +to despatch Austrian forces to Ferrara.</p> + +<p>A cry of indignation arose from all parts of Italy. +The Milanese seized the opportunity of the appointment +of an Italian Archbishop of Milan to organize<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> +an Italian demonstration. A league was formed for +commercial purposes between Rome, Sardinia, and +Tuscany; and it was supposed that Pius IX. and +Charles Albert would declare war upon Austria. +Neither of those Princes, however, were ready for +the emergency. Pius IX. hardly knew yet what +attitude he should take up towards the Italian +movement. Charles Albert was as usual hesitating +between different policies. But fortunately, besides +the moral objections to the occupation of Ferrara, +it appeared that there were diplomatic doubts about +the interpretation of the clause which excused it. +And, while the mere cowardice and injustice of an +insult to a weak State might have passed unavenged, +the wrong interpretation of the word "<i>place</i>" in +the clause of a treaty could not be permitted without +a protest.</p> + +<p>Lord Palmerston, however, had shown on more +than one occasion his loathing of the policy of +Metternich; and he was doubtless glad enough of +this diplomatic excuse for forwarding the cause of +Constitutional Liberty. Lord Minto was despatched +to Italy to encourage the various princes to stand +firm in the cause of reform; and in December, 1847, +the Austrian troops consented to withdraw from +Ferrara, after having succeeded, by their occupation +of it, in consolidating against them an amount of +Italian feeling such as they had hardly aroused till +then.</p> + +<p>The first and most startling expression of this +feeling, and of the consequent determination of the +Italians to break loose from Austrian influence, came +from a prince whom Metternich had probably hardly +recognized as an opponent. Leopold of Tuscany,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +however much disposed to avoid collision with his +kinsman, the Emperor of Austria, could not altogether +free himself from the rush of reforming zeal +which was spreading through Italy. That triumph +of Austrian and Papal policy in Tuscany, which had +been signalized by the surrender of Renzi and the +expulsion of Massimo d'Azeglio, had lasted a comparatively +short period, and even during that period +the reaction had not been complete. The influence of +the Jesuits had increased in Tuscany after the fall of +Corsini, and that influence has always excited an +hostility which no other form of tyranny has produced; +and the University of Pisa, under the influence of +Cosimo Ridolfi, was specially zealous in protesting +against their influence. As Ridolfi gained ground in +Leopold's Council, Metternich had become alarmed, +and tried to counteract his influence and to drive +him from office. Leopold, however, refused to yield to +this pressure, and, as the reforming movement spread, +he advanced further and further in his sympathies +with Italian freedom. Freedom of the press was +granted; many new journals were started; and when +the civic guard was conceded, great demonstrations +were held in Florence, and an attempt was made to +revive the memories of Francesco Ferruccio and +other heroes of the past. Professor Montanelli, +already known as a writer, now took a prominent +part in the political movement, organized a deputation +to Pius IX. to entreat him to grant liberty of +the press, to expel the Jesuits, and to declare war +upon Austria. Domenico Guerrazzi, who had assisted +at the foundation of Young Italy, seconded the efforts +of Montanelli, and Leopold became, almost against +his will, marked out as a reforming sovereign.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p> + +<p>The movement now spread beyond Tuscany and +affected the dominions of the Duke of Lucca. This +Duke was one of those eccentric princes who combined +despotism and a reliance on Austria with a certain +love of playing at Liberalism with foreign exiles. +This game was not carried on with any of those +ambitious objects which had led Francis of Modena +to play with rebellion in 1831; but it rather arose +from a love of clever literary lions, coupled with those +tendencies to eccentricity which might be natural to +a prince with no great responsibilities and a certain +amount of cleverness. When, however, the Liberal +movement spread to Lucca, he dropped his dilettantism +and proposed to suppress Liberalism by force. Finding +that the people rose against him, he consented to +yield all which Leopold of Tuscany had granted; but +his subjects were unwilling to trust a prince who was +the ruler of so small a State under the influence +of Austria, and who had only yielded to reform +under sudden pressure; so they continued to make +further demands. The Duke, weary of the struggle, +and very likely desirous to avoid bloodshed, took +advantage of a clause in the Treaty of Vienna +which constituted the Grand Duke of Tuscany his +heir, and resigned his dominions forthwith to Leopold. +At the same time, he desired to exempt from this +surrender the two towns of Pontremoli and Bagnone +and to hand them over to the Duke of Modena. +Leopold accepted the territory of Lucca; but, by the +same clause which had constituted him the heir to +the Duke of Lucca, he was bound, on acquiring the +territory, to surrender to the Duke of Modena the +district of Fivizzano. Now, of all the princes of +Italy, none had been more utterly subservient to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> +Austria than the Duke of Modena, and the people of +Fivizzano therefore resented the proposal to annex +them to Modena. The Duke of Modena thereupon +called on the Austrian Marshal Radetzky to help +him to enforce his demands; and, while Leopold of +Tuscany was preparing to fix a day for the surrender +of Fivizzano, the Duke of Modena marched his +troops into the town and massacred the unarmed +inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Both the Pope and the Grand Duke protested +against this cruelty; and Leopold, wishing to keep +Fivizzano in consequence of the people's preference +for his rule, offered to make Charles Albert and the +Pope arbiters between him and the Duke of Modena. +In the meantime the citizens of Pontremoli and +Bagnone sprang to arms in order to resist the entrance +of the Duke of Modena. The Austrians had +by this time sent forces to assist the Duke; but +though they were able to secure the submission of +Fivizzano, the Duke of Modena was forced to surrender +Pontremoli and Bagnone. Less than a fortnight +after this treaty the Duchess of Parma died, +and the Duke of Lucca succeeded to her territory. +Here he immediately found himself confronted by a +new insurrection; but, unwilling to trouble himself +further, he fled to Milan, leaving the Austrian troops +to occupy Parma. This occupation and the despatch +of forces to Modena tended to strengthen the bitterness +which had already been roused by the occupation +of Ferrara, so that, when the Austrians consented to +the evacuation of that town, they merely incurred the +shame of a diplomatic defeat without lessening the +causes of Italian bitterness against them.</p> + +<p>But the evacuation of Ferrara was not the only<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> +diplomatic defeat which the year 1847 brought to +Metternich. The blow which was to be recognized +by all Europe as one of the most fatal which the +cause of despotism had yet sustained was to come +from a little State which seemed to stand outside the +ordinary politics of Europe.</p> + +<p>The territory of the Swiss Confederation had been +increased by the Treaty of 1815; but this had by no +means led to such a complete strengthening of Switzerland +as the most patriotic Swiss would have +desired. The aristocratic party had been restored in +several of the cantons, and the customs duties on the +frontiers of the separate cantons had been renewed. +But what specially alarmed the Liberals of Switzerland +was a clause, which the Papal Nuncio had +introduced into the Treaty of Vienna, giving the +monasteries of Switzerland an independent position. +It must be remembered that the early struggles of +the Swiss cantons against the House of Austria had +been connected with the throwing off of the influence +of the monks, who had been patronized by the Hapsburgs; +and in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth +centuries the combination of the Roman Catholic cantons +had tended to strengthen the influence of foreign +Powers in Switzerland, and in some cases had even +endangered the unity of the Confederation. The +extreme Roman Catholic party in Switzerland were, +therefore, naturally inclined to oppose reform, +and to weaken the Confederation. And after the +July Monarchy of France had begun to show its +Conservative tendencies, the Liberals of Switzerland +began to fear that their reforms might be checked by +outside influence. As early as the year 1831, Metternich, +already alarmed at the Polish and Belgian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> +risings, as well as at the movements in Italy and +Germany, remarked that there was still another +question to which the Cabinets must devote their +attention, "the moral anarchy which reigns in Switzerland." +And the expedition of Mazzini in 1833-4 +increased the alarm of the Austrian Government. In +the steady-going canton of Bern there was always an +element of moderate Conservatism, which led the +Government to shrink from sympathy with the insurrectionary +plans of other parts of Europe; and +they even called upon the other cantons to assist +them in suppressing the revolutionary movement. +But the sturdier Liberals of Zurich protested against +this circular, and led the way in internal democratic +changes, in which they were followed by several +other cantons. Utterances like those of Metternich +tended to draw the reformers together; and in March, +1832, while Metternich was no doubt meditating the +Frankfort Decrees, which he carried out a few months +later, the seven Liberal cantons formed a league in +which they bound themselves to stand by each other +in case of an attack on their freedom.</p> + +<p>The cantons which entered into this concordat +were Bern, Zurich, Luzern, Solothurn, St. Gallen, +Aargau, and Thurgau. This league was considered +by its opponents to be a violation of the Swiss Confederation, +though the champions of it would probably +have pleaded its purely defensive character. But the +Roman Catholic party felt themselves justified in retaliation; +and they formed, in November, 1832, an +opposition league called the Sarnerbund. This Bund +steadily set itself to oppose reform; but the men of +Schwytz, who were at that time its leading spirits, +did not confine themselves to argument, but invaded<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +Luzern in 1833. Thereupon the Diet interfered, +occupied Schwytz, and dissolved the Sarnerbund. +The reforming party now began to spread their ideas, +and the new University of Zurich, which was founded +at this time, became a fresh centre of intellectual life. +The fugitives from other countries gathered more +and more to Switzerland, and the excitement roused +in that country by Mazzini's expedition to Savoy +led to the foundation of a society called Young +Europe.</p> + +<p>The great object to which the reforming party in +Switzerland now devoted its attention was the breaking +down of the authority of the clergy, and the placing +education and marriage under the State instead of +under the Church. Their scheme was embodied in +fourteen articles which excited the indignation of +the Roman Catholic cantons; on the appeal of the +Roman Catholics to Gregory XVI., he declared these +articles heretical; and a little later Louis Philippe +intervened to prevent the canton of Bern from enforcing +them in the Roman Catholic district of the +Jura.</p> + +<p>The struggle had now risen to great bitterness; +and, at this period, the bitterness was much intensified +by the domestic character of the quarrel. The +Radical party and the Roman Catholic party struggled +fiercely against each other in several of the +cantons; and there were changes in the government, +backwards and forwards, which temporarily affected +the contest. The two changes, however, which were +of a permanent character, and which had a vital +effect on the destinies of Switzerland, were that which +took place in 1838 in Bern and that in Luzern in +1841. Bern, though reckoned, on the whole, among<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> +the Liberal cantons, in consequence of its undoubted +Protestantism, was yet under the control of a timid +and moderate party. This may have arisen from the +fact of its important position in the Confederation; +for though Bern divided at this time with Luzern and +Zurich the honour of being the meeting-place of the +Diet, yet it seems to have assumed, even at this +period, a certain superior and initiative tone.</p> + +<p>Whether it was due to the sense of responsibility +inspired by this position, or to some other cause, +certain it is that the tone adopted by the Government +of Bern in matters of foreign policy by no means +satisfied the sterner Radicals of Switzerland. The +proposal of Bern for an anti-revolutionary proclamation +in 1830 had been defeated by the protest of +Zurich; but when in 1838 Bern considered, not unfavourably, +the demand for the expulsion of a refugee, +the Radicals became furious.</p> + +<p>This was one among many instances of that curious +irony of history by which great principles have to be +asserted in defence of persons who are in themselves +unworthy of protection; for the exile, whose surrender +was now demanded by Louis Philippe, was +Louis Napoleon Buonaparte, who had recently made +his attempt on Strasburg. But the Radicals of Bern +rightly felt that the principle of asylum was more +important than the character of any particular refugee; +and when Louis Napoleon left Switzerland to avoid +being surrendered, the reforming party rose in indignation, +and Bern became the centre of determined +Radicalism from that time. The change in Luzern +seems to have been due to an extension of the suffrage +which threw the power more distinctly into the hands +of the Roman Catholics, who were a majority in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> +canton; and thus Luzern became the centre of the +Roman Catholic movement.</p> + +<p>But before that change had taken place, new elements +of bitterness had been introduced into the +discussion. Neuhaus, the new leader of the Bern +Government, had been chosen president of the Confederation; +and he had used the troops of the Confederation +to help the Aargau Protestants in suppressing +the monasteries in that canton. The majority of the +Swiss Diet had, however, been unwilling to support +Neuhaus in this action, and had even condemned the +suppression of the Aargau monasteries. The Aargau +Protestants, however, had refused to yield, except +as to the restoration of two very small monasteries. +The feeling on both sides had now risen to its highest +point, and on September 13th, 1843, the six cantons +of Luzern, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, and Freyburg +formed the alliance known as the Sonderbund. +They appealed to the old treaties on which the Confederation +was founded, and maintained that even the +terms of the Confederation fixed by the Treaty +of Vienna had not been observed in the matter +of the protection of the rights of the Roman +Catholics.</p> + +<p>The compromise to which the Diet had assented in +the Aargau question, and their non-interference on +behalf of some monasteries at Thurgau, excited a +special protest from the Sonderbund, and they demanded +that the Diet should set these things to rights. +So far the Sonderbund could scarcely be logically +condemned by those who had joined the Protestant +Concordat of Seven in 1832. But the Roman +Catholic cantons went on to say that, if their demands +were rejected, they would consider that the principles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> +of the Confederation were so completely violated that +they would secede from it.</p> + +<p>The formation of the Sonderbund excited their +opponents; and it was declared that France, Austria, +and the Pope were intriguing against Switzerland. +The Jesuits, as usual, were supposed to be the centre +of the intrigues; and the cry was raised that they +ought to be expelled from the Confederation. +Hitherto they had chiefly settled in Schwytz and +Freyburg; but it was believed that if a cry rose +against them they would become less safe in those +cantons; and Luzern, as one of the three chief towns +of the Confederation, was supposed to be a safer +resting-place; therefore, on September 12th, 1844, +the Assembly of Luzern passed a resolution inviting +the Jesuits to settle in Luzern.</p> + +<p>Strange to say, Bern and Zurich had somewhat +changed places during this period; for while the +indignation against the former Government of Bern, +caused by their abandonment of the right of asylum, +had produced a strong and permanent Radical feeling +in that canton, the bitter hostility to Christianity +shown by some of the leading Radicals of Zurich had, +on the other hand, scandalized the more moderate +Liberals, and produced a Government less keenly +Radical than that which now ruled in Bern. At this +crisis, unfortunately, the Government of Bern took a +step which could scarcely have tended to the order +and unity of Switzerland. They appointed a committee +to attack the Jesuits, and organized volunteer +regiments, which they despatched against Luzern. +And the want of confidence in the central power, +which had been proclaimed by the Sonderbund, +seemed to be almost justified by the action of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> +Diet at their next meeting; for that body, while condemning +the Bernese volunteers, refused to take any +steps to hinder their march. The attack of the +volunteers was, however, successfully repelled by +Luzern; and the Sonderbund soon after proceeded to +form a council of war for its own protection.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, Metternich had become more and +more alarmed at the progress of affairs in Switzerland. +The defeat of the efforts of Austria and +Sardinia to defend the Conservative cause in the +Ticino, and the subsequent alliance between the +Ticinese and Charles Albert, had strengthened the +fears which had been previously aroused in the +Austrian Government by the shelter given by the +Swiss to the European Revolutionists. Even in 1845 +Metternich had despatched troops to the frontier of +Switzerland; he looked upon the struggle of the +Catholic cantons as a means for carrying out his +policy of weakening the union of Switzerland; and, +through the help of Solaro della Margherita, he succeeded +in rousing Charles Albert's sympathies for the +cause of the Sonderbund. But to others he frankly +said that he was not fighting in the least for the +Jesuits—"They do not make us hot or cold;" and +instead of resting his appeal to the Diet on so doubtful +a ground, he earnestly entreated Louis Philippe to +prevent the violent substitution of a unitary and propagandist +government "for the cantonal government +of Switzerland."</p> + +<p>To say the truth, it was for the stability of Austrian +government in Italy that Metternich was now +alarmed; and Mentz had warned him that a strong +and united government in Switzerland would be +dangerous to Austria in Lombardy. When, then,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> +the election of a Radical government by the canton of +St. Gallen made the character of the coming Swiss Diet +tolerably certain, Metternich thought that the time +had come for decided action; and he desired that +before the meeting of the Diet, Austria, France, +Russia, and Prussia should declare that they would +not suffer cantonal authority to be violated. England, +however, Metternich well knew would be opposed to +him. Ever since the recognition of Greek independence +in 1830 Metternich had become aware that a +statesman had arisen in England who, though inferior +to Canning in width of sympathy and capacity for +sudden and ready action, yet was Canning's equal in +strength of will, and in the thorough grasp of the two +convictions that Constitutionalism was better than +Despotism, and that Metternich was a dangerous +politician who should always be opposed.</p> + +<p>Palmerston, indeed, had not accomplished any such +brilliant stroke of foreign policy as the breaking up +of the Holy Alliance, or the defeat of Absolutism in +Portugal, and had only played a late and subordinate +part in the Greek question. But he had helped to +save Belgium from the clutches both of France and +Holland. He had uttered as decided a protest as +was, perhaps, possible to him, against the Frankfort +Decrees. And he had recently intimated plainly his +opinion about the annexation of Cracow. The occupation +of Ferrara had not at that time taken place; +but Palmerston's utterance about the Treaty of +Vienna on the Po had sufficiently indicated to Metternich +the line which English feeling was taking +with regard to Italian policy. But, though certain +of the hostility of Palmerston, Metternich fully hoped +to counterbalance that danger by securing France to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> +his side. With Guizot he had long been on terms of +cordial friendship; and each had sympathized with the +other in various points of their political career. But, +unfortunately for Metternich, in the Italian question +Guizot had not seemed entirely sympathetic with +Austria; for the Lombard exile, Pellegrino Rossi, +who was now French ambassador at Rome, was the +special friend and <i>protegé</i> of Guizot; and as it was +primarily for the sake of Austrian rule in Italy that +Metternich cared about the Swiss question, he might +find that here, too, French opinion did not coincide +with Austrian.</p> + +<p>It soon appeared that Louis Philippe shrank from +an alliance with Austria. He declared that any +declaration by the four Powers, instead of hindering +any outburst in Switzerland might hasten it; and +Guizot was directed to propose that, instead of a +common action by the four Powers, Austria should +undertake alone the defence of the Sonderbund, +France merely occupying some position in the territory +of the Confederation. Metternich, however, +remembered that during the intervention in the Papal +States, in 1831-2, a French general had seized on +Ancona, and had attempted a demonstration there, +at first of a Republican character, and throughout +entirely anti-Austrian. And he feared that, if he +consented to Guizot's proposal, the French Radicals +might turn the occupation of Swiss territory to their +advantage.</p> + +<p>While France and Austria were thus wasting their +time in wrangling, the Swiss Diet met. Ochsenbein, +an even more energetic man than Neuhaus, had been +chosen President of the Confederation; and on the +20th July, 1847, the Diet had declared that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> +Sonderbund was incompatible with the Treaty of +Confederation. This was speedily followed by the +dismissal from the service of the Confederation of all +those who held office in the cantons of the Sonderbund; +and finally, in September, the Diet decreed +that the Assemblies of Luzern, Schwytz, Freyburg, +and Valais should be invited to expel the Jesuits +from their territory. The Sonderbund probably felt +that a direct military resistance to the whole forces +of the Diet would be hopeless, and therefore they +resolved to make a separate attack on some of the +smaller cantons. With this view they prepared to +march their troops from Luzern against Aargau, +which they considered one of the centres of Protestant +tyranny; and about the same time the canton of +Uri resolved to invade the Ticino. In both these +cases the Sonderbund hoped to rouse a popular insurrection +on their side, but in this they were singularly +mistaken.</p> + +<p>Previously to 1815 Uri had exercised a special +authority over Ticino, and had used it to thrust in +German officials in place of Italian. The Treaty of +Vienna had secured Ticino from these tyrannies; but +the Ticinese remembered them, and resented this +new invasion. The troops of Uri were indeed able +to gain one or two successes; but the people of Ticino +rose against them, and, after a short, sharp struggle, +succeeded in driving them out of the canton. The +expedition to Aargau proved equally unsuccessful, +and, in the meantime, the Federal Diet was organizing +its forces under the command of General Dufour, a +Genevese. They resolved that Freyburg, as the +nearest of the Sonderbund cantons to Bern, and as +geographically separated off from its allies, should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> +be the first object of attack; and on November 7, +Rilliet, the commander of the first division of the +Federal forces, issued the following order of the day +to his troops:—</p> + +<p>"You are the first Federal troops who have entered +the Freyburg territory. Your bearing at this moment +will give the tone to the whole division. Consider +that you are entering on a Federal territory, that you +are marching against members of the Federation, +who for centuries have been your friends, and will +be so again. Consider that they are rather misled +than guilty. Consider that they are neighbours, and +that you ought to be fighting under the same flag. +Therefore be moderate; refute the slanders of those +who are driving them on. Listen not to false +rumours, nor to foolish provocations to violence. +Listen only to your leaders, and leave to your opponents +the responsibility of having fired the first shot +against the Federal flag. Soldiers! I rely on you as +on myself; and do you trust in God, who marches +before the flag of good, right, and honour."</p> + +<p>To the Freyburger Rilliet appealed to receive the +Federal troops as brothers and friends, and as obeying +the God whom Protestants and Catholics alike +worship. "Lay down your arms," he said, "not +before us, but before our flag, which is yours also."</p> + +<p>These appeals were not without result. At one of +the first towns at which the Federal troops arrived in +the canton of Freyburg, the townsfolk threw off the +authority of the Cantonal Boards, raised the Federal +flag, and admitted the Federal troops. Two slight +skirmishes took place after this between the Federal +forces and those of the canton; but the former were +easily victorious. On November 12 the Federal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> +troops appeared before the town of Freyburg; and on +the 14th it was surrendered to them. Large numbers +of the citizens received them with cries of "Long live +the Confederates! Down with the Sonderbund! +Down with the Jesuits!"</p> + +<p>The leaders of the Sonderbund at Luzern were +startled at this sudden collapse, and resolved to +apply for foreign help; and it was on November 15, +1847, that the descendants of Reding and Winkelried +appealed to the descendants of Leopold of Hapsburg +for help against their fellow-confederates.</p> + +<p>Metternich would gladly have intervened; and he +hastened to assure the Sonderbund that the Emperor +of Austria considered their cause a just one. Still, +however, he desired the co-operation of France; but +Guizot hesitated, and when Palmerston announced +that any demonstration in favour of the Sonderbund +would be met by a counter-demonstration by England +on the side of the Federal Diet, the French Government +distinctly refused to have any share in intervention.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Sonderbund was rapidly +breaking down. The Protestant party had gained +the upper hand in the little canton of Zug, and persuaded +the Government to surrender to the Diet even +before the Federal troops had appeared in the canton. +The occupation of Zug was speedily followed by a +march to Luzern. On November 23 the Federal +troops encountered the forces of Luzern and drove +them back after a sharp fight. On the following day +the War Council of the Sonderbund fled from Luzern +and the Federal troops entered it. After this defeat +there was no further serious resistance; by November +29 the last canton of the Sonderbund had surrendered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> +to the Diet, and on December 7 the Diet +passed a formal resolution refusing to admit any +mediation from the Great Powers. So ended the +Sonderbund war; and whatever harshness the Diet +and the Protestant cantons may have shown in the +earlier part of the struggle towards their Catholic +neighbours, they had at least consistently upheld the +principle of national independence, and by their +vigour and determination they had saved the unity +of Switzerland and defeated Metternich.</p> + +<p>Nor were these the only defeats which the ruler +of Europe sustained in the year 1847. In Germany, +too, there were signs that the old system was giving +way. Metternich, indeed, had hoped that the King +of Prussia had been about to abandon the policy +which he had followed from 1840 to 1843; for in +1846 a meeting had taken place between Metternich +and the King in which Frederick William had shown +signs of alarm at the popular movement. But this +change of feeling had been only temporary, for an +event had occurred soon after which had given a +new impulse to German national feeling, and re-awakened +thereby the popular sympathies of the +King of Prussia.</p> + +<p>On July 8, 1846, the King of Denmark, Christian +VIII., issued a proclamation in which he +declared that he should consider the provinces of +his Crown as forming one sole and same State. +This was felt to be undoubtedly aimed at the independence +of Schleswig-Holstein. That Duchy had, +since the middle of the fifteenth century, been recognized +as a separate province, of which the King of +Denmark was duke (till that time Schleswig had +been a fief of Denmark and Holstein of Germany).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> +In the seventeenth century a practically absolute +Government had been established in Denmark; but +in 1830 the liberties of that country had been restored, +and soon after a cry had arisen from some of +the Radical party at Copenhagen in favour of the +conquest of Schleswig.</p> + +<p>But the object of the popular party and that of +the King were entirely unlike; the Democratic party +desiring to assert what they considered a national +principle by the separation of Schleswig from Holstein +and its absorption in Denmark; the King +wishing to absorb Schleswig-Holstein whole into +the Danish dominions, without consideration for +anything but selfish aggrandizement. As a compromise +between his own aims and those of the +people of Copenhagen, Christian, in 1831, conceded +separate assemblies to Holstein and Schleswig; but +he had followed this up by steadily trying to Danize +the Duchies. Danish officers were introduced into +their army and navy, even into their private ships; +Danish teachers were appointed in the University of +Kiel; the liberty of the Press was continually interfered +with, and arms were removed from the forts of +Schleswig-Holstein to Copenhagen. Thus it became +evident that the proclamation of July, 1846, was +merely another step towards the complete denationalization +of the Duchies.</p> + +<p>Metternich was in a difficult position. On the one +hand he was bound by the Treaty of Vienna to assert +the rights of Austria to protect Holstein as a member +of the German Confederation; on the other hand he +knew that by so doing he was strengthening that +German national feeling which he so much dreaded. +"In the University of Heidelberg," wrote Metternich,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> +"in the municipal councils of German towns, in the +gatherings of professors and of choral societies, the +cry is being raised for the Fatherland." The professors +of Heidelberg had sent a special address to +the Holsteiners, and it was clear on every side that +German sentiment was rising to boiling point. Under +these circumstances Metternich tried to steer between +the dangers of encouraging popular feeling and that +of neglecting to assert the legal influence of Austria. +Finally, he persuaded the Federal Diet, on September +17, 1846, to pass two resolutions—First, +that, apart from his letter of July 8, the King of +Denmark should respect all the rights which he had +promised to respect in a private letter of August 22; +but, secondly, that, "while the Confederation pays +just honour to the patriotic sentiments shown on this +occasion by the Confederated German States, it regrets +the passionate accusations and irritations which +were produced by this circumstance."</p> + +<p>So for the moment Metternich hoped to stave off +the natural results of this outburst of popular feeling. +But he could not prevent the effect which that outburst +would produce on the more impressionable +character of the King of Prussia. One of those who +had had much opportunity of observing that king +remarked that whoever was a favourite with him for +the time and managed to indulge his fancies had the +game in his own hands; and the Ministers who then +enjoyed the confidence of Frederick William were +eager to encourage him in complying with the +popular feeling. So, in spite of Metternich's warnings, +the King of Prussia, in January, 1847, had +summoned to Berlin the representatives of all the +Provincial Estates to discuss affairs. "The King,"<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> +said Princess Metternich, "has promulgated this +Constitution without force and without virtue, which +is nothing to-day, but which to-morrow may change +into thunder and destroy the Kingdom."</p> + +<p>But the concessions which the King of Prussia +was making only embodied a feeling which was +stirring in various parts of Germany. A terrible +famine in Silesia was quickening the desire of the +poorer classes for some change in their condition; +the booksellers and literary men were uttering +various demands for freedom of the Press; and when +a meeting of the Baden Liberals at Offenburg tried +to formulate these demands, the organizers of the +meeting were threatened with a prosecution which +never took place.</p> + +<p>Such, then, was Metternich's position towards the +close of 1847; discredited as a champion of legality +by the annexation of Cracow, looked on with suspicion +by many orthodox Catholics in consequence +of his attempt on Ferrara, his power as a ruler and +his reputation as a diplomatist alike weakened by +the result of the Sonderbund war. The result of +these various failures was seen in the attitude both +of kings and peoples. The King of Prussia was +breaking loose from Metternich's control; France +was suspicious and England hostile; Charles Albert +was assuming more and more an attitude of defiance +to Austria; the Pope was drifting gradually into the +position of a champion of Italian Liberty; German +national feeling, which Metternich had hoped to +stamp out in 1834, was bubbling up into new life +under the triple influence of the Schleswig-Holstein +question, the King of Prussia's reforms, and the +growing Liberalism of Saxony and Baden; while<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> +Hungary, which had seemed hopelessly divided, was +gradually solidifying into opposition to Austrian +rule. Such were the chief points in the spectacle +which presented itself to Metternich as he looked +upon Europe. Yet he was far indeed from thinking +of yielding in the struggle, or of abandoning in the +slightest degree his faith in his great system. He +was still prepared to crush Switzerland and Charles +Albert, to lead back the Pope and the King of +Prussia into wiser courses, to quench the spirit of +German enthusiasm, to wear out Hungarian opposition, +to recover the friendship of France, and to +defy the enmity of England. Such results seemed +still possible when, in an Italian island to which +Metternich had not recently given much attention, +there first broke out that revolutionary fire which, +under judicious guidance, was to spread over Europe +and overthrow the system of Metternich.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /><small>FIRST MUTTERINGS OF THE STORM. +SEPTEMBER, 1847-MARCH, 1848.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>State of Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II.—The birds +and the King.—The conspiracy.—The September rising and its +results.—Christmas in Naples.—The 12th of January in Palermo.—The +insurrection spreads to Naples.—The first Constitution of +1848.—The effect in Rome—in Tuscany—in Genoa.—The editors +of Turin.—"<span lang="it">Voleva e non voleva.</span>"—The government of Milan.—The +Milanese view of their rulers.—Count Gabrio Casati—Ficquelmont.—The +"<span lang="la">Panem et Circenses</span>" policy.—Giambattista +Nazari—His speech in the Congregation.—Its effect.—Rainieri +and Spaur on Nazari.—The grievances of different parts of +Lombardy.—Condition of Venetia.—Charles Bonaparte in +Venice.—Daniele Manin.—Niccolo Tommaseo.—Manin's programme.—Moncenigo's +treachery.—Manin's imprisonment.—The +tobacco massacres at Milan.—Their effect.—Metternich's programme +of Italian reform.—"<span lang="it">Viva il sangue Palermitano!</span>"—The +"Administrators" in Hungary.—The programme of Kossuth +and Deak.—The Constitutional victories in Hungary.—State of +Vienna.—The division of classes.—The ruling trio.—Effect of +Ferdinand's accession in Vienna.—The "<span lang="de">Lese-Verein</span>."—Hye-Andrian.—Kuranda +and Schuselka.—The German movement in +Vienna considered morally.—The Archduke John's toast.—The +relations between rich and poor.—The anti-Jesuit feeling.—The +illegal soup-kitchen.—The "Professional" opposition.—<span lang="de">Die +Sibyllinische Bücher.</span>—"The Austrian has no fatherland."—The +censorship.—Metternich's policy in Switzerland—in Lombardy.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>The failure of the struggles for liberty in Naples and +Sicily in 1821 had not prevented continual abortive +insurrections from breaking out after that period;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> +and, while these attempts produced no immediate +results except the strengthening of tyranny, they were +yet gradually teaching Sicilians and Neapolitans the +two great lessons of confidence in each other and +distrust of the Bourbons. Francis had succeeded to +Ferdinand I., and Ferdinand II. again to Francis; +and, unless there were some slight variety in the forms +of cruelty and tyranny, the change of kings may be +said to have brought no change to the peoples whom +they governed. Corruption and espionage prevailed +both in Naples and Sicily. The only perceptible +distinction between those two countries was that the +clergy exercised rather more tyranny in Naples, while +in Sicily robbery and brigandage were more rife. The +Bourbons, like the Hapsburgs, sought to keep alive +the disunion between the different races of their +subjects, thus hoping to increase their own power; +and so Sicilian Ministers were brought to govern +Naples, and Neapolitan commissioners sent to Sicily. +The desire for reform awakened by the accession of +Pius IX. was a bond between all the different countries +of Italy, and the King of Naples recognized this by suppressing +all newspapers in his dominions that praised +Pius IX. But Ferdinand was not to be left altogether +without warning before the blow against his power +was actually struck. In June, 1847, he paid a visit to +Sicily to inspect the military defences of the island. +In visiting Messina he found several statues of himself, +but the ears of all of them had been stopped up. +The King was alarmed; for, whether he understood +or not this significant practical joke, he saw at +least that some insult was intended. Perhaps he +was able to accept the explanation of his courtiers +that "the birds had chosen the ears of the royal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> +statues to build their nests in." At Palermo he +received another hint as to the nature of the birds +who had paid this homage to royalty, for there he +was met by a petition for freedom of the Press. He +angrily rejected this request, and refused to make +any inquiry into the growing misery of the Sicilians. +More soldiers and stronger forts, he considered, were +the only needs of the country.</p> + +<p>Yet at this very time an insurrection was preparing +of a far more dangerous character than the spasmodic +outbursts in Messina and Calabria which had disturbed +the repose, but scarcely endangered the throne, +of Ferdinand's predecessors. The Sicilians and +Neapolitans had now learned to act together, and +planned a simultaneous rising in Calabria and Sicily. +The revolutionists were to march upon the nearest +fortified places, and eventually to seize Naples, where +they were to proclaim the Unity of Italy. According +as circumstances guided them, they were either to +compel the King to accept the Constitution, to depose +him in favour of his son, to choose a new dynasty, or, +if necessary, to proclaim a Republic; but in any case +they were to assert the unity and independence of +Italy.</p> + +<p>Some hint of an approaching outbreak seems to +have reached the ears of the King or his Ministers; +for in August two artillery officers and some other +citizens were arrested in Palermo. "But," says La +Farina, the Sicilian historian, "nothing could be +discovered, since the Sicilians knew better than any +nation how to stand firm in preserving silence in all +tortures: an ancient virtue not yet destroyed by +modern corruption."</p> + +<p>The miserable local jealousies which had hindered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> +the former struggles for liberty had for a time disappeared; +but there was still in this conspiracy, as in +every other, the natural division between the impetuous +and the prudent, between the party of speedy +action and the party of delay. And while the fiery +spirits of Messina and Calabria were eager for an +immediate rising, the citizens of the two capitals, +Palermo and Naples, were in favour of slower action. +At Messina, therefore, the first outbreak took place. +On September 1 some officers met at an inn in that +town to celebrate the promotion of one of their +generals by a dinner. The conspirators seized this +opportunity for an outbreak, and surrounded the inn +as if from mere curiosity; but when sufficient +numbers had gathered they suddenly unfurled the +tricolour flag and raised the cries of <span lang="it">"Viva Italia!" +"Viva Pio Nono!" "Viva la Costituzione!"</span> The +officers at last became alarmed, and, rushing out, +summoned the soldiers and ordered them to fire. +They hesitated to obey, and listened to the appeal of +the conspirators, who urged their common cause and +the duty of Neapolitans and Sicilians to stand +together against their common oppressor. Discipline, +however, proved stronger than patriotism; +the soldiers fired, and several Sicilians fell, amongst +them Giovanni Grillo, the youth who had played the +part of the birds in stopping the ears of the King's +statues.</p> + +<p>The insurgents retreated; but a shoemaker named +Sciva, who was at work near the scene of action, left +his shop and rushed forward to rally them; and a +priest named Kriny also fought gallantly in their ranks. +The movement, however, had been too +hastily organized; the insurgents were either forced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> +to fly or were arrested on the spot, and Sciva, the +shoemaker, was condemned to death. The authorities, +indeed, hoped to persuade him to save his life +by betraying his friends; but he refused, even on the +scaffold, to accept a pardon on such terms, and died +bravely. Kriny, as a priest, had his sentence commuted +from death to imprisonment. Grillo died of +his wounds.</p> + +<p>Desperate efforts were made by the Government +to obtain information as to the details of this conspiracy. +Three hundred ducats were offered to +anyone who would kill the chief conspirators; a +thousand to anyone who would arrest them. But, +though the leaders of the insurrection were hidden +in the houses of very poor men, no one could be +found to betray them, even for the sake of so large a +reward. Even where the Government had made +sure of their prey, it sometimes slipped through their +hands. One of the insurgents was brought wounded +to a house, and his hiding-place was discovered and +surrounded by soldiers; but, by a false alarm, the +guards were frightened away and the wounded man +conveyed elsewhere. The owner of the second place +of refuge was arrested, but the fugitive was again +enabled to escape. His wound brought on fever, and +he remained hidden for fifteen days without food, +sucking the end of a sheet for nourishment; he was +then so exhausted that his friends thought him dead +and carried him to a church; but he revived, and +was at last shipped to Marseilles, where he recovered.</p> + +<p>A people so vigorous and determined were obviously +not far from freedom. The heroism of the +Sicilians had strengthened the courage of the Neapolitans; +and on Christmas Day the latter rose to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> +the cry of "Evviva Palermo!" This demonstration, +however, was only the forerunner of the Revolution; +for it was still from Sicily that the first successful +action was to come. So little did the Sicilians care +to conceal their intentions that a pamphlet was +circulated fixing January 12 as the day for the +actual rising. The police, thinking that they would +be able easily to suppress the movement, began to +make arrests; but their efforts were in vain.</p> + +<p>La Farina, who afterwards became a member of +the Sicilian Assembly, gives the following account +of the rising:—</p> + +<p>"On the night that preceded the 12th January, +1848, the streets of Palermo were silent and deserted; +but in the houses the citizens were wakeful, agitated +by fears and hopes. At the dawning of the new +day the soldiers were in arms in fortified places and +in their own quarters; some battalions of infantry +and gensdarmes occupied the public places of the +prefecture of police and of the royal palace, where +the General De Majo, the Lieutenant of the King, +General Vial, Commandant of the Piazza, and other +royal officers, were assembled in council. The +cannons of Castellamare were drawn out for a +festival, for it was the birthday of Ferdinand II., +and the roads were extraordinarily full of people; +all were waiting for the conspirators to appear, for +the sign to be given, for the first cry to break out, +when Buscerni, a bold and ready youth, weary of +delay, raised on high a musket that he had held +concealed, and cried resolutely, 'To arms! To +arms!' Then Pasquale Miloro came out armed +into the street of the Centorinari; the abbot Ragona +and the priest Venuti exhorted the people to rise in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> +the name of God. There ran up to them, in arms, +the advocate Tacona, Giuseppe Oddo, Prince Grammonte, +Baron Bivona, Lo Cascio, Pasquale Bruno, +Francesco Ciaccio, Giancinto Carini, Amodei, Enea, +and a few others. Giuseppe La Masa bound to a stick +a white pocket-handkerchief, a red one, and a green +ribbon, and waved the three Italian colours. Santa +Astorina went about distributing tricolour ribbons +and cockades."</p> + +<p>"At the sight of the arms, and of the small number +of those who bore them, the crowd grew thin and +dispersed; the shops were closed, and the few eager +men remained alone. A few of the unarmed remained +with them to divide the honour and perils of +the attack; and among these, distinguished by the +loftiness of their mind and remarkable probity, were +Vincenzo Errante and the Baron Casimiro Pisani. +They were not disheartened; they stood firm and +bold in their resolve; the bells of the Church of +Orsola sounded an alarm, those of the Convent of +the Gangia answered them; the Revolution had become +irrevocable. Small bands were forming themselves +here and there. They had neither rules, +orders, nor plans; they did not barricade the streets; +they did not make trenches, as is usual in other +cities; they did not make head in any one position; +troops of children preceded them, dancing and +singing; they drew near to the troops, watched +their motions and acts, and returned to warn the +insurgents even while the blood was dropping from +the blows that they had received. One band of the +insurgents put to flight a military patrol in the +street of the Albergava; others had the same +fortune in the Raffadale street, at the church of San<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +Gaetano, near the gate of St. Antonino, in the street +of Calderari, and in other places. Thus passed the +whole day; two of the insurgents, among whom was +L'Amodei, were dead, and ten soldiers; the wounded +were more numerous. The insurgents withdrew +within the Piazza of Fiera Vecchia, which since the +morning had been the centre of the movements and +the seat of a committee formed of the first insurgents. +There were not more than fifty who had firearms; a +company of infantry would have been sufficient to +disperse them; but the soldiers remained immovable +in the positions which they had taken up, +because, remembering the year '20, they had determined +not to advance into the populous quarters of +the city. To this it is necessary to add that all the +houses were lighted for the festival, and that the +balconies of the windows were crowded with men, +women, and children, who all clapped their hands +and gave loud Vivas to Italy, the Sicilian Constitution, +and Pio Nono; a spontaneous, unexpected, and +universal agreement of the people which made the +rulers lose their heads and the soldiers their hearts. +In the night the insurgents were recruited from the +country districts and the neighbouring communes. +The first to arrive were sixty countrymen from +Villabate; then others from Misilmeri and from other +places. By the next day Fiera Vecchia contained +about 300 men armed with guns, and as many more +armed with scythes, billhooks, knives, spits, and +those iron tools which the popular fury changes into +arms. The fortress of Castellamare bombarded the +city; the artillery of the royal palace was dragged +along the Cassero; but the insurgents attacked, +stormed, and destroyed the police commissariats and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> +made themselves masters of the military hospital of +San Francesco Saverio; the soldiers who remained +prisoners were embraced as brothers, and provided +with every accommodation which they needed."</p> + +<p>Brilliant as these successes sound, the victory was +not yet complete; and to diplomatists, at any rate, +the result seemed still uncertain. The Consuls of +Austria, France, and Sardinia tried to persuade +the insurgents even now to yield, on condition of +obtaining a pardon. An attack made by La Masa +on the Royalist forces was repelled, and several of +the revolutionary committees fled from Palermo. +But many of the leaders stood firm, and Mariano +Stabile declared that Sicily should recover her +ancient liberties, and that Ferdinand and not the +people was the rebel. At the same moment the +bells sounded, and the Royalist artillery was brought +to bear upon the city. For three hours the struggle +lasted; but at the end of that time the Royalists +were driven back. The Neapolitan soldiers, grown +savage by their defeats, began to sack private houses +and commit various acts of cruelty; and when the +foreign Consuls went again to the Governor's palace +to ask for mercy to the insurgents, they were fired +upon.</p> + +<p>In the meantime new insurgents were pouring in +from the country districts, and the revolution was +developing a government. Mariano Stabile was +made secretary of the Governing Committee, and +Ruggiero Settimo, an old man of seventy who had +held office under the original Constitution of 1812, +and who had helped to proclaim the Spanish Constitution +in Sicily in 1820, was chosen President. Nor was +the movement any longer confined to Sicily. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> +Neapolitans had risen in Salerno. The King, in a +panic, had dismissed Del Caretto, the head of the +police, from office; and General Ruberti, the Commandant +of the fortress of St. Elmo, had told the +King that he would not fire upon the people. A +demonstration in favour of the Constitution of 1820 +had taken place; and when the rain threatened to +disperse the people, the umbrellas which were opened +displayed the Italian colours.</p> + +<p>Alarmed at the risings in Naples and Sicily, and +uncertain on whom he could depend, Ferdinand, on +January 29th, conceded a Constitution to Naples. +At the same time he entreated Lord Minto to +intervene between him and the Sicilians. Neither +Neapolitans nor Sicilians, however, were entirely +satisfied. In the Kingdom of Naples the Constitutionalists +met with much opposition from the supporters +of the old system, and some skirmishes +followed between these two parties. In Sicily the +Liberals demanded that the granting of a Constitution +should be followed by an adhesion to an Italian +Confederation. They therefore answered Lord Minto's +appeal by a renewed attack on the fortress of Castellamare, +which they succeeded in capturing after +four hours' fighting, and thus destroyed the last +hold of Ferdinand over Palermo, and left in his +hands no important Sicilian position except the citadel +of Messina. The hopes thus raised were soon increased +by the appointment of two men who had +recently suffered imprisonment for their liberal +opinions. These were a lawyer named Bozzelli, who +became Prime Minister, and the new head of the +police, Carlo Poerio, who belonged to a family which +had given many champions and sufferers to the cause<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> +of Liberty, and who had himself been imprisoned in +the previous year. When, then, the Constitution was +actually promulgated on February 12, the hopes of +the Neapolitans had risen to their highest pitch. The +Constitution itself was but a poor affair, far less encouraging +to popular hopes than its Spanish predecessor +of 1820. It was founded, indeed, on the French +Constitution of 1830, and the Parliament was therefore +composed of two Houses, the upper one nominated +by the King. A nominal freedom of the Press was +secured, but carefully limited, especially in matters +treating of religion. And there seems to have been +hardly any security for Ministerial responsibility. +But the granting of a Constitution against his +will by a Bourbon King was, whatever its deficiencies, +a fact which naturally supplied a spark to +the combustible material to be found in all parts of +Italy.</p> + +<p>The news of the movement in Sicily had already +kindled new hopes in Rome. There matters had +been proceeding more slowly than in the first months +of Pius IX.'s rule. Even Ciceruacchio had begun to +think that a more definite programme might be +accepted by the Pope; and on December 27, 1847, +he drew up a list of the reforms which he thought +especially needed in Rome. In these, while professing +continued zeal for Pio Nono, he put forward +requests of a kind not likely to be conceded; such as +the removal of the Jesuits, the abolition of monopolies, +and the emancipation of the Jews; while other demands +were so vague that the Pope might easily have +seemed to concede them without much trouble. For +instance, Ciceruacchio required that the Pope should +show confidence in the people, that individual liberty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> +should be guaranteed, and that restraint should be +put on excessive exercise of power.</p> + +<p>The Pope, though not disposed to accept the exact +programme of Ciceruacchio, was influenced by this +address, and on December 31, 1847, he issued a +decree promising separate and independent responsibility +to each of the Ministers. When, then, the +news arrived of the Sicilian insurrection, the enthusiasm +in Rome rose to the greatest height; and when +the Pope next appeared in public, people scattered +flowers in his way, and Ciceruacchio displayed a +banner bearing the words, "<span lang="it">Santo Padre fidatevi nel +Popolo</span>" (Holy Father, have confidence in the +people). Still, it was rumoured that the wicked +cardinals were holding back the good Pope, and that +they were opposing the armaments voted by the +Council of State.</p> + +<p>During the excitement caused by this fear the news +arrived that the Sicilians had been successful, and +that Ferdinand had granted a Constitution to Naples. +Again the Romans rose, and this time with the cry +of, "Away with the men of bad faith! Long live +the secular ministry! Give us arms!" A Minister +appeared on the balcony, promising the people a +secular ministry and increase of the army. This was +actually conceded a few days later, and Ciceruacchio +once more called upon the people to have confidence +in the reforming Pope. The news of the Sicilian and +Neapolitan movements steadily spread northwards, +and in Tuscany they chimed in with the new belief +that Leopold was a reforming sovereign.</p> + +<p>But matters took here a rather different complexion +from that which they had assumed in Rome. The +zeal of the Tuscans had been kindled by their struggle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> +with the Duke of Modena, and the free life of +Tuscany had attracted many democratic Italians; +while, on the other hand, though Leopold might have +wiped out the memory of the surrender of Renzi, he +could not cease to be a Hapsburg, and could never +attract to himself the same imaginative enthusiasm +which was kindled by the dream of a reforming +Pope. At any rate, the first spark of a revolutionary +movement had been kindled by Guerrazzi in Leghorn, +before the success of the Sicilians had been known; +and though Ridolfi had suppressed the movement +and imprisoned Guerrazzi, the bitterness caused by it +still remained. And even when the news of the +Neapolitan Constitution reached Florence, the Tuscan +reformers hastened to congratulate, not the Neapolitan +Ambassador, but a representative of the revolutionary +Sicilians who happened to be in Florence. +But Leopold was ready to yield with a much better +grace than Ferdinand; and when, on February 17, +the Constitution appeared it was found, in the matter +of religious liberty, to be considerably in advance of +the Neapolitan Constitution.</p> + +<p>In the Kingdom of Sardinia the city of Genoa +supplied the same kind of element which the Tuscans +found in Leghorn. The questionable manner in which +that city had been annexed to Piedmont had left, no +doubt, a continual soreness and readiness for revolution +among the Genoese; while, on the other hand, +its important geographical position and great commercial +reputation had led Charles Albert to push +forward its development as much as possible. It +soon came to the front during the movement for +reform, and its citizens tried to urge on Charles +Albert whenever he hesitated. As he drifted gradually<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> +in the direction of bolder action, the Genoese +were ready to encourage festivals in his honour, and +on the occasion of a demonstration in November, at +Genoa, a citizen had called out to him, "Charles +Albert, cross the Ticino and we will follow thee." +When, then, the news arrived of the Sicilian rising, +the Genoese sent to Turin a petition for the expulsion +of the Jesuits and the concession of a national +guard. In the meantime the editors of leading newspapers +in Turin were meeting to decide on the policy +which they should support, and Count Cavour, who +had hitherto been disinclined to Liberal movements, +proposed that they should demand a Constitution. +D'Azeglio, Durando, and others, supported the proposal, +and Cavour was despatched to present it to the +King.</p> + +<p>While Charles Albert was still hesitating, the news +of the Neapolitan Constitution arrived. The people +of Turin at once made a demonstration in honour of +the event, and Pietro di Santa Rosa<a name="Anchor-8" id="Anchor-8"></a><a href="#Footnote-8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> proposed in +the Municipal Council that that body should support +the petition for the Constitution. The Municipal +Council, though previously a reactionary body, accepted +the proposal by a large majority. But Charles +Albert still hesitated. On February 7th, he held +a meeting of his Council, in which he at first refused +to discuss the question whilst the crowd was gathering +outside. On their dispersal, he began to consider the +proposals, and the discussion lasted for eight hours. +When the sitting of the Council was concluded, the +representatives of the Municipality arrived, but were +received very coldly by Charles Albert. While<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> +things were still in this state, a message arrived +from the Governor of Genoa that, unless the Constitution +was proclaimed, it would be necessary for +the King to place Genoa in a state of siege. At last +he consented to grant what was called a Statuto, of +which the terms seemed at first very indefinite, while +the delays in carrying it into execution irritated the +more decided reformers. But the faith of Charles +Albert's admirers was as robust as that of the +admirers of Pius IX. Banquets were held in his +honour, and those who took part in these exulting +demonstrations had at least the excuse for their +joy that the promise of the Statuto had roused the +irritation of the Austrians; and Radetzky even +threatened to occupy Alessandria. But Radetzky +and the Austrians had enough to think of nearer +home.</p> + +<p>The Government of Milan was at this time in a +very peculiar condition, seeing that there were not +less than seven people who were, in different ways, +responsible for the maintenance of order in the town +or its neighbourhood. Of these, the nominal head +was probably Rainieri, the Viceroy; but he seems +to have been a man of less vigour than some of those +who acted under him; and though willing enough +to do acts of violence, yet not able altogether to +control his subordinates. The second, probably, in +nominal importance was Spaur, the Governor of +Milan: a Tyrolese nobleman, credited, even by his +opponents, with some remains of honourable feeling, +but crushed in spirit by his habit of constant deference +to the Court, and to Metternich. Next came +Torresani, the head of the police, a man who must +have been in some respects pleasanter to deal with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> +than the other rulers; for, though not disinclined to +cruelty and tyranny, he managed to cover them with +a certain Italian wit and courtesy which must have +been rather a relief, as a contrast to the tone of +some of his colleagues. Thus, for instance, on one +occasion the Town Council remonstrated with him +for the action of the police in a riot, and urged that +he should take measures for preserving order among +his subordinates; Torresani chose to interpret the +idea of order in his own fashion, and the next day +issued a stern public notice against disorderly +meetings, while at the same time he sent a polite +note to the Council, pointing out that, by this proclamation, +he had met their wishes for the preservation +of order.</p> + +<p>But if Torresani could soften by witticisms the +necessary savageries of his position, any deficiencies +in roughness on his part were amply atoned for by +his subordinate Bolza, who was looked upon as the +completest embodiment of the spirit of cruelty in +the Government. On the other hand, the craft and +treachery of the system were best represented by a +Bohemian named Pachta. He was one of those +men whose complete loss of reputation in private +affairs fits them to become useful engines of despotism. +He had been known previously as having swindled +a lady out of some jewels which she had entrusted +to him; and he had plunged so heavily into debt, +that nothing but his favoured position protected him +from arrest. He held some nominal office in the +Council at Milan; but his real duty was to act as +a spy upon his colleagues. Indeed, it may be said +that that description might, with more or less force, +apply to all the rulers of Milan, and to many others<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> +of the Government officials. A spy was set by the +Home Government upon Torresani, and another to +watch that spy. Rainieri was entrusted with one +set of police, Spaur with another, Pachta with +another. But while all these men divided the civil +administration of Milan, there stood at their back +the one man who did enjoy more of the permanent +confidence of the Government than anyone else in +Lombardy. This was the celebrated Field-Marshal +Radetzky.</p> + +<p>It is somewhat strange that this man, who has +been considered, by many of those interested in +these movements, as one of the most complete embodiments +of Austrian cruelty, was yet looked upon +by the Milanese at this time mainly as a theatrical +buffoon. In the caricatures which are preserved at +Milan, Rainieri generally appears as a hypocrite, +sometimes cunning, sometimes maudlin; Bolza as a +ferocious ruffian; while in Pachta and Torresani +the appearance of cruelty is modified by a slightly +idiotic expression. But Radetzky is invariably +the theatrical blusterer, who might have supplied +Shakespeare with a model for Ancient Pistol. Such +was the Government with which Lombardy was +blessed under the Metternich system.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the only official embodiment +of popular feeling during the longest period of this +rule had been the Town Council of Milan. The +Central Congregation which had embodied the +Austrian idea of a Lombard Constitution had been +deprived of all freedom of utterance; but the Town +Council was no doubt considered a more harmless +body, and therefore had been allowed a certain +amount of freedom. Since 1838 this Council had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> +been presided over by Count Gabrio Casati, who has +probably received more praise and more blame than +he deserved. He seems to have been a man by no +means deficient either in courage or patriotism; and +had he continued to exercise his office during a +period when passive resistance and formal protests +were still useful weapons, he might have left a reputation +somewhat like that of Speaker Lenthall or +Lord Mayor Beckford in our own History. As it is, +he was called on by circumstances to play a part in the +struggle against Austria for which he was unfitted; +and, while he has received undue praise from those +who have accepted him as the embodiment of +Milanese heroism, he has, on the other hand, been +somewhat too fiercely condemned by those who noted +his actual shortcomings, and could not make allowance +for the difficulty of his position. During the +first years of his office he did his best to bring before +Metternich and his colleagues the evils which prevailed +in the Government of Lombardy; and when +the growth of the Italian movements led to the +demonstrations in favour of the Italian Archbishop +of Milan, and the solemn funeral to Confalonieri, +Casati showed his sympathy with the popular feeling, +and protested against the various acts of cruelty +which were perpetrated in the suppression of these +movements. Indeed, so prominent a part did Casati +play in these matters that Sedlnitzky, the head of +the Viennese police, wrote to Spaur to tell him to +keep his eye on Casati, and to see that on the +next occasion a <span lang="it">Podestà</span> of better principles was +elected.</p> + +<p>In October, 1847, Metternich added a new element +to the confusion of the Milanese Government by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> +sending a new agent to share the authority of the +other rulers of Lombardy. This new emissary was +Count Ficquelmont, whose work was of a much more +definite character than his official position. This +work was, in fact, the carrying out of that part of +Menz's programme which had been modelled on the +Circus shows of the Emperors of Rome. This was +to be effected by the introduction of Fanny Ellsler +and other people of a similar character to the +pleasure-loving population of Milan. But the mission +only succeeded in eliciting new signs of discontent. +Ficquelmont and his protegées appear in the collection +of Milanese caricatures; and a popular agreement +to abstain from theatre-going was so rigorously +carried out that, on one evening, only nine tickets +were sold for the principal theatre in Milan.</p> + +<p>But, before this remarkable abstention had come +into force, a new character had been given to the +Lombard resistance to Austrian rule. The Central +Congregation of Lombardy had suddenly awakened +to life; and the grievances under which the country +suffered had been placed before their rulers at Vienna +with a clearness previously unknown. The author +of this sudden change affords one of those curious +instances of men who do a great and important work +for their country, and then pass suddenly into obscurity +before their reputation has spread beyond +narrow limits. Giambattista Nazari was a lawyer +of Treviglio. All that seems to be known of him +previously to his election to the Central Congregation +was that he was a man of moderate fortune, +with a large family; but both those facts may be +taken as adding something to the courage of his +public action. Treviglio is a town in the district of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> +Bergamo; the people of that district, presumably +with Austrian sanction, had accepted Nazari as their +representative, and on December 8 or 9, 1847, he +came forward in the Central Congregation to give, +for the first time since 1815, free and peaceable +expression to the wants of the people of Lombardy.</p> + +<p>"Illustrious Congregation," he said, "it does not +require much shrewdness to discern that for some +time past there have been in this province manifest +signs of discontent shown by all classes of citizens, +as the rulers themselves ought to have known every +time that they have tried to deaden its effects. And +from whence does the agitation which has thus been +produced arise—an agitation which increases the +more they try to restrain it? From whence comes +this universal disquiet? From whence this suspicion +between governors and governed? The latter have, +perhaps, just reasons to complain; and if they have, +who ought to present those reasons to the Prince? +For my part, I do not see that anyone can be better +interpreters of the desires of our country than we; +since, even in our private condition, we are sharers +of the good and evil which are the fruits of good and +evil institutions; and since, moreover, we have the +precious office of discovering the needs of the populations +and of presenting them at the Imperial +Throne. In order, then, that that agreement between +ruler and people which alone can secure the +quiet of the State may be restored, I am resolved to +propose that you should choose as many men as +there are provinces in Lombardy, and give them a +commission to examine specially into the present +conditions of the country; and when they have +discovered the causes of discontent, to refer them to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> +the whole Congregation in order to give fitting +opportunity for petitions. This I say and advise, +from a desire for the public good, from affection for +my Prince, and from a sentiment of duty. For as +citizen I love my country, as subject I desire that +the Emperor should be adored and blessed by all, +and as deputy I should think that I had failed to +keep my oaths if I did not say what was imposed on +me by the duty of not being silent."</p> + +<p>On December 11 this protest of Nazari's was presented +in due form to the rulers of Milan, and +produced from them the sternest rebukes. The +awkward point of the protest was that, both in form +and substance, it was undoubtedly legal, and could +not therefore be wholly disregarded. Accordingly, +Rainieri told Spaur that it was desirable that a +commission should be appointed; but that, instead +of being composed of representatives chosen from the +Lombard provinces, it should be limited to those few +people who were noted for their zeal and attachment +to the Austrian Government. Further, such commissioners +were not to assume that discontent existed, +nor even to make mention of such discontent in their +discussions. At the same time, Nazari was to be told +that he had acted irregularly in bringing forward his +motion, and Torresani was to be directed to keep a +special watch on this dangerous agitator.</p> + +<p>Spaur thereupon addressed the Congregation, telling +them that the Viceroy had consented to Nazari's +proposal, provided that the Congregation limited +itself strictly to the powers entrusted to it by the +Constitution; and, further, that the Government was +occupying itself with the wishes of the Lombard +provinces, and that the Viceroy had left to Spaur's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> +decision the appointment of the members of the +Commission. Spaur concluded with a rebuke to +Nazari for the want of confidence that he had shown +in him, as President of the Congregation, in not +communicating to him his intended motion. Nazari +answered that he had wished to take upon himself +the sole responsibility of his act; and that, as to the +proposed previous application to Spaur, he would +rather be wanting in confidence than respect; for +that if he had told Spaur of his intention, and Spaur +had tried to persuade him to be silent, he would +have been compelled to be rude enough to disobey +him.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the motion had created the +greatest enthusiasm, and many Milanese hastened to +pay their respects to Nazari; four thousand visiting +cards were left on him, and petitions flocked in from +various places in support of his movement. In the +Provincial Congregation of Milan, indeed, the supporters +of Nazari encountered the same kind of official +obstruction which their leader had met with in the +Central Congregation of Lombardy, for the President +refused to join his colleagues in signing the petition. +Thereupon the members of that body threatened to +resign; and the Viceroy, who had just declared +Nazari's protest irregular, urged the President to +yield. But the movement had spread far into the +provinces. Many of the provincial towns had their +own causes of grievance against the centralizers of +Vienna. Pavia had been deprived of its arsenal; +Brescia had been compelled to close its armourers' +shops, Bergamo its ironmongeries; Cremona had lost +one trade, Salo another; Como and other towns had +lost their linen trade. Everywhere there had been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> +signs of the sucking out of the strength of the +country by the Central Government at Vienna. +Nazari's protest, therefore, naturally attracted sympathy +far beyond Milanese circles; and amongst other +petitions came one from the old Lombard capital of +Pavia asking that it might be specially represented +on the Commission proposed by Nazari, and suggesting +special reforms needed in Lombardy and +Venetia.</p> + +<p>But by far the most remarkable of the Lombard +petitions produced by Nazari's protest was one which +was apparently signed by the Lombards irrespective +of their provincial divisions. In this the petitioners +call upon the Central Congregation to keep alive the +courage which had been shown by Nazari's protest. +They remind the deputies of the promises previously +made by the Austrian Government, and the breach +of them. They declare that "The Lombards were +formerly distracted by discordant hopes, but are now +almost miraculously unanimous in their desires;" +and they call on the deputies "to speak out the +whole truth, to proclaim that they have faith in God, +and that they leave to others the infamy of lying."... +They call upon them "To declare the abuses +of the Tribunals which are concealed by secret +bribery; the arrogance of the police, the puerile corrections +of the censorship; but above all to proclaim +the great truth of nationality, to demand a federal +union, and to remind Austria of her proclamation of +April 16, 1815, in which she promised to conform +the institutions of Lombardy to the character of the +Italians. Ten million Italians are now united by an +agreement between princes and people, defended by +a flourishing army, and sanctioned by the authority<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> +of the Pope." The petitioners then proceed to call +attention to the success of Hungary in its Constitutional +struggle; and they point out that, while +Austria had held out hopes of a special representation +for Lombardy and Venetia, she had, in fact, +drawn the power more and more to Vienna, while +the Press had been subjected to the most petty persecutions. +"An invisible network of information, conjectures, +suspicions, has surrounded all the citizens. +The Government is arbitrary both by ignorance and +violence. It is only the representatives of the people +who can explain <i>that</i>; and they must show that all +these evils spring from the first great falsehood of a +people that has not the life of a people, of a kingdom +that has not the life of a kingdom. Lombardy is +governed by foreign laws and foreign persons. It is +taxed for the benefit of Austrian industries, while a +barrier of customs duties separates it from Italy."</p> + +<p>It is worth noting that now, for the first time, the +leaders of Italian political movements began to consider +the special grievances of the poor. As Mazzini +had roused the working men to care for the liberty +and unity of their country, so a common suffering had +gradually taught the wealthier leaders to care for the +troubles of their poorer neighbours; and these petitions +enumerate a number of taxes which specially +weighed on the poor. The tax on salt was the +material burden most generally felt; while the lottery, +with its deliberate encouragement of the spirit of +gambling, increased the moral loathing of the Lombards +for the Austrian rule. But the crushing out +of national feeling and intellectual life were still the +two main complaints of these petitioners; and, besides +the more general proofs of these mentioned above,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span> +the petitioners dwelt with great emphasis on the conscription +which carried off the youth of the country +for eight years. And they finally demand that the +representatives of the people should ask for "A complete +and irrevocable separation in every branch of +the administration; that they should be governed by +a person, not by a foreign people;" and that "their +own nationality, history, language, and brotherhood +with other Italians should not be considered as crime +and rebellion." They finally close with the words, +"To-day you can still speak of peace. The future is +in the hands of the God of Justice."</p> + +<p>The petition of Nazari had, as already mentioned, +produced effects in the Lombard provinces; but it +had also called out sympathy, though a little more +slowly, in the neighbouring province of Venetia. +There the hand of Austria seemed to have weighed +more heavily than even in Milan. Perhaps the +absence of old traditions of internal freedom, and the +terrible corruption which had hastened the fall of its +independence, may have had something to do with the +silence of Venice. Perhaps, too, the sense of the +singular baseness of the crime, by which they had +become possessed of the Venetian district, may have +goaded the Austrians into greater tyranny than even +that which they exercised in their other dominions. +But, whatever was the cause, there seems to be no +doubt, as one of the historians of the time puts it, +that Venice was then reckoned "the least sturdy city +in the kingdom, and the one least disposed to movement." +But even Venice could not be shut out from +the influence of the Italian spirit, and the first sign +of awakening life was called out, curiously enough, +by a Buonaparte. The Prince of Canino, who had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> +already succeeded in turning Scientific Congresses +at Genoa and Milan into opportunities for political +demonstrations, had come, in September, 1847, +to Venice to preside in the Geological Section of +the Congress. There he had introduced a discourse +on Pius IX., which was received with loud applause; +and when the Austrian police compelled him +to leave the State, people followed him on his +road with cheers of sympathy. But the spark which +Charles Buonaparte had lighted required other +hands to keep it alive; and it appeared that there +was no one in the Venetian Congregation bold enough +to take up the part which had been played at Milan +by Nazari.</p> + +<p>Under these circumstances, Daniele Manin, the +lawyer, who had already opposed the Austrian +Government about the Lombardo-Venetian railway, +came forward to take upon himself the office from +which the official members of the Congregation had +shrunk. He presented a petition calling on the +members of the Venetian Congregation to imitate the +example of Nazari, ending his appeal with the words, +"It is unjust and injurious to suppose that the +Government has granted to this kingdom a sham +national representation."</p> + +<p>This address of Manin's was sent to the Congregation +on December 21st. On the same day Niccolo +Tommaseo addressed a letter to Baron von Kübeck, +one of the Viennese ministry, asking for permission to +print a discourse which he had just delivered at +Venice on the Austrian press law. In this discourse +he had shown that the Austrian law was in theory +more liberal than the Piedmontese law, but that it +was not carried out, a fact which he illustrated by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> +the signatures to a petition which was then being +circulated in favour of the proper enforcement of the +Austrian law. "If this petition be granted," said +Tommaseo, "the country will find peace, and Austria +an honourable security." He ended with a remarkable +warning—"If the movements of the brothers +Bandiera alarmed the Austrian Government, how +much more will there be danger now that the altar is +no longer on the side of the throne?"</p> + +<p>Tommaseo had already been marked out by the +Government as a dangerous person. He had been +the first to introduce Mazzini to the public by +securing the publication of his article on Dante +which had been refused by the "<span lang="it">Antologia</span>," and he +had joined with Mazzini in the revolutionary struggle +of 1833. It was therefore as a pardoned man that +he had been allowed to return to Venice; and the +authorities were doubly indignant that he should +venture to come forward again. But Manin's attempt +to stir up the Venetian Congregation attracted +the hostility of the Government more than Tommaseo's +petition. He had already protested against +a new form of official cruelty—the shutting up of a +political prisoner in a lunatic asylum; and Palffy +had threatened to let the prisoner out and shut up +Manin instead. But it seemed for a time as if his +attempt to stir up the Venetian Congregation would +fail, for he could get no member to present his petition +for him. Nothing daunted, however, he printed +it, and sent it himself to the Congregation. This +act soon attracted attention, and several provincial +governments sent in similar petitions.</p> + +<p>Still the Venetian Congregation would not stir; +so, on January 8, Manin sent in a second petition, in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> +which he no longer confined himself to vague appeals, +but set forth the necessary programme of reform. +He demanded that the laws should be published and +obeyed, that no obedience should be required to +unpublished laws, and that the territories of Lombardy +and Venetia should form a separate kingdom, +not a province, "still less a mere outlying village of +Vienna. We ought to be governed," he said, "according +to our character and customs; to have a +true national representation, and a moderately free +press which could control and enlighten the chiefs +of the Government and the representatives of the +nation."... "The germs planted by the laws of +1815 had not developed, and only a madman or an +archæologist would refer to them as a guide." He +then proceeded to demand that the Viceroy of Lombardo-Venetia +should be completely independent of +all but the Emperor; that the finances and the army +should also be separated from the government at +Vienna; that the communal governments should be +more independent than at present, and that trials +should be by jury, and should be oral and public; that +the power of the police should be limited, and that +a moderate law should be substituted for the existing +censorship of the Press; that a civic guard should be +granted; that citizens should be made equal before +the law; that Jewish disabilities and feudal tenures +should be abolished, and that there should be a +general revision of the laws.</p> + +<p>Manin's petition alarmed the timid spirits of the +Congregation; and one of them named Moncenigo +sent it to Governor Palffy. Manin had already +protested against the appointment of this Moncenigo +on the sham Commission of Enquiry which the Viceroy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span> +had granted; and no doubt personal irritation +combined with political cowardice to prompt Moncenigo's +breach of confidence. But, whatever its +motives, this act of servility produced a protest from +another lawyer, who, while denouncing Moncenigo's +act as unworthy of the dignity of a commissioner, +alluded to the period of Napoleon's rule as one of +greater freedom than had ever been allowed by +Austria. The police had in the meantime been preparing +a report for the criminal tribunal; and on +January 19, 1848, Manin was suddenly seized and +carried off to prison on the charge of disturbing the +public peace.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Milanese movement had been +assuming a more serious character. Demonstrations +at the theatre, or abstentions from it, songs and other +public expressions of opinion, were continually alarming +the authorities. That separation, too, between +the altar and the throne, to which Tommaseo had +called attention, was even more marked in Milan +than in Venice; and Radetzky a little later ordered +his soldiers not to attend the sermons or the confessional +of the Milanese clergy, "since they are +our enemies." But this ferocious commander was +resolved at all hazards to drive the Milanese to extremities; +and he soon found an opportunity for +carrying out his plans. One of the most universal +forms of protest against the Government in Lombardy +was the determined abstention from tobacco on the +ground that it was a Government monopoly. This +protest began on January 1, 1848, and it seemed at +first as if it would be allowed to pass without remark. +But Radetzky, in spite of the advice of Torresani, +ordered his soldiers to appear in public, smoking.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span> +This order was carried out on January 2, 1848. In +some parts of the town this demonstration provoked +nothing but a few hisses from the crowd; but in one +part, where the police and soldiers had collected in +large numbers and many citizens had gathered to +watch the smokers, the soldiers suddenly turned upon +the crowd with their bayonets and charged them. +Casati remonstrated with Torresani, but could get +no redress, and was even himself assaulted by the +police when he appealed to them.</p> + +<p>This, however, was merely the preliminary of +Radetzky's proceedings. The following afternoon a +much larger force of soldiers appeared in Milan, and +every one of them was smoking. The crowd gathered +as before, and was, as usual, largely composed of +boys. Suddenly two of the sergeants gave a signal, +and the soldiers, drawing their swords, rushed upon +the crowd, wounding many boys seriously and killing +an old man of seventy-four. The crowd fled at the +attack; but the soldiers followed them, breaking into +the shops in which they took refuge, destroying what +they found there, and killing or wounding those whom +they came across. In one place they broke into an +inn, gave the hostess several severe wounds in the +head, besides beating violently a little girl of four +years old.</p> + +<p>Throughout the city these scenes of barbarity +continued during the greater part of the day, and +naturally aroused the most tremendous indignation. +Similar smoking demonstrations took place in Brescia, +Cremona, and Mantua; but in these places they seem +to have passed off without a riot. In Pavia and +Padua, on the other hand, the smokers came into +collision with the students, who fought with their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> +bare fists against the soldiers' swords. In Milan the +indignation was not confined to the opponents of +Austria. Monsignore Oppizzoni, who was on the +whole a supporter of the Government, headed a +deputation to the Viceroy in which he used these +words:—"Your Highness, I am old, and have seen +many things. I saw the profanation of the Jacobins +and the cruelty of the Russians; but I never saw +nor heard of before such atrocious acts as have +happened in the days just past."</p> + +<p>Companies of ladies met at the Casa Borromeo to +collect funds for the wounded. In all the principal +cities of Lombardy funeral rites were performed for +those who had died in the riots; and the people +refused to walk in the Corso Francesco, which had +been the scene of the principal massacre, and went +instead to another street, which they renamed the +Corso Pio Nono. Even some of those who had +served the Austrian Government raised a protest +against these atrocities. Count Guicciardini, for such +a protest, was deprived of his office; while the Councillor, +Angelo Decio, declared that he would resign if +the Government would not put a restraint on the +undisciplined soldiers. The Viceroy, taken aback at +this sudden outburst of indignation, promised reforms +and dismissed some of the troops from Milan.</p> + +<p>But the saner members of the Austrian Government +had completely lost hold of affairs, and Radetzky +had become the sole ruler of Milan. He harangued +his troops in one of those bombastic addresses whose +absurdity seemed to take even a deeper root in men's +minds than the atrocity of his acts. "Let us not," he +said, "be forced to open the wings of the Austrian +eagle which have never yet been clipped." This calm<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span> +ignoring of Austerlitz and Marengo specially tickled +the fancy of the Milanese; more particularly as +Radetzky was credited, whether justly or unjustly, +with having played a somewhat ignominious part in +the latter battle. A few utterly inadequate and +trivial reforms were won from Metternich by the +spectacle of the Sicilian revolution, the growing +popularity of the Pope, and the Neapolitan Constitution. +On January 18 it was proposed that the +Viceroy should transfer himself from Milan to Verona; +that he should be surrounded by persons better informed +than his subordinates were; that the Government +of Milan should be made more strong; and that +some of the members of the Central Congregation of +Milan should be summoned to Vienna. How absurdly +unlike these concessions were to the real wishes and +needs of the Lombard people it is scarcely necessary +to point out; but, had the concessions been far more +important, they would have been utterly worthless +while they were accompanied by the closing of the +clubs, the arrest of suspected persons, and, above all, +while Radetzky still ruled Milan.</p> + +<p>It was to a population excited by this state of +things that there came the news of the Neapolitan +Constitution. The Milanese at once flocked to the +Cathedral to return thanks, and on the walls of +Milan were written up the words, <span lang="it">"Viva il sangue +Palermitano! Seguiamo l'esempio di Sicilia! Il +pomo e maturo."</span> And near these inscriptions was +drawn the picture of a house in ruins, and over it, +"Casa d'Austria." New riots followed, and the +Universities of Pavia and Padua were closed by +authority. But it was felt that the electric current +had now spread right through Italy from Palermo<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> +to Milan; and, on the very day before the University +of Pavia was closed, a secret circular was issued by +the friends of Italy at Milan urging that further demonstrations +should be abandoned for the present on +the ground that "the cause of Italy is now secure."</p> + +<p>And though Metternich was still disposed to dispute +that view, though he still held to the opinion +which he had uttered in August, 1847, that "Italy +was a mere geographical expression," he yet felt the +shock of the Sicilian insurrection, and was willing to +secure friends in other parts of the Austrian dominions +by more important concessions than those which he +had made to Lombardy and Venetia. <i>The</i> most +important, or at least the most obvious, of these +popular victories had been gained in Hungary. +There, indeed, Metternich had ingeniously contrived +to defeat his own purpose, to weaken that division +which had been gradually growing between the +different sections of his opponents in Hungary, and +to throw into the hands of Kossuth far more power +than he had previously possessed. At the close of +the Diet which had met in 1843 these elements of +division were more various and more prominent +than at any other period of the struggle. Besides +the quarrel between Magyar and Slav, there had +grown up a difference of opinion between the Magyar +champions of reform. For while Kossuth was advocating +the strengthening of the county governments +as the great hope for Hungarian liberty, Baron +Eötvös was urging the necessity for making the +central parliament stronger at the expense of the +local bodies. But Metternich, as if determined to +consolidate the various elements of opposition against +him, shortly after the dissolution of the Diet, took a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> +step which, while it seemed to justify Kossuth's +belief in the importance of county governments, +silenced at the same time all those who were opposed +to Kossuth, whether on grounds of race or party, +and roused the dislike to Metternich's system to a +height not previously known in Hungary. Mailath, +the popular Chancellor of Hungary, was removed, +and his successor, Apponyi, was directed to supersede +the Hungarian County Assemblies by administrators +appointed by himself.</p> + +<p>No step could possibly have been taken more likely +to defeat Metternich's own objects; for if there was +one institution round which all the peoples of Hungary +rallied, it was their County Governments. Kossuth +felt the strength of his position, and tried to remove +the causes of division. For the moment he seemed +even disposed to abandon his extreme anti-Slavonic +policy, and opposed a proposal for compelling the +use of the Hungarian language in elementary schools. +The opposition to the Administrator system in the +counties seemed to Kossuth an opportunity for +bringing forward the whole body of reforms which +he had long desired. The movement for relieving +the peasants of their burdens had naturally widened +the circle of those who took interest in political affairs; +and a famine which was quickening the political +feeling of the Silesian peasants and of the artizans of +Berlin had also spread to Hungary, and was making +the ordinary grievances of the peasant doubly grievous +to him. Along with the demands for the relief of +the peasantry from their burdens, Kossuth and his +friends now put forward proposals for Constitutional +reforms. Deak, though no longer a member of the +Assembly, gave his assistance in putting their plans<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> +into shape, and for the first time there was formed, +in 1847, a complete programme of the Hungarian +Liberals. Their demands were: Publicity of parliamentary +debates; a parliamentary journal in which +speeches were to be published in full; triennial elections +and regular yearly meetings of the Diet; +improvement of the government of the towns and +enlargement of their right of election to the Diet; +universal taxation of all classes; the abolition of +forced labour of the peasant, and of other restrictions +on his mode of life.</p> + +<p>But while it was of importance that the reformers +should thus be able to put into shape their programme +of reform, it was round the "Administrator" +question that the real fight gathered, and Metternich +was urged to make at least some concessions on this +point. When, then, the Diet met in 1847, Kossuth +found himself supported by many who might have +shrunk back from parts of his policy before. Count +Batthyanyi had formerly acted with Szechenyi; but +he now arrived at the conclusion that the opposition +of that nobleman to Kossuth was unwise, and he +drifted more and more into the position of the +Leader of Opposition in the House of Magnates. +Eötvös, too, however much he may have retained +his belief in the importance of a centralizing line of +policy, yet could not refuse to stand by his countrymen +in defence of County Government against the +Administrators of Metternich. Batthyanyi and Eötvös +were thus willing to suspend their special grounds +of opposition to Kossuth; but it was still impossible +for them to carry with them the House of Magnates; +and Kossuth's great influence in the country was +increased by the fact that the centre of reform was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> +rather to be found in the class of professional men to +which he belonged than in the nobles who had been +previously looked to as the leaders of the country. +The Diet of 1847, therefore, saw a repetition of the +struggle of the two Houses which had formed so +prominent a part of the parliamentary history of +1839. In the Lower House Kossuth carried a +measure for enforcing municipal taxes on nobles, +and it was thrown out by the House of Magnates, +who called upon the Lower House to limit themselves +to votes of thanks or to express their grievances +in general terms.</p> + +<p>But neither the land question nor the question of +parliamentary liberty were felt by the Hungarian +leaders to be as important at this crisis as the rescue +of the counties from the tyranny of Metternich's +Administrators; and it was the struggle on this +point which was brought to a crisis by the news of +the Sicilian Revolution and of the growing discontents +in Milan. Again Metternich was disposed to +make concessions, and again his concessions were so +framed as to be utterly inadequate to the occasion. +He declared that the Administrators should only be +appointed under exceptional circumstances; and that +the present Administrators should be withdrawn +when the exceptional circumstances in the counties +were removed. This proposal was unwelcome to all +parties; and so much force did the discontent of the +country gain that on February 29 a motion in favour +of reform in the representation was carried in the +House of Magnates. When this resolution had passed +the House of Representatives Szechenyi entered in his +diary the words, "<span lang="fr">Tout est perdu</span>."</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Hungarian movement had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> +been keeping alive hopes which in late years had +begun to show themselves in Vienna. In that centre +of the Metternich system it was not wonderful +that political death had been more complete and +unmistakeable than in any other part of Europe. +While in other parts of Europe the press was interfered +with, here Count Sedlnitzky, the head of the +police, had it completely under his control. In other +parts of the Empire national feeling was discouraged. +Here, for even reminding the Austrians of the popular +efforts against Napoleon, Hormayr was driven from +the Archduchy of Austria. In other parts of the +Empire local affairs might sometimes be interfered +with, but were often passed over as unimportant; in +Vienna officials were thrust into the place of the +elected Town Council. Nor was there any assembly +at all fitted to be the mouthpiece of Austrian discontent +in communications between the people and +the Government. The only assembly which met at +Vienna, except the Town Council, was that of the Estates +of Lower Austria. This assembly represented +mainly the aristocracy, even the richer burghers not +possessing more than a nominal voice in their councils. +Therefore, even if this body had possessed as much +freedom as was allowed to the Hungarian Diet, they +could not have rallied the people round them, because +they did not understand their wants and had no +sympathy with them. Indeed, the barrier between +rich and poor, noble and serf, seems to have been +more marked, or at any rate more painfully felt, in +the province of Lower Austria than in any part of +the Empire, except, perhaps, Bohemia. For in +Vienna there was rapidly growing up all the miseries +of a city proletariate. The protectionist tariff made<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> +dear the articles of food, while the absolute suppression +of public discussion, and the obstacles thrown +in the way of any voluntary organization, prevented +even the benevolent men among the wealthier classes +from understanding anything of the wants of the +poor.</p> + +<p>So far were the Government from interfering to +correct this evil that, when, in 1816, the citizens of +Salzburg petitioned for a reduction of taxes, on the +ground that people were dying of hunger in the +streets, Francis rebuked the citizens for the arrogance +of this appeal, and marked Salzburg out for special +disfavour in consequence. But the crushing out of +genuine education was so complete that the poorer +classes in Vienna were for a long time unable to see +how their misery was increased by the arrangements +of the Government. They saw that no leader in the +well-to-do classes seemed to concern himself in their +affairs. For while healthy political and intellectual +life was repressed in Vienna, that town was not, +after all, an unpleasant abode for those who gave +themselves up to mere self-indulgence. Menz's +precedent of the Roman circus was followed here +also; and Vienna became known as the "Capua <span lang="de">der +Geister</span>." Thus, deprived alike of sympathy and +power of self-help, the poor could only show their +bitterness in occasional bread-riots, the reports of +which were carefully excluded from the papers of +the Government. One result of this utter depression +was that the Viennese eagerly caught at any signs +of moderation, or the most superficial tendency to +Liberalism, in any of their rulers; and, being at the +centre of affairs, they were naturally able to get hints +of differences among the official people which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> +unknown to the citizens of other towns. Thus they +knew that the Government, which to outsiders seemed +wholly concentrated in Metternich, was, at least +nominally, divided between three persons—Metternich, +the Archduke Louis, and a Bohemian nobleman +named Kolowrat. The third of this trio was credited +with the desire for a certain amount of liberty; and +it was supposed to be by his encouragement that the +National Bohemian Museum was founded in Prague +and became a centre of Slavonic culture. Kolowrat's +Liberal sympathies would not have counted for much +in any other place or time. But the fact that he was +an opponent of Metternich was enough to gain him +some sympathy from the Viennese; and when, after +the death of Francis, Metternich tried to get rid of +Kolowrat, he only increased the general sympathy for +one who was thus marked as his opponent.</p> + +<p>The death of Francis, an event hardly felt in the +rest of Europe, was of considerable importance to +Vienna; not so much from any actual changes which +it produced as from the new hope which it aroused. +A dull flame of a sort of loyalty to the House of +Hapsburg still lingered in the breasts of the Viennese; +and the sole consolation which reconciled them +to their abject condition was the belief that they +were at least carrying out the wishes of the Head of +that House. Such a consideration, if, from one point +of view, it may be described as a consolation, yet +increased the sense of despair of any redress of +grievances. But the accession of the Emperor Ferdinand +changed this feeling. He at least was credited +with the desire for a milder policy; while the +fact that he had suffered for years from epileptic fits +made it easier to believe that he was not responsible<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> +for the failure to carry out his own plans; and thus +a heavier burden of hatred was thrown upon Metternich. +It was not, indeed, confined to his political +opponents. The Archduchess Sophia, the wife of +the Heir Apparent, had reasons of her own for disliking +him; and his own arrogance, backed by the +arrogance of his wife, roused against him the opposition +of that aristocratic part of the community which +was inclined to favour his general policy. On the +other hand, the admission of the Archduke Francis +Charles, the heir to the throne, to the Council of the +Emperor, tended to increase the belief in the Liberal +tendencies of Ferdinand. But the concession in +1842 of the permission to establish a Reading and +Debating Society was considered by the Viennese +the greatest triumph of Liberal principles.</p> + +<p>The formation of this Society was sanctioned by +Ferdinand, while Metternich was temporarily absent +on a journey for his health. Ferdinand was induced +to consent to it, by his respect for his former tutor +Sommaruga, who had taken a part in its formation. +This Society speedily became a centre of all kinds of +discussion; and Sedlnitzky, the head of the police, +soon began to suspect and hamper it, and thereby +to point out to the rising reformers their natural +leaders. Professor Hye, a man, as it afterwards +appeared, of no very great strength of purpose, +praised this Society as a power in the State which +had been gained by the spirit of Association. A +police spy at once hastened to the Court; the Council +was called together; and a proposal was made to +deprive Hye of his professorship. Archduke Louis +had the good sense to oppose this proposal; but the +fact that it had been made speedily got wind, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> +attracted a certain amount of sympathy to Hye. +Newspapers and pamphlets, too, somehow gained +ground under the new <i>régime</i>; and three writers +especially acquired an influence in stirring up public +feeling not unlike that which had been exercised by +Balbo, Gioberti, and others in Italy.</p> + +<p>A writer named Andrian took up the question of +reform from the aristocratic side, stirred up the +Landtag in Bohemia to assert the Constitutional +rights of which they had never been entirely deprived, +and also influenced the Estates of Lower +Austria to strengthen their body by admitting a +more complete representation of the citizens. Schuselka, +on the other hand, called upon the Emperor +to turn from the nobles as untrustworthy, and rely +for his help on the citizens. But the man who seems +to have drawn most support and attention to his +opinions was Ignatz Kuranda. He did not venture +to propound his ideas in Austria, but started a paper +in Leipzig called the <i lang="de">Grenz Boten</i>. To this all +Austrians who desired reform, whether from the +aristocratic or democratic point of view, hastened to +contribute. And the Government soon became so +much alarmed at these writings that they demanded +that both Kuranda and Schuselka should be expelled +from all the States of Germany. It was a sign, +perhaps, that Metternich's power was beginning, even +at that time, to wane, that he was unable to obtain +this concession; and then the paid writers of the +Government set themselves to answer the reformers. +This attempt, of course, only produced new writers +on the side of Kuranda; and so the movement +gathered additional force.</p> + +<p>But however excellent the awakening of intellectual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> +freedom might be, no steady movement of +reform could be inaugurated at this period which +did not sooner or later gather round the national +principle. Neither Vienna nor the Archduchy had +any traditions of national life; while the Austrian +Empire, which, in its separate form, was not half a +century old, was the very negation of the national +principle. While, therefore, the Viennese looked for +lessons in Constitutional freedom to the neighbouring +State of Hungary, their only hope of sharing in a +national life seemed to rest on their chance of absorption +in Germany. Hence arose a movement in many +ways hopeless and illogical, and the cause of much +injustice to other races; but which, nevertheless, +supplied a strength and vigour to the reformers of +Vienna which they would otherwise have lacked. +They have been denounced for wishing to sacrifice +the position of their city as the capital of a great +Empire by consenting to its absorption in another +nation, in which it would play, at best, only a +secondary part. Yet the desire to take a share in +the common struggles, common traditions, and common +hopes of men of the same language and race is +surely a nobler aspiration than the ambition to be +the centre of a large number of jarring races, held +together by military force or diplomatic intrigue. +Circumstances and History had made the desire of the +Viennese impossible of execution; but this desire +had none the less an element of nobility in it, which +should not be disregarded. The first to give prominent +utterance to the new aspiration was the +Archduke John, who, at a banquet in Cologne, proposed +a toast which he afterwards to some extent +tried to explain away, but which was long remembered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> +by the Germans. "No Prussia! No Austria! +One great united Germany, firm as its hills!" At +that period, the most satisfactory bond between +Austria and Germany would have been found in the +Zollverein which had been established by Prussia. +A German named List came to Vienna in 1844 for +the purpose of encouraging this union; and a banquet +was held in the Hoher Markt at Vienna at +which List gave the toast of "German Unity," which +was welcomed with loud cheers, while the health of +Metternich, proposed by the American Consul, was +received in dead silence.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the discussions on public affairs +were growing more and more keen; and, as the news +arrived of the various rebuffs to Metternich mentioned +in the last chapter, the reformers gained +heart. Yet it still seemed doubtful whether they +could enlist the sympathy of the poorer classes on +the side of Constitutional liberty. The Estates of +Lower Austria, however willing to make certain +concessions to popular feeling, showed none of that +care for the improvement of the condition of the poor +which had been prominent in the Hungarian Diet, +and also in the Lombard petition. The horrible +contrast between wealth and poverty, during the +distress of 1846 and 1847, is illustrated by the following +facts:—In the year 1846 a widow in Vienna +killed one of her children and set it before the +others for food. About the same time, a Viennese +banker gave a dinner at which strawberries were +produced costing in our money about a pound +a-piece!</p> + +<p>This awful contrast would naturally prevent the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> +poor from feeling any keen sympathy for reform +movements inaugurated by the wealthier classes; +yet, in this very year 1846, some of the poorest +citizens of Vienna began, for the first time, to show +a strong desire for the removal of Metternich from +office. The ground of this new outburst of feeling +was the belief that Metternich's championship of the +Sonderbund arose from his strong sympathy with +the Jesuits. It is difficult to discern the exact +ground of the bitter feeling of the poor of Vienna +against this Order. The Emperor Francis had disliked +and discouraged the Jesuits as much as their +bitterest opponents could wish; nor had Ferdinand +been able to secure them any prominent position in the +State; while Metternich's real feeling towards them +was, as before remarked, by no means so friendly as +the Liberals supposed. The citizens of Vienna could +therefore hardly believe that these men were the +pampered favourites of fortune; and the only explanation +of the universal hatred towards them must be +that their air of mystery and power made them +natural objects of suspicion to men who had been +driven desperate by poverty, and who were not able +to discover the causes of their misery. Whatever +the reason may be, there is little doubt that Metternich's +supposed sympathy with the Jesuits on this +occasion roused bitterness against him in the hearts +of many whose poverty had hitherto made them +callous about questions of government.</p> + +<p>But a more reasonable bond between the poorer +classes and the reforming leaders was soon to be +established. The discussions of the Viennese Reading +and Debating Club had been concerned during<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> +these terrible years with the condition of the poor; +and, on April 10, 1847, the leaders of the Club +held a meeting to prepare for the organization of a +soup-kitchen. They soon formed a Committee, under +the leadership of the future Minister Bach, and +issued an appeal for help. For issuing this appeal +without the previous sanction of the censorship the +Committee received a stern rebuke from Sedlnitzky; +and though, after some discussion, the police allowed +the appeal to appear, the officials complained continually +of the independent action of this Committee, +and tried to hamper it in every way.</p> + +<p>It was not merely, however, as the centre of efforts +for the relief of the poor that the Debating Club and +those who supported it attracted the sympathy of +the reformers. Both there and in the University +there were ever-growing signs of political life. Professor +Hye had fiercely denounced the annexation of +Cracow, and had encouraged his pupils to debate the +subject of the freedom of the Press; and Professor +Kudler had promoted the study of political economy. +The books of both these professors were prohibited +by the Government, and, in consequence, were widely +read. More prominent still, as champions of University +Reform, were the leaders of the medical +profession. The Court physicians had succeeded, +for a time, in bringing the Medical Faculty under +the complete supervision of the Government; but in +1844 the students undertook to draw up new rules +which should emancipate their course of study from +this subservient position; and, after three years' +struggle, in September, 1847, they won the day, and +established a government for their Faculty which +was independent of Metternich. This new institution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> +attracted the sympathies of the freest spirits of +Vienna, and the growth of clubs was favoured by +the leading medical professors.</p> + +<p>It was obvious that the great movements which +were stirring in Italy would affect the feeling of the +Viennese; but the result was perhaps less in Vienna +than in other parts of Europe, because of the dislike +felt for the Germans by the Italians. And, in spite +of the growing desire for a German national life, the +Viennese could not throw off the coarse Imperialism +which naturally connected itself with the position of +their city; nor could they get rid entirely of the old +theory of Joseph II., that enlightenment and culture +must necessarily come to all races from the Germans. +But the desire to reconcile the love of liberty with +the instinct of domination showed itself curiously +enough in a pamphlet which appeared in 1848 called +"<span lang="de">Die Sibyllinische Bücher</span>," by Karl Möring, an officer +in the army. Möring, like Schuselka, called on the +Emperor to become a citizen king, and to break down +all monopolies and oligarchical distinctions. But, +while this writer wished to let the Italians go as +being unnaturally connected with the Empire, he +desired to compensate the Emperor for this loss by +the annexation of the Balkan provinces; and he +uttered the warning that, unless freedom were +granted, the Austrian Empire would break up, and +Magyars and Czechs on the East and West would +found separate kingdoms. "The Empire," says +Möring, "can reckon thirty-eight million subjects, +but not one political citizen; not one man who, on +moral and political grounds, can be proved to be an +Austrian.... The Austrian has no Fatherland."</p> + +<p>This pamphlet produced a great effect, for it appealed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> +at once to the two great rival aspirations of +the Austrian Liberals; and perhaps it attracted all +the more attention from the fact that the writer was +a captain in the army. Metternich, however, steadily +refused to believe in the extent of the discontent, +and rebuked Sedlnitzky for the warnings that he +brought. It was evident that Metternich was determined +to fight to the last, and, if possible, to +ignore to the last the dangers that were surrounding +him. Kolowrat, after a fierce struggle, succeeded in +securing a new College of Censorship, which he +thought would be more favourable to literature; but +no sooner was it established than Sedlnitzky succeeded +in turning it into a new engine of oppression, +and so heavy a one that the booksellers feared that +their trade would be entirely crushed out.</p> + +<p>And, while Metternich and his followers were +prepared to deal in this manner with the people of +Vienna, he at least was equally determined to +crush those other opponents whom he considered +the most troublesome at the moment. On January +12, 1848, the Austrian Government had, in concert +with France and the German Confederation, threatened +Switzerland with a commercial blockade, to be +followed by armed intervention, if the Swiss attempted +to make any change in their Constitution +without the consent of the three Great Powers; and +Metternich was preparing for a conference to devise +means for carrying out this threat. With his Lombard +subjects he was prepared to deal still more summarily; +and, on February 22, the following Edict +was issued for that province. In case of riot, sentence +of death was to be given in fifteen days by a +Commission, without appeal to the Emperor. Everyone<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span> +who wore certain distinctive badges, sung or +recited certain songs, wore or exhibited certain +colours, applauded or hissed certain passages in a +drama or concert, joined in a crowd at a given place +of meeting, whether for the purpose of raising subscriptions +or of dissuading from acting with certain +persons, might be imprisoned, banished, or fined to +the extent of 10,000 lire. Such were the measures +by which Metternich was hoping to crush out the +growing freedom of Europe, when the shock of the +French Revolution once more disturbed his calculations.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /><small>THE DOWNFALL OF DESPOTISM. MARCH, 1848.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Character of the French Revolution of 1848.—Its unlikeness to +the revolutions in the rest of Europe.—Position of South German +States.—Würtemberg.—Bavaria.—Baden.—Struve and Hecker.—The +Offenburg Meeting.—Bassermann's Motion.—The procession +to Carlsruhe.—The risings in Würtemberg—in Bavaria—in the +small States—in Saxony.—Effect of French and German risings +in Vienna.—Kossuth's speech of March 3.—Its importance.—Its +effect on Vienna.—Dr. Löhner's Motion.—The "Eleven Points."—Effect +of the reform movement on the rulers of Austria.—The +Meeting at Heidelberg.—Heinrich von Gagern.—Division +between Students and Professors in Vienna.—The deputation +of March 12.—The meeting of March 13.—The "first free +word."—The "Estates."—The insurrection.—The workmen's +movement.—Pollet.—The fall of Metternich.—Intrigues of Windischgrätz +and the Camarilla.—Kossuth in Vienna.—Austria +"on the path of progress."—The insurrection in Berlin.—Its +character and success.—Bohemia in the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries.—Policy of Ferdinand II. and III.—of Maria +Theresa—of Joseph II.—The language question.—The March +movement in Prague.—Gabler.—Peter Faster.—The language +revives.—The first meeting at the Wenzel's-bad.—The two petitions.—The +mission to Vienna.—Contrast of Metternich's treatment +of Lombardy with that of other parts of the Empire.—The +secret proclamations.—The final concessions.—Augusto Anfossi.—His +programme.—The rising of the 18th of March.—The appeal +to O'Donnell.—The "Five Days."—Flight of Radetzky.—Difference +of Venetian movement from the other movements.—Manin's +imprisonment and its effects.—His release.—The Civic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> +Guard.—Death of Marinovich.—Magyars and Croats.—Venice +free.—Palffy's treachery.—General summary of the March +risings.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>The reign of Louis Philippe had indirectly produced +stirrings of thought in France which were at a later +period to have their influence on Europe; and which, +indeed, may be said to be affecting us at this +moment. But the time for this influence had not +yet arrived; and the immediate result of that reign +had been in some measure to confirm France in the +secondary position in European affairs to which the +fall of Napoleon had naturally brought her. The +foreign aggression, which had been favoured by the +Ministers of Charles X., had given place to intrigues +like those relating to the Spanish marriages; the +despotic policy which had forced on the revolution +of July, 1830, had made way for manipulation and +corruption; and aristocratic pretensions for the arrogance +of bourgeois wealth. Attempts at reform +were defeated rather by fraud than by force; and, +though the immediate cause of the revolution was an +act of violence, it was to the cry "<span lang="fr">A bas les corrompus</span>" +that the revolutionists rushed into the +parliament of Louis Philippe. The questions, therefore, +with which France had to deal, vitally important +as they were, were not those which were +agitating Europe at that period. And, if the subjects +in which France was interested were not yet +ripe for handling by the other nations of Europe, +still less could the watchwords of the European revolution +be inscribed on the banner of France. The +principle of nationality, the development, that is, of +a freer life by the voluntary union of men of the +same race and language, was not one which could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> +interest the French. The first movement for distinctly +national independence in Europe had been +the rising of Spain against the French in 1808; the +second, the rising of Germany in 1813; and, though +there might be in France sentimental sympathies +with Greeks and Poles, these were due rather to +special classical feeling in the one case, and traditions +of common wars in the other, than to any real sympathy +with national independence. France, at the +end of the previous century, had offered to secure to +Europe the Rights of Man, and had presented them +instead with the tyranny of Napoleon; the rights +of nations had been asserted against her, and the +national movement would be continued irrespective +of her.</p> + +<p>It may sound a paradox, but is none the less true, +that this absence of French initiative in the European +revolution of 1848 is most strikingly illustrated in +those countries which seemed most directly to catch +the revolutionary spark from France, viz., Würtemberg, +Bavaria, and Baden. The States of South +Germany had, ever since 1815, been a continual +thorn in the side of Metternich. A desire for independence +of Austria had combined with an +antagonism to Prussia to keep alive in those States +a spirit with which Metternich found it very +hard to deal. Würtemberg had been the first to +hamper his progress towards despotic rule; while the +size of Bavaria and its importance in the German +Confederation had enabled its rulers to maintain a +tone of independence which Metternich could not +rebuke with the same freedom which he used towards +the princes of less important States. But it was in the +smallest and apparently weakest of the three States<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> +of Southern Germany that the movement was being +matured which was eventually to be so dangerous to +the power both of Austria and France. The Grand +Duchy of Baden had had, since 1815, a very peculiar +history of its own. The Grand Duke had been one +of those who had granted a Constitution to his people +not long after the Congress of Vienna. A reaction +had, however, soon set in; no doubt, to some extent, +under the influence of Metternich. But it was not +till 1825 that the opposition of the people of Baden +seemed to be crushed and a servile Parliament +secured. Again a Grand Duke of Liberal opinions +came to the throne in 1830; but he, in his turn, was +forced to bend to Metternich's power, and to submit +to the Frankfort Decrees in 1832; and in 1839 +Metternich succeeded in getting a Minister appointed +who was entirely under his control. But these public +submissions on the part of the official leaders made it +easier for a few private citizens to keep alive the spirit +of opposition in Baden.</p> + +<p>In 1845 Gustav Struve had come forward, not +merely to demand reform in Baden, but also to +prophesy the fall of Metternich. For this offence +he was imprisoned; but he continued to keep alive +an element of opposition in Mannheim, where he +founded gymnastic unions, and edited a journal in +which he denounced the Baden Ministry. But, +though Struve seems to have been one of the first to +give expression to the aspirations of the Baden +people, the man whom they specially delighted to +honour was a leader in the Chamber of Deputies +named Hecker, a lawyer of Mannheim, who had +gained much popular sympathy by pleading gratuitously +in the law courts. He was elected to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> +Chamber of Deputies in 1847; and he soon began to +distinguish himself by his championship of German +movements, and, more particularly, by his sympathy +with the reform movement in the German Catholic +Church and with the German aspirations of the +people of Schleswig-Holstein. By an accidental circumstance, +he and another Baden representative +named Izstein attracted a large amount of attention +to themselves; for, happening to stop at Berlin in +the course of a journey, they were suddenly, and +without any apparent reason, ordered to leave the +town. This was believed to be the first occasion on +which a representative of the people had been treated +in this contemptuous manner; and thus the names of +Hecker and Izstein became more widely known in +Germany than those of the other leaders of the Baden +movement.</p> + +<p>The struggle in Switzerland naturally had its effect +in Baden; and the Grand Duke began once more to +assert those Constitutional principles which he had +held when first he came to the throne. He did not, +however, keep pace with the desires of the reformers; +and so, on September 12, 1847, the Baden Liberals +had met at Offenburg, and demanded freedom of the +Press, trial by jury, and other reforms, amongst +which should be mentioned, as a sign of Struve's +opinions, the settlement of the differences between +labour and capital. It was for their action at this +meeting that the reformers had been threatened with +the prosecution which never took place.</p> + +<p>But, in the meantime, the rush of German feeling +was adding a new element to the reform movement +in Baden. Amand Goegg had been trying to revive +the demand for a German National Assembly. The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> +religious reforms of Ronge, which had excited so +much interest in Saxony, also attracted sympathy in +Baden. Struve's gymnastic unions kept alive the +traditions of Jahn; and song, as usual, came to the +help of patriotism. These causes so hastened the +movement for German unity that, on February 12, +1848, Bassermann moved, in the Baden Chamber, +that the Grand Duke should be petitioned to take +steps for promoting common legislation for Germany. +This motion, coming from a man who was never +reckoned an advanced Liberal, naturally hastened the +awakening of German feeling; and on February 27 +the Baden Liberals met at Mannheim, and decided +to summon a meeting at Carlsruhe, at which they +intended to put forward the demand for a really +representative German Parliament. Thus it was on +ground already prepared that there now fell the news +of the French Revolution; and when, on March 1, +the leaders of the procession from Mannheim entered +Carlsruhe, wearing the black, red, and gold of United +Germany, the Ministry were ready to make concessions; +and, on March 2, the Second Chamber of +Baden demanded the repeal of the Carlsbad Decrees +of 1819, of the Frankfort Decrees of 1832, and of the +Vienna Decrees of 1834; and they further required +that the Government should take means to secure +representation of the German people in the Bundestag.</p> + +<p>While Baden was striking the keynote of German +unity, the other small States of Germany were preparing +to take it up. In Würtemberg the Ministers +had grown, in latter days, somewhat tyrannical; and, +when the citizens gathered in Stuttgart to demand +freedom of the Press and a German Parliament, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> +President of the Council advised the King to summon +troops to his aid. But the King was more Liberal +than his Ministers; he consented to call to office a +Liberal Ministry; and the Chamber which was now +formed speedily decreed the abolition of feudal dues. +In Bavaria the power exercised by Lola Montez over +the King had long been distasteful to the sterner +reformers. She had attempted, indeed, to pay court +to the Liberals; but she had given such offence to +some of the students of Munich as to provoke a riot +which led to the closing of the University. The +nobles and Jesuits would now have gladly sacrificed +the King's favourite to the people; but the Baden +rising had fired the Bavarian Liberals with a desire +for much greater reforms. Their hatred of the +Jesuits quickened their zeal; for that body was supposed +to divide with Lola Montez the conscience of +the King. Animated by these various causes of indignation, +the Bavarian Liberals were ready enough +for action; and on the news of the Baden movement +they broke into the arsenal at Munich, provided +themselves with arms, and demanded a German +Parliament. The King consented to summon, at +any rate, a Bavarian Parliament for the present; but, +unable to fall in readily with the popular movement, +and resenting the opposition to his favourite, he +abdicated a few weeks later in favour of his son. +The spark, once lighted in the South, spread among +the smaller States of Germany. In Hesse Cassel +the Elector tried to offer some opposition; but the +citizens of Hanau marched upon Cassel and compelled +the Elector to yield. In Hesse Darmstadt the Grand +Duke yielded more readily, under the influence of +his Minister, Heinrich von Gagern. In Nassau the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> +movement received additional interest from the +seizure by the victorious people of the Johannisberg, +which belonged to Metternich.</p> + +<p>But the most interesting of the struggles was that +in Saxony. Robert Blum was present at a ball in +Leipzig when the news arrived of the French Revolution. +He at once hastened to consult his friends; +and they agreed to act through the Town Council of +Leipzig, and sketched out the demands which they +desired should be laid before the King. These were: +"A reorganization of the Constitution of the German +Bund in the spirit and in accordance with the needs +of the times, for which the way is to be prepared by +the unfettering of the Press, and the summoning of +representatives of all German peoples to the Assembly +of the Bund." The Town Council adopted this address +on March 1, and sent a deputation with it to +Dresden; and, on the 3rd, the people gathered to +meet the deputation on their return. The following +is the account given by the son of Robert Blum:—</p> + +<p>"By anonymous placards on the wall, the population +of Leipzig was summoned, on the evening of +March 3, to meet at the railway-station the deputation +returning from Dresden. Since the space +was too narrow in this place, the innumerable mass +marched to the market-place, which, as well as the +neighbouring streets, they completely filled. In +perfect silence the thousands awaited here the arrival +of the deputation, which, at last, towards nine o'clock, +arrived, and was greeted with unceasing applause. +Town Councillor Seeburg spoke first of the deep +emotion of the King; after him spoke Biedermann. +But the crowd uproariously demanded Robert Blum. +At last Blum appeared on the balcony of the Town<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> +Council House. His voice alone controlled the whole +market-place, and was even heard in the neighbouring +streets. He, too, sought, by trying to quiet +them, to turn them away from the subject of the +address and of the King's answer. But the people +broke in uproariously even into his speech with the +demand, 'The answer! The answer!' It could no +longer be concealed that the petitions of the town +had received harsh rejection. Then came a loud and +passionate murmur. The masses had firmly hoped +that the deputation would bring with them from +Dresden the news of the dismissal of the hated +Ministers. But Blum continued his speech, and +they renewed their attention to him. 'In Constitutional +countries,' said he, 'it is not the King, but the +Ministers who are responsible. They, too, bear the +responsibility of the rejection of the Leipzig proposals. +The people must press for their removal.' +He added that he would bring forward in the next +meeting of the Town Representatives the proposal +that the King should dismiss the Ministry, 'which +does not possess the confidence of the people.' +Amidst tremendous shouts of exultation and applause, +the appeased assembly dispersed."</p> + +<div class="center"> + <a name="illo_blum" id="illo_blum"></a> +<a href="images/illo_blumh.jpg"> +<img src="images/illo_blum.jpg" width="402" height="600" + alt="" + title="" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">ROBERT BLUM.</p> +</div> + +<p>Blum was as successful with his colleagues as with +the crowd; and the Town Council now demanded +from the King the dismissal of his Ministers, the +meeting of the Assembly, and freedom of the Press. +The King tried to resist the last of these three proposals, +pleading his duty to the Bund. But even the +Bundestag had felt the spirit of the times; and, on +March 1, had passed a resolution giving leave to +every Government to abolish the censorship of the +Press. The King seemed to yield, and promised to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span> +fulfil all that was wished; but the reactionary party +in Dresden had become alarmed at the action of the +men of Leipzig; and so, on March 11, when the +men of Leipzig supposed that all was granted, +General von Carlowitz entered their city at the head +of a strong force, and demanded that the Town +Council should abstain from exciting speeches; that +the Elocution Union should give up all political +discussion; that the processions of people should +cease; and, above all, that the march from Leipzig +to Dresden, which was believed to be then intended, +should be given up. These demands were met by +Blum with an indignant protest. "Five men," said +he, "who manage the army cannot understand +that, though their bullets may kill men, they cannot +make a single hole in the idea that rules the +world." The Town Councillors of Leipzig were +equally firm. Carlowitz abandoned his attempt as +hopeless; and on March 13 the King summoned a +Liberal Ministry, who abolished the censorship of +the Press, granted publicity of legal proceedings, +trial by jury, and a wider basis for the Saxon parliament, +and promised to assist in the reform of the +Bund.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the success of the French Revolution +had awakened new hopes in Vienna. Soon +after the arrival of the news, a placard appeared on +one of the city gates bearing the words, "In a +month Prince Metternich will be overthrown! Long +live Constitutional Austria!" Metternich himself +was greatly alarmed, and began to listen to proposals +for extending the power of the Lower Austrian +Estates. Yet he still hoped by talking over +and discussing these matters to delay the executions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span> +of reforms till a more favourable turn in affairs +should render them either harmless or unnecessary.</p> + +<p>But great as was the alarm caused by the South +German risings, and great as were the hopes which +they kindled in the Viennese, the word which was to +give definiteness and importance to the impulses +which were stirring in Vienna could not come from +Bavaria or Saxony. Much as they might wish to +connect themselves with a German movement, the +Viennese could not get rid of the fact that they +were, for the present, bound up with a different +political system. Nor was it wholly clear that the +German movement was as yet completely successful. +The King of Prussia seemed to be meditating a +reactionary policy, and had even threatened to +despatch troops to put down the Saxon Liberals; +and the King of Hanover also was disposed to resist +the movement for a German parliament. It was +from a country more closely bound up with the +Viennese Government, and yet enjoying traditions +of more deeply rooted liberty, that the utterance +was to come which was eventually to rouse the +Viennese to action.</p> + +<p>The readiness of the nobles to accept the purely +verbal concession offered by Metternich in the matter +of the "Administrators" had shown Kossuth that +there could be no further peace. But he still knew +how and when to strike the blow; and it was not by +armed insurrection so much as by the declaration of a +policy that he shook the rule of Metternich. On +March 3 a Conservative member of the Presburg +Assembly brought forward a motion for inquiry into +the Austrian bank-notes. Kossuth answered that the +confusion in the affairs of Austrian commerce produced<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> +an evil effect on Hungarian finances; and he +showed the need of an independent finance ministry +for Hungary. Then he went on to point out that +this same confusion extended to other parts of the +monarchy. "The actual cause of the breaking up +of peace in the monarchy, and of all the evils which +may possibly follow from it, lies in the system of +Government." He admitted that it was hard for +those who had been brought up under this system to +consent to its destruction. "But," he went on, "the +People lasts for ever, and we wish also that the +Country of the People should last for ever. For +ever too should last the splendour of that Dynasty +whom we reckon as our rulers. In a few days the +men of the past will descend into their graves; but +for that scion of the House of Hapsburg who excites +such great hopes, for the Archduke Francis Joseph, +who at his first coming forward earned the love of +the nation,—for him there waits the inheritance of a +splendid throne which derives its strength from freedom. +Towards a Dynasty which bases itself on the +freedoms of its Peoples enthusiasm will always be +roused; for it is only the freeman who can be +faithful from his heart; for a bureaucracy there can +be no enthusiasm." He then urged that the future +of the Dynasty depended on the hearty union between +the nations which lived under it. "This +union," he said, "can only be brought about by +respecting the nationalities, and by that bond of +Constitutionalism which can produce a kindred feeling. +The bureau and the bayonet are miserable +bonds." He then went on to apologize for not +examining the difficulties between Hungary and +Croatia. The solution of the difficulties of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> +Empire would, he held, solve the Croatian question +too. If it did not, he promised to consider that +question with sympathy, and examine it in all its +details. He concluded by proposing an address to +the Emperor which should point out that it was the +want of Constitutional life in the whole Empire +which hindered the progress of Hungary; and that, +while an independent Government and a separate +responsible Ministry were absolutely essential to +Hungary, it was also necessary that the Emperor +should surround his throne, in all matters of Government, +with such Constitutional arrangements as +were indispensably demanded by the needs of the +time.</p> + +<p>This utterance has been called the Baptismal speech +of the Revolution. Coming as it did directly after +the news of the French Revolution, it gave a definiteness +to the growing demands for freedom; but it did +more than this. Metternich had cherished a growing +hope that the demand for Constitutional Government +in Vienna might be gradually used to crush +out the independent position of Hungary, by absorbing +the Hungarians in a common Austrian parliament; +and he had looked upon the Croatian question +as a means for still further weakening the power of +the Hungarian Diet. Kossuth's speech struck a +blow at these hopes by declaring that freedom for +any part of the Empire could only be obtained by +working for the freedom of the whole; he swept +aside for the moment those national and provincial +jealousies which were the great strength of the +Austrian despotism, and appealed to all the Liberals +of the Empire to unite against the system which was +oppressing them all. Had Kossuth remained true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> +to the faith which he proclaimed in this speech, it +is within the limits of probability that the whole +Revolution of 1848-9 might have had a different +result.</p> + +<p>The Hungarian Chancellor, Mailath, was so alarmed +at Kossuth's speech that he hindered the setting out +of the deputation which was to have presented the +address to the Emperor. But he could not prevent +the speech from producing its effect. Although +Presburg was only six hours' journey from Vienna, +the route had been made so difficult that the news +of anything done in the Hungarian Diet had hitherto +reached Vienna in a very roundabout manner, and had +sometimes been a week on its way. The news of +this speech, however, arrived on the very next day; +and Kossuth's friend Pulszky immediately translated +it into German, and circulated it among the Viennese. +A rumour of its contents had spread before +the actual speech. It was said that Kossuth had +declared war against the system of Government, and +that he had said State bankruptcy was inevitable. +But, as the news became more definite, the minds of +the Viennese fixed upon two points: the denunciation +of the men of the past, and the demand for a +Constitution for Austria. So alarmed did the Government +become at the effect of this speech, that +they undertook to answer it in an official paper. +The writer of this answer called attention to the +terrible scenes which he said were being enacted in +Paris, which proved, according to him, that the only +safety for the governed was in rallying round the +Government. This utterance naturally excited only +contempt and disgust; and the ever-arriving news +of new Constitutions granted in Germany swelled the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span> +enthusiasm which had been roused by Kossuth's +speech.</p> + +<p>The movement still centred in the professors of +the University. On March 1 Dr. Löhner had proposed, +at one of the meetings of the Reading and Debating +Society, that negotiations should be opened with the +Estates; and that they should be urged to declare +their Assembly permanent, the country in danger, +and Metternich a public enemy. This proposal +marked a definite step in Constitutional progress. +The Estates of Lower Austria, which met in Vienna, +had, indeed, from time to time, expressed their opinions +on certain public grievances; but these +opinions had been generally disregarded by Francis +and Metternich; and, though the latter had of late +talked of enlarging the powers of the Estates, he had +evidently intended such words partly as mere talk, +in order to delay any efficient action, and partly as a +bid against the concessions which had been made by +the King of Prussia. That the leaders of a popular +movement should suggest an appeal to the Estates +of Lower Austria was, therefore, an unexpected +sign of a desire to find any legal centre for action, +however weak in power, and however aristocratic in +composition, that centre might be.</p> + +<p>Dr. Löhner's proposal, however, does not seem to +have been generally adopted; and, instead of the +suggested appeal to the Estates, a programme of +eleven points was circulated by the Debating Society. +When we consider that the Revolution broke out in +less than a fortnight after this petition, we cannot +but be struck with the extreme moderation of the demands +now made. Most of the eleven points were concerned +with proposals for the removal either of forms<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> +of corruption, or of restraints on personal liberty, and +they were chiefly directed against those interferences +with the life and teaching of the Universities which +were causing so much bitterness in Vienna. Such +demands for Constitutional reforms as were contained +in this programme were certainly not of an alarming +character. The petitioners asked that the right of +election to the Assembly of Estates should be extended +to citizens and peasants; that the deliberative +powers of the Estates should be enlarged; and that +the whole Empire should be represented in an +Assembly, for which, however, the petitioners only +asked a consultative power. Perhaps the three +demands in this petition which would have excited +the widest sympathy were those in favour of the +universal arming of the people, the universal right +of petition, and the abolition of the censorship. The +expression of desire for reform now became much +more general, and even some members of the Estates +prepared an appeal to their colleagues against the +bureaucratic system. But the character and tone of +the utterances of these new reformers somewhat +weakened the effect which had been produced by +the bolder complaints of the earlier leaders of the +movement; for, while the students of the University +and some of their professors still showed a desire for +bold and independent action, the merchants caught +eagerly at the sympathy of the Archduke Francis +Charles, while the booksellers addressed to the +Emperor a petition in which servility passes into +blasphemy.</p> + +<p>These signs of weakness were no doubt observed +by the Government; and it was not wonderful that, +under these circumstances, Metternich and Kolowrat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> +should have been able to persuade themselves that +they could still play with the Viennese, and put them +off with promises which need never be performed. +Archduke Louis alone seems to have foreseen the +coming storm, but was unable to persuade his colleagues +to make military preparations to meet it. In +the meantime the movement among the students +was assuming more decided proportions; and their +demands related as usual to the great questions of +freedom of speech, freedom of the Press, and freedom +of teaching; and to these were now added the demand +for popular representation, the justifications for which +they drew from Kossuth's speech of March 3.</p> + +<p>But, while Hungary supplied the model of Constitutional +Government, the hope for a wider national +life connected itself more and more with the idea of a +united Germany. Two days after the delivery of +Kossuth's speech an impulse had been given to this +latter feeling by the meeting at Heidelberg of the +leading supporters of German unity; and they had +elected a committee of seven to prepare the way for +a Constituent Assembly at Frankfort. Of these seven, +two came from Baden, one from Würtemberg, one +from Hesse Darmstadt, one from Prussia, one from +Bavaria, and one from Frankfort. Thus it will be +seen that South Germany still kept the lead in the +movement for German unity; and the President of +the Committee was that Izstein, of Baden, who had +been chiefly known to Germany by his ill-timed expulsion +from Berlin. But, though this distribution +of power augured ill for the relations between the +leaders of the German movement and the King of +Prussia, yet the meeting at Heidelberg was not prepared +to adopt the complete programme of the Baden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span> +leaders, nor to commit itself definitely to that Republican +movement which would probably have repelled +the North German Liberals.</p> + +<p>The chief leader of the more moderate party in the +meeting was Heinrich von Gagern, the representative +of Hesse Darmstadt. Gagern was the son of a former +Minister of the Grand Duke of Nassau, who had left +that State to take service in Austria, and who had +acted with the Archduke John in planning a popular +rising in the Tyrol in 1813. Heinrich had been +trained at a military school in Munich. He had +steadily opposed the policy of Metternich, had done +his best to induce the Universities to co-operate +in a common German movement, and had tried to +secure internal liberties for Hesse Darmstadt, while he +had urged his countrymen to look for the model of a +free Constitution rather to England and Hungary +than to France. During the Constitutional movement +of 1848 he had become Prime Minister of Hesse +Darmstadt; and he seems to have had considerable +power of winning popular confidence. Although he +was not able to commit the meeting to a definitely +monarchical policy, he had influence enough to counteract +the attempts of Struve and Hecker to carry a +proposal for the proclamation of a Republic; and his +influence steadily increased during the later phases of +the movement.</p> + +<p>It was obvious that, in the then state of Viennese +feeling, a movement in favour of German unity, at +once so determined and so moderate in its character, +would give new impulse to the hopes for freedom +already excited by Kossuth's speech; and the action +of the reformers now became more vigorous because +the students rather than the professors were guiding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> +the movement. Some of the latter, and particularly +Professor Hye, were beginning to be alarmed, and +were attempting to hold their pupils in check. This +roused the distrust and suspicion of the students; and +it was with great difficulty that Professors Hye and +Endlicher could prevail on the younger leaders of the +movement to abstain from action until the professors +had laid before the Emperor the desire of the University +for the removal of Metternich. This deputation +waited on the Emperor on March 12; but it proved +of little avail; and when the professors returned with +the answer that the Emperor would consider the +matter, the students received them with loud laughter +and resolved to take the matter into their own hands. +The next day was to be the opening of the Assembly +of the Estates of Lower Austria; and the students of +Vienna resolved to march in procession from the +University to the Landhaus.</p> + +<p>In the great hall of the University, now hidden +away in an obscure part of Vienna, but still retaining +traces of the paintings which then decorated it, the +students gathered in large numbers on the 13th of +March. Various rumours of a discouraging kind had +been circulated; this and that leading citizen was +mentioned as having been arrested; nay, it was even +said that members of the Estates had themselves been +seized, and that the sitting of the Assembly would +not be allowed to take place. To these rumours were +added the warnings of the professors. Füster, who +had recently preached on the duty of devotion to the +cause of the country, now endeavoured, by praises of +the Emperor, to check the desire of the students for +immediate action; but he was scraped down. Hye +then appealed to them to wait a few days, in hopes of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> +a further answer from the Emperor. They answered +with a shout that they would not wait an hour; and +then they raised the cry of "Landhaus!" Breaking +loose from all further restraint, they set out on their +march, and, as they went, numbers gathered round +them. The people of Vienna had already been appealed +to, by a placard on St. Stephen's Church, to +free the good Emperor Ferdinand from his enemies; +and the placard further declared that he who wished +for the rise of Austria must wish for the fall of the +present Ministers of State. The appeal produced its +effect; and the crowd grew denser as the students +marched into the narrow Herren Gasse. They passed +under the archway which led into the courtyard of +the Landhaus; there, in front of the very building +where the Assembly was sitting, they came to a dead +halt; and, with the strange hesitation which sometimes +comes over crowds, no man seemed to know +what was next to be done. Suddenly, in the pause +which followed, the words "Meine Herren" were +heard from a corner of the crowd. It was evident +that someone was trying to address them; and the +students nearest to the speaker hoisted him on to +their shoulders. Then the crowd saw a quiet-looking +man, with a round, strong head, short-cropped hair, +and a thick beard. Each man eagerly asked his +neighbour who this could be; and, as the speech proceeded, +the news went round that this was Dr. +Fischhof, a man who had been very little known +beyond medical circles, and hitherto looked upon as +quite outside political movements. Such was the +speaker who now uttered what is still remembered as +the "first free word" in Vienna.</p> + +<p>He began by dwelling on the importance of the day<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> +and on the need of "encouraging the men who sit +there," pointing to the Landhaus, "by our appeal to +them, of strengthening them by our adherence, and +leading them to the desired end by our co-operation +in action. He," exclaimed Fischhof, "who has no +courage on such a day as this is only fit for the +nursery." He then proceeded to dwell at some length +on the need for freedom of the Press and trial by +jury. Then, catching, as it were, the note of Kossuth's +speech of the 3rd of March, he went on to speak of +the greatness which Austria might attain by combining +together "the idealist Germans, the steady, industrious, +and persevering Slavs, the knightly and +enthusiastic Magyars, the clever and sharp-sighted +Italians." Finally, he called upon them to demand +freedom of the Press, freedom of religion, freedom of +teaching and learning, a responsible Ministry, representation +of the people, arming of the people, and +connection with Germany.<a name="Anchor-9" id="Anchor-9"></a><a href="#Footnote-9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a></p> + +<p>In the meantime the Estates were sitting within. +They had gathered in unusually large numbers, being +persuaded by their president that they were bound to +resist the stream of opinion. Representatives as they +were of the privileged classes, they had little sympathy +with the movement which was going on in Vienna. +Nor does it appear that there was anyone among them +who was disposed to play the part of a Confalonieri +or Szechenyi, much less of a Mirabeau or a Lafayette. +Many of them had heard rumours of the coming +deputation; but Montecuccoli, their president, refused +to begin the proceedings before the regular hour. +While they were still debating this point they heard<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> +the rush of the crowd outside; then the sudden +silence, and then Fischhof's voice. Several members +were seized with a panic and desired to adjourn. +Again Montecuccoli refused to yield, and one of their +few Liberal members urged them to take courage +from the fact of this deputation, and to make stronger +demands on the Government.</p> + +<p>But before the Assembly could decide how to act +the crowd outside had taken sterner measures. The +speakers who immediately followed Fischhof had +made little impression; then another doctor, named +Goldmark, sprang up and urged the people to break +into the Landhaus. So, before the leaders of +the Estates had decided what action to take, the +doors were suddenly burst open, and Fischhof entered +at the head of the crowd. He announced that he +had come to encourage the Estates in their deliberations, +and to ask them to sanction the demands embodied +in the petition of the people. Montecuccoli +assured the deputation that the Emperor had already +promised to summon the provincial Assemblies to +Vienna, and that, for their part, the Estates of Lower +Austria were in favour of progress. "But," he +added, "they must have room and opportunity to +deliberate." Fischhof assented to this suggestion, +and persuaded his followers to withdraw to the courtyard. +But those who had remained behind had been +seized with a fear of treachery, and a cry arose that +Fischhof had been arrested. Thereupon Fischhof +showed himself, with Montecuccoli, on the balcony; +and the president promised that the Estates would +send a deputation of their own to the Emperor to +express to him the wishes of the people. He therefore +invited the crowd to choose twelve men, to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> +present at the deliberations of the Estates during +the drawing up of the petition. While the election +of these twelve was still going on, a Hungarian student +appeared with the German translation of Kossuth's +speech. The Hungarian's voice being too weak to +make itself heard, he handed the speech to a Tyrolese +student, who read it to the crowd. The allusion to +the need of a Constitution was received with loud +applause, and so also was the expression of the hopes +for good from the Archduke Francis Joseph.</p> + +<p>But, however much the reading of the speech had +encouraged the hopes of the crowd, it had also given +time for the Estates to decide on a course, without +waiting for the twelve representatives of the people; +and, before the crowd had heard the end of Kossuth's +speech, the reading was interrupted by a message from +the Estates announcing the contents of their proposed +petition. The petition had shrunk to the meagre +demand that a report on the condition of the State +bank should be laid before the Estates; and that a committee +should be chosen from provincial Assemblies to +consider timely reforms, and to take a share in legislation. +The feeble character of the proposed compromise +roused a storm of scorn and rage; and a Moravian +student tore the message of the Estates into pieces. +The conclusion of Kossuth's speech roused the people +to still further excitement; and, with cries for a free +Constitution, for union with Germany, and against +alliance with Russia, the crowd once more broke into +the Assembly. One of the leading students then +demanded of Montecuccoli whether this was the +whole of the petition they intended to send to the +Emperor? Montecuccoli answered that the Estates +had been so disturbed in their deliberations that they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> +had not been able to come to a final decision. But +he declared that they desired to lay before the +Emperor all the wishes of the people. Again the +leaders of the crowd repeated, in slightly altered +form, the demands originally formulated by Fischhof. +At last, after considerable discussion, Montecuccoli +was preparing to start for the Castle at the head of +the Estates when a regiment of soldiers arrived. +They were, however, unable to make their way +through the crowd, and were even pressed back out +of the Herren Gasse.</p> + +<p>The desire now arose for better protection for the +people; and a deputation tried to persuade the +Burgomaster of Vienna to call out the City Guard. +Czapka, the Burgomaster, was, however, a mere tool +of the Government; and he declared that the Archduke +Albert, as Commander-in-Chief of the army, +had alone the power of calling out the Guard. The +Archduke Albert was, perhaps next to Louis, the +most unpopular of the Royal House; he indignantly +refused to listen to any demands of the people, and, +hastening to the spot, rallied the soldiers and led +them to the open space at the corner of the Herren +Gasse, which is known as the Freyung. The inner +circle of Vienna was at this time surrounded with +walls, outside of which were the large suburbs in +which the workmen chiefly lived. The students +seem already to have gained some sympathy with the +workmen; and, for the previous two years, the discontent +caused by the sufferings of the poorer classes +had been taking a more directly political turn. +Several of the workmen had pressed in with the +students, in the morning, into the inner town; and +some big men, with rough darned coats and dirty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> +caps over their eyes, were seen clenching their fists +for the fight. The news quickly spread to the +suburbs that the soldiers were about to attack the +people. Seizing long poles and any iron tools +which came to hand, the workmen rushed forward to +the gates of the inner town. In one district they +found the town gates closed against them, and cannon +placed on the bastion near; but in others the authorities +were unprepared; and the workmen burst into +the inner town, tearing down stones and plaster to +throw at the soldiers.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the representatives of the Estates +had reached the Castle, and were trying to persuade +the authorities to yield to the demands of the people. +Metternich persisted in believing that the whole affair +was got up by foreign influence, and particularly by +Italians and Swiss; and he desired that the soldiers +should gather in the Castle, and that Prince Windischgrätz +should be appointed commandant of the city. +Alfred Windischgrätz was a Bohemian nobleman +who had previously been chiefly known for his strong +aristocratic feeling, which he was said to have embodied +in the expression "Human beings begin at +Barons." But he had been marked out by Metternich +as a man of vigour and decision who might be trusted +to act in an emergency. Latour, who had been the +previous commandant of the Castle in Vienna, showed +signs of hesitation at this crisis; and this gave +Metternich the excuse for dismissing Latour and +appointing Windischgrätz in his place. To this arrangement +all the ruling Council consented; but, +when Archduke Louis and Metternich proposed to +make Windischgrätz military dictator of the city, and +to allow him to bring out cannon for firing on the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> +people, great opposition arose. The Archduke John +was perhaps one of the few Councillors who really +sympathized with Liberal ideas; but several of the +Archdukes, and particularly Francis Charles, heartily +desired the fall of Metternich; and Kolowrat shared +their wish. This combined opposition of sincere reformers +and jealous courtiers hindered Metternich's +policy; and it was decided that the City Guard +should first be called out, and that the dictatorship +of Windischgrätz should be kept in the background as +a last resource.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the struggle in the streets was +raging fiercely. Archduke Albert had found, to his +cost, that the insurrection was not, as he had supposed, +the work of a few discontented men. The students +fought gallantly; but a still fiercer element was contributed +to the insurrection by the workmen who +had come in from the suburbs. One workman was +wounded in his head, his arm, and his foot; but he +continued to encourage his friends, and cried out +that he cared nothing for life; either he would die +that day, or else "the high gentlemen should be +overthrown." Another, who had had no food since the +morning, entreated for a little refreshment, that he +might be able to fight the better; and he quickly +returned to the struggle. In those suburbs from +which the workmen had not been able to break into +the inner town, the insurrection threatened to assume +the form of an attack on the employers. Machines +were destroyed, and the houses of those employers +who had lowered wages were set on fire. It was +this aspect of the insurrection which encouraged the +nobles to believe that, by calling out the Guard, they +would induce the richer citizens to take arms against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> +the workmen; and this policy was carried still +further when, on the application of the Rector of the +University, the students also were allowed the privilege +of bearing arms. But the ruse entirely failed; +the people recognized the City Guard as their friends, +and refused to attack them; and the rumour soon +spread that the police had fired on the City Guard. +It was now evident that the citizen soldiers were on +the side of the people; and the richer citizens sent +a deputation to entreat that Metternich should be +dismissed.</p> + +<p>But the Archduke Maximilian was resolved that, +as the first expedient proposed by the Council had +failed, he would now apply some of those more violent +remedies which had been postponed at first. He +therefore ordered that the cannon should be brought +down from the castle to the Michaelerplatz. From +this point the cannon would have commanded, on the +one side the Herren Gasse, where the crowd had +gathered in the morning, and in front the Kohlmarkt, +which led to the wide street of Am Graben. Had +the cannon been fired then and there, the course of +the insurrection must, in one way or other, have +been changed. That change might have been, as +Maximilian hoped, the complete collapse of the insurrection; +or, as Latour held, the cannon might +have swept away the last vestige of loyalty to the +Emperor, and the Republic might have been instantly +proclaimed. But, in any case, the result must have +been most disastrous to the cause both of order and +liberty; for the passions which had already been +roused, especially among the workmen, could hardly +have failed to produce one of those savage struggles +which may overthrow one tyranny, but which generally<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> +end in the establishment of another. Fortunately, +however, the Archduke Maximilian seems to have +had no official authority in this matter; and, when he +gave the order to fire, the master gunner, a Bohemian +named Pollet, declared that he would not obey the +order, unless it was given by the commander of the +forces or the commander of the town. The Archduke +then appealed to the subordinates to fire, in +spite of this opposition; but Pollet placed himself in +front of the cannon, and exclaimed, "The cannon are +under my command; until there comes an order from +my commander, and until necessity obliges it, let +no one fire on friendly, unarmed citizens. Only over +my body shall you fire." The Archduke retired in +despair.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the deputation of citizens had +reached the castle. At first the officials were disposed +to treat them angrily, and even tried to detain them +by force; but the news of the concession of arms to +the students, the urgent pressure of Archduke John, +and the continued accounts of the growing fury of +the people, finally decided Metternich to yield; and, +advancing into the room where the civic deputation +was assembled, he declared that, as they had said his +resignation would bring peace to Austria, he now resigned +his office, and wished good luck to the new +Government. Many of the royal family, and of the +other members of the Council, flattered themselves +that they had got rid of a formidable enemy, without +making any definite concession to the people. Windischgrätz +alone protested against the abandonment +of Metternich by the rulers of Austria. Metternich +had hoped to retire quietly to his own villa; but it +had been already burned in the insurrection; and he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> +soon found that it was safer to fly from Vienna and +eventually to take refuge in England. He had, however, +one consolation in all his misfortunes. In the +memoir written four years later he expressed his certainty +that he at least had done no wrong, and that +"if he had to begin his career again, he would have +followed again the course which he took before, and +would not have deviated from it for an instant."</p> + +<p>When, at half-past eight in the evening of March +13, men went through the streets of Vienna, crying +out "Metternich is fallen!" it seemed as if the march +of the students and the petition of Fischhof had produced +in one day all the results desired. But neither +the suspicions of the people, nor the violent intentions +of the Princes, were at an end. The Archdukes still +talked of making Windischgrätz dictator of Vienna. +The workmen still raged in the suburbs; and the +students refused to leave the University, for fear an +attack should be made upon it. But, in spite of the +violence of the workmen, the leaders of the richer citizens +were more and more determined to make common +cause with the reformers. Indeed, both they and the +students hoped to check the violence of the riots, +while they prevented any reactionary movement. The +Emperor also was on the side of concession. He +refused to let the people be fired on, and announced, +on the 14th, the liberties of the Press. But unfortunately +he was seized with one of his epileptic fits; +and the intriguers, who were already consolidating +themselves into the secret Council known as the +Camarilla, published the news of Windischgrätz's +dictatorship, and resolved to place Vienna under a +state of siege while the Emperor was incapable of +giving directions. The news of Windischgrätz's accession<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> +to power so alarmed the people that they at +once decided to march upon the castle; but one of +the leading citizens, named Arthaber, persuaded +them to abandon their intention, and, instead, to send +him and another friend to ask for a Constitution from +the Emperor. A struggle was evidently going on +between Ferdinand and his courtiers. Whenever he +was strong and able to hold his own, he was ready +to make concessions. Whenever he was either ill, or +still suffering from the mental effects of his illness, +the Government fell into the hands of Windischgrätz +and the Archdukes, and violent measures were +proposed.</p> + +<p>Thus, though Arthaber and his friends were received +courteously, and assured of the Constitutional +intentions of the Emperor, yet at eleven o'clock on +the same night there appeared a public notice declaring +Vienna in a state of siege. But even Windischgrätz +seems to have been somewhat frightened by the +undaunted attitude of the people; and when he found +that his notice was torn down from the walls, and +that a new insurrection was about to break out, he +sent for Professor Hye and entreated him to preserve +order. In the meantime the Emperor had, to some +extent, recovered his senses; and he speedily issued +a promise to summon the Estates of the German and +Slavonic provinces and the Congregations of Lombardo-Venetia. +But the people had had enough of +sham Constitutions; and the Emperor's proclamation +was torn down. This act, however, did not imply +any personal hostility to Ferdinand; for the belief +that the Austrian Ministers were thwarting the good +intentions of their master was as deeply rooted, at this +time, in the minds of the Viennese as was a similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> +belief with regard to Pius IX. and his Cardinals in +the minds of the Romans; and when the Emperor +drove out in public on the 15th of March, he was +received with loud cheers.</p> + +<p>But, as Ferdinand listened to these cheers, he must +have noticed that, louder than the "<span lang="de">Es lebe der +Kaiser</span>" of his German subjects and the "<span lang="cs">Slawa</span>" of +the Bohemians, rose the sound of the Hungarian +"<span lang="hu">Eljen</span>." For mingling in the crowd with the ordinary +inhabitants of Vienna were the Hungarian +deputation who had at last been permitted by the +Count Palatine to leave Presburg, and who had +arrived in Vienna to demand both the freedoms +which had been granted to the Germans and also a +separate responsible Ministry for Hungary. They +arrived in the full glory of recent successes in the +Presburg Diet; for, strengthened by the news of the +Viennese rising, Kossuth had carried in one day many +of the reforms for which his party had so long been +contending. The last remnants of the dependent +condition of the peasantry had been swept away; +taxation had been made universal; and freedom of +the Press and universal military service had been +promised. Szechenyi alone had ventured to raise a +note of warning, and it had fallen unheeded. In +Vienna Kossuth was welcomed almost as cordially as +in Presburg; for the German movement in Vienna +had tended to produce in its supporters a willingness +to lose the eastern half of the Empire in order to +obtain the union of the western half with Germany. +So the notes of Arndt's <span lang="de">Deutsches Vaterland</span> were +mingled with the cry of "Batthyanyi Lajos, <span lang="de">Minister +Präsident</span>!" Before such a combination as this, +Ferdinand had no desire, Windischgrätz no power, to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> +maintain an obstinate resistance; and, on March 16, +Sedlnitzky, the hated head of the police, was dismissed +from office. On the 18th a responsible Ministry +was appointed; and on the 22nd Windischgrätz himself +announced that national affairs would now be +guided on the path of progress.</p> + +<p>In the meantime that German movement from +which the Viennese derived so much of their impulse +had been gaining a new accession of force in the +North of Germany. In Berlin the order of the Viennese +movements had been to some extent reversed. +There the artizans, instead of taking their tone from +the students, had given the first impulse to reform. +The King, indeed, had begun his concessions by granting +freedom of the Press on the 7th of March; but it +seemed very unlikely that this concession would be +accompanied by any securities which would make it +a reality. The King even refused to fulfil his promise +of summoning the Assembly; and it was in consequence +of this refusal that the artizans presented to +the Town Council of Berlin a petition for the redress +of their special grievances. The same kind of misery +which prevailed in Vienna had shown itself, though +in less degree, in Berlin; and committees had been +formed for the relief of the poor. The Town Council +refused to present the petition of the workmen; and, +in order to take the movement out of their hands, +presented a petition of their own in favour of freedom +of the Press, trial by jury, representation of the +German people in the Bundestag, and the summoning +of all the provincial Assemblies of the Kingdom. +This petition was rejected by the King; and thereupon, +on March 13, the people gathered in large +numbers in the streets. General Pfuel fired on them;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> +but, instead of yielding, they threw up barricades, and +a fierce struggle ensued.</p> + +<p>On the 14th the cry for complete freedom of the +Press became louder and more prominent; and the +insurgents were encouraged by the first news of the +Vienna rising. The other parts of the Kingdom now +joined in the movement. On the 14th came deputations +from the Rhine Province, who demanded in a +threatening manner the extension of popular liberties. +On the 16th came the more important news that +Posen and Silesia were in revolt. Mieroslawsky, who +had been one of the leaders of the Polish movement +of 1846, had gained much popularity in Berlin; and +he seemed fully disposed to combine the movement +for the independence of Posen with that for the freedom +of Prussia, much in the same way as Kossuth +had combined the cause of Hungarian liberty with +the demand for an Austrian Constitution. In Silesia, +no doubt, the terrible famine of the previous year, +and the remains of feudal oppression, had sharpened +the desire for liberty; and closely following on the +news of these two revolts came clearer accounts of +the Viennese rising and the happy tidings of the fall +of Metternich.</p> + +<p>The King of Prussia promised, on the arrival of +this news, to summon the Assembly for April 2; and +two days later he appeared on the balcony of his +palace and declared his desire to change Germany +from an Alliance of States into a Federal State. But +the suspicions of the people had now been thoroughly +aroused; and on March 18, the very day on which +the King made this declaration, fresh deputations +came to demand liberties from him; and when he appealed +to them to go home his request was not complied<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> +with. The threatening attitude of the soldiers, +and the recollection of their violence on the preceding +days, had convinced the people that until part at +least of the military force was removed they could +have no security for liberty. The events of the day +justified their belief; for, while someone was reading +aloud to the people the account of the concessions +recently made by the King, the soldiers suddenly +fired upon them, and the crowd fled in every direction. +They fled, however, soon to rally again; barricades +were once more thrown up; the Poles of Posen +flocked in to help their friends, and the black, red, +and gold flag of Germany was displayed. Women +joined the fight at the barricades; and, on the 19th, +some of the riflemen whom the King had brought +from Neufchatel refused to fire upon the people. Then +the King suddenly yielded, dismissed his Ministers, +and promised to withdraw the troops and allow the +arming of the people. The victory of the popular +cause seemed now complete; but the bitterness which +still remained in the hearts of the citizens was shown +by a public funeral procession through Berlin in +honour of those who had fallen in the struggle. The +King stood bare-headed on the balcony as the procession +passed the palace; and on March 21 he came +forward in public, waving the black, red, and gold +flag of Germany.</p> + +<p>But while the movements for German freedom and +unity were strengthening the cause of the Viennese +and destroying the hopes of Metternich, two other +movements for freedom, which might have helped to +produce a newer and freer life in Europe, were preparing +the way, against the wishes of their leaders, +for that collision of interests between the different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> +races of Europe which was to be the chief cause of +the failure of the Revolution of 1848. Of these movements +the one least known and understood in England +is that which took place in Bohemia. In order +to understand it we must recall some of the events of +earlier Bohemian history.</p> + +<p>Bohemia, like Hungary, had, in the sixteenth +century, freely elected Ferdinand I. of Austria as +her King. Nor had the Bohemians, at that time, the +slightest desire for closer union with any of those +other Kingdoms which happened to be under the rule +of the same Prince; nay, they would have avoided +such union, even in matters where common action +seemed the natural result of common interests. Ferdinand +I., indeed, and some of his successors, did undoubtedly +desire a closer bond between the different +territories subject to the House of Austria; but, +during the sixteenth century, their efforts in this +direction were, in the main, defeated. The continual +wars against the Turks, indeed, did necessitate common +military action; and, to that extent, they paved +the way for a closer union; but, in spite of this ground +for fellow feeling, no public recognition of any common +bond between Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary +could be obtained at that period from the Estates of +Bohemia.</p> + +<p>The seventeenth century, however, had produced +a great change in the relations between Bohemia and +the House of Austria. The ill-fated and ill-organized +struggle for liberty and Protestantism, which was +crushed out in 1620 at the Battle of the White Hill, +was followed by a change in the objects aimed at by +the House of Austria in their government of Bohemia. +Considering his military successes, it must be admitted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> +that Ferdinand II. was even generous in his action +towards Bohemia, so far as the forms of Constitutional +Government were concerned. For in 1623 he restored +its old Constitution, re-established its independent +law-courts, and declared that he had "no intention of +destroying or diminishing the rights of our faithful +subjects of this Kingdom."</p> + +<p>But, alongside of the restoration of Constitutional +forms, there went on an organized system of oppression +by which Ferdinand II. was endeavouring to +crush out the Protestant faith and the Bohemian +language. While, on the one hand, the old Bohemian +nobles were banished or executed, the German Dominicans +and members of other Roman Catholic orders +were at the same time destroying all the Bohemian +literature on which they could lay their hands; and +some Bohemians tried to save these relics of the +past by carrying them to Stockholm, where, it is +said, the remains of their early literature can still be +found. Without any direct change in the law, German +officials were gradually introduced into the chief +offices of State in Bohemia; and German became the +language of ordinary business relations. Thus, by a +natural process, the Bohemian language underwent +the same change of position which the English language +experienced in the twelfth and thirteenth +centuries; that is, it ceased to be a literary language, +and became merely a popular dialect of peasants and +workmen.</p> + +<p>But Ferdinand II. soon found that he could not +carry out completely his purpose of Romanizing and +Germanizing Bohemia without departing from that +Constitutional line which he had attempted to follow +in 1623. He could not trust a Bohemian Assembly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> +to carry out his plans; and in 1627 he issued an ordinance +which remained in force till 1848. By this +edict the King claimed the right to add to, alter, or +improve the Government of the country at his own +pleasure. Yet even this he claimed to do in virtue +of a previously existing royal right; the judges +took advantage of this admission to interpret the +new ordinance in the light of Ferdinand's previous +promises to respect the Bohemian Constitution; +and this interpretation was justified by +the fact that Ferdinand, in the very same year in +which he issued the ordinance, reiterated the Constitutional +promises which he had made in 1623. The +explanation of this apparent contradiction is that +Ferdinand II. cared more for the unity of the Roman +Catholic Church than for centralizing the Government +of the Austrian dominions; and the same might be +said of his successor, Ferdinand III. Nevertheless, +from motives of convenience, both these Princes +resided very little in Prague and much in Vienna; +and thus those court officials who give the tone in +these matters to the Government gradually gathered +together, rather in the Archduchy of Austria than in +the Kingdom of Bohemia; while the process of centralization +was still further encouraged by that denationalizing +movement which dated from the Battle +of the White Hill.</p> + +<p>With the growth of an alien aristocracy there +naturally grew up that union of class bitterness with +race bitterness which intensifies both; and the difference +of faith between the conquerors and conquered +added another element of division. An attempt of +the peasants to shake off the yoke of their conquerors +led to the destruction of privileges which they had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> +hitherto possessed; and thus the Estates of Bohemia +became even more aristocratic than those of the +neighbouring countries. Under such circumstances +the gradual absorption of the Government of Bohemia +in that of the other lands of the House of Austria +seemed the natural consequence of the Austrian +policy in the seventeenth century; and Maria Theresa +propounded a plan for a Central Assembly in which +Bohemia, Hungary, and Galicia were to share a +common representation with the Archduchy of +Austria. These schemes, like all measures for moderate +unification in the Austrian dominions, received +a fatal shock from the impetuous policy of Joseph II. +The claim to Germanize Bohemia by force awoke in +that country, as it had done in Hungary, a desire for +new national life and a zeal for the old national literature. +The opposition to Joseph did not, indeed, take +so fierce a form in Bohemia as it assumed in Hungary +and the Netherlands; but it was strong enough to +induce Joseph's successor, Leopold II., to restore the +old Constitution of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>In Bohemia, as in Hungary, the spirit of national +independence had now embodied itself in the desire +to preserve and revive the national language; and in +1809 a new impulse was given to this desire by the +discovery of a parchment which had been wrapped +round the pillars of a hall, and which was found to +contain some old Bohemian poems. These poems +were believed to belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth +century; and the Bohemians held them to be superior +to anything which had been produced by the Germans +at that period. As a matter of course, German +scholars at once came forward to try to disprove the +authenticity of these poems; and the fight raged<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> +hotly. The expulsion of the Bohemian language +from its literary position seemed to many to have +deprived this struggle of any living interest. But +writers were arising who were determined to show +that that language could still be made a vehicle +of literary expression; and they even hoped to +make it the centre of a Slavonic movement. For +the Bohemian language had a kind of offshoot in +the North of Hungary among the race of the Slovaks; +and the interest which the poet Kollar and the +philologer Szaffarik were stirring up in the Slovak +dialect was adding new force to the Bohemian +movement. The historian Palacky increased the +effect which was produced by these writers; and, +what is more remarkable, men whose names showed +an evidently German origin became fascinated by +this new movement. Count Leo Thun entered into +a controversy with Pulszky about the worth of the +Slavonic languages; and one may still see in Prague +the statue of Joseph Jungmann, who was one of the +first founders of unions for reviving the national +language. A struggle of the Bohemian Estates in +1837 to maintain their control over taxation was +sufficient, though unsuccessful, to increase considerably +the interest felt by their nation in their +political life. And thus it came to pass that, when, +in March, 1848, the news of the French Revolution +came to Prague, it found the Bohemians ready for +the emergency.</p> + +<p>A young man named Gabler, who had been in +Paris in 1846, was requested by some friends who +were gathered in a café to read the account of the +French rising and explain its details. On the following +day more people came to the café to hear the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> +news; discussion began, and suggestions were made +as to the best way of adapting the French movement +to the needs of Bohemia. German was still the +language of intercourse between educated people in +Prague; and the discussions were at first carried on +in that language. But among those who came to +the meetings was a publican named Peter Faster; +and, while the discussion on various questions of +reform was going on, Faster broke out suddenly into +a speech in Bohemian. Instantly, the whole assembly +joined in the national cry of "<span lang="cs">Slawa</span>." Other +speeches followed in the same language; the fashion +quickly spread; and soon all adherents of the new +movement began speaking the national language. +A committee was now formed for the preparation of +a petition; and a unanimous summons was circulated, +calling on the Bohemians to meet at the Wenzel's-bad +on March 11.</p> + +<p>This bath-house stands in a garden at some little +distance from the main streets of Prague, and it +was overlooked by barracks. One picquet of cavalry +was seen in the streets, the rest remained in the +barracks. Slowly the streets near the bath-house +filled; at about half-past seven the doors opened; +and half an hour later appeared Peter Faster, a +lawyer named Trojan, and others. They announced +that they had called the meeting for the purpose of +proposing a petition to the Emperor. The petition<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span><a name="Anchor-10" id="Anchor-10"></a><a href="#Footnote-10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> +was adopted with little trouble, and a committee of +twenty-five was appointed to present it. The petition +was as follows: "A great event in the West of +Europe is shedding its light, like a threatening +meteor, over to us. It has scarcely begun; but this +great movement which we guessed afar off is carrying +away Germany's allied States with it. There is +much excitement near the frontiers of Austria; but +Your Majesty and the allied Princes have controlled +the movement, while you have magnanimously placed +yourselves at the head of it, to warn it from a dangerous +abyss and from bad ways. The time has +become new and different; it has brought the people +nearer the Princes, and lays on the people the duty +of rallying round their Princes, offering confidence +and entreating for confidence in the days of danger.</p> + +<p>"Prague's faithful people, touched by the universal +movement, ruled by the impulse to go before the +monarchy in loyalty and truth, lays at the feet of +Your Majesty its most heartfelt thanks for being +allowed to speak from their full heart to their beloved +King and Master. May their words find echo and +just appreciation. Our confidence in God and our +conscience leads us to hope that it will.</p> + +<p>"New and unwonted is the benevolence of this +high permission; if we are less choice in our words +and expressions, if we seem immodest in the extent +of our petitions, our King's fatherly consideration +will graciously put a right construction on our acts. +Two different national elements inhabit this happy +Kingdom, this pearl in your Majesty's illustrious +imperial crown. One of them, the original one, which +has the nearest right to its land and King, has +hitherto been hindered in its progress towards culture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> +and equal rights by institutions, which, without +being hostile or denationalizing, yet naturally involve +a partial wiping out of original national feeling as +the condition of obtaining recognition as citizens.</p> + +<p>"The free development of both nations, the German +and Bohemian, which are united by fate, and both of +which inhabit Bohemia, and a similar striving after +the objects of a higher culture, will, by strengthening, +reconciling, and uniting them in brotherhood, lay the +foundation of the welfare of both nations.</p> + +<p>"Bohemia has not yet reached that high position +which it ought to have attained, in order to meet +forcibly the serious events which are developing themselves; +and this failure arises from the superiority +which has hitherto been granted to the German +element in legal and administrative arrangements. +It is not mere toleration, it is the equalizing of the +two nationalities by legal guarantees which can and +will bind both nations to the throne.</p> + +<p>"But the guarantees for this excellent and sacred +result, so much to be desired by every patriot, whether +German or Bohemian, do not consist in the cultivation +of language only. It consists in the essential +alterations of the institutions, which have hitherto +existed, in the removal of the barriers which hinder +intercourse between Prince and People, and at the +same time in universal, benevolently guarded, popular +instruction by school and writing."</p> + +<p>After more to the same effect, and after dwelling +at some length on the need of publicity in national +affairs, the petitioners formulate their demands in +eleven points. The first and second of these are +concerned with the equalization of the races and with +the Constitutional development hinted at in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span> +previous petition; but they also include a proposal +for the restoration of the union between Bohemia, +Moravia, and Silesia, to be effected by an annual +meeting in common of the Estates of the three provinces. +The third is concerned with communal freedom +and the condition of the peasantry. The fourth, +fifth, sixth, and seventh relate to those ordinary +securities for civil and religious freedom which were +being demanded at this time by all the nations of +Europe. The eighth clause of the petition demands +"the appointment to offices of men who know completely +and equally both the languages of the country." +The ninth is concerned with the popularization of the +military service. The tenth with the redistribution +of taxation, especially the abolition of taxes on articles +of consumption; while the eleventh deals with the +equalization of education between German and +Bohemian, and the freedom of teaching at the +universities.</p> + +<p>The gathering at this first meeting was rather +small; but the news of the movement rapidly spread. +On the 12th a meeting of the Town Councillors was +held in the <span lang="de">Rath Haus</span>; and, on the 15th, the students +met to draw up a petition of their own. They had +soon caught the excitement of the time; and had +been stirred up by a German-Bohemian named Uffo +Horn to take separate action. Guided and restrained +by Gabler, they consented to help in preserving order, +and embodied their petition in eight clauses. In +these they not only demanded the ordinary liberties +of teaching for which other universities were contending, +but also pleaded for the right to full instruction +both in Bohemian and German; for the power to +visit foreign universities; for the development of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> +physical education, and for the right to form +unions among the students, after the fashion of +those recently sanctioned by a statute of the Munich +University. It is worth noting that they also demanded +that the test of fitness for State service +should be made severer.</p> + +<p>The news of the rising in Vienna came to encourage +and strengthen the Bohemian movement; and on +March 18 the students of Prague sent a letter of +exulting congratulation to the students of Vienna on +their services to the cause of freedom. But the +Bohemian movement was not yet to be turned out of +that quiet course which distinguished it among the +Revolutions of the period; and on Sunday, March +19, the deputation that was to bear the wishes of +the Bohemians to the Emperor met in the streets of +Prague to hear a silent mass before starting for +Vienna. Prague, like Vienna, has been so much +altered in recent years that it is difficult to realize +the exact scene of this event. At the top of the long +avenue which now ornaments the Wenzelsplatz there +was, in 1848, a large gate called the Rossthor; and this +was closed on March 19 so that no traffic should +disturb the service. Within the gates stood a statue +of St. Wenzel; and round this the deputation gathered, +wearing scarves of the Bohemian colours, white and +red, edged with the Austrian black and yellow, to +show their zeal for the unity of the Empire. Outside +the group formed by the members of the deputation +stood the newly-formed students' legion and some +others of the National Guard. The Archbishop took +the leading part in the mass; but, after it was over, +the Bishop of Prague gave out a Bohemian hymn, +which was heartily joined in by the people. To<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> +impress the citizens still further with the solemnity +of the occasion, Faster and Trojan had issued an +address, declaring that the deputation left their +families and property under the protection of the +citizens of Prague; and, on the other hand, a committee +chosen by the citizens appealed to the deputation +to impress upon the Emperor the danger of +delays and unfulfilled promises, and expressed a desire +for a closer union between the Peoples of the Austrian +Empire.</p> + +<p>When the ceremonies were over, the deputation +started, led by Faster and Trojan. Faster took +charge of the petition from the citizens of Prague; +Trojan carried the petitions from the provincial towns +of Bohemia; while a chosen band of the students +were to present the University petition. The people +who were gathered at the station joined in Bohemian +songs; and the ladies showered flowers and ribbons +as the train moved off. After the departure of the +deputation, the citizens' committee set themselves to +check any violent movement among the workmen, by +making special arrangement for providing work for +the resident workmen in Prague. Soon came the +news that the deputation had been warmly welcomed +in Vienna. A great part of the National Guard had +turned out to greet them; the Emperor had addressed +them in Bohemian; and Count Kolowrat had said that, +though he was seventy-one years old, and had served the +State for fifty years, yet his last days were the happiest, +because he could now advise according to his heart.</p> + +<p>In striking contrast to this, the most peaceable of +all the March risings, was the movement which was +going on at the same time in Lombardy. It seemed, +indeed, as if the Austrian Government were determined<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> +to drive the Lombards into violent action. In +Vienna Metternich was at least talking about extending +the power of the Estates; in Hungary Kossuth +was able to speak freely in the Presburg Diet; +in Bohemia the Government seemed to drop into +the hands of the people almost without an effort; +but in Lombardy the savage proclamation of February +had been followed on March 2 by an announcement +from Spaur that the people must abandon all +hope of any reform in the organic institutions of +Lombardy which could imply a relaxation of the +union with other parts of the Monarchy; and so +rigorously were the repressive laws carried out that +on March 11 there were 700 political prisoners in +Milan.</p> + +<p>Yet, in spite of this tremendous rigour, there were +still signs of the irrepressible aspirations of the Lombards. +On March 10, a feast was held in Brescia +in honour of the proclamation of the French Republic; +and the Italian soldiers quartered in that town showed +sympathy with this demonstration. Even during +the actual rising at Vienna, Metternich still showed +his determination to hold down Lombardy by force; +he suddenly recalled Spaur and Ficquelmont from +Milan, and sent Count O'Donnell, a man of fiercer +type, to take the place of Spaur. Even Metternich's +idea of Lombard reform was not changed by the +rising in Vienna; for on March 16 there appeared +in Milan a proclamation which must either have been +prepared by Metternich just before his fall, or +adopted by the Camarilla directly after it; and in +this the Lombards were offered exactly the same +programme of reform which had been proposed to +them in January.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span></p> + +<p>But in the meantime the people were not idle. The +Italians in Vienna managed to keep up a secret +correspondence with their countrymen in Lombardy, +and to warn them that new troops might be sent +against them; while the Milanese managed to circulate +secret proclamations which stirred the hopes of +their fellow Lombards. On the 16th or 17th of +March one of these proclamations appeared, containing +a final protest against all the tyrannies exercised +by Austria in Lombardy since 1815, down to the +massacres of 1848. The composers of the proclamation +concluded by finally declaring their resolution +"to feel as Italians, to think as Italians, to will once +for all to be Italians; to resolve to break once and for +all the infamous treaty that has sold our liberties +without our consent; to exercise our rights as men, +our revenge as Italians." Thus, by some mysterious +freemasonry, the champions of liberty in Milan had +gradually been drawn together and prepared for +action; and when on the 17th of March the news +arrived that the Viennese insurrection had succeeded, +that liberty of the Press had been granted, and that +the Congregations of Lombardy as well as the estates +of the other parts of the Empire were to be called +together, the news gave the signal for insurrection. +The Congregations which, up to the time of Nazari's +speech, had been so silent and helpless, and whose uselessness +had been further proved by the failure of +that very protest, could not be accepted as the representatives +of national life; and the suggestion of +freedom of the Press while Radetzky remained in +Milan could only supply a subject for a caricature.</p> + +<p>The leading spirit in the Milanese movement, so +far as it is possible to single out any individual, was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> +Augusto Anfossi. He had been born in Nice and +educated by the Jesuits. That education, in this as +in so many other cases, had produced the most violent +reaction; and Anfossi's first claim to distinction was +a bitter attack on his former teachers. In consequence +of this, he had been compelled to fly to +France; and he had served for a time in the French +Army; but his hopes had been raised by the accession +of Charles Albert; and he had returned to Piedmont +to experience the disappointment shared by the +other Liberals of that period. The punishments +which followed the risings of 1831 had driven him +again into exile; and he had then joined in the rising +of the Egyptians against the Turks. But the movements +of 1848 once more called his attention to Piedmont; +and he now hastened to Milan and drew up a +proclamation which was adopted and issued by the +leaders of the insurrection. How little these leaders +could have foreseen the actual result of the struggle +may be gathered from the contents of the proclamation; +for, eloquent and enthusiastic as are its opening +words, its demands fall far short of the claim for +that complete independence which the Lombards +were for a time to achieve; while so little did the +Milanese recognize the determined savagery of their +opponents that the seventh demand made in this proclamation +was that "neutral relations should be established +with the Austrian troops, while we guarantee +to them respect and the means of subsistence." But +the only really important point in the proclamation +was its final summons to the people to meet at +three p.m. the next day in the Corsia dei Servi; and +this appeal roused not merely the hopes, but the +impatience of the people.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span></p> + +<p>Three hours before the time appointed, while +Casati and the Municipal Council were deliberating +in the Broletto, or town-hall, they heard loud shouts +in the streets of "Death to the Germans!" and +"Long live Italy!" Then a crowd bearing sticks +covered with the Italian colours entered the Broletto, +and required that Casati and the leading +Councillors should come with them at once to +O'Donnell, to demand the establishment of a Civic +Guard, and the placing of the police under the +municipal authorities. Cesare Correnti, one of the +Council, urged the leaders of the movement to trust +to the municipality; but Enrico Cernuschi, one of +the organizers of the movement, refused to yield to +this suggestion; and a man named Beretta seized +Casati by the arm to lead him to the Governor. +O'Donnell was startled at this sudden demonstration: +and Casati, on his part, was equally astonished at the +position into which he had been forced. He shook +hands with O'Donnell and encouraged him to look +on him as a friend; and it was, perhaps, in reliance on +this help that O'Donnell ventured at first to refuse +the proposals to subject the police to the Municipal +Council and to surrender their arms to the Civic +Guard. Cernuschi, however, insisted that O'Donnell +should not only yield these points, but that he should +sign his name to his concessions. O'Donnell, in +terror, consented; and then Casati desired to send a +messenger to Torresani, the head of the police, to +secure his approval of the concessions. But the +movement had gone far beyond Casati's control; +and, while his messenger was hastening to put the +matter before Torresani in proper diplomatic form, +Cernuschi and his friends had rushed to an armourer's +shop to avail themselves of their new privilege.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, as they still wished to place the Municipal +Council, as far as possible, at the head of their movement, +they carried their arms to the Broletto, where +they demanded to be enrolled in the new Civic Guard. +In the meantime, Torresani had refused to act without +Radetzky's authority, and Radetzky was furious +at the news of O'Donnell's concessions. Hearing +that one of his officers, who was ill in bed, had +offered to give his sanction to these concessions, the +savage General threatened to have him dragged from +his bed and shot, if he did not at once recall the +order; and troops were despatched to the Broletto +to suppress the movement. Casati, indeed, had fled +from the scene of action, and taken refuge in a private +house; but the people, who had brought the arms to +the Broletto, closed the gates against Radetzky's +force; and, though they had only fifty guns with +them, they prepared to defy the Austrian cannon, +backed by more than 2,000 soldiers. The proposal +to capitulate was rejected with scorn; and, from seven +to nine p.m., this little band, many of them boys, +defended the Municipal Council Hall. But it was +impossible to conquer against such odds; and at last +the Austrian soldiers broke in, attacked all whom +they found there, whether armed or unarmed; hurled +down into the streets some boys whom they found on +the roofs, hung one little child, and marched off the +rest of their prisoners to the castle, to be tortured by +Radetzky.</p> + +<p>But, as they were actually on their way to the +castle, the victorious soldiers met some of their comrades +who were flying before the citizens. Augusto +Anfossi had been, in the meantime, reducing into +order the gallant, but undisciplined defenders of their +country; and, before the morning of the 19th, stones<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> +and wood had been put together and fastened with +iron; and thus secure barricades had risen in many +of the streets. Amongst other interesting materials +for the barricades may be mentioned O'Donnell's +carriage, which had been seized for this purpose. +Radetzky, startled at the vigour of the opposition, +wrote to Ficquelmont that "the nature of this people +is changed as if by magic; fanaticism has infected +every age, every class, and both sexes." In his +alarm he offered to grant the demand which had +been made in the morning, that the police should be +placed under the command of the Municipal Council. +Casati would, even then, have accepted this as a +settlement of the struggle; but he was now quite +powerless. For, while he was signing decrees, and +appointing as head of the police a man who was still +prisoner to the Austrians, the bells throughout Milan +were ringing for a storm.</p> + +<p>At no stage of the struggle were there greater +efforts of heroism than on this 19th of March. At +the bridge of San Damiano two men held at bay a +whole corps of Austrians; not far from the Porta +Romana another champion carried off some youthful +scholars, one after another, on his shoulders, in the +face of a body of Croats. Guns were often wanting, +but the insurgents used swords and sticks instead. +The Tyrolese fired from the tower of the cathedral +upon the people, and the cannons from the Piazza +Mercante played upon them; but three cannoneers +were killed, and at last the cannon were captured by +the Milanese. The 19th of March was a Sunday; +and, as the congregation came out from mass in the +church of San Simpliciano, they were attacked by +the Austrians and driven back into the church.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> +Food was brought them from neighbouring houses; +and they retained their position till four o'clock in +the afternoon, when they succeeded in making their +escape. Nor were there wanting touches of the +Milanese humour to relieve the terrors of the fight; +boys sometimes exhibiting a cat, sometimes a broomstick +with a cap on it, as a mark for the Austrians +to fire at. But the fiercest fight raged at the +Porta Nuova, on the south side of the town, where +Augusto Anfossi commanded in person. There a +band of Austrian grenadiers brought their cannon to +bear on the defenders of the city; and Anfossi had a +long and fierce struggle before he could drive them +back. At last, however, he made his way to the +gate; and, lifting on high the Italian flag, he kissed +it, and planted it on the arch of the gateway.</p> + +<p>On the 20th the Austrians began to show signs of +giving way. The Tyrolese fled down the giddy staircases +of the Cathedral tower and escaped through +secret passages; and the family of Torresani fell into +the hands of the insurgents. But the Milanese, +though they had seen their children spitted on the +bayonets of the soldiers, their women insulted, and +the prisoners tortured by Radetzky, were ready to take +charge of the family of one of their worst tyrants, +and to protect them from violence. Even the brutal +Bolza, when he became a prisoner in their hands, was +carefully guarded from ill-treatment; and he is said to +have been so much impressed by this unexpected +magnanimity that he died penitent. Again offers of +compromise were made by the Austrians, and a truce +of fifteen days was proposed till the officers could +hear from Vienna. Again Casati hesitated; but again +his hesitation had no effect on the struggle.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the 21st the Genio Militare, one of the chief +barracks of the city, was attacked by the insurgents. +The struggle was continued for some time with great +fierceness on either side; but at last a cripple, named +Pasquale Sottocorni, came halting up on his crutch +and set fire to the gate; then the defenders, unable +to hold out any longer, surrendered to the people. +This day was also memorable for the capture of +Radetzky's palace, and in it of the wonderful sword +with which he had threatened to exterminate the +Milanese.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the other towns of Lombardy had +been hastening to send help to their capital. At +Como, immediately on the arrival of the news of the +Viennese success, bands had collected with lighted +torches, crying, "Long live Italy! Long live independence!" +The guards were redoubled, but refused +to act. The people surrounded the Town Council +House, demanding a Civic Guard, which was quickly +granted; in a short time Como was free, and the +soldiers of Como were on their march to Milan. It +was on March 18 that the news of the Milanese rising +reached Bergamo; and the people at once rose, crying, +"Long live Milan!" and "Death to the Germans!" +The Archduke Sigismund, who was in the town, was +compelled by the people to hold back his troops, while +a Capuchin monk led the citizens to Milan. In +Brescia the rising seems to have been almost simultaneous +with that of Milan. The first attack was +made on the Jesuits; but religious hostility was +quickly merged in a desire for national independence, +and the cry soon rose for a civic guard. Prince +Schwarzenberg, who was in command of the terrible +fortress which frowns upon Brescia, hoped easily +to overawe the city. But the people gathered in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> +the Piazza Vecchia, and after a fierce struggle, +drove back the soldiers. Schwarzenberg was compelled +to yield to the demands of the people; the +municipal authorities in vain endeavoured to hinder +the movement; and in a short time many of the +Brescians had united with the country folk of the +neighbouring district and were marching to Milan. At +Cremona about 4,000 soldiers had laid down their arms +before the citizens had attacked them.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Augusto Anfossi had been dangerously +wounded, and was obliged to abandon the +defence; but his place was taken by Luciano Manara, a +youth of twenty-four, who led the attack on the Porta +Tosa, on the east side of Milan. Arms had now been +freely distributed among the insurgents, and a professor +of mathematics from Pavia superintended the fortifications +and assisted Manara in the attack. For five +hours the assault continued, Manara rushing forward +at the head of his forces and effecting wonders with +his own hand. Recruits from the country districts +co-operated from outside the city with the Milanese +insurgents within. At last the gate was set on fire, +the position was captured, and the name of Porta Tosa +was soon afterwards changed to that of Porta Vittoria. +The Austrian soldiers had now become heartily tired +of the struggle. Radetzky had arranged his troops +in so careless a manner that he was unable to supply +them properly with food, and sixty Croats surrendered +from hunger. Radetzky was now convinced +of the uselessness of continuing the struggle; and, +though he had just before been threatening to bombard +the city, he now decided to abandon it. So, on the +evening of the 22nd of March, the glorious Five Days +of Milan were brought to an end by the retreat of +the Austrians from the city.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span></p> + +<p>This rising had for the time being freed the +greater part of Lombardy; but there was yet +another Italian city under the Austrian rule, which +was achieving its own independence in a somewhat +different way. The risings in Vienna, Berlin, +Prague, and Milan, though they produced many acts +of heroism, and some of wise forethought, did not +call to the front any man of first-rate political capacity, +nor could they be said to centre in any one commanding +figure. In Venice, on the other hand, the movement +centred from first to last in one man. The +imprisonment of Daniel Manin had been the point of +interest to Venetians, the typical instance of their +grievances; and more than one circumstance tended +to strengthen this feeling. Manin's sister had died +from the shock of hearing of her brother's arrest; and +his wife had organized a petition for his release which +had been signed by the <span lang="it">Podestà</span> of Venice and ninety-nine +other persons of well-known character. His own +legal ability had enabled Manin to dwell more forcibly +on the points of illegality in his arrest. But when he +and his friends urged his claim to be either tried or +set free, the authorities pleaded that they could not +release him until they heard from Vienna. This +answer must have tended still more to mark him out +as a victim of that centralizing force which was endeavouring +to crush out Italian feeling; while the +fact of his descent from the last Doge of Venice added +a touch of historic sentiment to the other points of +interest in his case. Manin's arrest had been quickly +followed by that of Tommaseo, and in any talk +among the patriots of Venice the discussion of these +arrests was sure to arise.</p> + +<p>In Venice, too, the same kinds of demonstrations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> +of popular feeling took place during January and +February which had shown themselves in Milan. +Whenever German music was performed in public all +the Italians left the place. Men went about in black +gloves; women refused to appear in gala costume at +public ceremonies; and even those who went to the +theatre attended there not so much for the sake of +the performance as to applaud passages about a +betrayed country, or to get up cheers for the Neapolitan +Constitution.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of feeling when, on March 16, +a boat arrived from Trieste, bringing news from +Vienna. The chief informant brought with him the +fragments of a portrait of Metternich which had been +torn to pieces as a symbol of his fall. Then the +Venetians rose and demanded the release of Manin +and Tommaseo. The Governor referred the petitioners +to the criminal court; but the crowd resolved to take +matters into their own hands, and broke into the +prison to rescue the two leaders. Manin, however, +refused to leave the prison until the president of the +tribunal had signed the order for his release. The +president readily complied with this request; and +Manin and Tommaseo were carried home on the +shoulders of the people. The Venetians then proceeded +to attack the fortress; the Croat soldiers +rushed out to repel them, and succeeded in driving +them back. But the next day there was a new +gathering in the streets. Palffy, the Military Governor +of Venice, appealed to Manin to preserve order; but +Manin replied that he could only do so if a civic +guard were granted, and if the soldiers were recalled +to their barracks. The head of the police remonstrated +against the proposal for the Civic Guard, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> +asked that it should, at any rate, be placed under his +authority. Thereupon Manin seized his gun and said +that if the police interfered with the Civic Guard he +would himself head a revolt. Palffy was a Hungarian, +and so was Zichy, the Civil Governor of Venice; and +neither of them were disposed to push matters to extremities. +Although, therefore, Palffy was at first +inclined to make difficulties, and to appeal to the +Governor of Lombardy for orders, he yielded at last, +and the municipal authorities began to organize the +Civic Guard.</p> + +<p>But the fears of the Venetians were not yet over. +Marinovich, the Governor of the Castle, was a hard +man, who had irritated the workmen of the arsenal +against him; and the authorities had persuaded him +to resign his command and to leave Venice. But, +on March 22, while Manin and his friends were deliberating +on the next step to be taken, a messenger +came to announce to them that Marinovich +had suddenly returned to the arsenal, and had there +been attacked and killed by the workmen. Thereupon +Manin at once decided that the Civic Guard +should be sent to seize the arsenal. The Admiral +Martini tried to offer opposition; but Manin succeeded +in entering with some of the guard, and +then rang the workmen's bell and demanded arms +for the workmen of the arsenal. It was well for +the Venetians at this time that there was so great +a hostility between Magyars and Croats. On a +previous day, the Croats had desired to fire on the +unarmed crowd; but a Hungarian officer, named +Winckler, had thrown himself in their way, and had +declared that they should fire first at him. When +the news came of Marinovich's death, Zichy proposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span> +that the Croats should act with the Civic Guard; +but the Croat soldiers refused, desiring instead to +bombard the town. This latter proposition, however, +was defeated, not only by the Hungarian officers, +but by many of the soldiers; for the garrison +contained many Italians, who seized this opportunity +for joining the cause of their countrymen. During +the confusion that arose from this division of opinion, +the head of the Civic Guard went to Palffy to demand +that the defence of the town should be placed in the +hands of the citizens. Palffy hesitated; but, in the +meantime, Manin was proclaiming the Venetian Republic +in the Piazza of San Marco. Palffy consented +to resign his authority to Zichy, and by 6.30 p.m. +Zichy had signed the evacuation of Venice by the +Austrian troops.</p> + +<p>Palffy now desired to leave Venice as soon as +possible. The chief of the Civic Guard tried to prevent +his escape; but Manin trusted to Palffy's honour, +and allowed him and some of his followers to depart +in a steamer which was to stop at Pola with despatches, +ordering the recall of the Venetian fleet which was +stationed there. But no sooner was Palffy safely +out of Venice than he compelled the captain to change +his course, to sail to Trieste, and to surrender to the +Austrian authorities. Of course, Manin had made a +mistake in trusting so implicitly to the honour of an +enemy. Perhaps we should thank God that there are +people who are capable of those mistakes. Manin, at +least, does not seem to have changed his line of +conduct in consequence; for when, a few days later, +a steamer full of Austrian private citizens came near +Venice, and the Venetians wished to go out to attack<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> +them, Manin prevented them from doing so, saying, +"Let us leave such conduct to Metternich."</p> + +<p>Thus, then, in this wonderful month of March, +1848, the whole system of Metternich had crumbled +to the ground. The German national feeling, which +he had hoped to crush out, was steadily ripening and +embodying itself in a definite shape. The feeling for +that "Geographical Expression" Italy had proved +strong enough to drive Radetzky from Milan and +Palffy from Venice. The rivalry between the Bohemians +and Germans of the Austrian Empire seemed, +for the moment, to have been merged in a common +desire for liberty; and the Hungarian opposition, +which Metternich had hoped to manipulate, had +shaken him from power and from office, and had +secured liberty to Vienna and practical independence +to Hungary. Of the terrible divisions and rivalries +which were to undermine the new fabric of liberty, +the story will have to be told in the succeeding +chapters. But the vigour, heroism, and self-sacrifice +which had been brought to light in this early part of +the movement will always make the March Risings +of 1848 memorable in the history of Europe.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /><small>THE STRUGGLE OF THE RACES—APRIL TO +JUNE, 1848.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Apparent unanimity between races of Austrian Empire in the +March risings.—Unreality of this appearance.—Local aspirations.—The +Serbs of Buda-Pesth.—The Magyar politics in Pesth.—The +first Hungarian Ministry.—Szemere's Press Law and its +failure.—The answer of the Ministry to the Serb petition.—Position +and History of the Serbs in Hungary.—Treatment by +Magyars and Austrian Kings.—Growth of Serb literature.—The +deputations from Neusatz and Carlowitz.—Velika-Kikinda.—Position +and character of Rajaciç.—Of Stratimiroviç.—The summoning +of the Serb Assembly.—Croatian movement revived.—The +Croats and the "twelve points."—Joseph Jellaciç.—Pillersdorf +and the Bohemian deputation.—The meeting at the Sophien-Insel.—The +second petition.—The Germans of Bohemia and +Moravia.—Opening of the Vor-Parlament at Frankfort.—Blum's +influence.—Struve's proposals and their effect.—The Slavonic +question at Frankfort.—The Polish phase of it.—The Bohemian +question evaded by the Vor-Parlament.—The Committee of Fifty +and Palacky.—The discussion between the National Committees +in Prague.—Schilling's insults.—The appeal to the Austrian +Government and its failure.—The summons of the Slavonic +Congress.—The difficulties in Vienna.—The April Constitution.—The +Galician movement.—The rising of May 15 and the flight +of the Emperor.—Effect of the May movement on Bohemian +feeling—on Hungarian feeling.—The Serb meeting of May 13.—The +Roumanian meeting of May 15.—The Saxon opposition +to the Union.—The alliance between the Magyars and the +Szekler.—The fall of Transylvanian independence.—The first +collision with the Roumanians.—Their position, and character of +their rising.—Alliance between Croats and Serbs.—The attack<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> +on Carlowitz of June 11.—The Slavonic Congress at Prague.—The +difficulties in Prague.—Windischgrätz and the Town Council.—The +quarrel between the students of Prague and the students +of Vienna.—The Slavonic petition.—The rising of June 12.—The +fall of Prague and its consequences.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>Few points were more remarkable in the March +Risings of 1848 than the apparent reconciliation +between those champions of freedom who had been +separated from each other by antagonism of race. +Gaj and his friends had hastened to Vienna to join in +the general congratulations to that city on its newly +won freedom. The Slavonic students of Prague had +been equally sympathetic; and members of the +different races of Hungary had expressed their satisfaction +in the successes of Kossuth. But this sudden +union was necessarily short-lived; for it sprang from +a hope which could not be realized; the hope, +namely, that the Germans and Magyars would join +in extending to each of the Slavonic races of the +Empire those separate national freedoms which those +two great ruling races had secured for themselves. +Thus proposals soon began to be made for the formation +of a district which was to be called Slovenia, +after the Slovenes who inhabited the province of +Krain, and other south-western provinces of the +Austrian Empire. At the same time, the Slovaks of +North Hungary desired to be formed into a separate +province, in which they could freely use the Slovak +language and profess the Lutheran creed, undisturbed +by Magyar language or Magyar Calvinism. Lastly, +on March 15, Ivan Kukuljeviç, who, next to Gaj, was +the most distinguished of the Croatian patriots, +carried, in the Agram Assembly, an address to the +Emperor, asking him to summon the old parliament<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> +of the three kingdoms of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. +But, though all these demands contained +within them the seeds of future quarrels, the first +actual outbreak was not to come either from Slovenes, +Slovaks, or Croats. The first token of the "rift +within the lute," which, if it could not "make the +music" of Liberty "mute," would at least weaken +its sound and introduce discord into its harmony, +showed itself in connexion with a branch of the +Slavonic race to which little allusion has yet been +made.</p> + +<p>Those who have visited Buda-Pesth will remember +how, when they had left the modern magnificence of +Pesth and crossed the suspension-bridge which joins +it with Buda, they have come to a pause at the foot +of the steep rock which confronts them. Then, if, +instead of ascending to the fortress of Buda, they +turned southwards along the shores of the Danube, +in a short time they would have found themselves in +a district in complete contrast with the rest of the +capital, where an air of poverty, hardly found elsewhere +in the town, is combined with an originality +and picturesqueness of decoration which is neither +German nor Magyar. Little cottages, coloured yellow, +blue, or white, are built up against the rock in +all kinds of irregular ways; in some places the rooms +are below the street, and the gay appearance is +increased by signs outside the shops, showing what +articles can be procured there. The bright handkerchiefs +on the heads of the women, and the gay +colours worn by both sexes, give a somewhat Eastern +aspect to the streets and market-place. Such is the +Raitzenstadt, the quarter of the Serbs, long looked +down upon by their Magyar countrymen. There,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> +on March 17, the representatives of about a hundred +districts of the neighbourhood gathered to prepare a +petition for leave to use their national language in +national affairs. This roused the fierce opposition of +the Magyar youth of Pesth; and the Committee of +Safety which had just been formed found itself +unable to protect the Serbs from violence. If, +indeed, the spirit of Kossuth's speech of March 3 +had been still triumphant, compromises might have +been found which would have hindered the claims +of the Serbs from provoking actual war. But the +sudden outburst of statesmanlike feeling which produced +that speech was not of long duration; and, +even if Kossuth had desired to conciliate the subject-races +of Hungary, there were those at his back who +would never have consented to such tolerance.</p> + +<p>The fiery youth of Pesth supplied an element to +the Magyar revolution very different from that which +generally found expression in the Diet at Presburg; +and this element had been so necessary to Kossuth's +purposes that it was impossible to disregard its influence. +Three days before the Serb meeting a great +gathering had been held in a café at Pesth, which +had been followed on the 15th by a march of the +Hungarian students, headed by the poet Petöfy, to +the Town Council, to demand the concession of +twelve points. Some of these points were being +secured on that very day by the deputation which +had gone to Vienna; others were already conceded +in principle by the Diet at Presburg; one of them, +the proposal for the union of Transylvania with +Hungary, was to be the seed of future mischief, but +was, at present, acceptable to all parties of the +Magyars. It was not so much, then, by political<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span> +theories that the youth of Pesth were distinguished +from the quieter spirits of Presburg; it was rather +the fiery manner in which they made their demands, +and the dogmatic intolerance with which they insisted +on particular formulas.</p> + +<p>Moreover, the Presburg policy, if one may so call +it, was weakened in its effect by that attempt to +reconcile hopeless opposites which is the great difficulty +of all moderate parties. Count Louis Batthyanyi, +when he was appointed as the first responsible +Minister of Hungary, thought himself bound to form +his Ministry, so far as possible, by a combination of +the different representatives of the rival parties; and +he not only hoped to find a basis for common action +between the growing Conservatism of Szechenyi and +the growing Radicalism of Kossuth, but he even +gave a place in his Ministry to Count Esterhazy, +who sympathized to some extent with the Camarilla +at Vienna. Baron Eötvös, who had been the champion +of centralization when Kossuth was arguing for +County Government, was also a member of this +Ministry; while Meszaros, the War Minister, might +be supposed to combine opposite principles in his +own person; for, while he had contributed to Kossuth's +paper, the "<span lang="hu">Pesti Hirlap</span>," his last public +action had been to serve under Radetzky in his +attempt to suppress the liberties of Milan. Batthyanyi, +indeed, hoped that, by introducing Deak into the +Ministry, he should secure an influence which should +reconcile these various incongruous elements; but +such a task was beyond even Deak's powers. By +his honourable abstention from the Diet of 1843, he +had deprived himself of his former influence; and, +though he accepted the place offered him by Batthyanyi,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> +and honestly tried to work with his different +colleagues, yet, as the movement became more and +more revolutionary, he fell further into the background.</p> + +<p>The weakness of this Coalition Ministry was first +brought into prominence by Bartholomaus Szemere, +a cold, hard man, who had had little previous influence +on politics. He was appointed to draw up the +new regulations with regard to freedom of the Press; +and produced a law which was of so reactionary a +character that the students of the Pesth University +burnt it publicly in front of the Town Hall, and +sent a deputation to the Diet to entreat them to +repeal the law and to change the seat of government +to Pesth. Batthyanyi consented to the repeal of the +law; but rejected, for a time, the other proposal of +the students; and the Ministry remained at Presburg, +weakened by the sense that the strongest +element of Magyar feeling was centred in Kossuth +and the Pesth party, and that this feeling would +eventually overpower the more moderate patriots. +Under these circumstances it was natural that the +weak Ministry at Presburg should sacrifice to their +fiery opponents the claims of those races with which +neither party had any deep sympathy; and when, on +March 24, the Serb petition came before the Ministry, +they answered that the Hungarians would not endure +that any nationality except the Hungarian should +exist in Hungary.</p> + +<p>But the Serbs of the Raitzenstadt were but the +feeble representatives of a much more powerful body, +which was scattered over various parts of Hungary +and found its chief centre in the province of Slavonia. +It was during the sixteenth century that the great immigration<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span> +of the Serbs into Hungary had taken place. All +the important history of this race had been connected +with their struggle against the Turks; and it was as +fugitives from Turkish tyranny that they took refuge +in Hungary. They arrived just about the time when +Hungary had accepted the rule of the House of Austria, +and, finding that Ferdinand I. was more zealous than +his Magyar subjects in resistance to the Turks, and +that some of the Magyars were even willing to call in +the Turks to their assistance, the Serbs naturally became +the champions of the House of Austria against the +Magyars. As a reward for this loyalty, the Austrian +rulers granted various privileges to their new subjects; +and, in 1690, Leopold I. gave special invitation +to the Serbs to come over from the Turkish provinces +and to settle in the district assigned to them. To +those who lived in that district was granted the right +of choosing the Patriarch of their own Church, their +own Voyvode, or military leader, and their own +magistrates; while those living actually on the +frontier were placed under a special military government +which was administered from Vienna, and were +rewarded for their military services by freedom from +taxation. The Magyars, indeed, did not abandon the +hope of drawing the Serbs to their side; and when, +in the beginning of the eighteenth century, Rakoczi<a name="Anchor-11" id="Anchor-11"></a><a href="#Footnote-11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> +attempted to set up an independent principality in +Transylvania, he appealed to the Serbs to assist him +in his attempt. But their gratitude to the House of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span> +Austria, strengthened in this instance by a dislike to +the Calvinism of Rakoczi, kept them firm in their +championship of the Austrian cause.</p> + +<p>The House of Austria, on the other hand, showed +as little gratitude to the Serbs in the early part of the +eighteenth century as they did to the Magyars in the +nineteenth; and Joseph I. and Charles VI. steadily +violated the promises which had been made by Leopold. +The concession of religious liberty was found +to be not inconsistent with a vigorous Jesuit propaganda +for the crushing out of the Greek faith. A +small émeute in a Serb town gave excuse for further +interferences with liberty; and, as the Magyars gained +in strength, Charles VI. resorted to the mean device +of submitting to the Diet of Presburg the list of +privileges which he had granted to the Serbs, and +asking if the Diet would be pleased to approve them; +and, on receiving the refusal which he had expected, +he declared that he could not uphold these privileges +against the wish of the Hungarian Diet. The Serbs +in Hungary were, in many cases, reduced to the position +of serfs; the districts of the Banat and Batschka, +which had formed part of the Serb settlement, were +given up to Hungary in 1741 by Maria Theresa; the +Voyvodeschaft was abolished, and so, at a later +period, was the Patriarchate also. Maria Theresa, +indeed, would have desired to redress some of the +grievances of the Serbs; but the need which she felt +for the help of the Magyars, first in the War of Succession,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> +and afterwards in the Seven Years' War, compelled +her to disregard the interests of the subject-races +when they clashed with those of her more +powerful allies. In spite, therefore, of several insurrections +and continual meetings of Congresses, the +Serbs failed to recover their former privileges; and a +few concessions which were made to them by Leopold +II. were speedily withdrawn by Francis.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of the eighteenth century a +new hope came to the Serbs in the growing development +of their national literature. A school was +founded at Carlowitz by the Patriarch of the Serbs; +printing-presses were set up, and writers were +gradually produced by this education, one of whom, +named Obradoviç, composed the first essay in the +Serb dialect: while Karadziç, another writer, gathered +up the old songs, proverbs, and stories of the country +and tried to reduce the dialect into grammatical +forms. The movement of Szaffarik and Kollar in +North Hungary gave new hopes to the Serbs and +other Slavs in the development of their literature; +and it was whilst this feeling was growing that Gaj +put forward his plan for the Illyrian language. +Gaj's movement was, to some extent, an apple of +discord among the Serb national party; for, while +some of them were eager to join in any union of the +Slavs, many of the more powerful of the clergy +objected altogether to the abandonment of the old +Cyrillic alphabet which had been introduced by the +Bishops Cyril and Methodius, who converted the +Slavs to Christianity. And while, as was mentioned +in a former chapter, Gaj was suspected by the Roman +Catholics of wishing to swamp them in a union with +the members of the Greek Church, the Greek clergy<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span> +among the Serbs, on the other hand, feared a movement +which seemed likely to have its centre in the +Roman Catholic province of Croatia. Thus there +had grown up two centres of the Serb movement in +two towns situated within a few miles of each other. +Neusatz, or Novi Sad, the most important town of +Slavonia, was the centre of the literary and trading +part of the Serb community; and Carlowitz, or +Karlovci, was the head-quarters of the Metropolitan, +and the centre of the clerical section of the Serb +national party.</p> + +<p>It was from Neusatz, then, that, on April 8, 1848, +a deputation arrived at Presburg and declared that, +while they were in sympathy with the March movement, +and had no desire to separate from Hungary, +they yet wished for protection for their national +language and customs. They therefore demanded +the re-establishment of the Patriarchal dignity and +of the office of Voyvode; requesting, further, that +the power of the latter officer should be extended +over the territories which the Serbs had reconquered +from the Turks. Kossuth answered that the Magyars +would do their best to respect national feeling, and +to give the Serbs a share in the freedom which the +Magyars had won; but that only the Magyar language +could bind the different nationalities together. +Batthyanyi echoed the words of Kossuth in an even +stronger form. "Then," the Serbs answered, "we +must look for recognition elsewhere than at Presburg." +"In that case," answered Kossuth, "the +sword must decide." "The Serbs," retorted one of +the deputation, "were never afraid of that." And +so the glove was thrown down. A few days later +came a deputation from Carlowitz with the same<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span> +object; for the clergy, however little sympathy they +might feel with Gaj's movement, feared, as heartily +as the citizens of Neusatz could do, the interference +of the Magyars with Serb independence. The +Magyars seem to have learned already the tyrannical +arts of Metternich; for they met the petition of the +clergy with the threat that they would extend to the +Roumanians the liberties granted to the Serbs; and +they were, no doubt, proportionately disappointed +when the deputation answered that they were perfectly +ready to share their rights with the Roumanians.</p> + +<p>The quarrel thus begun soon led to an actual +outbreak. In the town of Velika-Kikinda, in the +Banat, there had arisen one of those disturbances +which are the natural marks of a revolutionary +period. The peasantry, excited by the changes in +their position, had begun to expect still further +advantages. A worthless adventurer had become a +candidate for one of the village judgeships, and had +promised that, if elected, he would recover for the +peasantry, without compensation to the present possessors, +all the lands that their lords had taken from +them. He was elected, but was, of course, unable to +carry out his promises; and the disappointed peasantry +rose in indignation and made a riot. The +soldiers were called out to suppress the movement, +but were repelled and disarmed; the magistrates' +houses were broken open, and two of them were +killed. Thereupon the Magyars sent down a Commissioner +to inquire into the riot; the people were +ready to surrender the murderers to justice; but the +Commissioners seized the opportunity to declare that +all the Serb villages in the neighbourhood were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> +concerned in a communistic rising; and, in consequence, +they placed them under martial law.</p> + +<p>The Serbs now despaired of getting any justice +from the Magyars, and determined to appeal from +them to the Emperor. They desired, however, still +to act legally; and they therefore resolved that +the petition to the Emperor should be drawn up +by an Assembly which had been convoked in a legal +manner. The only official leader to whom they could +appeal was their Metropolitan, Rajaciç. He was an +old man, and unwilling to bestir himself in politics. +He hesitated, therefore, to comply with the request +of his countrymen; but a man of more determined +spirit was ready to take the lead among the Serbs. This +was George Stratimiroviç, one of those erratic characters +who add picturesqueness to a revolutionary movement. +He came from a Serb family which had settled +in Albania; but he had been brought up in Vienna +in a military school, and had entered the Austrian +Army, which he had been compelled to leave on account +of an elopement. Since that time he had +started a popular journal, and had joined in the Serb +deputation to the Hungarian Diet. His fiery and determined +character had attracted the more vigorous politicians +among the Serbs; and, though only twenty-six +years of age, he was chosen President of the National +Serb Committee which was now being formed. The +impulse given to the movement by Stratimiroviç was +further quickened by the alarm which was roused +among the Serbs by the appointment of a new +Governor to the fortress of Peterwardein, which overlooked +Neusatz. This decided the National Committee +to act at once; and, gathering together the +Serbs from those other provinces of Hungary which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> +had once been under their rule, they organized in +Neusatz a deputation which was to rouse Rajaciç to +a sense of his duty. Along the road to Carlowitz +they marched with banners and flags, singing the old +national airs, and telling of the exploits of Voyvodes +and Patriarchs who had saved their country in former +times. Rajaciç was greatly impressed by this deputation; +and, after notifying his decision to the Count +Palatine, as the legal ruler of Hungary, he summoned +the Assembly to meet on the 13th of May.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the attitude of the Croatians was +alarming the Hungarian Diet. As mentioned above, +they had determined from the first to claim a separate +Assembly for Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, and +also a separate national guard. Kossuth and some +of his friends seemed more disposed, at this time, to +make concessions to the Croats than to the Serbs. +But the bitter struggles of 1843 to 1846 had destroyed +the hope of smoothing over the breach with soft words; +and, even while Kossuth was promising to sanction +the use of the Croatian language in Croatian affairs +and to protect their nationality, he was at the same +time denouncing their separatist tendencies as shown +in their desire for a separate Assembly. The Croatians, +on their part, resented fiercely the visit of certain +youths from Pesth, who came to demand their acceptance +of the "twelve points." The growing sympathy +between the different subject-races of Hungary had +led the Croats to protest against the proposal to absorb +Transylvania in Hungary. The question of the abolition +of the forced labour of the peasants, and of the +introduction of peasant proprietorship, was complicated +in Croatia by the existence of village communities +which managed the land on the old tribal system;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> +and therefore the Croats maintained that it was impossible +to pass the same land laws for Hungary and +for Croatia. The question of religious equality was +connected in the minds of the Croats with the fear of +an invasion by Magyar Protestants to denationalize +Croatia. But the great cause of the Croatian dislike +to the "twelve points" lay not so much in their objection +to any particular reform as in their resentment +at the arrogant attempt to thrust upon them whole-sale +formulas concocted at Buda-Pesth. On the other +hand, the Magyars considered that they had a special +grievance, both against the Croats and against the +Emperor, in the sanction which Ferdinand had given +on March 23, without waiting for Magyar approval, to +the election of Joseph Jellaciç as Ban of Croatia. +Jellaciç was colonel in one of the regiments stationed +on that military frontier which was specially under +the control of Vienna; and he was chiefly known for +his share in a not very successful campaign in Bosnia; +while rumour connected his appointment with the +favour of the Archduchess Sophia. This appointment, +therefore, was doubly distasteful to the Hungarian +Diet, as being at once an exercise of court +influence and an assertion of the independence of +Croatia against the power of the Magyars.</p> + +<p>But while these various causes were working together +to undo the harmony which had been established +in the beginning of March, another race struggle +was coming to a head, in a different part of the Austrian +Empire, which was to have as vital an effect on +the history of that Empire as any produced by the +struggle between the Magyars and the subject-races +of Hungary. We left the Bohemian deputation enjoying +their welcome from Ferdinand and Kolowrat in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span> +Vienna, and sending happy messages to their fellow +citizens in Prague; and on March 24 Pillersdorf, who +was now the most important Minister at Vienna, +announced the concession by the Emperor of most of +the demands of the people of Prague. There were, +however, three exceptions on very vital points. The +Emperor declared that the equalization of nationalities +was already secured by a previous ordinance, and +therefore needed no new legislation; that the special +law court for Bohemia, which the petitioners wished +to see established in Prague, must be left to the consideration +of the Minister of Justice; and that the +proposal to reunite Moravia and Silesia to Bohemia +must be decided by the local Assemblies of the respective +provinces.</p> + +<p>Some of the quieter citizens of Prague were willing +to accept this answer; but the more determined +patriots called upon their friends to attend a meeting +on the Sophien-Insel, a green island which lies just +below the Franzensbrücke in Prague, and which is +used by the citizens as a great place for holiday +gatherings. Here the more vigorous spirits of Prague +uttered their complaints against the Emperor's answer. +They pointed out that the local Estates, to which +Ferdinand wished to refer some of the questions submitted +to him, were mediæval bodies, having no real +representative character; and that only an assembly +freely elected by the whole people would be competent +to decide on these questions; that, as to the ordinance +to which the Emperor referred for securing equality +between Bohemians and Germans, that ordinance +had ceased for two hundred years to have any effect; +and that a law passed in a formal manner was therefore +necessary as a guarantee for the desired equality;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> +while with regard to the question of the union between +Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, the claim for that union +rested on the historical, national, and geographical +connections between those lands. The petitioners, +accompanied by the national guard, then marched to +the house of the Governor of Bohemia, and induced +him to sign their new petition. On April 8 Ferdinand +answered this petition in a letter, promising +complete equality between the German and Bohemian +languages in all questions of State Administration +and public instruction. He further promised that a +Bohemian Assembly should be shortly elected on the +broadest basis of electoral qualifications, and should +have the power of deciding on all the internal affairs +of Bohemia. Responsible central boards were to be +set up; and the new Assembly was to consider the +question of the establishment of independent district +law courts, and the abolition of the old privileged +tribunals; while the question of the union between +Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia was to be decided by +a general Assembly, in which all three provinces +would be represented. Public offices and legal boards +in Bohemia were to be filled exclusively by men who +knew both the German and Bohemian languages; and +the Minister of Public Instruction was to make provision +for the thorough education of Bohemian and +German teachers.</p> + +<p>There seemed to be nothing in these concessions +which was likely to irritate either the German or the +Bohemian party; but the work of Germanizing +Bohemia, so ruthlessly inaugurated by Ferdinand II. +after the Battle of the White Hill in 1620, could not +be entirely undone by the March insurrection of +1848. Several towns in Bohemia had been completely<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> +Germanized, and they looked with the greatest +suspicion on the movement for restoring the Bohemian +language to its natural place as an educational +and literary power; while they regarded, with hardly +less suspicion, any attempt to weaken the hold of +Vienna on Prague, or to restore in any degree a +Bohemian national life. The towns of Saatz and +Reichenberg, particularly, seem to have retained +the German impress most thoroughly, and were extremely +jealous of the claim of Prague to take the +lead in a Bohemian movement. In Moravia the +German party were able to appeal to some feeling of +provincial independence against the absorption of +that province in Bohemia; while the Germans who +had been born in Bohemia, but who had subsequently +settled in Vienna, naturally caught the +infection of that intense German feeling which connected +itself with the March movement in Lower +Austria. It must not be supposed, however, that +this division of feeling ran strictly parallel with the +lines of hereditary descent. Men of undoubtedly +German name and German origin had accepted +heartily the language and traditions of the conquered +people; while names that were as certainly Slavonic +were found among the leaders of the German party. +Another element of confusion of the party lines arose +from the change which had come over the religious +feelings of the two races respectively. In Prague at +any rate, especially among the aristocracy, the championship +of that cause of Bohemian independence +which had been dear to the followers of John Huss, +and to the subjects of the Winter King, was often +connected in 1848 with strong Roman Catholic sympathies. +This irregularity in the division of parties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> +might have been expected to soften the bitterness of +the growing antagonisms; and, if the discussion of +the question at issue had been confined to the Germans +and Bohemians of the Austrian Empire, there +seems some reason to hope that, under freer institutions, +the bitterness of local and national divisions +might have been weakened, and a satisfactory solution +of the claims of the different races might have +been arrived at.</p> + +<p>But a new element of discord was now to be introduced +into the struggle; and the great movement for +the unity and freedom of Germany became for a +time a source of tyranny, and a new and more fatal +cause of division between the races of the Western +half of the Austrian Empire. This collision is the +more to be regretted because, until its occurrence, +the leaders of the German movement had exhibited +the same dignity and moderation of temper which +had been shown in the early phases of the Bohemian +movement. On March 31, the very day of the +meeting in the Sophien-Insel, the representatives of +the German nation arrived in Frankfort, to open +that Preparatory Parliament which was to be the +first step towards German unity. One who saw +this opening scene has thus described it:—"Under +a wavy sea of German flags, through a +crowd of green trees of freedom, covered with +flowers and crowns, walked the members of the +Preparatory Parliament. They were surrounded and +accompanied by thousands of excited women, as they +went from the Imperial Hall of the Roman Emperors +to their work in that Church of St. Paul, +which from thenceforth for nearly a year would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> +contain the best men of Germany, the holiest hopes +of the nation."</p> + +<p>Nor were their early efforts unworthy of the +nation whom they represented; for it seemed likely +that the wisest men would be able to get their +due influence in the Assembly. And this was the +more remarkable, because the ease with which they +had accomplished the first steps of their work seems +to have led many of the Assembly to fear that there +was some deeper plot in the background; and both +in the city and among the members of the Assembly +a rumour spread that troops were on the march to +put down their meeting. A panic seized the Deputies, +and bitter reproaches were interchanged. +Violence seemed likely to follow, when Robert Blum +came forward to reconcile the opposing factions. +"Gentlemen," said he, "from whence shall we get +freedom, if we do not maintain it in our dealings +with each other, in our most intimate circle?" He +went on then to point out, that the immediate causes +of quarrel were mere matters of form and not of +principle; and that it was the duty of the Assembly +to maintain the reputation of the German people for +calm decision. For any tumults that were made in +that Parliament would be settled out of doors not by +shouts, but by fists, and perhaps by other weapons. +"We will first," he continued, "reverence the law +which we ourselves have made, to which we voluntarily +submit. If we do that, gentlemen, then not +only will the hearts of our people beat in response to +us, but other nations too will stretch out their arms +in brotherly love to the hitherto scorned and despised +Germans, and will greet in the first representative body,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> +which has come here, the full-grown true men, who +are as capable of obtaining freedom as they have shown +themselves worthy of it." The influence of his clear +voice, powerful figure, and determined manner added +to the natural effect of his eloquence in bringing +the Assembly to a wiser state of mind.<a name="Anchor-12" id="Anchor-12"></a><a href="#Footnote-12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> Another +sign of the power which these men showed, of responding +to appeals which were addressed to their +higher instincts, was given in answer to one of the +Baden representatives, who called on them to accept +as their fundamental maxim that "Where the Lord +does not build with us, there we build in vain." At +these words all the Assembly rose to their feet.</p> + +<p>The same triumph of gentle and moderating influences +was shown in their reception of a programme +presented to them by Struve on behalf of the Committee +of Seven. This programme contained fifteen +propositions, in which the desire for liberty and +national life which animated all sections of the Assembly +was combined with Republican aspirations, +so strong among the Baden leaders, and with those +Socialistic proposals which were as yet entirely in +the background of German politics. Thus, for instance, +the list begins with a proposal for the amalgamation +of the army with the Civic Guard, in order +to give a really national character to the army; while +another clause proposes equality of faiths, freedom of +association, and the right of communities to choose +their own clergy and their own burgomasters. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> +the other hand, the 12th clause aims at the settlement +of the misunderstandings between labour and +capital by a special Ministry of Labour, which should +check usury, protect workmen, and secure them a share +in the profits of their work; while the 15th clause proposes +the abolition of hereditary monarchies, and the +introduction into Germany of a Federal Republic on +the model of the United States of America. This +medley of various ideas which Hecker and Struve +desired to force upon the Assembly was finally referred +to a Committee, which in the end would sift out +what was practicable and embody it in a law. Even +in the burning question of the relations between the +Frankfort Parliament and their antiquated rival the +Bundestag, Blum's influence was used in moderating +the violence of the disputes between those who wished +to drive the older institution to extremities and those +who wished to make for it a golden bridge by which +it could pass naturally into greater harmony with +modern ideas.</p> + +<p>So far, then, the German national movement had, +on the whole, been guided wisely and moderately; +but when the discussions began about the basis of +the election of the future Assembly there quickly +appeared that German national arrogance which was +destined to inflame to so intolerable an extent the +antagonism of feeling between the rival races in +Bohemia. It was, indeed, unavoidable that the +German movement in Austria should be met by +some expression of friendliness and some attempt at +common action on the part of the Frankfort Parliament; +but the desire to welcome all Germans into the +bosom of the newly-united Germany became at once +complicated with the question of the best way of dealing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> +with those districts where Slavs and Germans were so +closely mixed together. This question, indeed, would +in all probability have been summarily answered by +the German Parliament in favour of absolute German +supremacy and of the absorption of Bohemia in Germany; +but the Slavonic question in the South could +not be considered apart from that other phase of it, +which was concerned with the mutual relation between +Poles and Germans in the Polish districts of +the Kingdom of Prussia. Even the most extreme +champions of German supremacy were influenced in +their decision of this <i>North</i> Slavonic question by their +desire to restore an independent Poland as a bulwark +against Russian oppression; and they could not deny +that the claims of the Poles to the possession of +Posen, at any rate, were as justifiable morally and +historically as their claims to that part of their +country which had been absorbed by Russia. They +were desirous, therefore, of making concessions to +Slavonic feeling in Posen; and this desire was increased +by the connection which Mieroslawsky had +established between the struggle for Polish freedom +in Posen and that for German freedom in other parts +of Prussia. Under these circumstances they could +not wholly disregard in Bohemia the feeling which +they humoured in Posen; and thus it came to pass +that the Preparatory Parliament, unwilling either to +abandon German supremacy or to violate directly the +principle of unity and autonomy of race, came to the +conclusion so common to men under similar difficulties, +to throw the burden of the decision on +others. They therefore passed a vague resolution +which might be differently interpreted by different +readers, while they left the practical decision of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> +question to the Committee of Fifty which was to +govern Germany from the dissolution of the Preparatory +Parliament on April 4 till the meeting of +the Constituent Assembly on May 8.</p> + +<p>It was this Committee, therefore, which undertook +the decision of the relations to be established between +Bohemia and the new free Germany. The new +body proved bolder than the Preparatory Parliament; +for it took a step which, though it may have +been intended in a conciliatory spirit, yet involved +the distinct assertion of the claim to treat Bohemia +as part of Germany. They invited the Bohemian +historian Palacky to join with them in their deliberations, +and thus to sanction the proposal that Bohemia +should send representatives to the German Parliament. +Palacky answered by a courteous but firm +refusal of the proposal, based partly on the grounds +of previous history, partly on the needs of Bohemia, +and partly on the necessity of an independent Austrian +Empire to the safety and freedom of Europe. He +pointed out that the supposed union between Bohemia +and Germany had been merely an alliance of princes, +never of peoples, and that even the Bohemian Estates +had never recognized it. He urged that Bohemia +had the same right to independence which was +claimed by Germany; but that both would suffer if +extraneous elements were introduced into Germany. +He urged that an independent Austria was necessary +as a barrier against Russia, but that Germany could +be united only by a Republican Government; and, +therefore, Austria, which must necessarily remain an +Empire, could not consent to a close union with +Germany without breaking to pieces.</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of this rebuff, the German<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span> +leaders at Frankfort were so eager to secure their +purpose in this matter that they sent down messengers +to Prague to confer with the Bohemian National +Committee. A long discussion ensued, turning partly +on the independence of the Austrian State, partly on +the nationality of Bohemia. The Bohemians urged +that the Germans were endeavouring to force upon +them traditions which they had rejected for themselves; +that the Frankfort Parliament had repudiated +the old Bund on account of its unrepresentative +character; and yet they demanded that Bohemia +should recognise a union which rested on the arrangements +which had been destroyed, a union about which +the Bohemians had never been consulted as a nation. +The Germans, on their side, attempted to advance +certain arguments of expediency in favour of a closer +union between Bohemia and Germany. But a certain +Dr. Schilling, who does not seem to have been one +of the original messengers from Frankfort, declared, +with brutal frankness, the real grounds of the German +proposal. If Austria did not become German, he +said, the Germans of Austria would not remain +Austrian. The five million Germans in Austria +would not stay to be oppressed by the twelve million +Slavs. The freedom and culture of Bohemia was, he +declared, entirely German. The idea of freedom could +not be found among the Slavs; and it was therefore +necessary, in the general interests of freedom, that +Bohemia should be absorbed in Germany.</p> + +<p>Palacky bitterly thanked Schilling for the frankness +of his speech; and expressed his regret at +hearing that the Germans would not stay where they +could not rule, and where they were obliged to be +on an equality with others; while another of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span> +Bohemians exclaimed that the Bohemians had shown +their love of liberty by their resistance to the attempts +to Germanize them. But Schilling seemed +entirely unable to appreciate the feelings of his +opponents; and, with a naïve contempt for logic, he +declared that, <i>because</i> Nationality was just now the +leading idea of the Peoples, <i>therefore</i> all the Slavs +who belonged to the German Bund must be absorbed +in Germany! Kuranda, the former champion of +Viennese liberty, tried to soften the effect of +Schilling's insults. He abandoned any claim based +on the old German Bund, and declared that the Assembly +at Frankfort was not so much a German +Parliament as a Congress of Peoples, a beginning of +the union of humanity. But this ingenious change +of front could not destroy the effect of Schilling's +words; and perhaps the Bohemians could not understand +why a Congress of the Peoples should find its +centre at Frankfort any more than at Prague.</p> + +<p>But though the Bohemians had failed to convince +the German Committee that Bohemia had as much +right as Germany to a separate existence, they still +hoped that the Austrian Government would protect +them from an attack which seemed directed both +against their national rights and against the integrity +of the Austrian Empire. So they despatched to the +Minister of the Interior a protest against the proposal +to hold elections for the Frankfort Parliament in +Bohemia. Such elections, they declared, would lead +to a breach of the peace of the country, to Communistic +and Republican agitations, and to attempts +to break up the Austrian Empire. The Bohemian +Assembly, they urged, would disavow the legal right +of such representatives when they were elected; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> +thus any really satisfactory alliance between Austria +and Germany would be hindered by this attempt. +The Ministers in Vienna were, no doubt, troubled in +their mind about this question of the relations between +Germans and Bohemians. On the one hand, +they desired to conciliate a people whose national +interests led them to seek protection in a union with +the rest of the Austrian Empire. But, on the other +hand, they felt it difficult to disregard the intense +German feeling which was growing in Vienna, and +which was shared by important towns in Bohemia. +Therefore, after, no doubt, considerable deliberation, +the Ministry resolved to announce to the Bohemians +that they might either vote for the representatives in +the Frankfort Parliament or abstain from voting, as +seemed best to them. This seems, of all conclusions, +the most unreasonable which could have been arrived +at. The union with Germany might or might not be +defensible; but it was obviously a step which must +be taken by the whole nation or by none. Of all +possible political arrangements, none could be more +intolerable than the permission to certain citizens of +a country to retain their civil rights and residence in +that country, and at the same time to be free to claim, +<i>according to their own fancy</i>, the special protection +secured by citizenship in another State.</p> + +<p>The National Committee of Prague, finding that +the Government at Vienna were unable or unwilling +to protect them, resolved on stronger measures of +self protection; and on May 1 they issued an appeal to +all the Slavs of Austria to meet on the 31st of the same +month in Prague, to protest against the desire of the +Frankfort Parliament to absorb Austria in Germany. +This appeal was signed by Count Joseph Matthias<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span> +Thun, whose relative, Count Leo Thun, had taken +an active part in forming the National Committee; by +Count Deym, who had headed the first deputation to +Vienna; by Palacky and his son-in-law Dr. Rieger; +by the philologer Szaffarik, and by less well known +men. But at the same time the Bohemian leaders +were most anxious to try to maintain the connection +with Austria and to observe a strictly deferential +attitude towards the Emperor. They therefore appealed +again to the Emperor and his Ministers to +withdraw the indirect sanction which they had given +to the proposed Bohemian elections to the Frankfort +Parliament. They pointed out that Austria had +never belonged, in regard to most of her provinces, +to the German Bund; and that the question of +whether or no Bohemia should join herself to Germany +was clearly one of those internal questions +with reference to which she had been promised the +right of decision. They further urged that the +Emperor had acted on a different line with regard to +the union between Moravia and Bohemia; and although +the claim for this latter union rested on old +treaties and laws, he had decided that it should only +be restored by a vote of the respective provincial +Assemblies, and the Bohemians had been perfectly +willing to accept a compromise on the subject. How +much more reasonable then was it that the Bohemians +should claim the right of deciding on the +question of an entirely new relation between their +country and Germany? Again they warned him of +the violence which might be the consequence of such +elections; and they entreated him to consider also +that any attempt on the part of the Frankfort Parliament +to make a Constitution for all the lands of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span> +the Bund, would be a violation of the independence +of the Emperor of Austria and of all his subjects. +This last argument might, at an earlier stage, have +produced an effect on some at least of the Ministers +to whom it was addressed; for they had already +announced that Austria could not be bound by the +decisions of the Frankfort Parliament. But affairs +in Vienna were at this time hastening towards a +change, which was materially to affect the relations +of that city with the other parts of the Empire.</p> + +<p>The Ministry, which had been formed after the +fall of Metternich, was little likely to satisfy the +hopes of the reformers. Kolowrat and Kübeck, who +had been supposed to be rather less illiberal than +Metternich, but who had worked with him in most +of his schemes, were prominent in this Ministry; and +another member of it was that Ficquelmont who +had hoped to pacify Milan by help of dancers and +actresses. Only one member of the Ministry, the +Freiherr von Pillersdorf, had any real reputation for +Liberalism; and even he had been a colleague of +Metternich, and had done little in that position to +counteract Metternich's policy. Finding it impossible, +therefore, to put any confidence in the official +rulers of their country, the Viennese naturally +turned their attention to the formation of some +Government in which they could trust. On March +20 a special legion had been formed composed of the +students of the University; and a Committee was +soon after chosen from those professors and students +who had played a leading part in the Revolution. +This Committee, which was at once the outcome and +the guide of the Students' Legion, became the centre +of popular confidence and admiration. Thus then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> +there arose, in the very first days of the Revolution, +a marked division of interest and feeling between the +real and nominal rulers of Vienna. Some such +antagonism is perhaps the scarcely avoidable result +of a revolution achieved by violence, especially when +the change of persons and forms produced by that +revolution is so incomplete as it was in Vienna. +Those who, by mere official position, are allowed to +retain the leadership of followers with whom they +have no sympathy, are constantly expecting that +reforms which were begun in violence must be necessarily +continued by the same method; while the +actual revolutionary leaders can hardly believe in +their own success, and are constantly suspecting that +those who have apparently accepted the new state +of things, are really plotting a reaction.</p> + +<p>In Vienna these mutual suspicions had probably +stronger justification than they have in most cases of +this kind. The courtiers, who had plotted against +Metternich, had as little desire for free government +as the Jacobins who overthrew Robespierre; and +Windischgrätz was gradually gathering round him a +secret council, who were eventually to establish a +system as despotic as that of Metternich. On the +other hand, it cannot be denied that the gallant lads +who had marched in procession to the Landhaus on +March 13, and who had defied the guns of Archduke +Albert, were unwisely disposed to prefer violent +methods of enforcing their opinions. Thus, when, +on March 31, a law regulating the freedom of the +Press was issued, as distasteful to the Viennese as +Szemere's had been to the Hungarians, the Viennese +students at once proposed to follow the example of +the students of Pesth, and burn the law publicly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span> +Hye persuaded them to abandon this attempt; and +he, with Fischhof, Kuranda, Schuselka and other +trusted leaders, went on a deputation to Pillersdorf, +to entreat him to withdraw the law. Pillersdorf +assured them that this law was only a provisional +one, and that amendments would soon be introduced +into it; but, a few days later, Count Taaffe, another +member of the Ministry, publicly contradicted Pillersdorf's +statement, and spoke of the Press law as +being a permanent one, though he promised that it +should be mildly administered. Perhaps the students +may be excused if they felt no great respect for such +a Ministry. Nor were their feelings conciliated by +what they considered a growing tendency on the +part of the Ministry to make concessions of local +liberties to the provinces.</p> + +<p>After the first enthusiasm for Kossuth had a little +subsided, the Viennese began to reflect that the +concession of a separate ministry to Hungary might +be a dangerous source of weakness to the central +Government; while the growing demands of the +Bohemians seemed likely to injure both the position +of Vienna, and the cause of German unity. But the +Viennese were in many cases aiming at the two +incompatible objects of maintaining the position of +Vienna as the capital of the Austrian Empire, and +gaining for it a new position as the second or third +town of United Germany. But a more reasonable +cause of discontent arose from the fact that, while +parliaments were conceded to Hungary and Bohemia, +the Constitution which had been promised in March +to the Austrian Empire was as yet unrealized.</p> + +<p>Dr. Schütte, a Westphalian by birth, organized a +demonstration in favour of a mass petition. Schütte<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> +was arrested by the police, and banished from Vienna +as a foreign agitator; and, while this irritated the +students still further, the Ministry on their side were +alarmed at finding that they had failed to secure the +one advantage which they had hoped to reap from +the power of the students. The men who had succeeded +in retaining office after the March Rising, +had trusted that the intellectual youths, who had +fought for freedom of the Press and freedom of +teaching, would have discouraged the coarse socialistic +agitations of the workmen, and have separated +themselves altogether from their movements. But, +though the extremer forms of Socialism found little +favour among the leaders of the University, the +sympathy between the students and the workmen +grew ever closer. If the workmen complained of an +employer, the students went to him and warned him +to behave better; if any poor man needed money, +the students organized the collection; if the cause of +a workman was suffering by the undue length of a +trial, the students called upon the judges to do their +duty; if the workmen wished to state some special +grievance in the form of a petition, the students +composed the petition for them, or found a lawyer +who would do it gratuitously. Reductions of the +hours of labour and higher wages frequently resulted +from these efforts.</p> + +<p>This combination naturally alarmed the authorities, +and they showed their fears both by coercion +and concession. On the one hand they arrested +Schütte and other agitators; on the other hand they +consented on April 25 to issue the long promised +Constitution. The Constitution, however, at once +disappointed the petitioners. The proposed Parliament<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> +was to consist of two Chambers; the Upper +Chamber to be composed of Princes of the royal +House, of nominees of the Emperor, and of 150 landlords +chosen by the landlords; and the assent of both +Chambers and of the Emperor was to be necessary +before the passing of a law. This Constitution was +objected to both by the students and the workmen; +the former condemning it on the ground of its aristocratic +character, the latter becoming discontented +when they found that the issue of this document did +not free them from the payment of rent.</p> + +<p>The revolutionary enthusiasm of the students was +further whetted by the events which were taking +place in Galicia. That unfortunate province had +been so hampered by the effects of the abortive movement +of 1846, that it had not been able to join in the +March insurrection of the rest of Southern Europe. +But by the beginning of April even the Galicians +had taken heart; and they sent a deputation to the +Emperor asking for a State recognition of the Polish +language, a separate army for Galicia, and the concession +of the different liberties which were then being +demanded throughout the Empire. Even the Preparatory +Parliament of Frankfort had passed a resolution +in favour of the reconstitution of Poland; and +the students of Vienna were prepared to be far more +generous in their recognition of Galicia's claim to a +share in Polish independence, than the Frankfort +Parliament had been in its attitude towards Posen. +So alarming did the movement appear to the Austrian +Governor of Galicia, that he forbade any emigrants to +return to his province unless they could prove that +they had been born there. The Galicians rose in +indignation, and imprisoned the Governor; but he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span> +was set free, and, after a sharp struggle, the insurrection +was suppressed.</p> + +<p>But, if their Polish sympathies tended to rouse the +revolutionary fervour of the Viennese students, their +anger, on the other hand, was kindled by the growing +tendency of the rich merchants to abandon the position +which they had taken up in March, to accept the +April Constitution, and to fall into more peaceable +methods of action. Even the Reading and Debating +Club, which had been the first centre of the Liberal +movement, was now the object of hostile demonstrations +on the part of the students. The Students' +Committee had been strengthened by the adhesion of +many of the National Guard, and had received the +name of the Central Committee; Hoyos, the commander +of the National Guard, was alarmed at this +sign of revolutionary feeling, and forbade his subordinates +to take part in any political movement. +The Central Committee entreated him to withdraw +this prohibition, to which Hoyos answered that he +would withdraw his prohibition if the Central Committee +would dissolve itself. The Committee met to +consider this proposal; but, while they were still +sitting, a report arrived that the soldiers and the +National Guard had been called out to put them +down by force. The truth appeared to be, that the +soldiers had been called out to suppress a supposed +attack by the workmen; but that, finding that no +such attack was intended, the military leaders seemed +disposed to turn their hostility against the University. +Thereupon the students at once rose and marched to +the Castle. It seems that their exact object was at +first uncertain; but on someone demanding of them +their intentions, Dr. Giskra, one of their leaders,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span> +answered with, a shout, "<span lang="de">Wir wollen eine Kammer</span>" +(we want a single Chamber.) The cry was +taken up by the students; Pillersdorf advised the +Emperor to yield, and on May 16 Ferdinand issued +a proclamation granting a one Chamber Constitution. +But whether the shock had been too much for his +feeble health, and had struck him with a panic, or +whether he yielded to the advice of his courtiers, +Ferdinand suddenly resolved to leave Vienna, and +on May 17 he fled secretly to Innspruck.</p> + +<p>These events produced a somewhat peculiar effect +on opinion in various parts of the Empire. In +Bohemia the extreme national feeling had been +hitherto represented by the Swornost, a body corresponding +almost exactly to the Students' Legion in +Vienna; and they had been held somewhat in check +by the noblemen and citizens, who had organized the +March movement. But the Vienna rising of May +15, and the flight of the Emperor, roused the +indignation of men like Count Thun and Count +Deym; and they decided to take the important step +of breaking loose altogether from the Viennese +Ministry, summoning a special Bohemian assembly +in June, and inviting the Emperor to take refuge in +Prague. The Swornost, on their part, felt some reluctance +to take any steps which seemed to condemn +the abolition of the Upper Chamber by the Viennese; +but the bitter hostility, which the Germans of Vienna +had so repeatedly shown against the Bohemians +during the months of April and May, prevented +the possibility of any understanding between the +Democrats of Prague and those of Vienna; and +thus the students of Prague were ready to approve, +not only the assertion of Bohemian independence,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> +but even the proposed deputation to the +Emperor.</p> + +<p>Kossuth, on his part, saw in these events an opportunity +for increasing the growing friendliness between +the Magyars and the Emperor; and he induced the +Hungarian Ministry to invite Ferdinand to Pesth. +This attitude of the Magyar leaders was due to one +or two causes. In the first place the Viennese, as +mentioned above, had been growing alarmed at the +separate position granted to Hungary, and had feared +that they would lose their hold over that kingdom +altogether. This naturally produced an attitude of +hostility on their part, which provoked a counter-feeling +of antagonism in the Magyars; and thus the +latter became more friendly to Ferdinand as the +representative of the anti-democratic principle, and +therefore the opponent of the ruling spirits of Vienna. +There was also a second reason of a stranger kind, +which placed the leaders of the Magyar movement in +hostility to the Democratic party in Vienna. In +spite of the strong German feeling which prevailed +among the leading Democrats of Vienna, it was the +opinion of some of those Hungarians who were best +acquainted with that city, that the change from +indirect to direct elections, which was one of the +results of the May rising, would tend to increase the +power of the large Slavonic population of Vienna.</p> + +<p>But the great cause of the growing sympathy +between the Magyars and the Emperor was the attitude +taken up by the latter in the questions at issue +between Hungary and Croatia. Although the appointment +of Jellaciç, as Ban of Croatia, had been considered +as an undue exertion of the power of the +Court to the disadvantage of the Magyars, yet the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> +independent tone which Jellaciç had adopted since his +appointment, seemed to alarm the Emperor as much +as it did Batthyanyi or Kossuth. Immediately after +his appointment, Jellaciç announced that "the Revolution +has changed our relations to our old ally, +Hungary"; and that "we must take care that the +new relation shall be consistent with independence +and equality"; and he had then proceeded to summon +the Assembly of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia +to meet at Agram in June. This independent attitude +had brought rebukes upon Jellaciç from Ferdinand +and the Hungarian Ministry alike; and the +Croatian Council, while appealing to the Emperor to +strengthen the hands of the Ban, had threatened that, +if pressed too hard by the Magyars, they would take +measures to defend themselves. It was not unnatural, +therefore, that at this moment the Croats should be +more disposed to sympathise with the Democrats of +Vienna; and that Kossuth should try to draw closer +the bond between the Emperor and the Magyars.</p> + +<p>It might indeed seem that the appeal of the Bohemians +to the Emperor under these circumstances +would have brought them out of sympathy with the +Slavs of Croatia and Slavonia; but not only did the +Emperor refuse to go to Prague, but the Tyrolese +followed up that refusal by a sharp rebuke to the +Bohemians for their proposal of a Slavonic Congress +in Prague. Though, however, the Slavs of Hungary +looked forward to the Slavonic Congress, and were +willing to accept Prague as the centre of their political +deliberations, it was in the Hungarian provinces +themselves that the most vigorous action in defence +of their rights was at present to be found. For while +the Croatian Council were protesting against the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span> +Emperor's rebuke to Jellaciç, the Serbs were gathering +for their Conference of May 13 in Carlowitz, +and resolving to send deputies to the Croatian +Assembly, and to the Emperor himself, and also to +choose representatives for the Prague Congress. +Crnojeviç, who had been sent by the Magyars to +enforce martial law on the Serbs of the Banat and +Bacska, after the riot at Kikinda, denounced the +meeting, and called on Rajaciç to prevent it. Rajaciç +would have hesitated about further action, but +Stratimiroviç and his more fiery friends answered +the threat by burning Crnojeviç's letter publicly; +and the meeting took place in defiance of his warning.</p> + +<p>From every district where the Serb language was +spoken, there came to Carlowitz representatives wearing +the old national costume. Carlowitz is little more +than a village; and it would have required a large +city to provide for the crowds who arrived on this +occasion. Hundreds, therefore, lay out by night in +the streets, to wait for the meeting in the morning. +In the garden which lies between the Archbishop's +library and the small room where the archives of +Carlowitz are kept, there met on May 13 the +Assembly of the newly-roused Serb people. Rajaciç +appeared, accompanied by some of the clergy, and +presented to the Assembly the old charters which +had been granted by the Emperor in 1690 and 1691, +and on which the liberties of the Serbs were based. +Physicians, lawyers, and young students denounced +the abolition of their Voyvodeschaft, claimed back the +provinces which Maria Theresa had abandoned to +Hungary, and demanded the removal of all hindrances +to the development of their life, language, and history. +They then proceeded to revive the old dignity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span> +Patriarch in the person of Rajaciç and to choose as +their Voyvode a man named Suplikaç, who was then +serving in the army in Italy. Finally they appointed +a committee to prepare rules, and gave it the power +to call the Assembly together when circumstances +required it. Hrabowsky, the commander of the +fortress of Peterwardein, had been uncertain what +attitude he should assume towards this movement. +Sometimes he seemed to be personally friendly to the +Serbs; but, in his official position, he felt doubtful +whether to support the extreme Magyar authority, +or to wait for orders from Ferdinand; and this confusion +of mind led him to give doubtful and contradictory +answers to the Serb deputations which waited +on him. Under these circumstances, the Serbs were +compelled to rely, even more markedly than before, +on the support of their own countrymen, and of those +races whom a common oppression had driven into +sympathy with them. It was not only to the Croatians +and Bohemians that they now appealed; even +the Germans of the Bacska were expected to look +with friendly eyes on the Serb movement, and +Stratimiroviç believed that beyond the old Serb +provinces there were races to whom they might look +for alliance.</p> + +<p>For while the Serbs were still discussing their +grievances and the remedies for them, the Roumanians +were meeting in their village of Blasendorf to +make their protest against Magyar rule. They, like +the other Peoples of the Empire, had been disposed +to sympathise with the March movement; but when +it became known that the Magyars at Pesth had put +forward as one of their twelve points the union of +Transylvania with Hungary, the Roumanians became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span> +alarmed. Had the Transylvanian Diet met under the +extended suffrage now granted in Hungary, the +Roumanians would have had a majority in the Diet; +and the influence of this majority would have been +far more important under the new parliamentary system +than in the old days of centralised officialism. +If, on the other hand, they were to be absorbed in +Hungary, they naturally feared that the fanaticism +of the Magyars in enforcing the use of the Magyar +language, would be directed with even greater vigour +against the despised Roumanians, than it had been +against Serbs and Croats; and that the Greek Church +to which the Roumanians belonged, and which had +always been at a disadvantage in Transylvania, would +be crushed, or, at any rate, discouraged. The tradition +of their Roman descent recorded in the <span lang="la">Libellus +Wallachorum</span>, had given some of them hopes for +leadership in Transylvania, and had strengthened, +even in the less ambitious, the desire for a dignified +equality. Animated by these motives, they met on +May 15 at Blasendorf.</p> + +<p>This little capital of the Roumanian race lies in one +of the large open plains of Transylvania. It is still +little more than a straggling village of low huts; but +it is apparently as important to the Roumanians as +Carlowitz is to the Serbs and Hermannstadt to the +Saxons. Crowds of the strange figures, whom one +may still see in the villages of Transylvania, flocked +in to this meeting, covered with their rough sheep-skins +and dark, flowing hair, and showing in their +handsome faces at once the consciousness of the new +life that was awakening, and their pride in those dim +traditions of the past, which were supposed to unite +them with the glories of ancient Rome. Even here,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> +too, there were found some of the ruling race, who +were prepared to make common cause with this, the +most despised and oppressed of the races of Hungary; +for a Magyar noble named Nopcsa was prominent in +the meeting. But now, as ever, the chief hope for +the Roumanians was in their clergy, and specially in +their bishops; and Lemenyi, the bishop of the United +Greeks,<a name="Anchor-13" id="Anchor-13"></a><a href="#Footnote-13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> appeared side by side with the more popular +and influential Schaguna. Speaker after speaker +dwelt on the great traditions of the Roumanian +nation, and their determination to obtain an equality +with the Magyar, Szekler, and Saxon. They avowed +their loyalty to Ferdinand, and declared that they +had no desire to oppress any other nation; but that +they would not suffer any other nation to oppress +them; that they would work for the emancipation of +industry and trade, for the removal of the feudal +burdens, for the securing of legal justice, and for the +welfare of humanity, of the Roumanian nation, and of +the common fatherland. They then proceeded to +ask for a separate national organization, for the use +of the Roumanian language in all national affairs, and +for representation in the Assembly in proportion to +their numbers. They further demanded a Roumanian +national guard to be commanded by Roumanian +officers. They claimed to be called by the name of +Roumanian, instead of the less dignified epithet of +Wallach. They also asked for an independent position +for their Church; for the foundation of a Roumanian +University; for equality with the other races<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span> +of Hungary in the endowment of their clergy and +schools. These were the chief points of their petition; +but along with these came the demands for the +ordinary freedoms of the time, and for the redress +of special local grievances. At the close of the +petition, came the prayer which specially explained +the urgency of their meeting at that time. They +entreated that the Diet of Transylvania should not +discuss the question of the proposed union with Hungary +until the Roumanians were fully represented in +the Diet. This petition Schaguna carried to Vienna +on behalf of the meeting.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Saxons were preparing to +express their opposition to the proposed union with +Hungary in a separate protest of their own. The +peculiar organization which the Saxons had enjoyed +had become very dear to them; and they had hoped +to retain their old institutions under the new Government. +But when they appealed to the Hungarian +Ministry, Deak told them that they had no right to +make conditions; and it soon became evident that, +in the larger matter of the union of Transylvania +with Hungary, they would have as little chance of a +fair hearing as in the smaller question of their own +race organization. Count Teleki, the Governor of +Transylvania, had announced, on May 2, that the +union was practically settled already; and that only +questions of detail had now to be arranged. This +direct attack on the legal power of the Transylvanian +Diet naturally alarmed the Saxons, and Count Salmen, +the <span lang="de">Comes der Sachsen</span> or Chief Magistrate of +the Saxon colony, organized the opposition to the +proposed union. Hitherto the Saxons, with the exception +of a few generous-minded men like Roth, had<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> +been as bitterly scornful of the Roumanians as any +Magyar or Szekler could be; but now the sense of a +common danger drew these races together; and the +Saxons offered to allow the Roumanians to hold office +in the Saxon towns and villages, and to be admitted +to apprenticeships by the tradesmen of those +towns. The opposition of the Saxons to the Magyars +was, no doubt, strengthened by the sympathy of the +former with that German feeling which would lead +to the strengthening of the influence of Vienna; and +they declared that they would rather send representatives +to a Viennese Assembly than to a Diet at +Presburg.</p> + +<p>And while, on the one hand, common danger to +their liberties was drawing together the Saxons and +the Roumanians, the sympathies of race and a common +antipathy to aliens was drawing together the Magyar +and the Szekler. As early as May 10 Wesselenyi +issued an appeal to the Szekler to arm themselves as +guardians of the frontiers, and to be prepared to +suppress any rising of the Roumanians; and on +May 19 Batthyanyi appealed to them to march to +Szegedin. But it was not to the Szekler alone that +the Magyars trusted to enforce their will on the +Transylvanian Diet. The fiery young students of +Pesth hastened down, on May 30, to Klausenburg, +where the deputies were gathering for the final +meeting of the Diet. A Roumanian deputation, +coming to entreat the Parliament not to decide till +the Roumanians were adequately represented in it, +were contemptuously refused a hearing, and one of +their leaders was roughly pushed back. Banners +were displayed bearing the words, "Union or Death!" +and the young lawyers from Pesth filled the galleries<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> +of the Assembly, and even crowded into the Hall. +The Saxon representatives, more used to quiet discussion, +or to commercial transactions, than to the +fiery quarrels in which the Magyar and Szekler +delighted, tremblingly entered the Hall; and, unable +to gain courage for their duties, they gave way to +the storm, and voted for the union. Thus ended the +local independence of Transylvania, which was to +be revived twelve years later by the Germanizing +Liberalism of Schmerling, and then to be finally +swept away in the successful movement for Hungarian +Independence.</p> + +<p>The bitterness roused by the passing of the Act of +Union was not long in leading to actual bloodshed. +The immediate quarrel, however, arose out of a +matter connected, not with the race contest, but with +the new land laws of the country. The Hungarian +Diet had decided that the peasant should not only be +freed from his dependence on the landlord, but should +be also considered by his previous payment of dues +to have earned the land on which he had worked. +Naturally, disputes arose as to the extent of the land +so acquired; and in more than one case the peasants +were found to be claiming more than their own share. +It was to redress a blunder of this kind that, on +June 2, a party of National Guards, composed partly +of Szeklers and partly of Magyars, entered the Roumanian +village of Mihalzi (Magyar, Mihacsfalva). +The exact circumstances of such a collision as that +which followed will always be told differently by the +most honest narrators; but it seems probable that +the Roumanians, in some confused way, connected +this visit with the recent struggle about the Union; +and it is certain that the race-hatred between the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> +Szekler and the Roumanians soon became inflamed. +The National Guard fired, and several of the Roumanians +fell. The others fled; but their previous +resistance soon produced a rumour of a general +Roumanian insurrection. The Magyars were seized +with a panic; the Roumanian National Committee +was dissolved, and several of their clergy and other +leaders were imprisoned. Had the Roumanians been +now organized by Austrian officers it is possible that +less might have been heard of the savagery of the +new warfare. Had some of their own leaders, who +afterwards tried to control them, been ready at this +time to take the lead, many of the actual cruelties +might never have taken place. But just at this time +the Emperor answered the deputation of May 15 by +referring the Roumanians to the Magyar Ministry for +the redress of their grievances, and declaring that +equality could only be carried out by enforcing the +Act of Union. This rebuff was accompanied by a +letter from Schaguna written somewhat in the same +sense; and thus, finding that some of their leaders +had deserted them; that others were imprisoned; +that the Emperor was discouraging their complaints; +that the Magyars were denouncing them as rebels, +and the Szekler making raids on their territory, the +Roumanians began to defend themselves by a warfare +which rapidly became exceptionally barbarous +and savage.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the other subject races of Hungary +were preparing in their own way for resistance +to the Magyars. The Croatian Assembly at Agram, +finding themselves discouraged by the Emperor, were +disposed to strengthen their union with the Serbs of +Slavonia; and, on June 6, Gaj and Jellaciç both supported<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span> +proposals at Agram for uniting the Serbs and +Croats under one rule. Rajaciç, who happened to be +passing through Agram, heartily responded to these +proposals; and it was resolved that the relations +between the Ban of Croatia and the Voyvode of the +Serbs should be left to be settled at a later period. +But the Serbs, though heartily desiring sympathy +with the Croats, were not disposed to trust to +alliances, however welcome, or to Constitutional +arrangements, however ingenious, for the settlement +of their grievances against the Magyars; for they, +too, had been forced to abandon peaceable discussions +for actual warfare. Crnojeviç, not having been found +sufficiently stern in the Magyar service, was being +driven into more violent courses by the addition of +a fiercer subordinate; and the cruelties inflicted on +the Serbs of the Bacska had so roused their kinsmen +in other parts of Hungary that an old officer of the +military frontier had crossed the Danube at the head +of his followers and seized the town of Titel.</p> + +<p>At the same time the Serbs sent a deputation to +Hrabowsky, the Governor of Peterwardein, to complain +of the cruelties of the Magyar bands. Hitherto +Hrabowsky had seemed to hesitate between the two +parties; but he now grew angry in the conference +with the Serb deputation, and disputed the right of +the Serbs to stay in Hungary. The Serbs, alarmed +at these threats, began once more to gather at Carlowitz; +and they now tried to draw recruits from +friendly neighbours. Stratimiroviç had succeeded in +persuading some of the regiments from the frontier to +take up the Serb cause; but he perhaps relied still +more on the help of those Serbs from the principality +of Servia, who were now flocking in across the border<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> +to defend their kinsmen against the Magyars. Of +the leaders of these new allies the most important +was General Knicsanin, who helped to organize the +forces in Carlowitz. The Serbs of Carlowitz had, +however, not yet entered upon actual hostilities, +when, on June 11, during one of the meetings of +their Assembly, Hrabowsky suddenly marched out of +Neusatz, dispersed a congregation who were coming +out of a chapel half way on the road between Neusatz +and Carlowitz, and reached the latter town before the +Serbs were aware of his intention. The Serbs, though +taken by surprise, rushed out to defend their town, +with a Montenegrin leader at their head. The contest +continued for several hours; but at last Hrabowsky +and his soldiers were driven back into Neusatz. Two +days later ten thousand men were in arms in Carlowitz +to defend their town and their race.</p> + +<p>But while the Slavs in Hungary were girding themselves +for this fierce war, they had not forgotten the +more peaceable union proposed to them by the Bohemians; +and on May 30 representatives from the +different Slavonic races of the Empire had been +welcomed in Prague by Peter Faster and other +Bohemian leaders. On June 1 the National Committee +of Prague, while deliberating on the future +Constitution of Bohemia, were joined by several of +their Slavonic visitors; and out of this combination +the Congress was formed. It was speedily divided +into three sections: one representing Poles and Ruthenians, +one the Southern Slavs (that is not only the +Serbs and Croats, but also the Slovenes of Krain and +the adjoining provinces), and the third the Bohemians, +Moravians, Silesians, and the Slovaks of North +Hungary. Many of the members of the Congress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> +appeared in old Bohemian costumes, and from the +windows of the town waved the flags of all the different +Slavonic races. At 8 a.m. on June 2 the members +of the Congress went in solemn procession through +the great square called the Grosser Ring, so soon to +be the scene of a bloody conflict, to the Teynkirche, +the church in which Huss preached, and where his +pulpit still stands. In front of the procession went +the Students' Legion, singing patriotic songs; two +young men followed, one in the Polish dress, the other +bearing a white, blue, and red flag, which was supposed +to symbolize the union of the Slavonic peoples. +A division of the Swornost corps followed these; then +came the Provisional Committee, and then the representatives +of the three sections of the Congress. The +Poles were led by Libelt, a leader in the recent rising +in Posen, and the Bohemians by the philologist Szaffarik. +At the altar, which was sacred to the bishops +Cyril and Methodius, the presiding priest offered +thanks to God for having put unity and brotherly love +into the hearts of the Slavs; and he prayed that the +Lord of Hosts would bless the work to the salvation +of the nation, as well as of the whole fatherland. From +the church they proceeded to the hall in the Sophien-Insel. +That hall had been decked with the arms of +the different Slavonic races. At the upper end of it +was a table covered with red and white, the Bohemian +colours; and the choir began the proceedings with an +old national song. The Vice-President, after formally +opening the Assembly, resigned his seat to Palacky, +who had been chosen President.</p> + +<p>Palacky then rose and addressed the meeting. He +spoke of the gathering as the realisation of the dreams +of their youth, which a month ago they could hardly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> +have hoped for. "The Slavs had gathered from all +sides to declare their eternal love and brotherhood to +each other. Freedom," he continued, "which we now +desire, is no gift of the foreigner, but of native growth, +the inheritance of our fathers. The Slavs of old time +were all equal before the law, and never aimed at the +conquest of other nations. They understood freedom +much better than some of our neighbours, who cannot +comprehend the idea of aiming at freedom without +also aiming at lordship. Let them learn from us the +idea of equality between nations. The chief duty of +our future is to carry out the principle of 'What thou +wouldst not that men should do unto thee, that do not +thou to another.' Our great nation would never have +lost its freedom if it had not been broken up, and if +each part had not gone its own separate way, and +followed its own policy. The feeling of brotherly love +and freedom could secure freedom to us. It is this +feeling and Ferdinand that we thank for our freedom." +For himself, Palacky continued, he could say, "Lord +now lettest Thou thy servant depart in peace, for +mine eyes have seen the salvation which Thou hast +prepared for us before the face of the whole world. +A light for the enlightenment of the peoples, and the +glory of the Slavonic race." Then, addressing the +Assembly, he concluded with these words: "Gentlemen, +in virtue of the office entrusted to me by you, I +announce and declare that this Slavonic Assembly is +open; and I insist on its right and duty to deliberate +about the welfare of the fatherland, and the nation, in +the spirit of freedom, in the spirit of unity and peace; +in the name of our old, renowned Prague, which protects +us in its bosom; in the name of the Czech +nation, which follows our proceedings with hearty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> +sympathy; in the name of the great Slavonic race, +which expects from our deliberations its strengthening +and eternal regeneration. So help us God." Other +speeches followed from representatives of the different +Slavonic races; and petitions to the Emperor were +prepared in favour of the demands made by the +Serbs at Carlowitz, and of the rights of the Poles +and Ruthenians; while plans were drawn up for +the equalization of the rival languages in the +schools.</p> + +<p>But while these peaceable discussions were proceeding +in the Slavonic Congress, more fiery elements were +at work in other parts of the city. During the months +of April and May there had been signs of various +kinds of discontent among different sections of the +population. Workmen's demonstrations about wages +had attracted some attention; while one public gathering, +approaching to a riot, had secured the release of +an editor, supposed to have been unjustly arrested, +and had hastened the resignation of Strobach, the +Mayor of Prague. But the most fiery agitations were +those which had been stirred up among the students +by a man named Sladkowsky, with the object of +weakening as far as possible the German element in +Prague. So alarming did these demonstrations become +that Count Deym resigned his seat on the +National Committee; and Count Leo Thun, the +Governor of Prague, threatened to dissolve the Swornost +in order to hinder further disorder; but the opposition +to this proposal was so strong that he was +obliged to abandon it.</p> + +<p>The great cause of the students alarm was the appointment +of Windischgrätz to take the command of +the forces in Bohemia. His proceedings during the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> +March movement in Vienna were well known; and +the fear caused by his arrival was still further increased +by the threatening position that he had taken +up; for he had mounted his cannon on two sides of +the city; namely, on the commanding fortress of the +Wissehrad, on the South, from which he could have +swept a poor and crowded part of Prague; and in the +Joseph's barrack, on the North-East. The members +of the Town Council tried to check the demonstrations +of the students, and to persuade them to appeal +to Windischgrätz in a more orderly manner. In order +to give dignity to the proceedings, the Burgomaster +consented to accompany the students on the proposed +deputation. Windischgrätz, however, answered that +he was responsible to the King, and not to the Council; +though, when Count Leo Thun appealed to him, he +consented to withdraw the cannon from the Joseph's +barrack, declaring that there was no need for its presence +there; but that he had been determined not to +yield to the students.</p> + +<p>While the students succeeded in further irritating +against them a man whose haughty and overbearing +spirit was naturally disposed to opposition, they were +still more rash and unfortunate in their relations with +some whom they had had greater hopes of conciliating. +The aristocratic leaders of the Bohemians, while +asserting the independence of Bohemia, and the need +for protecting Slavonic liberties, were most anxious +to make as many concessions to German feeling as +could be made consistently with these objects. One +of the noblemen, who had been fiercest in his denunciations +of the rising of May 15th, even thought it +well to send to Vienna a long explanation and modification +of his protest; while Palacky and other leading<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> +nationalists inaugurated a feast of reconciliation +in which many of the German Bohemians took part. +So successful had this policy appeared to be that +the town of Saatz, which had been the first to express +alarm at the Bohemian attitude towards the Germans, +declared on May 20 its sympathy with the Prague +address to the Emperor, and its desire for union +between the German and Bohemian elements in +Bohemia. But the students seemed doomed to +weaken the effect produced by their more moderate +countrymen. They combined a strong Czech feeling +with a great desire for democratic government; and +while they thought they could enlist the sympathies +of the Vienna students by the latter part of their +creed, they seemed to be unaware that Germanism +was to the students of Vienna what Czechism was to +them. On June 5th, the very same day on which +the Slavonic Congress was deciding to send its petition +to the Emperor, more than a hundred students +of Prague started on a deputation to their comrades +in Vienna. But on their way, they thought it necessary +to attack and insult the German flag, wherever +it was displayed. They arrived in Vienna to find the +Viennese students suspicious even towards those who +had been their champions, and still smarting from the +recollection of a struggle between their Legion, and +the National Guard, who had attempted to suppress +them. It was while they were in this state of irritation, +that the Czech students appeared in the Hall of +the University; and, unfortunately, at the same time, +there arrived from Prague the representatives of two +German Bohemian Clubs. Schuselka, Goldmark, and +other Viennese leaders, urged a reconciliation between +the two races; but the news of the insults to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> +German flag so infuriated the Viennese students, that +they drove the Czechs from the Hall, and ordered +them to leave Vienna within twenty-four hours.</p> + +<p>The unfortunate deputation returned to Prague to +find that the Slavonic Congress was approaching its +final acts, and was preparing two appeals, one to the +Emperor, and one to the Peoples of Europe. The +latter appeal was based on a general complaint of the +oppressions from which the Slavs suffered. It demanded +the restoration of Poland, and called for a +European Congress to settle international questions; +"since free Peoples will understand each other better +than paid diplomatists." In the appeal to the Emperor, +the Congress went into greater detail, as to the special +demands of the different Slavonic races of Austria. +The Bohemians, indeed, mainly expressed their thanks +for the independence which now seemed legally +secured. The Moravians suggested an arrangement +which would combine the common action of Moravia +and Bohemia with a provision for Moravian local +independence. The Galicians pointed out how much +they had been left behind by the other Austrian provinces +in the struggle for freedom, and proposed an +arrangement for securing equality between the Polish +and Ruthenian languages in Galicia, and for granting +to Galicia the same provincial freedom that had +already been secured to Bohemia. The Slovaks of +North Hungary demanded protection for their language +against the Magyar attempt to crush it out; +equal representation in the Hungarian Assembly; +official equality between the Slovak, Ruthenian, and +Magyar languages; and freedom for those Slovaks +who had recently been arrested and imprisoned by +the Magyars, for defence of their national rights.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> +The Serbs, of course, demanded the acceptance of the +programme put forward at Carlowitz; and the Croats +the recognition of the legality of the acts of Jellaciç, +and of the municipal independence of the Assembly +of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. Lastly, the +Slovenes desired that the provinces of Steiermark, +Krain, Carinthia, and some neighbouring districts, +should be formed into a separate kingdom, in which +the Slovenian language should be the official one. +All the Slavs combined in the desire that Austria +should be a federal State, and in the protest against +that absorption in Germany, the fear of which had +led to the calling of the Congress.</p> + +<p>But sober and rational as was the tone of the Slavonic +Congress, as a whole, there were turbulent +spirits in Prague, who were determined that the +matter should not end peaceably. The extremer +representatives of Polish feeling desired the separation +of Poland, and disliked any plan which would +reconcile Galicia to remaining part of Austria. On +the other hand, there had appeared in Prague at this +period an adventurer named Turansky, who while +professing to be a champion of the Slovaks of North +Hungary, seems undoubtedly to have acted as an +"agent provocateur." Such men as these were easily +able to act upon the excited feelings of the students; +and were further aided in stirring up violent feeling +by a strike among the cotton workers which was just +then going on.</p> + +<p>Finally, the outburst came on June 12. The +Slavonic Congress at Prague, already preparing to +break up, met on that day to celebrate a last solemn +mass. Once more they all gathered in front of the +statue of S. Wenzel; but now the numbers were so<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> +great that they spread down the whole length of the +Wenzels Platz. In spite of the peaceable intentions +of the majority, a number of the workmen had come +bearing arms. The mass went off quietly enough; +but several of those who had attended it, had had +their national feelings excited to the utmost; and, as +they left the Wenzels Platz, they marched back singing +Bohemian songs, and howling against Windischgrätz. +As they passed under the Pulverthurm into +the narrow and busy Zeltnergasse, which leads to the +Grosser Ring, some soldiers, as ill luck would have +it, came out of the neighbouring barrack. The house +of Windischgrätz was in the street, and the crowd +were hooting against him. Under these circumstances +a collision was unavoidable. The crowd were +dispersed by the soldiers; some of the students +attempted to rally them, and were arrested; the +workmen then tried to rescue the students; the +soldiers charged, and drove them back under the +Pulverthurm, and round into the wider street of Am +Graben, and right up to the National Museum, which +was the head-quarters of the Swornost. After a +fierce struggle the soldiers stormed the Museum, and +captured many of the students; but the panic had +now spread to other parts of the town. Sladkowsky, +at the head of the workmen, broke into the depôt of +the Town Watch, and seized arms; while others +rushed into the country districts round Prague, and +spread the rumour that the soldiers were trying to +take away all that the Emperor had granted, and to +restore the feudal dues.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the leaders of the March movement +were greatly startled at hearing of the outbreak. +Some of them had already been alarmed at<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> +the growing tendency to disturbances in Prague; +several of them hastened out to check the riots, and +some of them even fought against the insurgents. +Count Leo Thun, the Governor of Prague, hastened +down to the Grosser Ring to try to still the disturbance; +but the students seized him, and carried him +off prisoner into the Jesuit College near the Carlsbrücke. +They seem to have had very little intention +of violence; but they thought to secure by this +means his promise of help in a peaceful settlement of +the contest. He refused, however, to promise anything +while he was kept a prisoner. Some of the +students went to the Countess to try to get her to +persuade her husband to yield; but though she was +so alarmed for his safety that her hair turned white +from fear, she firmly refused to comply. Meanwhile, +one of the more moderate men went to Windischgrätz +to entreat him to give up the students who had been +taken prisoners, on condition of the barricades being +removed. But Windischgrätz demanded that Count +Leo Thun should first be set free. While the discussion +was going on, the fight was still raging in +the Zeltner Gasse; and Princess Windischgrätz +coming to the windows was struck by a shot which +mortally wounded her. Windischgrätz hastened to +the room where his wife was dying, while the soldiers +guarded the house against further attacks. With all +his hardness, Windischgrätz was entirely free from +the blood-thirstiness of Radetzky and Haynau; and +under this terrible provocation he seems to have +exercised a wonderful self-restraint. While the Burgomaster +and some members of the Town Council +were exerting themselves to restore order, Windischgrätz +sent an offer to make peace, if Count Leo Thun<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span> +were released, if guarantees were given for the peace +of the town, and if Count Leo Thun and he were +allowed to consult together about the restoration of +order; and he even promised to await the deliberations +of the Town Council on this subject.</p> + +<p>But the fight was raging so hotly that the Town +Council were unable, for some time, to deliberate. +At last, however, temporary suspension of firing was +secured, and the Burgomaster, with the assistance of +Palacky, Szaffarik and others organized a new deputation +to Windischgrätz. Windischgrätz insisted on +his former terms; and at last Count Leo Thun was +set free, giving a general promise to use his efforts +for securing peace. The students, however, put +forward the conditions, that Bohemia should be +under a Bohemian commander who should be in +most things independent of Vienna; that Bohemian +soldiers, alone, should be used in the defence of +Bohemia; that the officers and soldiers should take +their oath to the Constitution, both of Bohemia and +of Austria; that the gates of Prague should be defended +by the citizens and students alone; and lastly +that Windischgrätz should be declared the enemy +of all the Peoples of Austria, and tried by a Bohemian +tribunal. As Windischgrätz was, obviously, +one of the people to whom these conditions would +be referred, it was not very likely that the last of +these requests would be complied with. He seems +still, however, to have retained some desire for concession; +and on June 15 he withdrew his soldiers +from the other parts of the town to the North side +of the river. But new acts of violence followed; +and Windischgrätz began to cannonade the town. +Again the Burgomaster appealed to him; and he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> +consented to resign in favour of Count Mensdorff, on +condition that the barricades should be instantly +removed. On the 16th the town seemed to have +become quiet; but the barricades were not yet removed; +the soldiers indignantly demanded that +Windischgrätz should be restored to his command, +as the conditions of his resignation had not been +fulfilled; and the first act of Windischgrätz, on reassuming +power, was to threaten to bombard the +town, if it did not surrender by six o'clock a.m. on +the 17th.</p> + +<p>The wiser students saw the uselessness of further +resistance, and began to remove the barricades; but +some stray shots from the soldiers, whether by accident +or intention, hit the mill near one of the +bridges; some women in the mill raised the cry that +they were being fired on; the mill hands returned +the fire, and Windischgrätz began at once to bombard +the town. The barricades were quickly thrown up +again; for four hours the bombardment continued; +and, while the students were fiercely defending the +Carlsbrücke against the soldiers of Windischgrätz, the +fire, which had been lighted by the bomb-shells, +was spreading from the mill to other parts of the +town. Of such a contest there could be but one +result. In the course of the 17th several thousand +people fled from Prague; and on the 18th Windischgrätz +entered the town in triumph, and proclaimed +martial law.</p> + +<p>The conspiracy had collapsed; but, except Peter +Faster, who escaped from the town during the siege, +none of the leaders of the March movement were at +first suspected of any share in the Rising. Indeed, +it was well known that many of them had exerted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> +themselves to suppress it. But Turansky, the agitator +above mentioned, suddenly gave himself up to the +authorities, and offered to reveal a plot, in which he +declared that Palacky, Rieger, and other Bohemian +leaders were implicated. The evidence broke down; +but it gave excuse for the continuance of the state of +siege, for the arrest of many innocent men, and for +the refusal to summon the Bohemian Assembly, +which was to have met in that very month. This +imaginary plot was used as the final pretext +for the complete suppression of Bohemian liberty. +Turansky was believed, rightly or wrongly, to have +been sent by Kossuth to stir up the insurrection; +that he had desired the failure of the movement +which he stirred up was evident enough; and thus +there arose an ineffaceable bitterness between the +Bohemians and the Magyars. There also arose out +of these events further cause for the bitterness between +the Bohemians and the Germans. For, while +Prague was still burning, and Windischgrätz was +still enforcing martial law, a band of Vienna students +arrived in Prague, to congratulate Windischgrätz +on his victory over the liberties of Bohemia. The +long-simmering hatred between the Germans and +Bohemians seems to have found its climax in that +congratulation; and from that time forth, whatever +might be the political feeling of the leaders on either +side, common action between Bohemians and Germans +became less and less possible.</p> + +<p>As for the effect of the fall of Prague on the +position of the Slavonic races in Austria, they were +deprived by that event of their last help of a free +centre of national life round which their race could +gather. For Prague had supplied such a centre in a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span> +way in which none of the other Slavonic capitals ever +could supply it. Its fame rested on a past, which +was connected with struggles for freedom against +German tyranny, and the leading facts of which +were clear and undisputed; while its geographical +position prevented it from coming into collision +with the other Slavonic races. Agram and Carlowitz +might at times look upon each other as rivals; but +Prague had no interest in preferring one to the +other, or in destroying the independence of either, +while the connection in language between the Bohemians +and the Slovaks of North Hungary ensured +the sympathy of the former for any attempts at +resistance to Magyar supremacy. Lastly, wedged +in as Bohemia is between the Germans of the Archduchy +of Austria, and that wider Germany with +which so many of the Austrians desired to unite, it +could never cherish those separatist aspirations which +would have prevented Lemberg, for instance, from +ever becoming the centre of an Austrian Slavonic +federation. Thus the fall of Bohemian liberty prepared +the way for a complete change in the character +of the Slavonic movement. The idea of a federation +of the different Slavonic races of the Empire might +be still cherished by many of the Slavonic leaders; +and, for a short time, the struggle of the Slavonic +races against Magyar and German supremacy might +retain its original character of a struggle for freedom. +But it was unavoidable that this movement should +now gradually drift into an acceptance of the leadership +of those courtiers and soldiers, who hated the +Germans and Magyars as the opponents, not of +Slavonic freedom, but of Imperial despotism.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /><small>THE REVOLUTION BREAKS INTO SEPARATE PARTS. +APRIL TO OCTOBER, 1848.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Attitude of the other races to the Italian struggle.—Inconsistency +of Kossuth.—Attitude of the Provisional Government of +Lombardy.—Hesitation of Charles Albert.—His two declarations +about the Lombard war.—The war adopted by Leopold of Tuscany.—By +Ferdinand of Naples.—Confusions of the Pope.—General +Durando.—Radetzky at Mantua.—The first battle of +Goito.—Mazzini in Milan.—Casati, Charles Albert, and the Italian +Volunteers.—The Southern Tyrol.—Venice.—Manin's error.—Durando +and Manin.—Charles Albert's attitude towards Venetia.—The +Pope's difficulty.—The Encyclical of April 29.—Its effect.—The +Mamiani Ministry.—Effect of the Pope's attitude on Charles +Albert's position.—The fall of Udine, and its consequences.—Charles +Albert and Venetia.—Casati and Mazzini.—The question +of the Fusion.—Its effect on opinion.—The Neapolitan Coup +d'Etat of May 15.—The recall of the Neapolitan troops from +Lombardy.—Pepe and Manin.—Battle of Curtatone.—"The +handful of boys."—Second battle of Goito.—Capture of Peschiera.—The +vote of fusion.—The émeute of May 29 and its effects.—The +struggle and fall of Vicenza.—The Austrian conquest of +Venetia.—The vote of fusion in Venice.—The attack on Trieste.—German +feeling in Frankfort.—The various difficulties of the +Frankfort Parliament.—Effect of Archduke John's election.—Anti-Italian +decisions.—The struggle in Italy grows fiercer.—Charles +Albert's new blunders.—Mazzini's advice to the Lombard +Government.—Charles Albert at Milan.—The final treason.—The +Austrian reconquest of Lombardy.—The 8th of August in +Bologna.—Repulse of Welden.—The struggle between Frankfort +and Berlin.—The question of Posen.—The Schleswig-Holstein +war.—The Assembly and the King.—The truce of Malmö.—The +fatal vote.—The riots at Frankfort.—The "state of siege."—The<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> +Struve-Putsch.—The Vienna Parliament.—The race struggle.—Change +of feeling towards the Magyars.—Intrigues of Latour.—Character +and policy of Ferdinand.—Jellaciç.—The conference at +Vienna.—"We meet on the Danube."—Stratimiroviç and Rajaciç.—Colonel +Mayerhoffer.—The Magyar deputation.—The mission +and death of Lamberg.—Latour and Pulszky.—Murder of +Latour.—Jellaciç and Auersperg.—Blum and Bem.—The battle +of Schwechat.—Fall of Vienna.—Death of Blum.—General +remarks.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>The struggle of races described in the last chapter +had not been without its effect on the progress of +affairs in Italy. Those Austrians, whose one desire +was for the unity of the Empire, spoke of Radetzky's +camp as the only place where Austria was truly +represented; while, on the other hand, the leaders of +the different race movements were divided in their +feelings about the Italian war. The Germans, both +at Frankfort and Vienna, saw with chagrin that Lombardy +and Venetia were slipping away from German +rule; but they felt, nevertheless, that they could not +entirely condemn a struggle for freedom and independence. +The Bohemians, especially in the first part of +the struggle, would gladly have let the Italian provinces +go, if they could thereby have facilitated the +federal arrangement of the rest of the Austrian Empire. +Among the Croats there seems to have been +some division of feeling on the subject. Gaj and the +purely national party had some sympathies with +Italian liberty; but Jellaciç, and that large body of +his followers who mingled military feelings with the +desire for Croatian independence, were eager to show +their loyalty to the House of Austria by supporting +the war in Italy; and they were, moreover, not unmindful +of the rivalry between Slavs and Italians in +Dalmatia and Istria. The Magyars, in the early days<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> +of the March movement, had been more disposed than +any race in the Empire to show friendliness to Italy; +and Kossuth's Italian sympathies had been specially +well known. But circumstances changed the attitude +of the Croats and Hungarians to Italy, as the struggle +went on; for, while the former desired to recall the +Croat forces from Italy to the defence of their home, +the latter became more and more desirous of conciliating +the sympathies of the Emperor. The wish to +preserve a strictly legal position led some of the +members of the Hungarian Ministry to dwell upon +the claims due to the Austrian Government under the +Pragmatic Sanction; and Kossuth, without sympathising +with this feeling, was easily induced to give way +to his colleagues, by his fear of the encouragement +which the recall of Croatian regiments would give to +the desire for Croatian independence; and therefore, in +spite of his belief in the justice of the Italian cause, +he strongly supported the use of Hungarian troops in +crushing out the freedom of Italy.</p> + +<p>But, interesting as the Italian struggle was to all +the different races of the Austrian Empire, it was yet +working itself out in a way so distinct from either the +Austrian or the German movements, that we are compelled +to ignore the exact chronological order of +European events in order to understand its full significance; +and we must therefore now go back to the +events which followed the March risings and the flight +of Radetzky and Palffy. The centre of interest was +still in Milan, where Casati and the Town Council +had been changed by the force of circumstances into +the Provisional Government of Lombardy. These +men had shown, during the siege, a continual uncertainty +of purpose and readiness to compromise; and,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> +when Radetzky had been driven from Milan, they +showed an equal unreadiness to follow up their advantages. +In the people, however, there was no want of +willingness to carry on the struggle; and at least one +general rose to the occasion. Augusto Anfossi had +died of his wounds during the siege; but Luciano +Manara, the youth who had captured Porta Tosa, was +following up the retreat of Radetzky, placing guards +in the villages, and cutting roads. Manara found +it very difficult to carry out his plans; partly owing +to the distrust shown to him by the General whom +the Provisional Government had placed over him, +partly to the insubordination of Torres, one of the +leaders of the Genoese Volunteers, who was nominally +acting under him, and whose defiance of Manara +seems to have been at least tolerated by the Provisional +Government.</p> + +<p>For Casati and his friends put their trust not so +much in any Lombards as in the help derived from +Charles Albert. That Prince, indeed, had hesitated +as usual till the last moment. When the news of the +Milanese rising had reached Genoa, the Genoese had +risen and sent volunteers to assist the insurgents; but +Charles Albert had not only forbidden their march, +but had sent troops to drive them back from the +frontier. So indignant were the students of Turin at +this action that they rose against Charles Albert, and +would not submit until they were allowed to volunteer. +Several officers even threatened to leave the +Army if war was not declared on Austria; Parma +and Modena were rising at the same time against the +Austrian forces, and demanding annexation to Piedmont; +while Mazzini and his friends were issuing +appeals from Paris to urge their followers to support<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> +Charles Albert, if he would venture on war with +Austria. At last Pareto, the most democratic of +Charles Albert's Ministers, assured him that, if he did +not act, a rebellion would break out in Piedmont; and +so, on March 23, having demanded of the Austrians +the evacuation of Parma and Modena, and having +been refused, Charles Albert ordered the Austrian +Ambassador to leave Turin, and straightway declared +war. Yet even now he left doubtful the exact object +of the war; for, while he declared to the Provisional +Government that he came "to lend to the Peoples of +Lombardy and Venetia that assistance which brother +may expect from brother, and friend from friend," he +announced to the other Governments of Europe that +he had only intervened to prevent a Republican rising. +He then despatched General Passalacqua to Milan, +announcing that he himself would not arrive there +until he had won a victory over the Austrians.</p> + +<p>But, however ungraciously Charles Albert had +done his part, he had succeeded in quickening the +enthusiasm of the Italians for a war against Austria. +Leopold of Tuscany had announced, two days before, +that the hour of the resurrection of Italy had struck, +and that his troops should march to the frontier of +Tuscany; and, on April 5, he frankly declared the +purpose of this march, and ordered his troops to help +their Lombard brothers. Riots broke out both in +Naples and Rome, and the Austrian arms were torn +down. Guglielmo Pepe hastened back to Naples, +after twenty seven years of exile, and demanded the +immediate departure of the troops for Lombardy. +Ferdinand yielded to the popular cry, and consented +to make Pepe general of the expedition. Pius IX. +was less easy to move. He had become thoroughly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> +scared at the progress of events; and though he had +consented to grant a Constitution, much like that of +other Princes, he could not reconcile in his mind the +contradictions between his position as Head of the +Catholic Church and as a Constitutional Italian +Prince. The former position seemed to require of +him a claim to absolute authority in home affairs, +and a perfectly impartial attitude towards the various +members of the Catholic Church, whatever might be +their differences of race or government. The latter +position seemed, on the contrary, to demand that he +should adapt himself to the freer life which was +growing up in the different Italian States, and that +he should become the champion of Italian unity and +liberty against the Emperor of Austria. His own +inclinations and sympathies would have led him to +sacrifice the new office to the old one. He was, +as already explained, much more a priest than a +prince, much more a Conservative than a Reformer. +His priestly training combined with his weak health +to make new ideas distasteful to him; and his sense +of his duties as Head of the Catholic Church worked +in with that very kindliness of disposition which had +betrayed him into the position of a reformer, to make +him oppose a fierce and dangerous war. Under these +circumstances, he looked with alarm on the new +impulse which Charles Albert had given to the anti-Austrian +feeling throughout Italy.</p> + +<p>But he was, for the moment, in the hands of stronger +men, who were determined on driving him forward. +Massimo d'Azeglio was in Rome seconding the efforts +of Ciceruacchio for the war; and Giovanni Durando +(a brother of the Giacomo Durando who had written +on Italian Nationality) was appointed general of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span> +forces which were to march to Lombardy. Even +now the Pope refused to recognize the object of their +expedition; and as the troops filed past him, on +March 24, he blessed them, but only as the defenders +of the Roman territories against assailants; and when +a young man cried from the ranks, "Holy Father, +we are going to fight for Italy and for you," he +answered, "Not for me; I wish for peace, not war." +Durando, however, issued a proclamation to his +troops in which he declared that, since Pius IX.'s +approval of the war, "Radetzky must be considered +as fighting against the Cross of Christ." Pius IX. +angrily repudiated this speech in the Government +Gazette, declaring that he would soon utter his own +opinions, and that he did not require to express them +through the mouth of a subordinate. But nobody +took any notice of this protest, and the troops +marched to Lombardy.</p> + +<p>In the meantime Charles Albert was beginning the +war in an unfortunate manner. Eager to distinguish +himself by an engagement with Radetzky, he was +resolved to march after him to Lodi instead of seizing +on the important fortress of Mantua. Mantua had +attempted to shake off the Austrian yoke at the time +when other cities of Lombardy were rising; but a +desire to act through the Municipal Council led the +citizens to hesitate in their movement. The want of +communication with other towns prevented them from +being aware of the position of the Austrian troops; +and, on the evening of March 22, Benedek, one of the +Austrian generals, was able to crush out the incipient +rising. But the news of the Piedmontese advance +once more stirred the Mantuans to action; on the +29th they rose again, threw up barricades, organized<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> +a Civic Guard, and eagerly hoped that Charles Albert +would come to support them. When Radetzky found +that Charles Albert did not seize on this important +fortress, he availed himself of the blunder to march +at once to Mantua; and, on March 31, that city fell +again into the hands of the Austrians. This victory +at once alarmed the Piedmontese, who, under the +command of General Bava, set out, on April 8, to +Goito, a village a few miles from Mantua. The +Austrians occupied the little bridge across the +Mincio at the entrance to the village, and the +Tyrolese sharpshooters sheltered themselves behind +an inn which stands near the bridge on the Mantuan +side. The Piedmontese, mistaking the stone ornaments +on the inn for sentinels, fired at them; shots +were returned by the Austrians, and a fierce encounter +followed, during which several of the troops +from the Italian Tyrol deserted the Austrian ranks +and joined the Piedmontese. The Austrians, finding +themselves beaten, attempted to blow up the bridge; +but had only succeeded in destroying one arch before +they were driven back. By this victory the Piedmontese +obtained the command of the whole line of +the Mincio from Mantua to Peschiera, and cut off all +communication between the two wings of the Austrian +army, one of which was in Mantua and one in +Verona.</p> + +<p>The battle of Goito roused the greatest enthusiasm +for Charles Albert; and it unfortunately strengthened +the Provisional Government of Milan in their determination +to rely rather on him than on their own +people. How much popular force they might at this +time have gained was shown by an event which took +place on the very day after the battle of Goito. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span> +that day, April 9, Mazzini arrived in Milan. About +eight o'clock in the evening he appeared on the +balcony of the Albergo della Venezia, which stands +directly opposite the place occupied by the Provisional +Government. He addressed a few words to +the people, waving the tricolour banner. He spoke +in terms of warm approval of the Provisional Government, +and praised them for rejecting a truce which +Radetzky had proposed, and for endeavouring to +secure a complete representation of the Lombard +provinces in the Assembly which met at Milan; and +when Casati appeared he greeted him warmly. But +Mazzini soon found that, neither in the camp of +Charles Albert, nor in Milan, were the leaders disposed +to welcome the help of the Republican forces. +When Mazzini applied to the Provisional Government +to grant employment to those who had already had +experience in revolutionary wars, he was told that no +one knew where they were; and when he answered +this objection by producing the men, their services +were refused. The Swiss, who flocked in from the +Canton Ticino, were in the same way repelled; and +even a more illustrious volunteer than any of these +found cold reception in Charles Albert's camp; for it +was at this period of the war that Garibaldi arrived +in Lombardy in the full splendour of the reputation +he had won as a champion of liberty in Monte Video. +But, when he offered his services to Charles Albert, +he was told that he might go to Turin, to see <i>if</i> and +<i>how</i> he could be employed.</p> + +<p>One of the great points of difference between the +policy of the Republicans and that of Charles Albert +was that the former desired to press forward to the +Alps and excite an insurrection against Austria<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> +amongst the population of the Southern Tyrol. +That population, in spite of its Italian blood and +language, had been loyal to Francis of Austria in +the time of Andrew Hofer; but the ungrateful policy +of the Austrian Emperor had gradually alienated the +sympathies of the Italian Tyrolese; and, while even +in Frankfort the representatives of the Southern +Tyrol were asking for local self-government in their +own country, the population were ready to rise on +behalf of Garibaldi and Manara. But the dislike of +many of the Piedmontese officers to the war, and the +hesitation of Charles Albert between war, diplomacy, +and complete abandonment of the cause, led the +official leaders of the Lombard movement to repel +any proposal for so extending the area of the war as +to drive the Austrians to extremities, and to make +them unwilling to accept a diplomatic settlement of +the contest.</p> + +<p>Many of those who were repelled by Casati and +Charles Albert went to find a more generous welcome +at Venice. The extremely democratic character of +the Venetian insurrection had impressed all observers; +and it was specially noted that an artizan, named +Toffoli, had been admitted into the Provisional Government +of Venice. But, hearty as Manin was in his +desire to enlist the sympathies of all classes, he could +not help being a Venetian, and not a Milanese. However +narrow and aristocratic Casati and his friends +might be in their personal feelings, they were the +official representatives of a city whose glories were +connected with the memories of a time when it was +the head of a league of free cities;<a name="Anchor-14" id="Anchor-14"></a><a href="#Footnote-14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> while Venice, even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> +in its long struggle against the Turks or in its resistance +to the papacy in the seventeenth century, could +never be taken as the champion of free civic government. +Manin and Casati seem alike to have been influenced +by these traditions; and while the future Council of +Lombardy had been fully constituted by April 13th, +it was not till the 14th of that month that the Provisional +Government of Venice consented to allow +the towns of Venetia to choose representatives, +who should take a real share in the government of +the province. The consequences of this hesitation +were most unfortunate. Treviso, Padua, Rovigo, +Vicenza, and Udine had formed Provisional Governments +even before they knew that Venice was free; +and they would then readily have joined the Venetian +Republic; but observing some hesitation on the part +of Venice to answer to their appeal, Vicenza offered +herself to Charles Albert. This decision excited some +indignation in Venice; for Manin had hoped that the +old towns of Venetia would be willing, under whatever +form of government, to act with the chief city; +and whatever errors Manin may have committed in +the delay, he was more zealous than either the +Milanese or Piedmontese Governments for the protection +of the Venetian towns from the Austrian forces.</p> + +<p>Nor, indeed, was it wholly the result of the above-named +hesitation that Manin was not able to secure +that co-operation which he desired between Venice +and the other Venetian cities. There seems to have +been a tendency in the civic governments, and still +more in those officers who came to help the Lombards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> +and Venetians, to look rather for orders to Casati and +Charles Albert than to the rulers of Venice; and this +tendency was still further increased by the anomalous +position of the officers of the Papal troops. Durando, +the chief of these officers, was vividly conscious that +he had come to Lombardy in an independent manner, +and in spite of the discouragement of the Pope; and, +though he was willing to fight for Venice, he wished +to do so in his own manner, and refused to listen to +Manin's directions about the plan of operations. He +felt no doubt that it was safer to take orders from an +established sovereign, like Charles Albert, than from +the head of an un-"recognised" revolutionary Government; +and while he wished to march to the aid +of Padua, he desired to do so as an officer of Charles +Albert. But the same motives which led Charles +Albert to abandon the Southern Tyrol were making +him hesitate, at any rate, about extending his campaign +to Venetia. So he forbad Durando to enter +Venetia, and sent him instead to protect the Duchies +of Modena and Parma.</p> + +<p>While these conflicting interests were weakening +the efforts of the defenders of Lombardy and Venetia, +another apple of discord was thrown into the camp by +an Encyclical from the Pope. As already mentioned, +Pius had discouraged the march to Lombardy, and +had promised to state his own opinions instead of +accepting those of Durando. His Ministers, feeling +the uncertainty of the position in which the Papal +troops were placed, urged him to come to a more +definite decision on this point. At no time was such +strong pressure brought to bear from opposite sides +on the feeble mind of Pius IX. On the one hand, +disturbances were breaking out in the provinces; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> +the indignation at the Pope's hesitation was stirred +to greater bitterness by the want both of food and of +work which was being felt in Rome. On the other +hand, two powerful influences were being exerted to +induce Pius to abandon the Italian cause. In Germany +great bitterness had arisen against the Italian +war; and the German Catholics were threatening to +break loose from the Papal authority. At the same +time, Ferdinand of Naples, who had never heartily +sympathised with the struggle for Italian freedom, +was trying to inspire the Pope with jealousy of the +designs of Charles Albert. To say the truth, Ferdinand +was not without excuse in this matter; for, +while he was being driven to declare war on Austria, +the Sicilian Assembly were deposing him from the +throne of Sicily, and discussing a proposal to offer +their island to a son of Charles Albert. Therefore the +Neapolitan Ambassador was directed to use his influence +with Pius IX. for the promotion of a league +between Rome, Naples, and Tuscany, which was to +counteract the power of Piedmont. Thus, then, those +rival instincts, of the Head of the Church and the +Italian Prince, were both appealed to, to secure the +opposition of the Pope to the war; and however +much he may have been terrified by the disturbances +in the provinces, those disturbances did not tend to +increase his sympathy with the popular movement. +Such was his state of feeling, when on April 28th, his +Ministers, headed by Cardinal Antonelli, entreated +him to give his open sanction to the war. The result +of this petition was directly contrary to the desire +expressed by the signers of it; for, on April 29th +there appeared a Papal Encyclical absolutely repudiating +the Italian war.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span></p> + +<p>In this document, the Pope complained of the desire +of the agitators to draw away from him the sympathy +of the Catholics of Germany; and he proceeded to +justify and explain the course that he had hitherto +followed. He alluded to the demand for reform +which had been made in the time of Pius VII., and +to the encouragement which that demand had received +from the programme presented to Gregory XVI. by +the Great Powers. That programme had included +a Central Council, improvement in the Municipal +Councils, and above all the admission of the laity to +all offices, whether administrative or judicial. Gregory +had not been able to carry out these ideas completely; +and therefore Pius had been compelled to develope +them further. In this he had been guided, not by +the advice of others, but by charitable feeling towards +his subjects. But his concessions had not produced +the result which he had hoped; and he had been +compelled to warn the people against riots. These +warnings had been in vain; and he had been forced +to send troops to guard his frontier, and to "protect +the integrity and security of the Papal State." He +protested against the suspicion that he sympathised +with those "who wished the Roman Pontiff to preside +over some new kind of Republic to be constituted out +of all the Peoples of Italy." He exhorted the Italians +to abandon all such theories, and to obey the Princes +of whose benevolence they had had experience; and +he, for his part, did not desire any further extension +of his temporal power, but would use all his efforts +for the restoration of peace.</p> + +<p>The greatest indignation was aroused by this +Encyclical; but it was still possible for the Pope to +find protection in that superstition which Ciceruacchio<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span> +had so industriously encouraged. The cry was again +raised that the Cardinals were misleading the Pope, +and special charges of treason were made against +Antonelli. Some of the more zealous patriots even +talked of carrying off the Pope to Milan, that he +might see for himself the real condition of the war. +At the same time appeals were made to the humanity +of Pius; it was pointed out to him that, if he disowned +his soldiers, they would be liable to be treated +as brigands; and instances were quoted of the cruelty +of Austrian soldiers to those whom they had captured. +Partly moved by humanity, and partly by fear, the +Pope at last yielded; and on May 3 he summoned to +office Terenzio Mamiani, so lately under suspicion +as a half-amnestied rebel; and Mamiani speedily +avowed his zeal for the war, declaring it a holy cause.</p> + +<p>But, in spite of this change of front, the Encyclical +produced a dangerous effect on the Lombard war; +and its first result was to strengthen the power of +Charles Albert, by compelling Durando to place himself +more definitely than before under his orders, and +by leading the Italians in general to look to the King +of Sardinia as their only trustworthy leader. Fortunately, +this accession of strength came to Charles +Albert at a moment when he was rousing himself +from that state of hesitation which had followed the +victory at Goito. That hesitation, however, had given +time for Radetzky to fortify Mantua more strongly; +while Nugent, at the head of another Austrian force, +had marched into Venetia. The Venetians, ill-supported, +were little able to stand against the invader; +and the important town of Udine fell into the hands +of the Austrians. This startled both Charles Albert +and Casati; and, while the Provisional Government<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> +of Lombardy turned to Mazzini for advice, Charles +Albert at last consented to allow Durando to advance +into Venetia. Durando sent his subordinate officer +Ferrari before him; and on May 8, Ferrari encountered +the Austrians at Cornuta, and drove them back. +He then continued the struggle in hopes of new reinforcements +from Durando; but, when Durando had +not arrived at four o'clock in the afternoon, the +soldiers were compelled to retreat. Then they were +seized by a sudden panic, and they cried out that +either Ferrari or Durando had betrayed them. The +consciousness of the illegal position in which the +Papal Encyclical had placed them, still further increased +the panic of the soldiers; Ferrari was forced +to retreat to Mestre, and Durando to Vicenza. In +Vicenza, indeed, the latter defended himself gallantly +enough; and the people seconded his efforts. Women, +old men, and children, rushed to put out the lighted +balls which the enemy threw into the city; and, after +a struggle of about twelve hours, the Austrian forces +were compelled to retreat.</p> + +<p>But by this time Charles Albert had again repented +of his invasion of Venetia; and, refusing to come to +the help of Durando, he turned his attention to the +fortress of Peschiera. The zeal of the Milanese +Government had been even more short-lived than that +of Charles Albert. Mazzini had proposed the formation +of a Council of War, to be composed of three +men, and to be accompanied by a levée en masse of +what were called "the five classes." The Government +consented to summon only the first three classes, +alleging as their excuse, the distrust which they felt +for many of the peasantry. Mazzini also proposed to +issue an appeal for volunteers, and to place his own<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> +name first on the list. The Government consented; +but, before the appeal had been prepared, they had +changed their mind and withdrawn their approval +from the proposal. The Council of War was changed +into a Committee of Defence for Venetia, then into a +Committee of aid for Venetia, and finally disappeared +altogether. Charles Albert's secretary announced +that the King did not choose to have an army of +enemies in his rear, and inscriptions on the walls of +Milan threatened Mazzini with death. The leaders +of the volunteers, who had been pressing forward to +the Alps, were discouraged; and General Allemandi, +their commander, was so ill supported that he resigned +his office.</p> + +<p>The war seemed to be rapidly changing its character; +and the desires of Charles Albert appeared to +be more exclusively concentrated on the aggrandisement +of his own Kingdom. When he had first +entered Lombardy, both he and the Milanese leaders +had announced that the form of Government would +be left undecided till the victory was won; but they +now changed their tone, and prepared for a union +between Piedmont and Lombardy. On May 12, the +Milanese Government issued a decree that the population +of Lombardy should decide by a plebiscite the +question whether Lombardy should be immediately +incorporated with Piedmont under the rule of Charles +Albert. The Republicans, held in check to a great +extent by Mazzini, had hitherto refrained from giving +prominence to their political opinions. But Mazzini +now felt it necessary to protest against this proposal; +and all the more strongly because Charles Albert's +secretary had hoped, by the offer of the premiership +in the future Kingdom of North Italy, to induce him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> +to assist in promoting the fusion between Lombardy +and Piedmont. He therefore now issued a protest +against the taking of any political vote of this kind +while the war was going on; both because it was +absurd and unnatural in itself; because it was a +violation of the promises of the Government; and +because it gave a pretext for foreign intervention, by +changing the war of liberation into one of conquest. +The champions of Charles Albert were infuriated at +this opposition; Mazzini's protest was publicly burnt +in Genoa; and the Provisional Government of Lombardy +resolved to go on with the Plebiscite. This +decision tended undoubtedly to bring great confusion +into Lombardy. It weakened the sympathies of +those Germans, Austrians, and Hungarians who had +been well disposed towards the Italian struggle for +independence; while it gave an excuse for the opposition +of that larger body of politicians, who had +hesitated between Liberal principles and national +prejudice, and who were now eager to declare that +the war had ceased to be a struggle for Italian +liberty, and was merely designed for the aggrandisement +of Charles Albert.</p> + +<p>But, however much Charles Albert's interests +might suffer from his changeable policy, he always +was helped out of his difficulties by the contrast +between his questionable acts, and the unquestionable +badness of some other prince. As the Papal +Encyclical had come at the right moment to redeem +the credit which he had lost by his slackness after the +Battle of Goito, so the treachery of the King of +Naples served, at this crisis, to throw, by force of +contrast, a more favourable light on the ambitious +proposals for the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span> +Ferdinand of Naples had reluctantly consented to +join in the Italian war. The hearty dislike of Liberty, +which he shared with the majority of the Bourbon +family, combined with his special jealousy of Charles +Albert to increase his desire to abandon this expedition. +He feared that a Kingdom of North Italy +would be the natural result of the war, even if the +popular enthusiasm did not carry Charles Albert +into schemes of greater aggrandizement; and he had +a not unreasonable grievance against the King of +Sardinia in the recent choice by the Sicilians of the +Duke of Genoa as their King. The priests in Naples, +unlike those in Lombardy and Venetia, were intriguing +on behalf of Austria, and had circulated the +rumour that St. Januarius was a friend to the +Austrian Emperor. In spite of these intrigues, a +Liberal majority had been returned to the Neapolitan +Parliament; and the King, therefore, resolved to put +still further limits on the power of that Parliament, +by demanding of the members an oath which would +have admitted Ferdinand's right to suppress the +Sicilian movement, would have enforced the complete +acceptance of the Roman Catholic faith, and +would have prohibited any attempt to enlarge or +reform the Constitution.</p> + +<p>This oath the deputies refused; but in spite of the +advice of his Ministers, the King resolved to insist +upon it. Tumults arose in the city, and barricades +were thrown up; but the deputies, while thanking +the people for their zeal, urged them to remain quiet, +and to pull down the barricades. Some of those +who had taken part in the rising withdrew from the +streets in consequence of this appeal; but others +demanded that the royal troops, drawn up in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> +piazza of the palace, and near the church of San +Francesco, should be withdrawn at the same time. +The deputies went to wait upon the King; but +whilst they were in conversation with him, they +heard the first shots fired by the soldiers upon the +crowd. Ferdinand then scornfully told the deputation +to go home and consider themselves; "for the +Day of Judgment is not far from you." He had one +great advantage on his side. That degraded class, +the Lazzaroni of Naples, had always been fanatical +supporters of the King and St. Januarius; and it is +even said, that, while the troops were firing on the +people, Ferdinand was exclaiming to the Lazzaroni, +"Go forward!" "Naples is yours!" While massacre +and outrage were raging in the streets, the deputies +sent a message to the French admiral, whose fleet +was anchored in the Bay of Naples, to entreat him +to intervene in the name of France. But he answered +that he had been ordered not to interfere in +the affairs of another people.</p> + +<p>The deputies then passed a resolution, declaring +that they would not suspend their sittings, unless +compelled by brute force. An officer soon after +came to disperse them; and, after a written protest, +they yielded to this violence. Every liberty was +shortly after crushed out; and, though, for about a +month longer, a kind of spasmodic struggle went on +and though, after a time, the Sicilians consented to +send some help to the insurgents, the movements +were too ill-organized to have any permanent strength; +and the Government were able to suppress them by +repeated massacres.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand's <i>coup d'état</i> had taken place on May 15. +In the meantime, the Neapolitan forces under Pepe<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span> +had been slowly advancing through the Papal territory +collecting volunteers as they went. The slowness +of their march had been due in part to the +suspicious attitude of the Pope, who feared that the +King of Naples might seize on those territories, +which had always been a bone of contention between +Naples and Rome. Pepe therefore had not yet left +the Papal territory, when he received orders to +abandon the war, and to return to Naples. At the +same time he was told that, if he did not wish to +return, he might resign his command to General +Statella. Pepe was resolved to advance; but it +seemed doubtful how far his authority would outweigh +that of the King, and of the subordinate officers +who were on the King's side. The Bolognese, who +had risen in March to drive out those Austrian +troops which had lingered in Ferrara, and to expel +the Duke from Modena, now rose to insist that Pepe +should lead on his forces to Lombardy. Statella +was compelled to fly from the city; and those soldiers +who returned to Naples were followed by the +curses of the Romagnoli. Several of the officers +were willing to act with Pepe; and he passed the +Po with two battalions of volunteers, one company +of the regular forces, and some Lombards and +Bolognese. But many of these deserted him even +after he had crossed the Po; and by the time he +reached Venice, there remained with him only one +battalion of riflemen, whose officer had served under +him in 1815. But, however poorly attended, Pepe +was heartily welcomed by Manin, and was soon after +made Commander-in-Chief of all the land forces of +Venice. These were composed not only of Venetians +and Neapolitans, but also of Lombards, Romans, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> +even Swiss. The Neapolitan admiral, too, at first +refused to obey the orders of the King, and continued +for a time to defend Venice on his own authority.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, while the resources of the Lombard +towns were being drained to support the designs +of Charles Albert, he was devoting his energies to +the siege of Peschiera. Radetzky, seeing that the +weakest part of the Italian army was stationed near +Mantua, resolved to march from Verona, which was +the headquarters of the Austrians, attack the right +wing of the Italian army near Mantua, drive it +across the Mincio, and so march to the relief of +Peschiera. At a comparatively short distance from +Mantua he reached the small collection of scattered +houses which formed the village of Curtatone. A +band of 6,000 Tuscans, chiefly composed of University +students, and commanded by their professors, +were marching along the road which lies between +Curtatone and Montanara, on their way to join the +Piedmontese army at Goito. There were, at that +time, open fields on both sides of the road stretching +along in an unbroken plain; and no defences had +been made; for when Radetzky, at the head of 20,000 +men, came upon the Tuscan band, the latter were +far from expecting any attack. General de Laugier, +who was in command of the Tuscans, resolved to +resist; and for six hours this gallant little troop +held its own against the overwhelming forces of the +Austrians. But superiority in numbers and training +at last prevailed; and, fighting inch by inch, the +Tuscans were driven back to Montanara, and were +either killed or captured. The same "fanaticism" +which Radetzky had observed in Milan, seemed to +show itself here also; and as his officers marched the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> +young prisoners before him after the battle, he exclaimed +in scorn, "Did you take six hours to beat a +handful of boys?"</p> + +<p>But the "handful of boys" had done their work; +for, when Radetzky once more marched across the +bridge at Goito, with his prisoners, he found Charles +Albert at the head of his forces ready to receive him. +The fight was fierce; the King and his eldest son, +Victor Emmanuel, were both wounded; but at the +close of the day, a new battalion dashed forward and +compelled the Austrians to retreat. The day before +this battle, while the Tuscans were still fighting +between Curtatone and Montanara, the fortress of +Peschiera had surrendered to Charles Albert; and +while he was still exulting over his triumph, there +had come to him the news that the Lombard plebiscite +had been decided in favour of the fusion with +Piedmont.</p> + +<p>But it was not without much bitterness that it had +been so decided. Mazzini's protest against the proposal +of the fusion had been temperate and reasonable; +but it had been sufficient to attract the attention +of the enemies of Italy; and, while Gioberti had +come to Milan to arouse sympathy with the movement +for the fusion, a Jew named Urbino (who was +unknown to the Republican leaders in Milan) was +taking advantage of the differences of opinion to stir +up riots against the Provisional Government. On +May 28 (the day before the actual closing of the +poll) an anonymous placard appeared, calling on the +National Guard and the people to meet in the Piazza +San Fedele, in front of the office of the Provisional +Government. A deputation of the National Guard +was about to demand the deposition of its captain; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> +the crowd which gathered in the Piazza San Fedele +mixed itself up with the deputation. One of the agitators +named Romani, demanded the convocation of a +Constituent Assembly and denounced the proposed +vote of fusion. Many even in the crowd opposed +Romani; and the President, by promises of further +security for personal freedom, was able to disperse +them. The next day, however, they gathered again, +with cries against the Piedmontese, and broke into +the civic palace. The students heard of the disturbance, +and rushed to the rescue of the Provisional +Government. Casati had at first been panic struck; +but he now gathered courage, and tried to address +the people. Urbino attempted to drown his voice by +shouting that the Government had resigned; and he +exhibited a list of a new Government, composed of +some of the leading Republicans in Milan. Casati +snatched the list from his hand, and tore it in pieces. +Many voices in the crowd denounced Urbino, and +the rioters were speedily arrested or dispersed.</p> + +<p>The unreality of this demonstration, as an exhibition +of any popular feeling, was clear from every +circumstance connected with it. The innocence of +the Republican leaders might be gathered from a +stern protest against the proceedings issued by Mazzini +directly after; and the real source of the agitation +might not unfairly be inferred from the cries of "<span lang="it">Viva +Radetzky</span>," which broke out from some of the less +cautious agitators. But the Provisional Government +either was, or seemed to be, alarmed about the +possible consequences of the riot of May 29; and +Cernuschi, who had been the first to propose the +deputation to O'Donnell which had preceded the +struggle of the Five Days, and who had fought<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> +gallantly during that struggle, was arrested at midnight +on the very night of the riot, and sent to prison. +He was soon after set free, from want of any evidence +against him; but the bitterness which his arrest had +caused against the Provisional Government did not +so soon come to an end.</p> + +<p>This quarrel between the two sections of the +national party in Milan tended to strengthen the +power of Charles Albert. Casati had originally felt +little sympathy for the Piedmontese aristocracy; but +his growing distrust of Milanese feeling strengthened +the effect produced by the victory at Goito, and the +capture of Peschiera, and induced him to rest his +hopes for the success of the struggle against Austria +solely on Charles Albert, and the Sardinian army. +And while the divisions in Milan strengthened +Charles Albert's power in Lombardy, the weakness +of the cities of Venetia, though due to a large extent +to the previous vacillation of Charles Albert, was yet +compelling them more and more to appeal to him as +the recognised leader of the most important Italian +force in the North of Italy. This tendency had been +resisted by Daniel Manin, who was strongly opposed +to the fusion of Venetia with Piedmont; and when +he found that Charles Albert was unwilling to help +the Venetians on any other terms, he had been +disposed to turn for help rather to France than to +Piedmont. But the prestige of Charles Albert's +victories in Lombardy were attracting Vicenza and +Padua to the scheme of fusion; and nothing but the +proof that Venice could save Vicenza could counteract +this tendency. Manin and Tommaseo felt so +much the importance of this point, that they even left +Venice for a few days to go to the help of Vicenza;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> +and the coldness of Charles Albert towards the +defence might, if Vicenza had held out, have worked +in favour of Manin's views. But Radetzky also saw +the importance of this siege, and resolved to lead the +attack in person. He appeared before the city on +June 9, and on the following day succeeded, after a +fierce struggle, in occupying the heights which surrounded +it. The defence speedily became hopeless; +and, though Durando was afterwards blamed for the +surrender, and even suspected of treason, there seems +little reason to suppose that the town could have +obtained better terms than those which were now +granted it, if it had attempted a longer resistance. +The garrison was allowed to go out with arms and +baggage; the lives and property of the inhabitants +were to be safe; and a full amnesty was to be granted +for the past; the garrison only binding themselves +not to bear arms for three months. The fall of +Vicenza seemed to mark the crisis of the struggle in +Venetia. Padua, Treviso, and Palmanuova rapidly +fell into the hands of the Austrians; and the citizens +of Venice now began to believe that, so far from +being able to defend the freedom of their countrymen, +they could only hope to secure their own freedom by +surrendering themselves to Charles Albert.</p> + +<p>It was while this feeling was at its height, that the +Venetian Assembly met on the 3rd of July. Manin +recapitulated the circumstances of the war. He had +failed to obtain even recognition for his Government +from the French Republic. He admitted the growth +of the feeling in favour of the fusion; and he advised +his Republican friends to suppress for a time the +assertion of their special political creed, and to accept +the fusion as their only hope of safety. Tommaseo,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> +indeed, protested against the proposal; but Manin's +influence, assisted by the growing sense of weakness, +prevailed; and on July 4, the representatives of +Venetia by 127 votes against six declared their +province united to Piedmont. Manin, however, +resigned his office, as being unable to act as Minister +under a Monarchical Government.</p> + +<p>But while Charles Albert seemed to be gaining +partizans in Lombardy and Venetia by the growing +necessities of those provinces, he was exciting against +him the opposition of those who might at one time +have been favourable to the Italian cause. On +June 16, the Sardinian and Venetian fleets had +attacked Trieste. As a military incident in the +Italian war, this attack was probably of little importance; +but its effect on the relations between the +German and Italian movements for freedom and unity +was of far greater importance than could be estimated +by merely military results. For, in Germany more +than in almost any other country of Europe, the +movement for national freedom and unity was necessitating +an amount of self-assertion on the part of the +body which represented those ideas, which unavoidably +brought it into collision with many whom it +ought to have hailed as allies. Both the necessity +and desire for this German self-assertion had been +evident from the first opening of the Frankfort +Constituent Assembly on the 18th of May. Even a +small but picturesque incident which took place on +the first day of its meeting indicated the strength of +the exclusive and defiant German feeling. An old +man of seventy-nine had attempted, during the first +stormy sitting, to address the Parliament, but his +voice had been drowned in the general hubbub. On<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> +the following day, the member for Cologne called the +attention of the Parliament to the fact that the +deputy so unceremoniously treated was the poet +Arndt; and thereupon the whole Assembly rose, and +expressed to him their thanks for his song on the +German Fatherland.</p> + +<p>This desire to assert its position as the representative +of German feeling had been quickened in the Parliament +by two signs of resistance to its authority. The +fiery Republicans of Baden had returned in indignation +to their State, when they found that the Preparatory +Parliament would neither establish a Republic, nor declare +itself permanent; and, provoked by the arrest of +one of their members, they had rushed into open insurrection, +which only the influence of Robert Blum +had prevented from spreading to the Rhine Province. +And, while they were preparing to suppress the +Republican opposition, the Frankfort Parliament were +startled to hear that an Assembly had met in Berlin, +which claimed, like them, to be a National Constituent +Assembly; and this rivalry was made the +more alarming by the assistance which Prussian +soldiers were at that time giving to the Grand Duke +of Hesse-Darmstadt in suppressing a popular movement +in Mainz. The Frankfort Parliament indignantly +resolved that, "This Assembly of the Empire +has alone the power, as the one legal organ of the will +of the German people, to settle the Constitution of +Germany, and to decide about the future position of +the Princes in the State." And they further resolved +that every Prince who would not submit to their +decisions "should be deprived, with his family, of the +princely rank, and should descend into the class of +citizens, and that his crown and family property<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> +should become the property of the State." While +they thus boldly claimed to rule the internal affairs +of Germany, they were equally zealous in asserting +her rights against those who desired to infringe them. +They had resented the resistance of the Bohemians +to the proposed absorption of Bohemia in Germany; +and, while they were disposed to make some concessions +to the Poles of Posen, they made them in a +somewhat grudging spirit, and were eager to retain +in Germany all of that province which they could +prove, to their own satisfaction, to be Germanized.</p> + +<p>It was obvious that, while such was their state of +mind, the Frankfort Parliament would watch with +jealous eyes the movement for Italian liberty. They +could not, indeed, deny that the Italians had some +claim to freedom; or that the authority exercised by +Austria in Lombardy was, both in its origin and +character, exactly of the kind most opposed to the +ideas embodied in the Frankfort Parliament. But +the extreme desire to claim Austria as a part of united +Germany naturally led the Frankfort Parliament to +look at least with tolerance on the special prejudices +of the Viennese. While they were thus divided in +their minds between principle and prejudice, the news +of the attack on Trieste came like a God-send to those +who were looking for an excuse to sacrifice their +Liberal principles to the desire for German aggrandizement. +The Parliament, therefore, resolved unanimously +that any attack on the German haven of +Trieste was a declaration of war against Germany. +A resolution of this kind naturally prepared the way +for more decided hostility to the Italian cause; and +another decision at which they soon after arrived +gave new force to the anti-Italian feeling. Even if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span> +some Viennese Democrats might desire, or at all +events approve, the separation of Lombardy and +Venetia from the Empire, there could be no doubt +that this feeling was not shared by the members of +the House of Hapsburg. When, therefore, on June 29, +Archduke John was chosen Administrator of the +German Empire, the Frankfort Parliament almost +unavoidably identified itself with the domineering +policy of the Austrian Germans. While, then, they +claimed security for German freedom, the Parliament +triumphed savagely over the fall of the liberties of +Bohemia, refused even provincial independence to the +Southern Tyrol, and demanded that Northern Italy +should be retained in the Austrian Empire.</p> + +<p>How far the support of the German Parliament +gave any encouragement to Radetzky it may be difficult +to say; but it is certain that, during the month +of July, his efforts to recover his ground in Italy +became more daring in character. No longer confining +himself to Lombardy and Venetia, he now marched +his troops into Modena, and attempted to restore the +Austrian authority in that Duchy. Charles Albert +was roused in his turn by this new invasion. His +chief general, Bava, rallied his forces, and drove the +Austrians first across the Po and then across the +Mincio. Charles Albert's whole feeling seems to have +been suddenly changed by these successes; abandoning +the hesitating policy which he had pursued in the +beginning of the war, he now became desperate even +to rashness; and, rejecting the advice of General +Bava, he tried to push forward to Mantua. Radetzky, +during Charles Albert's delays and hesitations, had +had time to reinforce his strength, to revive the discipline +and vigour of the army, which had been utterly<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> +broken during the retreat from Milan, and to choose +the best positions for defence and attack. Therefore, +on July 24, he was more than ready for Charles +Albert's rash attack; and at the battle of Somma +Campagna he speedily routed the Piedmontese, and +drove them back across the Mincio. But Charles +Albert's zeal for action was not yet exhausted, and +he marched against Valleggio, in the hope of cutting +off Radetzky from Verona. In this march the King +seems again to have acted contrary to the advice of +his generals; and part of the march was conducted in +such tremendously hot weather, and with such bad +arrangements for the provision of food, that many of +the soldiers died on the road from heat and hunger. +A victory gained by General Bava, near Custozza, +strengthened the delusions of Charles Albert; but +Radetzky soon recovered his ground; the hasty march +and the want of food weakened the forces at Custozza, +and the Piedmontese were shortly after defeated on +the very ground on which they had just been victorious. +Charles Albert's assumption of military +authority and his defiance of his generals, led to +continual confusions and misunderstandings. The +result of one of these confusions was that General +Sonnaz suddenly left an important fortified position, +under orders for which both Charles Albert and +General Bava denied their responsibility. On discovering +his mistake he hastened back to his position, +to find that it had been in the meantime occupied by +the Austrians; and when he then attempted to recover +it he received one of the most severe defeats of the +campaign.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Provisional Government of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> +Lombardy were exciting the greatest irritation by +their want of vigour in the conduct of the war, and +by the discouragement which they gave to the +volunteers. As an extreme instance of this latter +fault, may be mentioned their treatment of Francesco +Anfossi. He was a brother of Augusta, the leader +of the Five Days' Rising, and had served with distinction +at Brescia; yet, on his arrival at Milan, he +was suddenly arrested without any reason being +given. When the news of Charles Albert's defeat +arrived in Milan, the Provisional Government once +more became alarmed, and again called Mazzini to +their help. He had had much difficulty in preventing +some of his more fiery followers from imitating +the example of Urbino, and organizing an insurrection +against the Provisional Government. Therefore +Casati and his friends knew that they could depend +upon his help whenever they should ask for it. His +former proposal for a Council of War was now +accepted, and he was asked to name the citizens of +which it should be composed. Of the three whom +he named, there was only one who had been a steady +Republican; while one of them had laboured to +promote that fusion of Venetia with Piedmont to +which Mazzini had been opposed. The duties of this +Committee were to fortify the town, and to provision +the army. They proclaimed a <i>levée en masse</i>, and +prepared to fortify the lines of the Adda. They also +made special requisitions for corn and rice, and +arranged for the bringing in of considerable provisions +from the country; though some of these were +lost by the refusal of the Piedmontese officers to +provide guards for the protection of the convoy.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> +They then despatched Garibaldi to raise volunteers; +and in three days he had under arms 3,000 men, and +was marching to Brescia.</p> + +<p>In the midst of these arrangements, the Committee +suddenly heard that the Austrians had crossed the +Adda, and that Charles Albert was retreating before +them. They sent messengers to the Piedmontese +camp to learn the intentions of the King; and were +dismayed at receiving the answer that he intended +to come himself to defend Milan. They then sent +messengers to recall Zucchi and Garibaldi from the +line of the Adda to the actual defence of Milan. +But the management of the defence was now taken +out of their hands; and on August 2 the Committee +were obliged to resign their authority to the Piedmontese +General Olivieri. Olivieri, while urging the +Committee of Defence to remain in office, refused +their proposal to summon the people to the barricades. +But when Charles Albert was attacked by +the Austrians under the walls of Milan, the barricades +were thrown up in spite of Olivieri. It was, +however, then too late to save the Piedmontese from +defeat, and, on August 4, the King sent for the +Municipal Council, to tell them that he had resolved +to come to terms with Radetzky. Restelli, one of +the Committee of Defence, denied the failure of food +and money which Charles Albert had pleaded as one +of his grounds of surrender; and when the Town +Council assented to the proposal, Maestri, another of +the Committee, denied their claim to speak on behalf +of the citizens. The news that the King was intending +to desert them, roused the Milanese to fury; and +on August 5 Charles Albert promised in writing to +stay to defend the city; and General Olivieri even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> +promised to go to Radetzky to obtain good terms. +But he did not go; and Charles Albert, after a +secret agreement with Radetzky to put the Porta +Romana into his hands, fled secretly from Milan on +August 6. Many of the Piedmontese officers were +so indignant at this desertion, that they offered to +remain in the city and share in its defence; and the +cry was raised of "Long live Piedmont!" and "Shame +to Charles Albert!" But resistance was in vain; +and on August 7 Radetzky entered Milan. Garibaldi, +who was already on his march to Milan, attempted, +with the help of General Medici, to carry on the +struggle on the banks of the Lago Maggiore; and +Mazzini joined this little band, encouraged them to +persevere in their defence, and attempted, though in +vain, to form a connection with the defenders of +Venice. But the struggle was hopeless. The Lombard +cities rapidly fell into the hands of Radetzky; +and on August 11, Venice, left alone in her defence, +disowned her connection with Charles Albert, and +recalled Manin to power.</p> + +<p>After this defeat thousands of Lombards left their +country; and the following extracts from a litany +composed at this period express, better than any +mere description, their feelings about this catastrophe:—"All +Italy is our country; and we are not exiles, +because we remain on Italian soil. Yet we are +pilgrims, because a vow binds us to go on a pilgrimage +to the Holy Land, that is to say to Lombardy when +it is freed. For the heart of our country is the +house of our fathers, the place where we were born, +where we have learned to pray, and where love was +revealed to us, where we have left our dead at rest, +our mothers, our sons, and our brothers in tears.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> +Kyrie Eleison," &c.... They then call on Christ, +the Virgin, and the Saints to deliver Lombardy +from the Austrians, and invoke them to their aid, by +the memory of the special sufferers in the cause of +Liberty, among whom they particularly specify the +Brothers Bandiera, and the defenders of Milan and +Pavia; and they end with a prayer that they may not +die until they have saluted Italy "one, redeemed, +free, and independent."</p> + +<p>Radetzky, however, had another enemy to punish +besides the Lombards and the Piedmontese. The +action of the Pope, however uncertain, and one may +even say unwilling, had given a force to the anti-Austrian +movement which no other Prince could +have given; and, as long as the Liberals ruled in +the Papal States, Radetzky considered his work unfinished. +About three weeks, therefore, before the +surrender of Milan, a body of 6,500 Austrians had +crossed the Po, and had once more entered Ferrara. +The Bolognese, always the most politically energetic +of any of the subjects of the Pope, desired at once to +march to Ferrara; but the Pro-Legate, who ruled in +Bologna, tried to check the popular movement; and +refused to take any more energetic step than the +issue of proclamations. He even appealed to the +Bolognese to remember the fate of Vicenza as a +warning against useless defences. But the people +would not listen to him; and a declaration of the +Pope that he would defend the frontiers of his State, +increased their desire for action. Encouraged by +the peaceable action of the Pro-Legate, and by no +means alarmed at his proclamations, General Welden +entered the Porta Maggiore of Bologna at the head +of his forces on the 7th of August. Near that gate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span> +a path leads up to a raised piece of ground called +the Montagnola, which is covered with grass and +trees. To this the Austrian forces made their way; +but, in spite of the warnings of the Pro-Legate, +Welden's demand for hostages was flatly refused. +The people rang their bells, and rushed to the barricades; +an old cannon was brought out and carried +up to the Montagnola, and by six o'clock in the +evening of the 8th of August, barricades had been +thrown up near every gate of the city. The Austrians +were driven out; and Monsignore Opizzoni, +who was in a country house outside the town, was +rescued by the citizens, and brought into Bologna.</p> + +<p>The dreamy, old-world city at once became full of +new life; neighbours flocked in from the surrounding +districts; and soldiers who had left the city, in the +belief that it was indefensible, now returned to its +help. The Pro-Legate issued an encouraging address +to the citizens; and Welden complained that the +rulers of Bologna were unable to control the excited +spirits of the city. The Ambassadors of England, +France, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and even Naples, +who were resident at Florence, protested against the +renewal of the Austrian attack; the enthusiasm for +the Bolognese spread to Venice, where a large subscription +was raised for the families of those who +had fallen on August 8; and finally on August 15 +a meeting took place between Welden and the representatives +of the Pope, which resulted in an order to +the Austrian forces to recross the Po.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, whatever help the Austrian +generals might have received from the approval of +the Frankfort Parliament, that assistance must have +lost its value, as the position of the Parliament became<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span> +weaker and weaker. One great difficulty, as +already mentioned, was the growing rivalry of Berlin; +and this became the more dangerous to German +liberty, as the supporters of the original struggle +for freedom continued to lose their influence in the +Prussian Court. Camphausen, the new Prime Minister, +repudiated the March Revolution as decidedly +as Schmaltz had repudiated the popular element in +the struggles of 1813. Prince William of Prussia, +the brother of the King, who was considered the +leader of the reactionary party, had returned to +Berlin; and, though he now professed to accept the +Constitution, he was believed to mean mischief. +The actual liberties, indeed, of the citizens of Berlin +had not yet been attacked; but a warning of their +future fate was given by the treatment inflicted +on Posen. Mieroslawski, the leader of the Polish +movement in Posen, had been received with enthusiasm +in Berlin during the March rising; and the +King had then given permission to the different +provinces of Prussia to decide whether or not they +should be absorbed in the new Germany. The Posen +Assembly had decided by twenty-six votes to seventeen +against the proposed absorption; and as a means of +carrying out this decision, they had removed certain +Prussian officials from office in their province. The +King of Prussia had at first seemed to approve this +change, and had despatched General von Willisen to +secure the Poles in their national rights. But when +the German party in Posen offered resistance to this +policy, the King yielded to them, withdrew General von +Willisen, and sent in his stead General von Pfuel, who +placed Posen in a state of siege, and punished all who +had taken part in the Polish movement.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span></p> + +<p>But, however alarming these signs might be to the +more Liberal members of the Frankfort Parliament, +the attitude of the majority of that Parliament towards +the Poles had not been so generous as to +justify them in passing severe condemnation on +the Prussian Ministry. It was in another part of +Europe, and in a very different struggle, that the +power of the Frankfort Parliament over the King of +Prussia was to be finally tested. The March rising +in Denmark had, unfortunately, like the risings in +Pesth and Frankfort, been accompanied with a desire +to strengthen their own country at the expense of its +neighbours; and an Assembly in Copenhagen had, +on March 11, denounced the claims of Schleswig to a +separate Constitution as eagerly as the Liberals of +Pesth had demanded the suppression of the Transylvanian +Diet, and the Liberals of Frankfort the +absorption of Bohemia in Germany. The Schleswig-Holstein +Estates, however, thought that the time had +come for a more definite demand for independence: +and, on March 18, they put forward five proposals +which they embodied in a petition to the King. +These were to the effect that the members of the +Estates of both Duchies should be united in one +Assembly for the purpose of discussing an Assembly +for Schleswig-Holstein; that measures should be taken +to enable Schleswig to enter the German Confederation; +that in consideration of dangers both from +within and without, measures should be taken for a +general arming of the people; that liberty of the +Press and freedom of public meeting should be +granted; and that the Prime Minister of Denmark +should be dismissed. The arrival of the bearers of +this petition in Copenhagen caused great indignation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span> +among the Danes; and, on March 20, a meeting was +held to pass five counter-resolutions in favour of the +claims of Denmark over Schleswig; and the temper +of the meeting was sufficiently shown by the fact +that, while the four resolutions which asserted the +power of Denmark were easily carried, a resolution +proposing a Provincial Assembly for Schleswig was +rejected by an enormous majority. War was declared +on the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein; and, in +order to prevent those Duchies from having due +notice of the war, the members of the deputation +were detained in Copenhagen until the expedition +had actually sailed. On March 27 the Danish forces +appeared before Hadersleben; and thereupon the +Schleswig-Holstein Estates declared that the Duke +of Schleswig-Holstein was no longer free, and formed +a Provisional Government.</p> + +<p>The meeting of the Preparatory Parliament at +Frankfort had naturally increased the hopes of the +people of Schleswig-Holstein; and they elected seven +representatives to take part in the deliberations of that +Parliament. But the Schleswig-Holstein question +seemed doomed to bring into prominence all the +difficulties which hindered the establishment of the +freedom and unity of Germany. The old Bundestag +had, even before the meeting of the Frankfort Parliament, +declared its sympathy with the Estates of +Schleswig-Holstein; and, though it expressed its +approval of the election of the Schleswig-Holstein +representatives to the Frankfort Parliament, it +claimed, as against that body, the sole right of +directing the Federal forces of Germany. The King +of Prussia was, no doubt, glad enough to pit the +older body against the representatives of the newer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span> +Germany; and it was avowedly under the authority +of the Bundestag that, in the month of April, he +marched his forces into Schleswig-Holstein. But it +soon became clear that neither the representatives of +the old League of Princes, nor the Assembly which +embodied the aspirations for German freedom and +unity, would be able to control the King of Prussia. +Early in June he showed an inclination to come to +an understanding with the King of Denmark and to +evacuate North Schleswig. The leaders of the +Frankfort Parliament felt that, in order to control +this dangerous rival to their authority, they must +create some central Power which should be able +entirely to supersede the Bundestag; and it was, to +a large extent, under the influence of this feeling, +that the Archduke John was chosen Administrator +of the Empire.</p> + +<p>But, however much strength the Frankfort Parliament +might gain in Germany by this election, it was +hardly to be expected that the choice of an Austrian +Prince would lead to more friendly relations between +Frankfort and Berlin; and, in July, it began to be +rumoured that a truce of a more permanent kind was +about to be made between the King of Prussia and +the King of Denmark, while the King of Hanover +seemed disposed to second the former in his defiance +of the Constituent Assembly at Frankfort. At last, +in September, the crisis of the struggle came. It +then became clearly known that a truce of seven +months had been agreed to at Malmö between Prussia +and Denmark. During that period both the Duchies +were to be governed in the name of the King of +Denmark as Duke of Schleswig-Holstein; and the +man who was chosen to act in the King's name was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[374]</a></span> +Count Moltke, who had been previously protested +against by the people of Schleswig-Holstein on +account of his tyrannical acts. He was to exercise +all power except that of legislation, which, indeed, +was to cease altogether during the truce; and he +was to be assisted by four Notables, two of them to +be nominated by the King of Denmark and two by +the King of Prussia.</p> + +<p>The Frankfort Parliament felt that this truce would +sacrifice the whole object of the war; and, on the +motion of Dahlmann, they resolved, on September 5, +by 238 votes against 221, to stop the execution of +the truce. The Ministry, who had been appointed +by Archduke John, thereupon resigned, and Dahlmann +was empowered by the Archduke to form a +new Ministry. At the same time the Estates of +Schleswig-Holstein met, and denied that any one had +the power to dissolve them against their will, or to +pass laws or lay on taxes without their consent. A +public meeting of the Schleswig-Holstein citizens declared +that they would not submit to the new Government; +every one of the four Notables refused to act +with Moltke; and, when he applied to the Provisional +Government for protection, they sent him a passport +to enable him to leave the country. But the Frankfort +Parliament very soon began to shudder at its +own audacity; and, when Robert Blum urged upon +it the desirability of speedily putting in force its +decree about Schleswig-Holstein, the Parliament +decided that there was no urgency for this motion; +and some of the more timid members began to plead +the danger of a quarrel with Prussia. Arndt, who +had voted for the condemnation of the truce, now +changed sides, and urged that the Parliament should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[375]</a></span> +accept it, in order to convince the Danes "that they +are a brother People;" while even those who still +condemned the action of Prussia began to propose all +sorts of compromises. At last, on September 16, +the Assembly rescinded its former vote, declaring, +by 257 against 236, that it was unadvisable to hinder +the execution of the truce.</p> + +<p>The leaders of the German Left had felt that concession +to the King of Prussia in this dispute implied +the sacrifice of the whole object of the Parliament's +existence; and Robert Blum had declared, shortly +before the final vote, that it must now be decided +whether Prussia was to be absorbed in Germany or +Germany to become Prussian. But the decision of +the Frankfort Parliament so roused the fierce Democratic +feeling in the city that the movement of +resistance to Prussia passed out of the control of +Robert Blum, and fell under the leadership of far +fiercer and more intolerant spirits. Several thousand +Democrats belonging to the Frankfort clubs held a +meeting, on September 18, at which they called upon +the members of the Left to leave the Frankfort Parliament +and form a separate Assembly. Zitz, a representative +of Mainz, and nineteen other members, +accepted this proposal; and, in the meantime, the +Frankfort mob, headed by a man who bore the +ominous name of Metternich, threw up barricades in +the streets, and prepared for a regular insurrection. +The Ministry, in great alarm, sent for troops; and +Bavarian, Prussian, and Austrian generals alike responded +to the appeal. Robert Blum and Simon, +the member for Breslau, in vain tried to make peace; +entreating the Ministry to withdraw the troops, and +the insurgents to pull down the barricades. But the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[376]</a></span> +Ministry would not listen to any advice, and the +insurgents threatened Blum and Simon with death. +Auerswald and Lichnowsky, two members of the +Right, were killed in the riot. Many fled from the +city; and it is said that, when Archduke John wished, +at last, to make a truce, no member of the Ministry +could be found to countersign the order for the +withdrawal of the troops. The struggle went on +fiercely during the 19th; but there was no organization +capable of offering permanent resistance to the +soldiers; and, by ten o'clock at night, all the barricades +had been swept away; and the Ministry soon +after declared Frankfort in a state of siege.</p> + +<p>These events gave a shock to the hopes for combining +German freedom with German unity which +they never after recovered; and the alternative which +Blum had propounded, whether Prussia should be +absorbed in Germany or Germany in Prussia, was, +from that day, to be exchanged for the question +whether Austria or Prussia should absorb Germany. +There were some, however, who did not at once give +up their hope for a solution more favourable to freedom +than either of those alternatives. In several +parts of Germany Republican feeling seemed to have +been growing for some time past, and the fiercest and +most daring of the Republican leaders were still to be +found in Baden. The rising which had followed the +dissolution of the Preparatory Parliament had, indeed, +discredited Hecker and his friends with many of the +more moderate Democrats; and this feeling, by alienating +the party of Hecker from Robert Blum, had +deprived that able and temperate statesman of the +power which he might have gained as the head of +a united Democratic party. That rising had also,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[377]</a></span> +unfortunately, brought about a collision between +Baden and Bavaria, and, at least, a feeling of suspicion +between Baden and Würtemberg. But, though +the Democratic party, as a whole, had been weakened +by the Baden rising, and though even the special +South German movement, which had seemed, in +March, to have gained so strong an influence, had +been disunited, yet, on the other hand, a certain +form of popular enthusiasm had undoubtedly been +roused by Hecker, of a kind which the wiser Democrats +had failed to excite; and the attempt of the +members of the Right in the Frankfort Parliament +to annul Hecker's election, on account of his +insurrection, had marked him out as a martyr for +liberty.</p> + +<p>But when the Baden Republicans gathered for action +after the Frankfort riots, it was, for some unknown +reason, to Struve, rather than to Hecker, +that they offered the leadership of the movement. +Struve seems to have had fewer gifts for the work of +a leader of insurrection than his colleague had possessed. +He had been, as was proved by his programme +in the Preparatory Parliament, interested +rather in the redress of material grievances than in +the assertion of Constitutional Liberties; and, though +he now proclaimed the Republic from the Town +Council House in Lörrach, he rested his appeal to +the people mainly on the ground of the burdens still +pressing on the cultivators of the land; and he did +not allude to the Schleswig-Holstein question, nor +did he allege any Constitutional reason for proclaiming +the Republic. Blum had seen that Republicanism +was not popular in Germany; and, though he looked +forward to a Republic as the ultimate goal of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[378]</a></span> +political aspirations, he felt, during the sitting of the +Frankfort Parliament, as Mazzini had felt during the +war in Lombardy, that any violent attempt to enforce +Republican opinions would be dangerous to liberty. +Indeed, it was clear that the only possibility for even +a temporary success in an insurrection at that time +would have lain in an appeal to the national feeling +about the Schleswig-Holstein war. The movement, +therefore, failed, and failed ignominiously. The +Federal troops were sent against the insurgents; at +the first collision the latter were easily defeated; and +the insurrection was only remembered as the Struve-Putsch.</p> + +<p>Since, then, the Frankfort Parliament no more +embodied the hopes of the Liberals; since Republican +risings seemed hopeless; and since it was hardly +to be expected from human nature that those who +had desired to establish German unity at Frankfort +should consent at once to rally round that Prussian +Parliament which had helped to defeat their efforts; +the eyes of all who would not give up the cause for +lost turned instinctively to Vienna. There, ever since +July 10, a Parliament had been sitting, which seemed +to enjoy securer freedom than could be found in other +parts of Germany. This security was partly due to +the influence of the same prince who had so much +increased the dignity of the Frankfort Parliament; +for the Archduke John was the one member of the +Royal House who had a genuine respect for liberty. +He had consented, not only to open the Viennese +Assembly, but, a little later, to get Pillersdorf dismissed +from office, on the ground of his having lost +the confidence of the people; and, in August, Ferdinand +himself was induced to return to Vienna, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[379]</a></span> +thus to give a still further sense of security to the +supporters of parliamentary government. Nor was +this Parliament without more solid results; for it +abolished in Austria that system of feudalism which +had already been swept away in Hungary.</p> + +<p>But, in spite of this apparent success, the seeds of +division and bitterness were too deeply sown to allow +of lasting liberty in Vienna. The workmen's movements, +so often leading to riot, had been one cause of +weakness; but the most lasting and fatal cause was +that terrible race hatred, which, more than anything +else, ruined the Austrian movement for freedom in +1848. The opposition of the Bohemians to the May +rising in Vienna had intensified against them the +indignation which had already been roused by their +attitude towards the Frankfort Parliament; and the +June insurrection in Prague had been exaggerated +by German panic-mongers into an anti-German "St. +Bartholomew." When Dr. Rieger, Palacky's son-in-law, +pleaded for delay in the election of the President +of the Assembly, on the ground that the Bohemian +members had not had time to arrive, he was hooted +in the streets, and only saved from actual violence by +the intervention of Dr. Goldmark; and, when Rieger +protested against the illegal arrest and secret trial of +one of the Bohemian leaders in Prague, Bach, who had +now become the most popular of the Ministers with the +German party, evaded the appeal. Indeed the utterances +of the German party in Vienna were marked by +a combination of a somewhat arrogant assertion of +popular authority, as represented by the Assembly, +with contempt for the aspirations of other countries. +This combination of feeling was perhaps best illustrated +by the meeting of July 29, when a majority of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[380]</a></span> +Assembly, in calling upon the Emperor to return to +Vienna, indignantly rejected the word "<span lang="de">bitten</span>" +(entreat) from the address, and substituted the word +"<span lang="de">fordern</span>" (demand). On the day of this important +assertion of popular rights, the news of Radetzky's +victories in Italy was received with loud applause in +the Chamber, and a solemn Te Deum was shortly +afterwards decreed in honour of these victories.<a name="Anchor-15" id="Anchor-15"></a><a href="#Footnote-15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p> + +<p>But, offensive as this contrast between the more +vulgar side of democratic feeling, and the indifference +to the liberties of Italy and Bohemia must seem to +the student of this period, there was one direction in +which the more generous instincts of the Viennese +Democrats were shown; although, even in this +matter, the generosity of principle was to be sadly +clouded by the savagery of act. The political question +which called out this better feeling was the relation +of Vienna to Hungary. It will be remembered that +the enthusiasm for Hungary, which had been awakened +by Kossuth's speech of the 3rd of March, had been +considerably damped by the attitude which the +Magyar leaders had taken up towards the May +rising in Vienna; and the more democratic tone of +Jellaciç on that occasion had led the Viennese, for a +time, to turn for sympathy to Agram rather than to +Buda-Pesth. But no concessions to monarchical +feeling which Kossuth might be disposed to make, +could reconcile the most influential of Ferdinand's +advisers to the independent position which the Magyar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[381]</a></span> +Ministers had obtained. The courtiers, indeed, who +helped to form the Camarilla, might shrink at first +from any sympathy with the daring and independent +attitude of the Serbs and Croats. But the party in +Vienna which was opposed to Hungarian liberty had +been swelled, since March, by the accession of men +who were not theoretic opponents of rebellion, but +who simply desired that the new free Government +should be as thoroughly centred in Vienna as the old +system of Metternich had been.</p> + +<p>The most important representative of this phase of +opinion was the War Minister Latour. Ever since +he had taken office, in the latter part of April, he +had been trying to make use of the discontented +races in Hungary to weaken the power of the +Magyars and to strengthen the authority in Vienna. +Although he could not at once bring round his +colleagues in the Ministry to these intrigues, nor +persuade the courtiers to sympathize with the national +leaders at Agram and Carlowitz, yet there were points +in the position of affairs of which Latour was able to +make skilful use for the accomplishment of his ends. +Of these circumstances one of the most striking was +the character of the Emperor. Ferdinand had shown +himself, ever since his accession, most desirous of +doing justice between the rival races of his Empire. +The great difficulty of balancing the claims of German +and Bohemian, Magyar, Croat, and Serb, might well +have perplexed a stronger brain and weakened a +steadier will than that of Ferdinand the Good-natured +(<span lang="de">der Gütige</span>); and when the painful disease, with +which he was always afflicted, is taken into account, +it will seem more wonderful that he ever maintained +a steady political purpose for however short a period,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[382]</a></span> +than that he was constantly hesitating and changing +his course, as new aspects of the question pressed +themselves on his attention.</p> + +<p>This confusion and its natural results are well +illustrated by a story which, though obviously incapable +of proof, yet, none the less, may be supposed +to embody the popular feeling about this weak but +well-meaning monarch. The story is, that during +one of his conferences with a Serb deputation, Ferdinand +had listened with tears to the descriptions of +the cruelties inflicted by the Magyars; but that, just +when he seemed about to give them a favourable +answer, he happened to glance at a note from Metternich +which was lying beside him on the table, and, +taking it up, he read these words: "<span lang="de">Die Serben sind +und bleiben Rebellen</span>" (the Serbs are and remain +rebels). This sentence checked Ferdinand's sympathy, +and he at once dismissed the deputation with vague +words.</p> + +<p>Upon this desire to do justice to both sides, and +this weakness under the pressure of a stronger will, +Latour found it easy to act. A Conference at Vienna +between representatives of the rival races was obviously +an expedient, which it was easy to recommend to +Ferdinand, while it gave admirable opportunities for +secret intrigues. Moreover, whatever objections +might be entertained by the courtiers to other leaders +of the Slavonic races, there was one, at least, who +stood on a somewhat different footing. Jellaciç was +a personal favourite of the Archduchess Sophia, the +wife of Archduke Francis Charles, the next heir to +the throne. He had been a colonel in the Austrian +army, and his appointment had been looked on at +Buda-Pesth as quite as much an assertion of Imperial<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[383]</a></span> +authority, as of Croatian independence. On the other +hand, the fact that he had been entrusted by the +Croatian Assembly, on June 29, with almost dictatorial +powers, only ten days after he had been declared +a traitor by the Emperor, made him a trustworthy +representative of the independent nationalists +of Croatia; and while, therefore, Latour saw in him +a fit tool for his purpose, Ferdinand naturally hoped +that a meeting between Jellaciç and Batthyanyi in +Vienna might lead to a satisfactory settlement of the +quarrels between Hungary and Croatia.</p> + +<p>In this hope the Emperor was encouraged by Archduke +John, who offered himself as a mediator between +the contending parties. But, unfortunately, the +double responsibility which Archduke John had taken +upon himself interfered with the execution of his good +intentions; for while he was urging compromises on +Magyars and Croats, the burden of his duties as +Administrator of the German Empire compelled him +to hasten away to Frankfort. And thus Batthyanyi +and Jellaciç were left face to face in a city where +there were few who desired to reconcile them, and +where the most influential people desired to aggravate +their divisions. It must be said, however, in justice +to Jellaciç, that some of the points on which he +insisted in the controversy have been somewhat +misunderstood in respect of their spirit and intention. +It has been urged, for instance, that in demanding +the centralization at Vienna of financial and military +administration, he was contending solely for the +interests of the Court, and not at all for Croatian +independence. This, however, is scarcely just; for +Jellaciç had good reason to believe that Slavonic +liberty needed protection from the Magyar Ministers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[384]</a></span> +of Finance and War, since, in July, Kossuth, as +Minister of Finance, had refused supplies for the +Croatian army; and even the Serbs, who were still +in partially hostile relations with the Court, had discussed +the question of placing themselves under the +Ministry at Vienna, as a protection against the Magyars. +There were, however, other proposals made +by Jellaciç, which could scarcely be covered by this +explanation, such as the demand that Hungary should +take over a share of the Viennese debt, and that more +troops should be sent to Italy; and it was natural, +therefore, that Batthyanyi should construe the proposal +about the War and Finance Ministry, rather as +a blow at the liberties of the Magyars, than as an +assertion of Croatian independence. It was obvious +that for purposes of conciliation the Conference was a +hopeless failure; and Batthyanyi, after in vain urging +Jellaciç to abandon these proposals, rose in indignation +exclaiming, "Then we meet on the Drave."<a name="Anchor-16" id="Anchor-16"></a><a href="#Footnote-16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> +"No," said Jellaciç, "on the Danube." And so they +parted with the consciousness that war was no longer +avoidable.</p> + +<p>But though the Conference had failed, so far as +regarded its apparent purpose, it had served to complete +the change in the policy of the Court, and in +the position of Jellaciç. From this time forward he +ceased to be the complete champion of Croatian +liberty, and became the soldier of the Emperor; and +from this time forward, therefore, the German Democrats +of Vienna resumed their old faith in Kossuth, +and considered his enemies as their enemies. The +policy of Latour had been accepted at Court, and +Ferdinand was whirled away in the vortex of aristocratic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[385]</a></span> +opinion, and official intrigue. On August 4 +Ferdinand officially declared his confidence in +Jellaciç; about September 1, the Viennese Ministry +announced to the Hungarians that the March laws +which had secured a responsible Ministry to Hungary +were null and void, as having been passed without +the sanction of Ministers at Vienna; and Ferdinand +endorsed this opinion.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, even the Serb movement which +the Viennese courtiers had looked upon with special +suspicion, was passing into hands more favourable to +the authority of the Emperor. In the latter part of +July, Stratimiroviç had gained great successes in the +Banat; and his alliance with Knicsanin, the Servian +General, had led him to hope that he might be able +to throw off the authority both of Vienna and of +Buda-Pesth. But the Patriarch Rajaciç, who had +entered with such hesitation into the insurrection, +saw his only possibility of safety in placing the movement +under the authority of the Emperor. He +therefore set himself against the influence of Stratimiroviç; +and on his return from Agram to Carlowitz, +he was able to use his authority as Patriarch, backed +by the influence of Jellaciç, to recover the reins of +government, and to limit the authority of Stratimiroviç +to military affairs. At the time of the return +of Rajaciç, the war had begun to languish; but in +the middle of August the Magyars renewed their +attacks, and besieged the Serb town of Szent-Tomas. +Stratimiroviç marched to the defence, and gained +such successes that some of the Magyars raised the +cry of treason against their Generals. General Kiss +was therefore sent down to take the place of those who +had forfeited the public confidence. At first the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[386]</a></span> +result of the war was doubtful; for victories were +alternately gained by the Serbs and the Magyars; +but at last Kiss, by a dexterous movement, succeeded +in preventing Stratimiroviç from joining his forces +with those of Knicsanin, and thus turned the whole +tide of the war against the Serbs. This change of +affairs naturally favoured the designs of Rajaciç; Stratimiroviç, +finding that much of the popular feeling +was turning against him, resigned his authority, and +Colonel Mayerhoffer, an Austrian officer, was sent +down to take his place. Some of the soldiers of +Stratimiroviç were, indeed, indignant at this change; +and Rajaciç was obliged to make some advances to +reconciliation; but Suplikaç, the Voyvode, backed +Rajaciç in his general plans; and by the help of their +joint influence, Latour was able to turn the Serb +cause into a new prop for the rule of the Emperor.</p> + +<p>It is pathetic to see how, in spite of irresistible +evidence, Ferdinand still clung to the hope that he +might succeed in reconciling the leaders of the +different races in his Empire, and yet more strange to +see how he still believed that Latour would co-operate +with him for this object. He now chose as his mediator, +a Hungarian named Lamberg, to whom he gave a +commission to settle matters between the contending +parties, and to restore order in Hungary. Lamberg +was known to Batthyanyi, and seems, to some extent, +to have enjoyed his confidence; for Batthyanyi declared +that he would himself have counter-signed +Lamberg's commission, if Latour would only have +submitted it to him in time. But Latour, whose +object was very different from that of his good-natured +master, despatched Lamberg to Buda-Pesth +without that sanction which could alone secure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[387]</a></span> +him legal authority in the eyes of the Hungarian +Ministers.</p> + +<p>Some days before the arrival of Lamberg in Pesth, +a striking proof had been given of the growing sympathy +between the German Democrats of Vienna +and the Magyars, and also of that fierce race-hatred +between Germans and Bohemians which had been +stirred up by the circumstances of the June rising in +Prague. The Magyars had despatched a deputation +to the Viennese Parliament, in the hopes of reviving +the old alliance between Buda-Pesth and Vienna. +The more generous side of the Democratic spirit had +been reawakened in the Germans of Vienna by many +of the recent events. Even those who had sympathized +with the reconquest of Lombardy had been +alarmed at the kind of government which the Austrian +generals were trying to introduce into that province; +and one of the members of the Assembly asked what +should they think if the army which was now in Italy +were to stand before the gates of Vienna? This +feeling of alarm at the growth of a military power +independent of Parliament had naturally been increased +by the suspicions of Latour's intrigues with +the Serbs and the Croats. When, then, on September +19, the Magyar deputation, among whom were +Eötvös and Wesselenyi, asked for an audience from +the Assembly, that they might explain their position, +the leading German Democrats urged their admission, +but the Bohemian leaders protested against it, denouncing +the Magyars both for separating from +Austria and for oppressing the Slavs. Schuselka +attempted to mediate between the two parties, maintaining +that though the Magyars had done many +indefensible things, yet, as a matter of justice, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[388]</a></span> +Parliament ought to hear their petition; but the +Ministerialists, combined with the Bohemians, were +too strong for opposition; and, by a majority of eighty, +it was decided not to admit the deputation.</p> + +<p>This refusal of the Viennese Parliament brought to +an end the last hope of a peaceable settlement of the +Hungarian difficulties. On September 27, Lamberg +entered Buda-Pesth, to which the Hungarian Diet +had now been transferred. It must be remembered +that the Magyars had just been irritated at Ferdinand's +denunciations of the March laws of Hungary, +and alarmed at his expression of confidence in Jellaciç, +who had just crossed the Drave and invaded Hungary. +When, then, Lamberg arrived in Pesth, with a commission +unsigned by any Hungarian Minister, his +arrival was naturally looked upon as a further indication +of an attempt of the Austrian Ministry to crush +out the liberties of Hungary. A slight thing was +sufficient to cause these suspicions to swell into a +panic; and the news that Lamberg had at once +crossed the Danube, to visit the fortress of Buda, +seemed, to the excited Magyars, a sufficient proof of +his dangerous intentions. The cry was raised that +the fortress was going to be seized and military law +established. The fiery students of Pesth hastened +out into the streets; and as Lamberg returned +across the suspension bridge into Pesth, he was +attacked and murdered. Batthyanyi, terrified at +this act, resigned his premiership and fled to Vienna; +and the Diet of Hungary passed a resolution condemning +the murder. Ferdinand was now more +easily urged to violent action. On October 3 he +declared the Hungarian Diet dissolved, proclaimed +Jellaciç Dictator of Hungary, and appointed Recsey<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[389]</a></span> +Prime Minister in place of Batthyanyi. Jellaciç, +however, did not find it easy to assert the authority +which was now given him. He had hoped that, in +the confusion which followed the death of Lamberg, +he would be able to carry Pesth by storm; but he +was driven back, and before the end of October the +Croats had been expelled from Hungary.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the suspicions of the Viennese +had been increasing, and on the 29th of September +Dr. Löhner, one of the original leaders of the March +movement, publicly denounced Latour for his intrigues +with Jellaciç. These intrigues had now been +placed beyond a doubt by certain letters which had +fallen into the hands of the Hungarian Ministry. +Pulszky, who was at this time in Vienna, took the +opportunity to publish these letters in the form of a +placard, while he complained to Latour of the permission +given to Jellaciç to raise recruits in Vienna, +and threatened, if these proceedings continued, to +excite a revolution in which the Viennese Ministers +would be hung from lamp-posts. There were, indeed, +revolutionary elements enough in Vienna at this +time. The friendship between the workmen and the +students had led to the formation of a special workman's +Sub-Committee under the Committee of Safety. +This body actually undertook to find employment for +all who were out of work, and even to pay them wages +while they were out of work. This offer naturally +caused a rush of workmen to Vienna, from all parts +of the Empire. The attempt to sift and regulate the +claims for employment led to new bitterness; and +demands for impossibly high wages provoked rebuffs, +which were answered by threats of violence. The +Ministry tried to induce the workmen to leave the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[390]</a></span> +city, by urging them to join the army in Italy; but +the students defeated this attempt by reminding the +workmen that the war in Italy was a war against +liberty. The suspicions of the Ministers were now +excited, not only against the workmen, but against +the students; and, after a riot in the latter part of +August, the Committee of Safety had been dissolved, +and the lecture-rooms of the University closed. But +this repression, far from weakening the bitterness in +Vienna, only drew closer the links between the poorer +students and the workmen; for, while the richer +students left the city, the poorer ones, finding it +difficult to support themselves after the closing of the +lecture-rooms, were subscribed for by the workmen. +Thus then the suspicions roused by the intrigues of +Latour were strengthened considerably by the general +condition of Vienna at this period.</p> + +<p>Latour, however, was resolved not to yield. The +defeats which Jellaciç was experiencing in Hungary +only made it the more necessary that those who sympathized +with him should send him help; and on the +5th of October the news spread through Vienna that +an Austrian regiment was about to march to Hungary +to the assistance of Jellaciç. The students went to +the head-quarters of one of the grenadier regiments, +and urged them not to join in the march. An officer, +who arrested one of the students, was attacked and +wounded; and when one of the grenadiers, who had +been wounded in a quarrel, was sent to his barrack, +his comrades seemed to consider it as a kind of arrest, +and demanded his surrender. The National Guard +joined in this demand; and thus a state of confusion +arose which made it easy for the students and the workmen +to hinder the march of the regiments which were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[391]</a></span> +starting for Hungary. An Italian battalion refused +to proceed further, and the march was hindered for +that day. But General Auersperg, who commanded +the forces in Vienna, was resolved to continue the +attempt; and so, on the following day, the soldiers +were despatched to the station which lies beyond the +Tabor bridge. But, when they arrived on the bridge, +they found that the students and the National Guard +were before them, and that the barriers had been +closed against them. Auersperg was alarmed at this +resistance, and recalled the troops; but collisions +had by this time taken place between the soldiers and +the people in other parts of the town; and a fierce +fight was raging in the Stephansplatz, and even in +the church itself.</p> + +<p>Then suddenly there rose the cry "Latour is +sending us the murderers of the 13th of March;" +and a rush was made towards the office of the +Ministry of War. Fears had already been entertained +by several members of the Assembly, that a personal +attack would be made on Latour; and Borrosch, one +of the German Bohemian members, Smolka, the Vice-President +of the Assembly, Dr. Goldmark, and others, +hastened to protect Latour from the vengeance of the +crowd. Borrosch, with the same humane ingenuity +which Lafayette had shown on a similar occasion, promised +that Latour should have a formal trial, if the +crowd would spare him. The crowd cheered Borrosch +and his friends; and many of them promised that they +would protect Latour's life. Borrosch rode off, supposing +Latour to be safe; but Dr. Fischhof, feeling +that matters were not yet secure, persuaded several +members of the National Guard to act as special protectors +to Latour; and as the best means of effecting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[392]</a></span> +this object, some thirty or forty of them undertook +to arrest him. But the excitement of the crowd had +been roused anew, and they burst into the War Office. +Smolka then entreated Latour to resign. The Minister +consented; but the passions of the crowd would not +be appeased. The unfortunate man attempted to +hide from their pursuit: but they dragged him from +his hiding-place, and thrust aside his defenders. +Fischhof warded off the first blow that was aimed at +him. A student, named Rauch, attempted also to +protect him; but all was in vain; and he was dragged +down the staircase and into the square in front of the +War Office. With his white hair floating about him, +he was lifted on to the lamp-post which then stood +in the square. He struggled against his enemies, +and compelled them to drop him once; but again he +was lifted on to the post, and this time the hanging +was completed, the crowd tearing his clothes from +his body and dipping their handkerchiefs in his blood. +This outburst of savagery, instead of satisfying the +fury of the people, had quickened their thirst for +blood; and their desire for vengeance was now +turned against the Bohemian Deputies. Strobach, +who had been chosen President of the Assembly, +had objected to hold a sitting at all on that +day, declaring that executive rather than legislative +functions were needed just then. For this +refusal some of the members wished to prosecute +him; and armed men appeared in the gallery of the +Assembly threatening violence to the Bohemian deputies. +Those deputies, finding that they could no +longer deliberate freely, soon after fled from the city, +and issued from Prague a protest against the Reign +of Terror, which they declared to be dominating<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[393]</a></span> +Vienna. In the meantime Ferdinand, having consented, +on the day of Latour's death, to the formation +of a Democratic Ministry, fled, on the next day, from +Vienna to Schönbrunn, and shortly afterwards to +Innspruck; and he soon notified his feelings to the +Viennese by a proclamation in which he too denounced +the reign of violence in Vienna.</p> + +<p>Hardly had the Viennese recovered from the surprise +caused by the flight of their Emperor, than they +heard that Jellaciç, having abandoned his hope of +conquering Hungary, was marching against Vienna. +General Auersperg, who had withdrawn his troops to +the Belvedere after the collision between the soldiers +and the people, was still assumed by the Viennese to +be in some degree favourable to their cause; and +they entreated him to repel the attack of Jellaciç, +and to call for help from the Hungarians. Auersperg, +however, rejected this proposal, withdrew his troops +secretly from the city, and, on October 11, openly +joined Jellaciç.</p> + +<p>The Assembly were now anxious to appeal to the +Frankfort Parliament for help, and entreated them +to send representatives to Vienna. Robert Blum, +who had grown weary of the state of affairs in Frankfort, +and who believed that the only remaining hope +for Germany was in Vienna, consented, in company +with four others, to accept this embassy. The Parliament +in Vienna still imagined that they could keep +within legal forms; but this desire irritated those +fiery politicians who felt that the struggle was now +on a revolutionary footing; and they therefore desired +to overthrow the Assembly, and to establish a more +determined body in its place. But Blum, who had +been accustomed to hold in check the violent members<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[394]</a></span> +of his own party in Frankfort, supposed that, in +Vienna also, he was bound to resist revolutionary +methods; and, though he was ready to encourage +the Viennese in the defence of their city, he objected +to the proposal for the violent dissolution of the +Assembly, on the ground that such a proceeding +would give an excuse to the tyrants for a dissolution +of the Frankfort Parliament.</p> + +<p>A man of much more importance in such a siege +than Robert Blum could be, arrived about the same +time in Vienna. This was Joseph Bem, a Galician +of about fifty-three years of age, who had served in +Napoleon's expedition to Russia, and had greatly +distinguished himself as colonel of the Polish artillery +at the battle of Ostrolenka. He had also commanded +the Polish artillery in the insurrection of 1830, and +had attempted to organize a Polish legion, for the +help of the Portuguese, during their struggle against +the Absolutist party. He had been wounded in one +of these wars, was obliged to use a staff in walking, +and was small and delicate in his appearance. He +had gained both friends and enemies in Poland, and +was known for his strong democratic sympathies. +Although he was not appointed to the official headship +of the National Guard, he soon became the +centre and life of the defence. But he found that +the men with whom he had to act did not understand +the position in which they were placed; for, when +he attempted to urge the National Guard to march +out against the army of Jellaciç, they twice refused +to follow him, on the ground that they were only +intended for the defence of the city.</p> + +<p>And, if the rulers of Vienna were feeble in their +attitude towards their enemies, they were not less<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[395]</a></span> +feeble in their treatment of the one people, from +whom they might have expected help in this emergency. +The advance of Jellaciç against Vienna had +naturally increased the sympathy of the Magyars for +the Viennese, and Pulszky urged the latter to summon +the Hungarian army to their rescue. This formal +invitation was the more necessary because the Hungarian +officers were in many cases confused in their +minds as to their strict legal duty in this war. Archduke +Stephen, the Count Palatine of Hungary, after professedly +assuming the command of the army, had +suddenly fled from the country, and thus weakened +the legal position, both of his subordinate officers, +and of the Hungarian Diet, of which he was the +nominal head. Ferdinand had repeated his former +dissolution of the Diet in a proclamation of the +20th October; Prince Windischgrätz, professing to +act in the name of the Emperor, issued a declaration +from Prague forbidding the Hungarian officers to +fight against Jellaciç; and soon after, followed up +this proclamation by marching against Vienna. +General Moga, the Commander-in-Chief of the Hungarian +forces, hesitated to resist the Imperial orders; +but, whilst the generals were debating among themselves, +Kossuth arrived in the Hungarian camp to +urge them to advance. After some delay his influence +prevailed; and on October 28 began the march of the +Hungarian army for the relief of Vienna.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, all those in Vienna, who really +cared to save it, were trying to rouse their fellow-townsmen +to action. Robert Blum made an address +to the students in favour of making "no half-revolution, +but a complete change of the system;" and on +the 25th October, three days before the Hungarians<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[396]</a></span> +had begun their march, Bem had succeeded in persuading +the National Guard to make their sortie. +But confusion followed this attempt; some of the +Guard fled; others were mistaken in the darkness +for enemies, and fired on by their comrades. Bem's +horse was killed under him, and he was compelled to +retreat. Windischgrätz, who had now been appointed +to the complete command of the besieging force, +demanded the surrender of "the Polish emissary +Bem, who in a quite uncalled-for manner, had mixed +himself up in the affairs of Vienna." This recognition +of the independence of the Polish provinces of +the Austrian Empire was not accepted by the +Viennese; nor did they consent to surrender any of +the other people who were demanded by Windischgrätz. +Bem roused the soldiers again to the defence, +and drove them to their work with abuse. The +Students' Legion distinguished itself by its courage; +and some of the workmen seconded them bravely. +But Messenhauser, the official leader of the National +Guard, declared that the struggle was hopeless, and +urged the people to yield.</p> + +<p>Many were now disposed to abandon the defence; +when suddenly, on October 30, there arose a cry that +the Hungarians were approaching. Messengers went +up the high tower of St. Stephen's Church, and looked +out towards the plain of Schwechat, where the Hungarians +and Austrians had at last joined battle. The +Viennese had been advised by their Hungarian friends +to tear up the railway lines; but they neglected this +precaution; and thus Windischgrätz had been able to +send more troops to Schwechat. But the great weakness +of the Hungarians was due to the hesitation of +General Moga, and to the want of confidence felt in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[397]</a></span> +him by his subordinate officers. Troops were ordered +to advance, and then suddenly to halt, without any +apparent reason; several of the new recruits ran +away; and at last a general panic seized the army, +and they fled before the Austrians, continuing to retreat, +even after the enemy had ceased to pursue them.</p> + +<p>The rumours of Hungarian help had encouraged +some of the Viennese to oppose the surrender of +their city; and this opposition was continued even +after the defeat of the Hungarians had been officially +announced. This division of opinion between the +leaders and a great part of the people, led to riots in +various parts of the town. Under these circumstances, +Windischgrätz refused to accept the peaceable surrender +offered by the leaders, and, instead, bombarded +the town, and then entered it, while it was +still on fire. Bem managed to escape; and so did +three of the representatives of the Frankfort Parliament; +but Blum and Fröbel were arrested. The +latter was discovered to have written a pamphlet, +which implied a desire to maintain the unity of the +Austrian Empire; and, on this ground, he was set +free. But Blum was proved to have acted as a +captain of one of the corps of the National Guard, +during the defence; his speech to the students, about +the complete change of system, was supposed to imply +a desire for a Republican movement; and so on the +8th November he was condemned to death, and on +the 9th he was shot.</p> + +<p>Great indignation was excited in Germany by this +execution; and the unpopularity which the Frankfort +Parliament had incurred by their assent to the truce +of Malmö, was increased by their having refused to +interfere to protect Blum from arrest. Yet it seems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[398]</a></span> +as if the remarks, made above in the case of Confalonieri, +may be applied again to Blum. That Blum +should die, and Windischgrätz triumph, was no doubt +sad; but Blum's execution was rather the result of a +system of Government, than a specially illegal or +tyrannical act. Blum had staked his life on the issue +of the struggle, by coming to Vienna during the siege. +If there were any alternative to his death, it was the +one proposed by Socrates to his judges; and in the +case of Blum, as in that of Socrates, the actual result +was the best for his honour.</p> + +<p>But, as for the capture of Vienna itself, it is difficult +to over-estimate its importance in the history of +the Revolution. As the fall of Milan had broken the +connection of the Italian struggle with the European +Revolution, so the fall of Vienna destroyed the link +which bound all the other parts of the Revolution +together. Race hatred, and a narrow perception of +their own interests, might hinder the Viennese from +understanding their true position; but the March +rising in Vienna had given to the various Revolutions +a European importance, which they would scarcely +have attained without it; and the attention of each +of the struggling races in turn had been riveted on +the city which Metternich had made the centre of +the European system. In a still more evident manner +was the link broken between Germany and the rest +of Europe, and apparently between the most vigorous +champions of liberty in the different parts of Germany.</p> + +<p>This last aspect of the fall of Vienna has been embodied, +by a poet named Schauffer, in verses, which +appeared a year after the event, and which contain +also a worthy tribute to those fiery youths whose +determination and enthusiasm were to so large an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[399]</a></span> +extent the cause of all that was best in the Vienna +insurrections; though their national prejudices, and +their want of self-control, contributed largely to the +ruin of the movement which they had inaugurated.<a name="Anchor-17" id="Anchor-17"></a><a href="#Footnote-17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p> + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<h3>THE VIENNA LEGION.</h3><br /> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Their hearts beat high and hopeful,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In the bright October days;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Not March's glorious breezes<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Could bolder daring raise.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">No more with idle drum beats,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">But with cannons' thundering tone,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Marched forth to guard the ramparts,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vienna's Legion.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Once more they come to guard it,—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">The freedom won by fight;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Once more 'tis force must conquer,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">When blood is shed for right.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">A steely forest threatens,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Ere yet the day be won;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But the Fatherland, they'll save it,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vienna's Legion.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">And, as the Spartans hurled them<br /></span> +<span class="i2">On the Persian's mighty horde,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They burst on the barbarian,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To smite with German sword.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Their lives into the balance<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In careless scorn they've thrown;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And victory crowns their daring,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vienna's Legion.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[400]</a></span><br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Thus did they struggle boldly,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">For many a day and night;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Thus were they crushed, o'er wearied<br /></span> +<span class="i2">By the tyrant's conquering might;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Grey warriors wept in anguish<br /></span> +<span class="i2">O'er many a gallant son;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">E'en in defeat 'twas victor,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vienna's Legion.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Their deeds will well be honoured<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In the victor's glorious lay;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Our youth lay dead in battle,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">But they would not yield the day.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Let others crouch and tremble!<br /></span> +<span class="i2">No pardon will they own;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">They dare not live in bondage,—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Vienna's Legion.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">In the days of bright October<br /></span> +<span class="i2">They shouted in their pride;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Their blows fell thick and boldly,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">They struck their strokes—and died.<br /></span> +<span class="i0">The gallant lads have fallen;<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In blood the Legion lie;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">But in the grave that hides them<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Is buried—Germany.<br /></span> +</div></div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[401]</a></span></p> + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.<br /><small>THE LAST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM. JUNE, 1848-MARCH, 1849.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Difference of the Prussian movement from the other March +movements.—The Silesian question.—The Rhine Province.—The +Berlin workmen.—The grievances of the other Prussian +Liberals.—Hansemann and his concessions.—The proposal of a +Workmen's Parliament.—The "German" movement in Prussia.—The +fall of Hansemann.—The reaction in Berlin.—The deputation +to Potsdam.—"<span lang="de">Das Unglück der Könige</span>."—"Brandenburg +in the Chamber, or the Chamber in Brandenburg."—The +struggle between the Parliament and the King.—The refusal to +pay taxes.—The final dissolution.—Value of the resistance of +the Prussian Liberals.—The offer of the Crown of Germany to +Frederick William.—Consequences of his refusal.—Abdication +of Ferdinand of Austria.—The Parliament at Kremsier.—Its +character.—Its dissolution.—Difficulties of Pius IX. and of his +Ministers.—Rossi as Prime Minister.—The contradictions in his +position.—His opposition to Italian ideas.—His murder.—The +rising in Rome.—The democratic Ministry.—The flight to +Gaeta.—Mamiani's theories.—The Forli petition.—The summons +to the Roman Assembly.—Leopold of Tuscany and Guerrazzi.—Flight +of the Grand Duke.—Guerrazzi and Mazzini.—Difficulties +of Gioberti.—His schemes for restoring the Pope and the Grand +Duke.—Their failure.—Radetzky's breaches of faith in Lombardy.—The +appeal of the Lombards.—The declaration of war +by Charles Albert.—Attitude of the Roman Assembly.—Mazzini's +appeal and its effect.—The blunders of Charles Albert +and his officers.—Tito Speri at Brescia.—"Defeat more glorious<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[402]</a></span> +than victory."—The "Tiger of Brescia."—Novara.—Abdication +of Charles Albert.—End of the "Constitutional" efforts for +freedom.</p></blockquote> + + +<p>While the Frankfort Parliament had been discussing +personal liberties, Constitutional arrangements, and +the relation of the different races to each other; while +in Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia the questions of +national independence and race equality had thrown +every other into the background; while in Vienna +the republican aspirations of the students, the contest +between German and Bohemian, and the discontent +of the workmen, had all merged into one +common element of confusion, so as at last to make +government impossible; in Prussia the condition +of the workmen had assumed a position of such +paramount importance, during the period from +April to August, as to obscure even the most +pressing Constitutional questions. The workmen's +petition had been the first step in the March movement +in Berlin; and the miseries of the Silesian +famine had quickened the desire for the improvement +of the condition of the poor. This Silesian +question, indeed, may perhaps be reckoned as the +chief cause of the difference between the Prussian +movement, and those which were taking place in the +other countries of Europe. In that unfortunate +province, the aristocracy seem to have tried to combine +the maintenance of their old feudal power with +such advantages as they could gain from modern +commercial ideas. Thus the millers, who carried on +the chief industry of Silesia, still paid enormous dues +to the landlords for the use of their mills, while, at +the same time, the landlords would start mills of +their own in competition with the millers, who were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[403]</a></span> +paying dues to them; and, as the landlord was free +from those imposts, he was often able to ruin those +who were at once his rivals and dependents. Other +dues of a peculiar kind were paid for protection +supposed to be given by the landlord; others, again, +were exacted under the pretext of supplying education +to the children; while at the same time excessive +preservation of game was hindering the natural +development of agriculture. At the same time on +the Western side of Prussia, in the Rhine Province, +the French influence was colouring the feelings of the +population; and the socialistic June risings in Paris +excited the sympathies of the citizens of Cologne.</p> + +<p>All these causes, combined with those new hopes +for a change of condition which had been roused +by the Revolution, tended to excite the workmen +of Berlin to action of a more definitely socialistic +kind than was possible even in Vienna; and on May +21 the workmen's union of Berlin called upon all the +unions of workmen throughout the Kingdom to +send representatives to the capital. This naturally +tended to fix the attention of the Prussian politicians +on the questions specially affecting the working +classes; and Hansemann, a moderate Conservative, +promised to bring forward measures for curing the +distresses of the workmen. In Berlin, as elsewhere, +the suffering classes found that these things were +more easily promised than fulfilled; and the disappointment +of their hopes produced a continual +tendency to riot and disorder.</p> + +<p>But the discontent roused by these causes was +considerably strengthened by other grievances of +a different kind. The aristocratic character of +the Prussian Constitution which was proclaimed in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[404]</a></span> +April, had excited indignation in members of the +Prussian Liberal party, who had little sympathy +with socialistic agitations. The return of the Prince +of Prussia to Berlin was reckoned as a sign of still +further reactionary intentions on the part of the +Government; while a more justifiable ground of +complaint than either of these was found in the +cruelties with which General Pfuel was stamping +out in Posen a movement originally sanctioned by +the Prussian King and Parliament. He had stirred +up riots and encouraged the Germans to insult the +Poles, some of whom were branded and had their +heads shaved; their priests had been murdered, and +images desecrated. These cruelties and insults provoked +not only anger, but fear; for some of the +Prussian Liberals believed that the troops then used +against the Poles might end in trampling out the +liberties of Berlin. If we add to these causes of +discontent that tyrannical conduct of the Prussian +soldiers in Mainz, which had so provoked the Frankfort +Liberals; the apparent defiance to the French +Republic, by the massing of troops in the Rhine +Province, combined with the neglect to guard the +North-eastern frontier of Prussia against the Russian +troops which were fast gathering there; and last, but +not least, the sluggishness and hesitation shown in +the Schleswig-Holstein war, we shall see how naturally +the bitter disappointment of the workmen chimed +in with the feelings of suspicion felt by other classes +of Liberals. The Berlin students, indeed, endeavoured +to prevent the workmen from continually betaking +themselves to violence; but they were unable to +accomplish much in this direction. The workmen +had despaired of peaceable remedies; and on June 8<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[405]</a></span> +they broke into the Assembly, attacked the Ministers, +and were with difficulty restored to order.</p> + +<p>This state of things naturally produced a general +feeling of suspicion and bitterness among all classes; +and while, on the one side, a movement began in +Berlin, and some of the other Prussian towns, in +favour of a more Conservative Ministry, and the +extreme champions of reaction even talked of removing +the Parliament to Potsdam, the miseries +of Silesia and Posen so roused the feelings of the +Prussian Democrats that every step in the Conservative +direction, however apparently innocent, gave +cause for new outbreaks. Thus when new gates +were put up to bar the entrance to the royal castle +at Berlin, they were seized and carried off by the +crowd; and when a deputation of thirty starving +workmen, bearing the German flag, with the red flag +by its side, were repulsed by the Ministers, there +arose a cry for the general arming of the people; +and when this was refused, the workmen stormed the +armoury and carried off about 3,000 weapons.</p> + +<p>The Ministry now became alarmed for the peace of +Berlin; and, in spite of a decision of the Assembly +to the contrary, they sent for three new battalions of +militia, and prosecuted the men who had taken part +in the attack on the armoury. The time, however, +had not yet come for a complete reaction; and it +was therefore unavoidable that concessions should be +made to so strong a popular movement. So on +June 23 Camphausen fell; Hansemann, who had +promised relief to the workmen, formed a Ministry; +and on the same day a scheme was brought forward +in the Prussian Parliament, for abolishing the feudal +dues. Hansemann further promised to develope<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[406]</a></span> +municipal government; and he repudiated the attacks +which Camphausen had made on the March movement. +Then proposals were brought forward, with the approval +of the Minister of Trade, for a Commission of +Enquiry into the condition of the Silesian workmen. +But the workmen were determined, to a great extent, +to keep matters in their own hands; and the proposal +for a conference of their unions had now grown into a +demand for a Workmen's Parliament which was to +meet in August, and to carry out a great many points +of the modern socialistic programme; such as the +guarantee of work for all; the care by the State for +those who were helpless or out of work; the regulation +of hours of labour; and the support by the State +of workmen's associations. And if the programme +of Hansemann did not prevent workmen from insisting +on their extremer demands, neither did it suppress +the riotous methods by which they asserted their +claims. Many members of the Assembly were still +alarmed by hearing of attacks on machinery in Breslau, +and by seeing demonstrations of workmen in Berlin; +and the provision of special work on the railways +produced just as much, and just as little satisfaction, +as such temporary expedients usually do.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the growing collision between +the power of Prussia and the power of the Assembly +at Frankfort was exciting new divisions in Berlin. +During the months of June and July the democratic +feeling in Prussia had been strongly in favour of +Frankfort as against Berlin; while, on the other hand, +the military party desired more and more to assert +the independence of the King of Prussia against any +central Parliament, and more particularly against one +which had given its highest post to an Austrian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[407]</a></span> +prince. The workmen's movement thus, by a natural +process, began to be coloured by the desire of the +more cultivated Liberals for a united Germany; and +the special demands of the workmen began to fall +into the background as the larger questions of the +freedom and unity of the whole country came more +prominently to the front. The fears of the Ministry +were naturally increased by this alliance; and early +in August several members of the Prussian Left were +suddenly arrested; and amongst them Rodbertus, +one of the more moderate members who had helped +to place Hansemann in power. The new quarrel +threatened to be as bitter as the old one; collisions +took place in various parts of the kingdom between +the Prussian soldiers and the champions of German +unity; and when the members of the Left began to +demand the dismissal from the army of reactionary +officers, and to make demonstrations against the +Ministry, the Ministers met them by passing a law +for the suppression of public meetings, while the +fiercer reactionists circulated a petition in favour of +making the Prince of Prussia the Commander-in-Chief +of the forces.</p> + +<p>The truce of Malmö brought the crisis to a head; +and the members of the Left resolved that if the +Ministry would not remove the reactionary officers, +the Liberal members would leave the Assembly. +Thus the Schleswig-Holstein crisis consolidated completely +the different elements of opposition; and on +September 16 a vote of want of confidence in the +Hansemann Ministry was carried in the Assembly. +The greatest enthusiasm was roused by this vote; +the members who voted for it were carried on the +shoulders of the people, and it seemed, for a moment,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[408]</a></span> +as if a constitutional solution had been found for +the difficulties of Prussia. But the riots at Frankfort, +and the triumph which they secured to the reactionary +party in Parliament, gave new courage to the King of +Prussia in resisting the opposition; and he entrusted +the formation of a Ministry to General Brandenburg, +a man of more fiercely despotic principles than any +who had recently held office. New prosecutions were +begun; and, for the first time since the March insurrection, +a newspaper was seized and confiscated. +The Liberals, however, were not disposed to yield; +and, as if to strengthen their alliance with the champions +of provincial and class liberties, they carried by +a small majority a motion in favour of securing +special rights to the province of Posen, and adopted +unanimously a report for finding work for the spinners +and weavers in certain parts of the kingdom; while +demonstrations were made in favour of sending help +to Vienna in its struggle against Windischgrätz.</p> + +<p>The fall of Vienna, however, enabled the King of +Prussia to take another step towards absolutism, and +General Brandenburg was appointed Minister in spite +of the opposition of the Liberals. The King himself +had withdrawn to Potsdam: and the Assembly resolved +almost unanimously to send a deputation to +the King, to entreat him to dismiss this Ministry. +The deputation had to wait for a long time in a dark +gallery, the King refusing at first to receive them +otherwise than through the Ministers; but a Ministerial +despatch arrived, calling attention to this deputation; +and thus the King's scruple was removed, and +he consented to hear them. When the address was +completed he took it up, folded it, and prepared to +withdraw; but Johann Jacoby exclaimed, "We are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[409]</a></span> +not come here merely to present the address, but to +explain to Your Majesty the true condition of the +country. Will you not grant us a gracious hearing?" +The King refused, upon which Jacoby uttered the +memorable words: "It is the misfortune of Kings +that they will not hear the truth." Then Frederick +William withdrew in great anger, and refused to have +any further communication with the deputies. On +November 6 he announced that, if the Assembly +did not accept the Ministry, they would be dissolved +by force; and two days later he declared unconditionally +that he should remove the Assembly by force to +the town of Brandenburg; or, as he epigrammatically +put it, the choice was between "Brandenburg in the +Chamber, or the Chamber in Brandenburg."</p> + +<p>Von Unruh, the President of the Chamber, read +this announcement to his colleagues, but declared +that he would not carry it out without the sanction +of the Assembly; and, when General Brandenburg +tried to speak, in order to command the closing of +the Assembly, the President informed him that he +was out of order, and, if he desired to make an explanation, +he must ask leave to speak. Brandenburg +then declared that the further sitting of the Parliament +was illegal; and, accompanied by seventy members, +he left the House. The Assembly then, by 250 votes +against 30, decided to continue their sitting. They +further resolved that "the Assembly finds at present +no reason for changing their place of deliberation; +that it cannot grant to the Crown the right to remove, +to adjourn, or to dissolve the Assembly against its +will; that the Assembly does not consider those +officials who have advised the Crown to take this +step capable of presiding over the Government of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[410]</a></span> +this country; and that those officials have become +guilty of grave violations of their duty to the Assembly, +the country, and the Crown." They further resolved +that, although they were obliged to adjourn, the +President and Secretaries should remain all night +at their post, as a sign of the permanence of the +Assembly. On November 9 General Brandenburg +answered this defiance by a letter, in which he +declared that these resolutions were illegal, and +that he held Von Unruh and others responsible +for the consequences. In the meantime Brandenburg +had appealed to the Civic Guard to prevent the Members +from attending the meetings; but the commandant +of the Civic Guard denied the right of the +Ministers to send him this order, and further protested +against the proposal to remove the Assembly to the +town of Brandenburg. The Town Council tried to +reconcile the Parliament to the King; but Von Unruh, +while declaring his desire to avoid bloodshed, denied +that the Assembly could yield on any point, and +the Members issued an appeal to the country in +which they denounced the illegal conduct of the +King and his Ministers, but urged the people to maintain +a strictly legal position in the defence of their +liberties. The address concluded with these words: +"The calm and determined attitude of a People that +is ripe for freedom will, with God's help, secure the +victory of freedom."</p> + +<p>The situation had become terribly dangerous; for +General Wrangel, soon after his return from Schleswig-Holstein, +marched his troops into the market place, +in front of the building in which the Parliament was +sitting, and on November 11, Von Unruh and the +other Members, coming to hold their meetings, found<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[411]</a></span> +the doors locked, and the soldiers guarding the place. +They then adjourned to the Hotel de Russie, where +they declared Brandenburg guilty of High Treason, +and called on the people to refuse to pay taxes. +Deputations came in from Magdeburg, Breslau and +Frankfort, declaring their sympathy with the Assembly; +and the Civic Guard refused to give up their +arms to Wrangel. Wrangel now declared all public +meetings prohibited, announced that the Civic Guard +was dissolved; and declared Berlin in a state of siege. +But the addresses of sympathy came in more freely +than ever; and it was rumoured that Silesia was +actually in a state of insurrection. Even several +citizens of Brandenburg itself sent an address to the +Assembly, declaring that they would resist the +transfer of the Parliament to their town. The opposition +between the bourgeoisie and the workmen, +which had been caused by the riots of June, July and +August, had now entirely disappeared in a common +zeal for Constitutional freedom; and the Town +Council permitted the Assembly to meet in their +Hall. But even there Wrangel would not leave them +in peace, and soon after they were driven from this +refuge also. Even the ex-Minister Hansemann +became an object of denunciation to the Court party; +and on November 15 the Assembly put into a formal +vote the proposal which they had already hinted at, +that no further taxes should be paid. This vote was +carried just after they had been driven from the Town +Council House to another meeting place. The next +day soldiers were called out, who threatened the Civic +Guard with violence, but finally marched off without +firing; and some soldiers and officers were dismissed +for not consenting to act against the people. Taxes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[412]</a></span> +were beginning to be refused in various parts of +Prussia; several arrests were made in Cologne; and +Düsseldorf was declared in a state of siege. The +soldiers were forbidden to read the <span lang="de">National Zeitung</span>; +while on the other hand printers and publishers offered +to print the decrees of the Assembly without any compensation +for loss of time. Attempts to enforce the +payment of taxes led to riots in Bonn and Breslau; and +in Coblenz the people attacked officers for speaking +evil of the National Assembly. The Government +tried, in some cases, to cut off the payment of deputies; +but the people insisted on making the payment, +in spite of this prohibition; and even a Government +official in Düsseldorf declared his belief that if the +Brandenburg Ministry lasted three or four days more, +none of the official boards would consent to act. One +of the Roman Catholic bishops of Silesia appealed to +his flock not to refuse taxes, as otherwise they would +be damned for "refusing to give to Cæsar the things +that were Cæsar's." To this appeal several Roman +Catholics of Silesia retorted by an address in which +they expressed their fear for the spiritual condition +of the clergy, since they had never paid taxes at all.</p> + +<p>On November 27, the Government resolved on a +new act of violence. While the deputies were met at +the Hotel Mylius, Major von Blumenthal entered +at the head of a band of soldiers, and ordered the +deputies to leave the Hall.<a name="Anchor-18" id="Anchor-18"></a><a href="#Footnote-18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> Jacoby asked him what +he wanted. The Major answered, "I come in the +name of the law." Jacoby: "Of what law?" Major: +"In the name of the highest law." Jacoby: "Of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[413]</a></span> +what law do you speak?" Major: "I speak in the +name of the Constitutional law." Jacoby: "There +is no law that forbids us to meet in an hotel in the +day-time." Elsner: "Even Wrangel's proclamations +contain no prohibition of this kind; we are no club."<a name="Anchor-19" id="Anchor-19"></a><a href="#Footnote-19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> +Major: "That does not concern me. I act under the +authority of my board." Jacoby: "What is your +name?" Major: "I am the Major Count Blumenthal." +Jacoby: "Who has given you this authority?" +Major: "The board set over me." Several voices: +"Name the board." Major (after a pause): "Gentlemen, +do not embarrass me." Jacoby: "Well, then, +I declare to you that you are not acting in the name +of law, but of force; and it is a sad thing that the +soldiers are misemployed for such acts of violence." +The Major then ordered them once more to leave the +Hall, and seized on the parliamentary papers. Jacoby +denounced this seizure as robbery, and attempted to +make a copy of the documents. The Major snatched +the papers from Jacoby's hands; upon which the +latter exclaimed, "Go on with your robberies, and +scorn all laws; some day you will be brought to +account for this." Then the deputies, still refusing +to leave the Hall, were driven out by the soldiers.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the members of the Right had +been meeting at Brandenburg; and at last von Unruh +and many of his friends joined them there; but +demanded, at the same time, that the Assembly should +accept all the resolutions passed in Berlin between +the 4th and the 15th of November. But, on +December 5, the King finally dissolved the Parliament,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[414]</a></span> +announcing that it should meet on February 26 +in Berlin, and that he would then issue a new Constitution. +The Liberal members all flocked to Brandenburg +to protest against this dissolution; and the King +found it necessary to suppress meetings even in +Brandenburg, as dangerous to his authority.</p> + +<p>It was impossible in the then state of Germany that +any organized insurrection could produce a satisfactory +result. On the one hand the Republican leaders +had weakened their cause by spasmodic and useless +appeals to insurrection, at times when Constitutional +action would have been perfectly possible; while in +Prussia itself, the differences between the workmen +and the bourgeoisie made the permanent coherence +of a Constitutional party almost impossible. On the +other hand, the Parliament at Frankfort, abandoned +by many members of the Left, had been growing +ever more and more timid, and had not only passed +a resolution condemning the resistance of the Prussian +Parliament, but had even sent Bassermann, one of +the Frankfort Ministers, to Berlin, to persuade the +Parliament to yield. Under these circumstances, +the passive resistance of Von Unruh and his friends +was, in all probability, the wisest and most dignified +course which was open to the champions of liberty; +and when the Assembly actually met again in +February, the leaders of the Left were received with +enthusiasm by the people, as men who had deserved +well of their country. If the King of Prussia had +heartily accepted the new condition of affairs, he +might even now have done something to secure a +better future for Germany than any that it has since +achieved; for the Frankfort Parliament had come to +the conclusion that the only hope for the unity of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[415]</a></span> +Germany lay in its acceptance of the King of Prussia +as its head. They had repudiated the connection of +Germany with Austria; Archduke John had resigned +his post as Administrator of the Empire; and on +March 28, 1849, they finally resolved to offer the +crown of Germany to the King of Prussia. But the +flavour of freedom and independence which still +lingered, even in these later months, about the +Frankfort Parliament, made this offer distasteful to +a King whose liberalism, always superficial, had now +quite evaporated. The Frankfort Parliament had +been the result of a popular movement; and it had +elaborated a free Constitution, which it desired to +treat as a necessary part of the proposed monarchy. +Under these circumstances, therefore, Frederick +William IV. refused to accept the crown of Germany, +unless it were offered to him by the Princes +of Germany; and by this refusal he put an end to +the hope that the German question might be settled +in a peaceable and Constitutional manner.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, experience was showing that +it was almost as difficult in Austria as in Prussia to +reduce parliamentary government to a mere tool of +despotism. The members of the Bohemian party in +the Viennese Parliament had withdrawn from its +sittings after the murder of Latour; and had +attempted to find a free place for deliberation in +Olmütz. About the same time Ferdinand, grown +weary of the struggles of parties and races, unsatisfied +as to the contending claims of Kossuth and Jellaciç, +and unable to reconcile himself to the proceedings +either of Windischgrätz, or of the Viennese Democrats, +listened to the advice which the clique around +him were pressing upon him, and consented to resign<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[416]</a></span> +his throne, not to his brother and lawful heir, but to +his nephew, Francis Joseph, who, being a mere boy +at the time, would fall easily under the power of the +Camarilla, who were governing Austria. The advisers +of Francis Joseph, however, still thought that they +could keep up an appearance of parliamentary government; +and they, therefore, summoned a parliament +to meet at Kremsier in Moravia early in December.</p> + +<p>It soon became apparent, however, that the men +who met in the Kremsier Parliament were by no +means less zealous for freedom, hardly even less +democratic than those who met at Vienna. Those +Bohemian members, who had objected to the rule of +terror in the Viennese Assembly, had appealed, even +from Olmütz, to the Emperor not to deal too harshly +with Vienna; and they now showed themselves as +zealous for freedom as any German could be. Men, +too, like Borrosch, Löhner, Schuselka and Fischhof, +who had not acted with the Bohemians at Vienna, +were ready to take part in the Kremsier Parliament. +On the motion of Schuselka, that Parliament, +early in January 1849, abolished all privileges of +rank; the right of summary arrest was also taken +away, and trial by jury secured; while the freest +criticisms were passed on the action of the Austrian +Government in Vienna, Hungary and Italy; and +Rieger specially denounced the desire of the Ministry +to crush out all feeling for the special nationalities. +The Parliament began to attract the attention of many +who were at first disposed to speak of it with scorn; +and even those courtiers who had hoped to use it as +a weapon against the Magyars, became alarmed at +its evident democratic leanings. Acting under their +advice, Francis Joseph, on March 7, announced that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[417]</a></span> +this Parliament, from which he had hoped so much, +had driven off still further "the restoration of peace +and law, and of public confidence," and had raised +the hopes of "the not wholly conquered party of +disorder." He therefore dissolved the Parliament, +and announced, as the King of Prussia had done, that +he would settle the Constitution without their help. +The Bohemian leaders united with the Germans to +protest against this final act of violence; and so ended +for about ten years all hopes of Constitutional +Government in Austria.</p> + +<p>In the meantime affairs in Italy had been also +hastening in the direction of a more violent solution +of difficulties than had been wished for in the early +days of the movement. In spite of his apparent +abandonment of the policy embodied in the encyclical +of April 9, in spite even of his acceptance of Mamiani +as Minister, Pius was still hesitating between two +different policies. He was disposed to rely continually +on Cardinals who were out of sympathy with his +Ministers; and he was particularly anxious to assert +that, in introducing a Parliament, he had not surrendered +his absolute authority as Pope. This conflict +of feelings in Pius IX. led to a curious exhibition at +the opening of the Roman Parliament of June 4, +1848. On this occasion the Pope entrusted Cardinal +Altieri with a discourse which had not had the +approval of Mamiani. Mamiani, on the other hand, +as Prime Minister, read to the Chamber a discourse +in which he declared that the Pope abandoned to the +wisdom of the deputies the care of providing for +temporal affairs, and spoke of entrusting the papal +volunteers in Lombardy to the leadership of Charles +Albert. In spite of the action of Altieri, Mamiani<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[418]</a></span> +declared that his speech had been approved by the +Pope; but the Papal Nuncio in Vienna repudiated +the language of the Papal Prime Minister. This +continual jar between the Pope and his Ministers +naturally excited distrust in the Assembly; and when +the Austrians crossed the Po and occupied Ferrara, +the cry for war rose, not only in the Assembly, but +also in popular meetings out of doors; and the feebleness +of the papal protest against this second occupation +of Ferrara, increased the distrust of the Pope +which was now growing in Rome. At last, in August, +Mamiani, finding his position impossible, resigned; +and, for a time, an old man named Fabbri was +accepted as Minister by the Pope, as a kind of stop-gap. +But he, too, speedily found the position impossible, +and resigned his post.</p> + +<p>It was under these circumstances that Pius IX. +called to his counsels the man whom he had previously +desired to employ, the former ambassador of +Guizot, Pellegrino Rossi. Rossi was known for his +previous services to the cause of liberty, in the early +part of the century; for his careful study of Roman +law, and for his attempt to devise a Constitution for +Switzerland. He was a personal friend of Pius IX., +and had desired even a wider Constitution than that +which the Pope had granted. He was further known +to have gained respect from some of the Italian exiles +in Paris. On all these grounds he naturally seemed +to Pius a fit person to be trusted with his confidence. +But though a man of sterling honesty, he was the +worst possible Papal Minister at this juncture. His +friends expected him to be welcomed as a former +sufferer in the cause of Italian liberty. He was, +on the contrary, hated as a friend of Guizot, and as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[419]</a></span> +former representative of Louis Philippe. Sterbini, one +of the fiercest democrats in Rome, declared that, if +Guizot's friend appeared in the Assembly, he would +be stoned. And, while he was hated by the Jesuits +for his desire for secular Government, and for his +Protestant wife, an outcry was at once raised against +his Ministry by the Liberals, when it was found that +it contained two Cardinals. While, too, in his own +way, he wished for the freedom and independence of +Italy, his way was exactly opposite to that which +was then desired by the people.</p> + +<p>Professor Montanelli, who had been taken prisoner +by the Austrians at Curtatone, but who had since +been allowed to return to Tuscany, was propounding +there his scheme for a Constituent Assembly, which +was to embrace all Italy. And this proposal, welcomed +eagerly in Tuscany, and accepted by the +Grand Duke, was being advocated in Rome, especially +by Charles Buonaparte, the Prince of Canino. On +this plan Rossi threw cold water, desiring to substitute +for it a League of Princes, to be begun by a +Congress of Ambassadors at Rome. This idea, unwelcome +and unpopular in itself, was made more +unpopular still by Rossi's eager advances to Ferdinand +of Naples, to whom he actually consented to +surrender fugitives who had escaped from his tyranny. +While, too, he made this alarming concession to the +Prince, who was most deservedly hated throughout +Italy, he allowed General Zucchi, whom he had sent +to Bologna, to refuse Garibaldi entrance into that city +on his return from Lombardy; and when Gavazzi, +one of the most popular preachers of the Italian war, +protested against this act, Rossi ordered him to be +arrested. And as if the Clericals, the Republicans,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[420]</a></span> +and those who placed Italian unity above any special +political creed, were not enemies enough for one +man, Rossi proceeded, by special signs of suspicion +towards Charles Albert, to irritate against him the +powerful party of the Albertisti, who looked to the +King of Sardinia as the necessary leader of a movement +for Italian liberty.</p> + +<p>All this was done in the most open and scornful +manner. Rossi ridiculed the proposed Constituent +Assembly as a Council of Drunkards, and scornfully +told Sterbini that every one knows "that there are +praises which injure and blame which honours." +Rumours were spread of his intention to bombard +Rome; and the students mobbed him in the streets. +On one occasion when they were following him, he +crossed a bridge; and as he passed he handed to the +toll-man a much larger sum than was his due, saying, +with a wave of his hand towards the students, "Take +for them too." Rumours came to him of plots +against his life, but he refused to pay any attention +to them. At last, on November 15, as he was +going down to Parliament, a priest came to him, +and told him that he would die if he went. He +answered, "The cause of the Pope is the cause of +God. God will help me." As he passed through the +square, the crowd hooted at him. He warded them +off with his stick, and ascended the stair. Suddenly +an umbrella struck him; he turned his head, so that +his neck became exposed; and, in the same instant, +a dagger pierced him, and he fell mortally wounded. +So died Pellegrino Rossi, a man who undoubtedly +deserved a better fate; but who was thrust upon a +position and a time which required a man of genius +and humanity; while he had nothing to give but cut-and-dried<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[421]</a></span> +maxims, enforced with a courage which +was too nearly allied to insolence.</p> + +<p>That the guilt of Rossi's death should be laid to the +account of different parties by different people, with +equal confidence, was natural enough, considering the +variety of enemies which his policy and character had +stirred up against him; but it is a strange fact that +actual eye-witnesses dispute as to whether it was +received with joy or indignation by the people +of Rome. It is tolerably evident, however, that all +feelings about the actual event were quickly merged +in the panic about its consequences. A general +demand was made for a popular Ministry; and +Galletti, who had been Minister of Police under +Fabbri, went to the Pope to ask leave to form a +Ministry. The Pope refused, and the people who +had followed Galletti soon came to blows with the +Swiss Guard. The Guard were driven back, and the +crowd succeeded in getting cannon into their hands; +but Federico Torre thrust himself in front of the +cannon, exclaiming, "Shame to point cannon at the +men who gave us the amnesty." Pius had hoped +that some of the inhabitants of the Trastevere would +have risen on his behalf; but, finding no support +from them, he yielded to the demand for a Liberal +Ministry, and appointed as his Prime Minister Rosmini, +a champion of Charles Albert, and suspected of +heresy by the Cardinals. Mamiani, who was at the +time absent from Rome, was made Minister of +Foreign Affairs, and Sterbini Minister of Commerce +and Public Works. On the refusal of Rosmini, the +Premiership was given to Muzzarelli. But these +appointments, like Ferdinand's acceptance of a Democratic +Ministry under similar circumstances, did not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[422]</a></span> +express the real feeling of the Pope. He was completely +panic-struck by the events which had taken +place; and, urged by Cardinals and Ambassadors, +he fled secretly from Rome on the night of the 24th +of November disguised as a footman, and took refuge +at Gaeta, under the protection of the King of Naples.</p> + +<p>Mamiani had reluctantly accepted the office of +Foreign Minister; but he still believed that it was +desirable to uphold the authority of the Pope, because, +as he expressed it, "the only choice for Rome +lay between Pius IX. and Cola di Rienzi." Nor was +he shaken in his determination, even when a letter +came from the Pope at Gaeta, denouncing the acts of +the people, repudiating his Ministers, and appointing +as Commissioners of State men of the most violently +reactionary character.</p> + +<p>But, in the meantime, a strong force of public +opinion was growing in the Roman provinces, in +favour of the election of a Constituent Assembly; and +at last Aurelio Saffi, who had been so prominent as a +champion of reform in the time of Gregory XVI., +succeeded in gathering together, at Forli, representatives +of different local Societies, and preparing an +Address to the Ministry, which set forth in a concise +form those feelings which were floating in the provinces +at that time. This address expressed great +regret at the flight of the Pope, whose name the +petitioners declared they had been wont to reverence +as "the symbol of a magnanimous idea." They went +on to say, however, that, as Pius IX. had thrown +himself into the arms of the worst enemies of Italy, it +had become necessary to take steps to prevent civil +war and anarchy. As Constitutional Monarchy had +been cut short by the departure of the Pope, and as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[423]</a></span> +it was impossible to accept Commissioners whom the +Pope had appointed since his flight to Gaeta, it was +necessary for the Council of Deputies to nominate a +Provisional Government which should issue writs for +the election of an Assembly by universal suffrage, and +should settle definitely the political arrangements of +the State, "saving only the rights of the nation +united in an Italian Constituent Assembly, such as +has been proclaimed by the Tuscan Parliament." +This Address produced a great effect in Rome; and +Armellini urged his colleagues to accept the proposals +of the petitioners. Mamiani, seeing that the Constitutional +compromise which he desired had become +impossible, refused to remain a Minister of State. +A Provisional Government of eight members was then +formed, in which Sterbini, Galletti, and Armellini +took part; and the new Government on December +29 issued an Address to the Roman people, +calling upon them to elect an Assembly for the +Roman State, which was to meet in Rome on +February 5.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the flight of the Pope had startled +the other Princes of Italy. Leopold of Tuscany had +seemed more ready than most of his brother Princes +to accept Constitutional Government, and even to +look forward to arrangements for the unity of Italy. +Guerrazzi, from what motives it may be difficult to +guess, had discouraged Montanelli's plan of an Italian +Constituent Assembly, and had warned the Grand +Duke that his own position would be destroyed by +such an institution. But, when the Pope fled from +Rome, Guerrazzi had conceived the idea that Leopold +might be chosen President of the new Assembly, and +that the combination of Tuscany with the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[424]</a></span> +States might prove a check on the ambition of Charles +Albert. Leopold, however, seems to have been +actuated by very different motives from those to +which Guerrazzi appealed. So far from being strongly +moved by personal ambition, or by a sense of official +dignity, he was particularly inclined to accept the lead +of other Princes. He had imitated Ferdinand of +Naples in proclaiming Constitutional Government; +he had followed Charles Albert in proclaiming war on +Austria; and he had accepted first the Italian League, +and afterwards the plan of an Italian Constituent +Assembly, without a sign, as far as is apparent, of any +other motive than the desire to promote the unity of +Italy. But this very willingness to act with other +Princes made Leopold averse from the idea of standing +alone in his policy. It was therefore that flight +of the Pope which seemed to Guerrazzi to open +a new chance for Tuscany, which awoke in Leopold +scruples and hesitations; and when Pius issued from +Gaeta his denunciation of the proposals of the Roman +Council, Leopold lost heart, and secretly fled from +Florence to Siena, leaving a written statement to the +effect that the Pope's opposition to the Italian Constituent +Assembly compelled him to revoke the decree +by which he had just sanctioned that Assembly.</p> + +<p>On February 8 the news of the Grand Duke's flight +was received in Florence, and it was immediately +followed by a rising, in which the insurgents demanded +the appointment of a Provisional Government +composed of Guerrazzi, Montanelli, and a man named +Mazzoni. Just about the same time Mazzini arrived +in Leghorn. Guerrazzi, who still wished to act in +the name of the Grand Duke, tried to forbid Mazzini's +entrance; but the Livornese went out to meet him<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[425]</a></span> +with banners bearing his motto, "<span lang="it">Dio e il Popolo.</span>" +He exhorted them to preserve order, and then went +to Florence to urge the Tuscan Ministry to join their +country to the Roman State. But Guerrazzi succeeded +in preventing the acceptance of this proposal, +and Mazzini went on to Rome.</p> + +<p>Gioberti, on his part, had been much exercised in +his mind by the new aspect of affairs. His great +desire that the Pope should unite Italy seemed utterly +frustrated by the flight of Pius from Rome, and still +more by his placing himself under foreign protection. +For, though it was to the King of Naples that the +Pope first appealed, Gaeta soon became the gathering +place of the ambassadors of the extreme Roman +Catholic Powers; and, when Gioberti sent messengers +to Gaeta, they found the Pope surrounded by men +who had no sympathy with the ideas of the Primato. +When the Piedmontese envoys offered him a refuge +at Nice, and promised that their King would join +with other Italian Princes in restoring him to Rome, +the Pope answered that he had appealed to the +European Powers, and must await their decision; +and he further reproached Charles Albert with the +sanction which he had given to the idea of an Italian +Constituent Assembly, accusing him of intriguing +with those who were opposed to the rights of the +Church. Though discouraged by this rebuff, Gioberti +hoped to find a new mission in the restoration of the +Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had now followed the +Pope to Gaeta. But in this plan he found himself +opposed at once by Guerrazzi, and by the Austrians; +while his own colleagues were so indignant at the +proposal, that he was compelled to leave the Ministry +which he had only just joined.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[426]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the meantime, the Austrian conquerors of +Lombardy had been supplying justifications for a new +Italian war. The capitulation of Vicenza had been +violated almost as soon as it had been made, by the +infliction of new vexations on those to whom a free +pardon had been granted; and the more important +capitulation of Milan had been followed by similar +breaches of faith. Special burdens had been laid on +those who had taken an active part in the struggle +against Austria; while some of the regulations of +General Welden in Pavia had been so cruel as to +excite a protest even from the Viennese Assembly. +He had ordered that anyone who went about with +arms was to be shot within twenty-four hours, and +that his patrols should fire on any group of men more +than three in number who were found in the streets +at night. The Council of Lombardy had, therefore, +appealed to Charles Albert to secure them justice, +because Radetzky had acted "in defiance of his own +word, in defiance of the orders of his Sovereign, in +defiance of the military conventions, in defiance of +the mediation of England and France." The stronger +Liberals of Piedmont soon began to cry out for war; +but, for a long time, Charles Albert and his Ministers +hoped to stave off action, and to secure a settlement +of these differences by diplomacy. But the rebuffs +which Gioberti had received gradually convinced them +that no further help was to be found in appeals to +foreign Powers; and, urged on by a strong popular +feeling, Charles Albert for the last time declared war +upon Austria.</p> + +<p>It might be reasonably doubted how far such a war +would excite the sympathies of the Romans. The Piedmontese +Ministry had recently attempted to suppress<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[427]</a></span> +the liberties of Rome; and although that Ministry +had fallen, Charles Albert was himself known to be +strongly Monarchical in his feelings about the government +of Rome. The Roman Assembly, which met +on February 5, had, on the 9th, declared the Pope +deposed, and had proclaimed the Republic; a step +which they might naturally expect to widen the +breach between them and the Piedmontese. Some +were even disposed to think that Charles Albert +had given another sign of hostility in ignoring +the former league with Rome, and declaring +an Italian war without any consultation with, or +notice to the Roman Ministry. But any doubts or +hesitations as to the right attitude of Rome towards +Piedmont at this crisis were put an end to by Mazzini. +He had been chosen by Leghorn as their representative +in the Roman Assembly, and had taken his seat +on March 6, the whole Assembly rising to greet him. +When, then, the news came that Charles Albert had +declared war once more on Austria, Mazzini appealed +to the Romans to join in the struggle. "There must," +he said, "be only two kinds of Italians in Italy: the +friends and the enemies of Austria. Republican +Rome will make war by the side of Monarchical +Piedmont." Mazzini never considered that ready or +eloquent speech was a power that he possessed; and, +what is more to the point, some of those who loved +and admired him held the same opinion; but the +intensity of his conviction seemed to take the place +of readily-turned phrases or imagery; and, as he went +on to speak of the sacrifices that the war demanded +of all Romans, there fell upon the table beside him, +in showers, the jewels which the ladies in the gallery +had plucked off, as their offerings for the good of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[428]</a></span> +their country. The Assembly voted war, almost +unanimously, and twelve battalions of the National +Guard were despatched to Lombardy.</p> + +<p>The war was little worthy of their enthusiasm. The +Piedmontese officers were so little trusted by Charles +Albert that he chose a Pole named Chrzanowski as +his Commander-in-Chief, while the second in command +was that Ramorino who had betrayed Mazzini in the Expedition +of 1833-4. The three or four days of the war +were mere scenes of mutual distrust, mismanagement, +and, possibly, treachery; and it is pleasant to turn +for a moment from the Piedmontese battles to the +one part of the struggle which redeemed this episode +from utter contempt. On March 23, Brescia, from +which a portion of the Austrian forces had, for a time, +then withdrawn, sprang to arms, drove out the remaining +troops, and raised the Italian flag. Tito Speri, a +Mantuan, organized the poorer citizens, and led them +against the forces of Nugent, which were advancing +on the city. After a sharp struggle, the Brescians +were driven back with some loss; but, two days later, +Speri made another sortie, and, though attacked by +the cavalry, succeeded in driving them back, and in +occupying the hills which overlook Brescia. He now +attempted to treat with the Austrians; but Nugent +answered that he would enter Brescia, either by force +or by love; to which Speri replied, "Perhaps by +force, but never by love!" Rumours came of Charles +Albert's defeat, but the Brescians refused to believe +it; and Nugent was forced to retreat from Brescia, +after having, apparently, concluded an armistice with +the citizens. But, on March 30 or 31, Haynau appeared +before the city; and, in answer to the appeal of +the Brescians to the terms of the armistice, he declared<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[429]</a></span> +that, if they did not yield in two hours, he would +reduce the city to ashes. But the Brescians were +resolved, as their own inscription tells us, to teach +"that defeat may be more glorious and fruitful than +victory;" and they, therefore, refused to yield. On +April 1, Haynau bombarded the city; and, after a +fierce struggle at Porta Torlunga, in which General +Nugent was mortally wounded, Haynau forced his +way into the city, and put men, women, and children +to the sword—the cruelties of his proceedings gaining +for him, among the Italians, the title of "the Tiger +of Brescia."</p> + +<p>But, before Brescia had fallen, Charles Albert, +betrayed by his officers, distrusted by his soldiers, +and out of heart, had been defeated at Novara; and, +in response to a demand which he had made to +Radetzky for a truce, he had been asked terms which +he considered too dishonourable to accept. His +officers, however, told him that his army was in too +disorganised a state to be depended on, and he then +answered in these words: "For eighteen years I +have always used every possible power for the advantage +of my people. It is painful to me to find +my hopes deceived; not so much for my sake, as for +my country's. I have not been able to find on the +field of battle the death that I so ardently desired. +Perhaps my person is the only obstacle to the obtaining +of just terms from the enemy. The continuation +of the war having become impossible, I +abdicate the Crown in favour of my son, Victor +Emmanuel, in the hope that a new King may be able +to obtain more honourable terms, and to secure for +the country an advantageous peace." So ended the +chequered career of Charles Albert, a man of many<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[430]</a></span> +attractive qualities and noble aspirations, but who, +by a fatal weakness of will made more evident by +a painfully difficult situation, had been constantly +dragged into acts of cruelty and treachery from +which a man of stronger purpose would have been +saved. With his fall ended the Constitutional +struggles of this period; and, during the remaining +months of the Revolution, the Peoples of Rome, +Venice, Sicily, and Hungary had to depend, in their +struggles for liberty, on the force of popular feeling, +and on the guidance of those leaders whom they had +themselves placed at the head of affairs.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[431]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br /><small>THE DEATH STRUGGLE OF FREEDOM.—OCTOBER 1848-AUGUST 1849.</small></h2> + +<blockquote class="summary"><p>Division of Feeling among the Magyar Leaders.—Arthur +Görgei.—Ground of his quarrels with Kossuth.—Bem.—The +Volunteers.—The Plan of Defence.—The Flight to Debreczin—The +Proclamation at Waitzen.—Effect of Hungarian Conscription +Law in Transylvania. Puchner and the Roumanians.—Puchner +finally adopts their Cause.—Avraham Jancu.—The +Saxons and Roumanians.—Bem in Transylvania.—His Character +and Work.—The Appeal to General Lüders.—The Russians +in Transylvania.—The Capture of Hermannstadt.—Bem and +Csanyi.—The Reign of Terror.—The Death of Roth.—Görgei +and Dembinski.—Effect of Francis Joseph's coup d'état.—Why +it did not produce greater results.—The Race Feuds.—The Constitutional +Difficulty.—The Declaration of Independence.—Kossuth's +Power and its Causes.—The Struggle in Rome.—The +Triumvirate and their Difficulties.—Order and Liberty.—The +Danger from France.—A Pacific Candidate.—The Collapse of +the Tuscan Movement.—The Final Struggle and Fall of Sicily.—The +French Expedition.—The Landing at Civita Vecchia.—Oudinot +and Manara.—The Occupation of Civita Vecchia.—The +March to Rome.—<span lang="it">Guerra! Guerra!</span>—The Repulse of the +French.—The Debates in France.—The Defence of Bologna.—Lesseps +in Rome.—Lesseps and Oudinot.—French Treachery.—Garibaldi +and Roselli.—Further Treachery.—The Fight by the +Vascello.—Ledru Rollin's Insurrection.—The Final Struggle +for German Liberty and its Failure.—The Final Struggle in +Rome.—Mazzini's Proposals.—Decision of the Assembly.—Garibaldi's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[432]</a></span> +last Effort.—"Cardinal" Oudinot in Rome.—The +Struggle in Venice.—Manin and Kossuth.—Kossuth's Blunder.—Görgei's +Policy.—The Russian Invasion of Transylvania.—The +Struggle at the Temos Pass.—Bem and Kossuth.—Kossuth's +Resignation.—The Surrender at Vilagos.—The Cholera in +Venice.—The Final Surrender.—Manin's Stone.—General Estimate +of the Struggle and its Results.</p></blockquote> + +<p>The battle of Schwechat had brought into prominence +the great difficulties with which the Hungarian +Government had now to contend. The flight of the +Count Palatine, and the resignation of Batthyanyi, +had thrown the government into the hands of the +Committee of Defence, over which Kossuth's power +was nearly supreme. But, however much this concentration +of authority in the hands of the most popular +leader may have given strength to the civil part of the +Executive, yet the revolutionary character which it +gave to the movement called out scruples in many +military men, who had hitherto been willing to work +with tolerable heartiness for the Hungarian cause. +The flight of Archduke Stephen deprived the Government +of that Constitutional sanction which would +have been derived from the presence of an official +directly representing the Emperor; while at the same +time, Ferdinand's approval of Jellaciç and the dissolution +of the Hungarian Diet, placed the Emperor +and the Magyars in that condition of direct opposition +to each other, which most of the Magyar statesmen +had desired to avoid. This change of position considerably +affected the feelings of the officers, especially +of those who had previously served in the Austrian +Army, and in whom the military preference for +Monarchical Government was strongly developed. +This feeling had shown itself even during the struggle<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[433]</a></span> +against Jellaciç's invasion; and it was this which had +led those Magyar officers, who were friendly to the +Viennese cause, to ask for a direct summons from the +Viennese Parliament before they would cross the +frontier. Finally, it was this feeling which had led to +those orders and counter orders, and to that general +uncertainty of plan which had ruined the Hungarian +cause at the Battle of Schwechat. Kossuth, and all +who wished to carry on the war vigorously, felt that a +change of generals was necessary, if the freedom of +Hungary was not to be destroyed by the internal +divisions of the country. General Moga had therefore +to be removed; and the question was, who was +to take his place? It was under these circumstances +that Kossuth called to the front a man whose character +and actions have ever since been the favourite +debating ground of the students of the Hungarian +war.<a name="Anchor-20" id="Anchor-20"></a><a href="#Footnote-20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a></p> + +<p>Arthur Görgei had been a lieutenant in the +Austrian Army, and, by his own account, had lived +away from Hungary until April, 1848, and was +"nearly ignorant of his country's customs, and above +all, wholly deficient in even a superficial and general +acquaintance with civil administration." He had, +however, been made a captain in the newly raised +regiments of Honveds or Home troops of Hungary, +in the summer of 1848. He very soon began to complain<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[434]</a></span> +of the men who had been placed over his head; +and specially at being superseded on one occasion by +Moritz Perczel. To Perczel he soon began to show +the same insubordinate demeanour which remained +ever his characteristic attitude towards his superior +officers; and he was only saved by the intercession of +friends from being shot for disobeying orders. He +had, however, gained credit with some of the fiercer +patriots among the Magyars, by his summary execution +of Count Eugene Zichy, who had been suspected +of treason; and this act, though condemned by the +more temperate champions of the cause, was considered +to have committed Görgei so strongly to an +anti-Austrian policy, that there could be no fear of +his lack of zeal in the coming struggle. When then +General Moga had shown that, either from military +incapacity, or from want of sympathy with the cause, +he was not to be trusted with the command of the +army, Kossuth turned to Görgei, and offered him +the post of which Moga had been deprived. Görgei +accepted it; and then there almost immediately began +that long series of differences and difficulties which +was to ruin the cause of Hungarian liberty.</p> + +<p>The quarrel between Kossuth and Görgei will +always be judged differently by military and non-military +critics; for, setting aside those unfortunate +peculiarities of character which marked both these +leaders, the struggle was one between the ideas of a +statesman and the ideas of a soldier. Kossuth had +already had experience of the difficulties which arose +from putting confidence in officers who are out of +sympathy with the cause for which they are fighting; +and he was therefore specially alive to any sign of +this want of sympathy in the successor of General<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[435]</a></span> +Moga. Görgei, on the other hand, had that belief, +so common in men of his profession, that all political +questions were mainly to be judged from the military +point of view; and that his admitted ignorance in +matters of civil administration did not disqualify him +from laying down the law on the most important +affairs of Government. Although he shared Kossuth's +distrust for General Moga, he sympathised with Moga's +preference for Monarchical Government; and although +he had fought bravely against the forces of Windischgrätz +at the battle of Schwechat, he had previously +declared that he did not see the solidarity between +the cause of Hungary and that of Vienna; and he +held that the oath which the officers had taken to the +March Constitution implied their duty to preserve that +Constitution in the exact form in which it had been +originally granted.</p> + +<p>But if Görgei went beyond his province in his +interference with affairs of civil government, Kossuth +no doubt, in turn, hampered Görgei in matters in +which he was bound to trust him, so long as he +retained him in his command. But in periods of revolution +there always arise a large number of questions +which, in ordinary times, would be decided on purely +military grounds, but which, in that abnormal state +of affairs, become necessarily complicated with political +considerations. It is this peculiarity of circumstances, +for which both statesmen and soldiers find it so hard +to make allowance, and which makes it so difficult to +judge justly in such a controversy as that which we +are considering.</p> + +<p>The first point of difference between Kossuth and +Görgei related to exactly one of those matters in +which military and political feeling seem most necessarily<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[436]</a></span> +and reasonably to come into collision. This +was the choice of Bem as a general in the Hungarian +army. Bem had succeeded in escaping secretly from +Vienna and coming to Hungary. He had, indeed, +offered his services to the Hungarians at an earlier +period, but Pulszky had persuaded him that he could +best serve the cause of Hungary in Vienna; and now +that that city had fallen, he hastened back to Kossuth. +Kossuth and Bem seem always to have recognized +in each other that common faith in the people, and +power of calling out popular enthusiasm, which, in +different ways, was the great strength of both of +them. Bem's conduct in the defence of Vienna +had given sufficient pledge of his zeal against the +power of Austria, a zeal which had produced such +effect on the imagination of his enemies that it was +said by the Vienna wits that Francis Joseph ordered +the bells of Vienna to be muffled because they would +ring out "Bem, Bem!" But Görgei disliked Bem +for the very reason for which Kossuth approved of +him. He considered him a knight errant who followed +revolutionary methods of warfare which were quite +unknown to correct military tacticians; and he soon +found that his own estimates of the different officers +under him were quite opposed to those formed by +Bem. Kossuth therefore wisely decided that Görgei +and Bem could not work together, and he despatched +Bem to take the command in Transylvania.</p> + +<p>On the next question at issue the balance of opinion +will probably be in favour of Görgei. The volunteers +who had been raised by the national Government +were naturally objects of special favour to them; but +they had in some cases shown themselves disorderly; +and this disorder was, no doubt, considerably increased<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[437]</a></span> +by the return to their country of Hungarian +soldiers who had been stationed in Galicia and other +parts of the Empire. These soldiers had, in many +cases, thrown off the authority of their officers, and +asserted their national rights at the expense of military +discipline. Görgei tried to make special arrangements +for so redistributing these recruits as to utilize +their services while preventing the growth of any +such feelings of insubordination as might be likely to +spring from their previous mutiny. In these methods +of re-organization the Committee of Defence saw a tendency +to discourage patriotic feeling; and Görgei found +himself opposed in matters where he justly felt that he +should have been allowed some freedom of action.</p> + +<p>But an even more important question of controversy +was the general plan of the campaign. Kossuth +and the Committee of Defence were extremely anxious +to defend the Western frontier of Hungary, partly in +order to weaken the fears produced by the battle of +Schwechat; partly, as Görgei believed, to make it +easier to draw the line between Hungary and Austria, +and so break off political connection between them. +Görgei, on the other hand, held that, since Hungary +was now threatened on north, south, and west, and, +since Windischgrätz's army was better disciplined +than the Hungarian soldiers, a defence of the frontier +was impossible, and that it would be better to retreat +to Raab and defend the principal passes across the +White Mountains, while removing the seat of Government +beyond the Theiss. In this plan he was at +first over-ruled. But his ideas received apparent +justification in the defeats which he suffered from +Windischgrätz; and, on December 19 he was actually +compelled to retreat to Raab.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[438]</a></span></p> + +<p>Then followed an episode which has brought much +discredit on Kossuth. He issued a sensational address, +declaring that the Committee of Defence would be +buried under the ruins of Buda rather than desert +the capital. Görgei ridiculed the idea of the defensibility +of Buda-Pesth; but the Committee of Defence +insisted; and Görgei was preparing for battle, when, +early in January, 1849, the news suddenly arrived in +his camp that the Committee of Defence had left +Pesth without waiting for the siege, and had retired +to Debreczin. But, if Kossuth had been to blame in +these earlier matters of controversy, Görgei now took +a step which certainly seems to justify all Kossuth's +subsequent suspicions. Görgei was, at this time, +stationed at Waitzen, a little north of Pesth; and he +there issued a declaration to the army condemning +the policy of the Committee of Defence, and calling +upon the officers to declare that the army was fighting +for the maintenance of the Constitution of Hungary +as sanctioned by King Ferdinand V.;<a name="Anchor-21" id="Anchor-21"></a><a href="#Footnote-21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> that it will +oppose all those who may attempt to overthrow the +Constitutional Monarchy by untimely Republican +intrigues; and that it will only obey orders received +from the responsible Minister of War, appointed by +the King.</p> + +<p>A few weeks later Görgei was again defeated +by Windischgrätz, who, after the battle, offered him +an amnesty, and free life out of Austria. In answer +to this offer, Görgei sent a copy of the proclamation +drawn up at Waitzen, declaring that this was the +ultimatum, both of his army and of himself. By this +act it is evident that he called the attention of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[439]</a></span> +General against whom he was nominally fighting +to the internal party divisions of Hungary. However +brilliant Görgei's military abilities might be, and +however unfairly he had been interfered with by the +Committee of Defence, it cannot be wondered at that, +after this act of treachery, they looked upon him with +distrust. In the following month Görgei was deprived +of his command and superseded by the Polish General +Dembinski.</p> + +<p>In the meantime a struggle of far greater moral +importance, though possibly of less value to military +science, was being carried on in Transylvania. The +Roumanian movement had been undergoing the same +change, which had already passed over the national +movements of the Serbs and Croats. As early as +June, 1848, the Croatian Assembly had expressed +their sympathy with the struggle of the Roumanians; +and even from the Italians some utterances of sympathy +had been heard, in favour of their kinsmen +in Transylvania. The rejection of their petition by +the Emperor, and the consequent persecution by the +Magyars had led the Roumanians to rely upon themselves; +and had induced some of their leaders to look +for help rather to the new State which was trying to +struggle into existence in Wallachia and Moldavia, +than to the Austrian Government. In September, +however, a new element was introduced into the +struggle by the passing of a Conscription law by the +Hungarian Diet. While the Roumanians resented +this, as an attempt to make them serve under the +military leadership of their persecutors, they also +saw that an attempt to enforce a law, passed without +the sanction of the Emperor, was a direct defiance +of his authority; and at a meeting in the town of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[440]</a></span> +Orlat, they protested against this conscription, and +declared their preference for the Austrian army, as +against the Hungarian. They now openly announced +their separation from Hungary, and demanded to be +formed into an independent nation. The Hungarians +met this demand by authorizing their Commissioner +Berczenczei to summon the Szekler to a public +meeting, nominally to plan the defence of their +country, but really as a counterblast to the demands +of the Roumanians.</p> + +<p>But the Roumanians felt that it was necessary to +strengthen themselves by an appeal to a recognized +authority; and they saw that the desultory and +barbarous warfare, which they had hitherto carried +on, would never suffice to win them the rights which +they had now resolved to claim; they therefore +made advances to Field-Marshal Puchner, the General +of the Austrian forces in Transylvania. Latour had +for some time past been trying to stir up Puchner +to action; but Puchner had hesitated to listen either +to the Austrian Minister, or to the Roumanian leaders. +He seems to have been a man of much higher +type than most of the Austrian generals who were +engaged in the struggles of this period; and he +shrank alike from the underhand intrigues of Latour, +and from the dreadful cruelties of Roumanian warfare. +The latter feeling would have had special force +with him at this period; because the most urgent +appeals for his help came from Urban, a former +officer in the Austrian army, who had been the most +notorious for his brutalities of all the leaders of the +Roumanians. But, while Puchner was unwilling to +commit himself definitely to the Roumanian cause, +he opposed himself to the reckless persecution which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[441]</a></span> +the Magyar Commissioner Vay had carried on against +all who had helped in organizing the petition of the +Roumanians; and Puchner had even gone to Karlsburg, +and successfully petitioned for the release of +some of the Roumanian prisoners. He had hoped, +however, to combine this merciful and moderate +policy with the recognition of Vay's authority, and +even with a kind of co-operation with him. But the +fiercely revolutionary character, which the Hungarian +Diet began to assume after the death of +Latour, compelled Puchner into more decided opposition +to their proceedings.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of October, Kossuth issued an order to +the towns of Hungary, in which he told them that +anyone who did not hang out the Hungarian flag, +and express in writing his devotion to the Hungarian +cause, and his willingness to obey the committee +appointed by the Government, should be shot as a +traitor; and this savage proclamation was followed +the next day by a command from Commissioner +Vay, to the tax collectors of Transylvania, that they +should no longer send the taxes to the central office +at Hermannstadt, but to the office in Klausenburg, +which had hitherto been considered subordinate. As +Hermannstadt was at once the military head-quarters +of the Austrian army and the chief town of the Saxon +settlement in Transylvania, this was a direct attack +both on the Imperial power, and on the influence of +the Saxons. A few days later the Szekler, in the +meeting which had recently been summoned, denounced +Puchner for his attempt to hinder that +meeting, and formally repudiated his authority.</p> + +<p>Puchner now felt that the time had come for +action; and, on the 18th of October, he issued from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_442" id="Page_442">[442]</a></span> +Hermannstadt an appeal to all the inhabitants of Transylvania, +and especially to the official boards. In +this he declared that, since the Count Palatine and +his Ministers had resigned their offices, there had +been no legal Government in Hungary. The Government +of Kossuth, which wrongfully claimed to act +for the Emperor, was substituting terror for equality, +and had falsely spread the rumour that the Government +desired to use the Roumanians to oppress the +Magyar and Szekler. In order, then, to put an end +to anarchy, and to protect the country from terrorism, +he, Puchner, had resolved to take advantage of the +Imperial Manifesto of October 3, which had placed +Hungary under military Government; and he called +upon all boards to act with him in restoring order, +and upon the volunteers and national guards to place +themselves under his command.</p> + +<p>Nor were the Roumanians content with this official +appeal; for their own national committee issued about +the same time, on their own responsibility, an address +to the Szeklers and Magyars. In this address they +declared that they, like the Szeklers and Magyars, +had sympathized with the March movement in Hungary; +but that a faction had now usurped the Government +of the country, and was aiming, at once, at +depriving the King of his crown, and the Hungarian +Peoples of their nationality. They hoped that the +better part of the Magyars and Szeklers would unite +against this faction; but, if they would not, then the +Roumanians must declare war on them. They +promised, however, to carry on the war in a humane +manner, and to spare women, old men, and prisoners. +At the same time, they issued an appeal to their +countrymen, urging them to abstain from cruelties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[443]</a></span> +in warfare, as such practices were unworthy of a free +people. The Saxons had, at first, been somewhat +unwilling to act with the Roumanians; but the new +movement seemed to give an opening for better co-operation. +Joint committees of the two races were +formed, and Puchner undertook to organize the +soldiers of both races.</p> + +<p>Of the Roumanian leaders who now came to the +front, the most remarkable was Avraham Jancu.<a name="Anchor-22" id="Anchor-22"></a><a href="#Footnote-22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> +He had been originally trained as a lawyer; but, +after the meeting in September, he went off to +organize the National Guard in his own mountains; +and, when Puchner had issued his proclamation, +Jancu received orders to give his assistance in +disarming the Magyars. This process had been +begun by the Roumanians, without waiting for +orders; and it had, in consequence, been accompanied +with many acts of cruelty. Jancu therefore sent +down three tribunes with forces to protect the Magyar +families from violence; and he also persuaded one or +two of the towns to surrender to him, that he might +then protect them from ill-treatment. Jancu also +won several victories, and became so formidable to +his opponents that he gained the name of the "Mountain +King." But the humane exertions of Jancu +and other tribunes, seconded with all his influence by +Puchner, were not sufficient to keep in check the +wildness of some of the Roumanian leaders. The +cruelties which both the Magyars and Szeklers had +committed in the struggle; the summary execution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[444]</a></span> +at Klausenburg of three leaders of the Roumanians, +before the actual rising had taken place, and the +reputed crucifixion of another at Maros Vasarhely, +roused the fury of the Roumanians to its highest +pitch.</p> + +<p>The fiercest hatred of the Roumanians was directed +against the Szeklers who had been their most determined +enemies; and General Gedeon marched against +Maros Vasarhely. Its specially isolated position, +and the bad roads in its neighbourhood made it an +easy prey for a General who had some skill in guerilla +warfare. The city fell into the hands of Gedeon, who +revenged the wrongs of the Roumanians by inflicting +every species of brutality on the Szekler inhabitants. +Horrified as Puchner was at these cruelties, he did not +wholly understand the character of the men with +whom he was working; for, in one of the orders +which he issued, he gave a distinct sanction to the +practice of burning villages. He seems, indeed, to +have intended this form of violence merely to be used +as an extreme measure in case of retreat; but the +Roumanians did not so understand it; and when, on +one occasion, Puchner was sternly rebuking some of +the Roumanian leaders for not better preventing the +cruelties of their followers, one of them retorted by +appealing to this order.</p> + +<p>Besides the difficulties arising from these cruelties, +Puchner had to contend against the continual rivalry +between the Saxons and Roumanians. The former +were contemptuous towards their allies; and, according +to the Roumanian theory, were disposed to take +unfair advantage of the Roumanians in the election +of the members of the Committee of Management. +Nevertheless, the help of the Saxons probably enabled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[445]</a></span> +Puchner to secure a more orderly Government than +he could have achieved without it; and, amongst +others from whom he received this kind of help, was +the Saxon clergyman, Stephan Ludwig Roth, who +had already been known for his efforts to secure +German emigrants to Transylvania. He was appointed +by Puchner to govern the district of Mediasch, in the +valley of Kokelburg, where he distinguished himself +by his humanity to the Magyar families who came +under his protection, and showed his large-hearted +sympathy by adopting a Magyar child who had been +deserted by its parents. Moreover, Bishop Schaguna, +who, it will be remembered, had discouraged the +first risings of the Roumanians, now joined in with +Puchner's plans, and exerted himself to restrain the +violence of his countrymen.</p> + +<p>But while Puchner, aided by men like Schaguna, +Jancu and Roth, was endeavouring to check the +cruelties which his new followers were too ready to +inflict, there was needed on the other hand an equally +strong influence to restrain the savagery of the Magyar +and Szekler. This was the more necessary, +because, whatever injustice these races had committed +towards the weaker races of Hungary, in the state +in which things then stood, the Magyar cause had +become identified with the cause of European freedom. +Only in the success of the armies which +Kossuth was trying to organize, did there seem even +the least remaining chance for the overthrow of that +Government which was crushing out the life of Vienna, +which had trampled on the freedom of Lombardy, +and which threatened to be the complete inheritor of +the old system of Metternich. But if the Magyar +armies in North Hungary were to achieve either the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[446]</a></span> +military or moral success which such a cause required, +it was necessary that, in Transylvania also, the same +race should deserve and obtain a similar success. +For that purpose, they would need a man who +would be the equal of Puchner both in generalship +and humanity. For under Puchner's leadership, the +Saxons and Roumanians were gaining in military +prowess, even more than in self-restraint, and Klausenburg +had fallen into the hands of the Imperial +forces.</p> + +<p>Such was the state of things, when, on December 15, +it was announced that Bem had been appointed by +Kossuth Commander-in-Chief of the Transylvanian +Army. He at once assembled the officers of the +Army which he was to command, and informed them +that he required from them unconditional obedience. +Those who did not obey, he said, would be shot. +Those who did obey he would know how to reward. +With these few stern words, he dismissed them. This +address was evidently one which might either be +delivered by a mere overweening tyrant, or by a man +of real genius and strong will, who understood the +work that was before him. A few months served to +show in which class Bem was to be reckoned. +Ignoring the Commissioner, who had been sent down, +he armed and reclad his troops; punished disorder +with a stern hand, but showed such personal sympathy +with his followers, that he became known as +"Father Bem;" while his enemies soon learned to +distinguish him from the other leaders by his generosity +and humanity to the conquered. He seems to +have been one of those born leaders of men, who +understand when to be stern, and when to be indulgent. +On one occasion an officer doubted if he could<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[447]</a></span> +hold a position. Bem told him that he must either +hold it, or be shot; and it was held. On another +occasion his troops, seized by the panic natural to +undisciplined levies, fled before the enemy, leaving +Bem in great danger. He announced afterwards that +he might have had to shoot or flog many of them; +but he would not do the first, because he thought +they might still serve their country; nor the second, +because he would not treat them as beasts; and, +therefore, he must forgive them. With regard to his +military capacity, although the conventional military +critics were disposed to discredit it, yet it could not +be denied that he taught an undisciplined mob to +stand fire before a regular army, to obey discipline, +and even to develope a courage and capacity which +won special applause and honours for the Szekler +nation; that he succeeded in about three months +in completely turning the fortunes of the war in +Transylvania; and at a later period in holding his +own for another two months against the powerful +armies of two nations. His personal daring was +more like that of a knight errant than of a modern +general. On one occasion, after a battle in which +he had been worsted, he saw some Austrians carrying +off one of his cannon. He darted forward alone, exclaiming, +"That is my cannon"; and so cowed his +enemies, that they surrendered it at once. On another +occasion he sent an aide-de-camp to call up the rear-guard +of his Army, and found that they had all disappeared, +and that he was continuing the struggle +with hardly any followers.</p> + +<p>As if to mark the cause for which Bem was fighting +as more distinctly than ever the cause of liberty, +Puchner began, in January, 1849, those negotiations<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[448]</a></span> +with the Russians which were finally to stamp the +Austrian invasion of Transylvania with the anti-national +character which other circumstances of the +struggle might have made doubtful. In this matter, +as in his original adoption of the Roumanian cause, +Puchner seems not so much to have taken the lead +as to have been driven into his position by unavoidable +circumstances. Schaguna, whose prominence +among the Roumanians had specially marked him +out as an object of hostility to the Magyar Government, +fled from Hermannstadt on the first news of +Bem's arrival in Transylvania, and is believed to +have made the first appeal for Russian help. The +Roumanians, whose kinsmen of the Principalities +(Wallachia and Moldavia) were in some alarm about +the intentions of Russia, do not seem to have sympathized +warmly with this action of their bishop; but +the Saxons were less scrupulous; and the towns of +Kronstadt and Hermannstadt sent a formal address +to General Lüders, the Russian Commander in +Bucharest, asking him to come to their assistance. +Lüders answered that the Czar sympathized with +the brave defenders of the Austrian throne, and +wished to respond to their appeal; but that he was +unable to do so without a direct request from the +Austrian Commander-in-Chief. Under these circumstances, +Puchner felt himself bound to yield to the +wishes of the Saxons; some of the Roumanian leaders +joined in the appeal; and so, on February 1, formal +application was made for Russian help. The Russians +do not seem to have come in great numbers, nor with +that formal announcement of war which accompanied +their later invasion, in June. Bem, at any rate, did +not lose courage. Although he had recently been<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[449]</a></span> +repulsed by Puchner, he rallied his forces; and, on +March 11, he defeated the Russians before Hermannstadt, +and followed up his victory by the capture of +the town. This signal victory secured, for a time, +the reconquest of Transylvania by the Magyars; and, +if Bem had remained in that province, it is possible +that he would not only have retained the territory +under Magyar rule, but that he might have made +that rule acceptable to the Saxons, and, in time, even +to the Roumanians.</p> + +<p>But behind Bem stood the dark figure of one who +had already brought disgrace and injury on the +Magyar cause, and who was still further to degrade +it on this occasion. This was Ladislaus Csanyi, the +intriguer who had introduced into the election of +Zala County those elements of bribery and intimidation +which had compelled Deak to refuse election. +Csanyi now desired to put Hermannstadt to the +sword; but Bem interfered, and the Saxons still +honour his memory as that of the man who saved +their countrymen from massacre and their chief city +from destruction. Determined to counteract, so far +as he could, the brutal policy of Csanyi, Bem issued +a general amnesty to those who had opposed the +Magyar Government; but, unfortunately, that Government +believed that they needed Bem's military talents +more than his civil wisdom; and they despatched +him into the Banat, to clear that province also of +the enemies of Magyar rule. So, while Bem was +succeeding in battle in the Banat, Csanyi was +undoing his work in Transylvania. With the approval, +apparently, of Kossuth, Csanyi repudiated +Bem's amnesty altogether, and established +tribunals in Transylvania for the summary execution<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[450]</a></span> +of his enemies and the confiscation of their +goods.</p> + +<p>There was one victim of this reign of terror whose +character and sufferings stand out in a manner which +throws a halo over the Saxon cause. Stephan Ludwig +Roth had, as above mentioned, distinguished himself +by his humanity in the administration of the government +of Mediasch under Puchner's rule; and the +Magyar officials of the town of Elizabethstadt had +sent him an address of thanks for his protection of +their town from plunder. But he was hated by the +strong partizans of Magyar rule, as the most illustrious +embodiment of the feeling in favour of Saxon independence; +and his attempts to promote the immigration +of Germans into Transylvania had been +remembered against him by those who wished to +crush out, in Hungary, all national feeling except +that of the Magyars. Bem had been so well aware +of the hatred which Roth had excited, that he had +thought it necessary to give him, in addition to the +general amnesty, a special guarantee for his safety. +In reliance on this security, Roth had retired to his +parish of Meschen, and was living without any apparent +fear, when he was suddenly arrested there by +the soldiers of Csanyi, and brought, after some delay, +to Klausenburg. There he was kept in prison, and, +though at first leniently treated, he was, after a time, +prevented from holding any communications with his +friends. In the meantime, the tribunal which was +to decide his fate was not allowed to come to a free +decision. The Magyar mob of Klausenburg gathered +round the court and demanded his death; and even +those of the judges who were convinced of his innocence +were terrified into voting for his condemnation. +His friends appealed for mercy to Csanyi, but he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[451]</a></span> +indignantly rejected all petitions, declaring that Roth +had deserved ten deaths.</p> + +<p>After his condemnation Roth sent the following +letter to his children:—</p> + +<blockquote><p>"Dear Children,—I have just been condemned to +death, and in three hours more the sentence will be +put into execution. If anything gives me pain, it is +the thought of you, who are without a mother, and +who now are losing your father. But there are good +men who will advise and help you for your father's +sake. The Hungarian foundling whom I adopted, I +entreat you to continue to take care of; only if its +parents should wish for it, they have a nearer claim. +Except for this, I have nothing more in this world. +The children of my church at Meschen, and my +Nimisch people I think of in love. May God make +these communities become rich in the fruits of godliness, +like fruit-trees whose loaded boughs hang down +to the ground! In my writing-table are the prospectuses +of the school and church newspaper which is to +be published. The body of the nation is broken to +pieces. I do not believe in any binding together of +its limbs any more. So much the more do I desire +the keeping alive of the spirit which once lived in +these forms. For that purpose I entreat my brother +clergy whom I leave behind to take care to carry on +this newspaper, in order to keep alive the character, +pure manners, and honesty of will of our people. +But, if it is decreed in the Counsels of History that +it must perish, may it perish in a manner that shall +not bring shame on its ancestors! Time flies. I +know not if my sick body can honourably support my +willing spirit. All whom I have insulted I heartily +entreat for pardon. For my part, I leave the world<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[452]</a></span> +without hate, and pray God to forgive my enemies. +So let the end come in God's name!</p> + +<p class="sig"> +"Klausenburg, 11th May, 1849.<br /> +</p> + +<p>"I must add that neither in life nor death have I +been an enemy of the Hungarian nation. May they +believe this, on the word of a dying man, in the +moment when all hypocrisy falls away!"</p></blockquote> + +<p>He was shortly after led out to execution. +When his sentence was read out to him, in which he +was accused of having taken the sword instead of the +Bible, and of having led on the Saxon and Wallack +hordes, he cried out indignantly, "It is not true. I +never carried a sword." He refused to have his +hands bound; and, with his face to the soldiers, he +fell, after the third shot. The captain in command of +the soldiers was so much impressed by the spectacle, +that he exclaimed, "Soldiers, learn from this man +how to die for one's people."</p> + +<p>But long before Csanyi's reign of terror had +reached this climax, the aspect of affairs in other +parts of Hungary had gone through important +changes. The removal of Görgei and the appointment +of Dembinski had caused great irritation among +the friends of the former. This irritation might be +somewhat excused by the fact that nearly a month +had elapsed between the time when Görgei had sent +his proclamation to Windischgrätz and his deposition +from command; and the deposition even received an +appearance of injustice and hardship from its announcement +at the moment when Görgei had just +obtained a victory. But the opposition to this change +of command would have been almost as certain if the +removal had taken place earlier, and under different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[453]</a></span> +circumstances. It was looked upon as a blow struck +by the politicians of Buda-Pesth at the politicians of +the army; and the appointment of a foreigner added +an element of national prejudice to the outburst of +professional irritation. Moreover, Dembinski seems +to have been exactly the kind of officer whom Görgei +most disliked. His reputation rested on certain brilliant +feats of guerilla warfare in the Polish insurrection +of 1830; and of course Görgei and his friends +may have been right in thinking that such a man was +ill fitted to carry on the more regular warfare which +was needed for the defeat of Windischgrätz. But, +whatever excuse they may have had for opposition +to the appointment, they clearly put themselves +in the wrong by their evident determination not to +allow Dembinski a fair chance. Görgei, indeed, at +first affected to discourage the protests against Dembinski's +appointment; but the language in which he +did so was so evidently defiant in intention as to +call forth a censure from his personal friend, the War +Minister Meszaros; nor was it long before Görgei +threw off even this slender mask, and openly defied +Dembinski's authority.</p> + +<p>Görgei's faction among the officers was so strong, +and the dislike to Dembinski so general, that the +commanders of divisions at last agreed to demand +the deposition of their chief. Kossuth came down to +the camp to inquire into the circumstances; and he +found the feeling against Dembinski so violent that he +consented to his removal. Görgei seems to have +used this opportunity for once more discussing the +political situation with Kossuth; and, strange to say, +he made to him the very proposal which Batthyanyi +had rejected when it was put forward by Jellaciç;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[454]</a></span> +namely, that the War and Finance Ministries should +be removed to Vienna. If this proposal had been +unsatisfactory when Vienna was free, and Ferdinand +on the throne, it could have sounded little short of +treason to the cause of Hungary, when Vienna was +under the absolute rule of Windischgrätz; and it is +not wonderful, therefore, that, though Kossuth was +willing to remove Dembinski, he preferred appointing +General Vetter as Commander-in-Chief to trusting +Görgei with the leadership.</p> + +<p>It was at this crisis that the event occurred which +was mentioned in the last chapter, and which hastened +on the final phase of the movement. Encouraged, +as Görgei believed, by the victories of Windischgrätz, +Francis Joseph and his advisers suddenly +dismissed the Parliament at Kremsier, and proclaimed +a Constitution "octroyè" for the occasion. +Hungarians of all parties condemned this act as a +violation of their old laws and customs, and an assertion +of the arbitrary will of the sovereign. For, +indeed, the discontent now aroused was far from +being confined to the Magyars; and it would have +been strange had it been otherwise. The dissolution +of the Kremsier Parliament was, even irrespective +of all that followed it, the most barefaced act of +despotism that had been committed since the March +risings of the previous year. Even Ferdinand of +Naples could plead that barricades had been thrown +up in the streets before his <i>coup d'état</i> of May 15. +The unfortunate June insurrection at Prague had +given a plausible excuse for preventing the meeting +of the Bohemian Parliament; the murder of Lamberg +had, no doubt, seemed to Ferdinand of Austria to +supply at least a palliation for his dissolution of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[455]</a></span> +Hungarian Diet; the murder of Latour and the persecution +of the Bohemian deputies supplied Windischgrätz +with sufficient argument for depriving Vienna +of its liberties; and even the violent dispersal of the +deputies of Berlin could be defended by the King of +Prussia by reference to the previous riots of August. +But not a single excuse of this kind could, with the +least show of plausibility, be urged in defence of the +dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament. Indeed, +Francis Joseph betrayed the weakness of his case by +pleading in his defence the nature of the subjects that +had been discussed in the Parliament; and he could +not even pretend that it had either exceeded its +powers or exercised them in a disorderly manner.</p> + +<p>Nor was the Constitution, which was offered as a +sequel to this dissolution, any more acceptable than +the dissolution itself; and a general protest went up +from nearly every race in the Empire. However +much the Viennese might, under other circumstances, +have liked a Constitution which was centralised at +Vienna, they none of them would welcome it when +it was combined with the rule of Windischgrätz. +The Bohemian leaders felt themselves doubly +offended; first by the dissolution of a Parliament to +which they had specially trusted for justice; and +secondly by the refusal of any real provincial independence +to Bohemia. The Croats indignantly denounced +the restoration of the military rule on the +frontier, and the consequent separation from Croatia +of the Slavs who inhabited the frontier district. The +Serbs, ever since January, had been complaining of +the advance of military rule in the Serb districts, and +the gradual diminution of the power of the Voyvode; +and they now felt that all their local institutions were<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[456]</a></span> +still further endangered by the centralisation of the +new Constitution. Some of the bitterest protests +came from the Roumanians. They had been treated +from the first with the greatest contempt by most +of the Imperialist officers; and directly after the +capture of Hermannstadt by Bem, they found themselves +suddenly deserted by the Austrian forces, +which were withdrawn into Wallachia. While they +were still smarting under this treachery, the news of +the new Constitution reached them; and they found +that they were as far off as ever from obtaining that +separate national organization for which they had so +long been pleading; while a part of the Banat, which +they considered specially Roumanian, was to be +placed, by the new arrangement, under the Serbs.</p> + +<p>In this state of general discontent, it might have +seemed that Kossuth would have had a fair chance +of rallying round him all the races of the Empire, in +a common desire for local independence, and a common +hostility to the rule of Francis Joseph. But the +divisions and mutual suspicions between the various +races of the Empire had gone too deep to allow of +this change. As for co-operation between the Bohemians +and Germans, even if such a combination had +been possible after the various causes of bitterness +mentioned in the preceding chapters, little good could +be effected by it at this crisis, when both Prague and +Vienna were at the mercy of the conqueror. The +important question, therefore, was the attitude to be +taken up towards the new Constitution, by the +various races in the Kingdom of Hungary; and here +it must be owned that it was not wholly the fault of +Kossuth, that he did not succeed in combining them +in this emergency.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[457]</a></span></p> + +<p>Many both of the Croats and Serbs expressed +plainly their discontent with the treatment which +they had received from the House of Austria, but +both Croats and Serbs were paralysed by the leaders +whom they had accepted. The Banal Council<a name="Anchor-23" id="Anchor-23"></a><a href="#Footnote-23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> of +Croatia protested against the publication of the new +Constitution; but Jellaciç declared that he was +bound to see that it was published, and that the +Council were only to carry out his orders. In a +similar manner, many of the leading Serbs remonstrated +with Rajaciç on his acceptance of the vague +promises, which were the substitute in the new Constitution, +for those ancient liberties which the Serbs +claimed as their due. But Rajaciç maintained his +authority over his countrymen, and accepted a place of +completer subordination to the Austrian General than +that which he had hitherto held. On the other hand, +Kossuth seems to have neglected the opportunity +offered by the general feeling of discontent, which +prevailed at this time among the Serbs and Croats; +and it was not till months later, when driven to desperation, +that he proposed to make those concessions, +which had by that time lost all grace. Towards the +Roumanians, indeed, Kossuth seemed disposed to +make concessions, by which he hoped to draw them +away from the Saxons; and he chose a negotiator, +whom he thought well fitted for this purpose. But +Jancu distrusted Kossuth's emissary, and perhaps also +Kossuth himself; and so the negotiation broke down.</p> + +<p>And if Kossuth failed to draw round him, at this +crisis, the different races who were discontented with +the new Constitution, it was a much stranger fact<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[458]</a></span> +that he was unable to maintain the union between the +different parties in the Magyar nation itself. This +was all the stranger, because just at this time both +the personal and political grounds for difference +between Kossuth and Görgei seemed to be suddenly +removed. Deep as had been Görgei's irritation at +the appointment of Vetter, it had naturally been +brought to a close by the sudden illness which +removed Vetter from the command, and which was +followed on March 31 by the appointment of Görgei +as provisional Commander-in-Chief; while, as to political +opinions, Görgei and Kossuth were both agreed +in denouncing the circumstances under which Francis +Joseph had been thrust on to the throne of Hungary, +and the character and origin of the Constitution +which he had just issued. Under these circumstances, +it seemed as if there could be no further ground for +division between the military party who followed +Görgei, and the larger body of Magyars, who accepted +Kossuth as their leader. But it soon appeared that +this was not the case.</p> + +<p>Kossuth and his friends naturally argued that as +the only member of the House of Hapsburg who +claimed the throne of Hungary was admittedly in an +illegal position, the only logical course was to depose +the House of Hapsburg from the throne of Hungary; +and that as the only Constitution by which the rulers +of Austria would consent to link themselves to Hungary +was admittedly an illegal Constitution, the only +logical course was to separate Hungary from Austria. +Görgei and his friends, on the other hand, shrank +with horror from the idea of fighting without the +authority of a King. They had sworn to obey +Ferdinand, and to accept the Constitution of March<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[459]</a></span> +1848; they therefore insisted on ignoring the abdication +of Ferdinand, and the abolition of that Constitution, +and continued to fight, in the name of a King +who did not wish to reign, and on behalf of a Constitution +which had ceased to exist. Kossuth and his +friends, however, were resolved to assert their principles; +and on April 14 they issued the celebrated +"Declaration of Independence."</p> + +<p>The strongly legal and historical character which +had marked the whole Hungarian movement since +the time of the meeting of the Diet in 1825, still +shows itself even in this semi-revolutionary document. +The Declaration goes back to the first connection +of the House of Hapsburg with the throne of +Hungary, and declares that no House had ever had +so good a chance of governing successfully, and had +so misused it. After mentioning some of the tyrannies +of the earlier Kings of this House, the Declaration +dwells on the fact that while Hungary had often had +to fight for its freedom, it had always been so moderate +in its demands that it had laid down its arms as +soon as the King gave a new oath to preserve its +freedom; but these oaths had never been kept, and +for three hundred years this policy had never been +changed. The people, after each promise, had forgotten +the wounds of past years, in exaggerated +magnanimity; but now the time had come to break +the union. The House of Hapsburg had united itself +with the enemies of the people, and with robbers and +agitators, in order to oppress the people. It had +attacked those of its subjects who would not combine +against the Constitution which it had sworn to protect, +or against the independent life of the nation. It had +attacked with violence the integrity of the country,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[460]</a></span> +though it had sworn to preserve it. It had used a +foreign Power to murder its own subjects and suppress +their lawful freedom. Any one of these crimes was +sufficient reason for depriving the Dynasty of its +throne. The Declaration then goes on to consider +the excuses which the Dynasty offered for its conduct. +As for the independence secured by Hungary in +March, 1848, that was only the confirmation of an +old tradition; for the Pragmatic Sanction showed +that neither Hungary nor any of the provinces connected +with it had ever been absorbed in Austria. +Joseph II. alone had ignored this fact, and his name, +therefore, never appeared in the list of the kings of +Hungary. As for the laws which the Diet had passed +in March, Ferdinand had sanctioned them; but he +now wished to suppress them. Yet the Hungarians +had taken no advantage of the disturbances in different +parts of the Austrian Empire to secure greater independence +for themselves, but had remained content +with what had been granted in March. They had +supported the monarchy; but Ferdinand had tried to +break his oath as soon as it was made. The Government +at Vienna had at first tried to act through the +Count Palatine; but, as this combination had weakened +their power, they had gradually withdrawn more and +more power from him. They had tried to impose +customs duties which would have cut off Hungary +from the rest of the world; and when this method +failed they tried to stir up the different nationalities +against the Hungarian Ministry. The proclamation +proceeds to say that dates and documents prove that +the Archduke Louis, the Archduke Francis Charles, +and the Archduchess Sophia had stirred up the movements +in Croatia and Slavonia. They attribute Ferdinand's<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[461]</a></span> +first denunciation of Jellaciç as a traitor to +the difficulties caused by the war in Italy; but they +accuse him of having played a double part, both in +Croatia and Slavonia, and of having helped the Croats +and Serbs with money and ammunition at the very +time when he was denouncing them as rebels. They +charge the Serbs with having committed great cruelties +in their rising. They denounce, as illegal, the scattering +of Hungarian troops in different provinces of the +Austrian Empire, and they declare that it was in consequence +of this arrangement that they were unable +to save Fiume from Jellaciç. They complain of the +order given to the soldiers and commanders of fortresses +not to obey the Hungarian Ministry, and to +take orders only from Vienna. They complain that +the Emperor had made a general of the Slavonic +priest who had headed the rising of the Slovaks in +North Hungary. They complain of their desertion +by the Archduke Stephen, after his promises of support, +and of the intrigues of Latour with Jellaciç +and with other generals against the liberties of Hungary. +Lastly, they complain of the abdication of +Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. Yet even +Francis Joseph they would have accepted had he +claimed his rights in a legal manner; but he had +threatened to conquer Hungary by force, and had, +for the conquest of Transylvania, called in those +Russians who had crushed out the liberties of Roumania. +They further stated that, although at first +the Hungarians had been driven back, they had now +recovered their ground in Transylvania, cleared North +Hungary of foes, suppressed the Serb rising, and +defeated the Austrians in five battles. Under these +circumstances they now declared Hungary independent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[462]</a></span> +of the House of Hapsburg, and appointed Kossuth as +their President.</p> + +<p>Kossuth's supremacy in Hungary had been an important +fact for a considerable time past, and had +been due, not only to his personal qualities, but to +the gradual retirement from public life of most of the +leading statesmen who had played a part in the +earlier phases of the struggle against the ruling +powers in Vienna. Batthyanyi had abandoned all +direct initiative in Hungarian politics ever since his +resignation of the Premiership, and had only attempted +to mediate between the contending armies, a mediation +which had been scornfully rejected by Windischgrätz. +Deak had, from the first, announced that he was unfit +for revolutionary propaganda; and, after devoting +himself, in the early days of the March Ministry, to +the compilation of a code of laws and the administrative +work of his office, he had gradually assumed the +same position of mediator which Batthyanyi had +desired, and with equal want of success. Wesselenyi +was now old and blind; and, though he had consented +to go with Eötvös on that deputation to the Vienna +Assembly which had been repulsed by the Bohemian +Deputies, neither he nor Eötvös now took any regular +part in public affairs. Szechenyi, horrified at the +results which, as he considered, had flowed from his +early encouragement of Magyar feeling, lost his +reason, and was at this time under restraint. Thus, +of the statesmen who had been prominent in Hungary +during the struggle against Metternich, Kossuth was +the only one who could still be said to be before the +public.</p> + +<p>Kossuth's unrivalled eloquence, and his keen sympathy, +both with the intensity and the narrowness of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[463]</a></span> +Magyar feeling, had given him a force which none of +the other leaders of the movement had ever possessed; +and his discovery of the military genius of Bem had +secured him an influence in Transylvania which considerably +increased the strength of his position. On +the other hand, his intolerant attitude towards the +subject races of Hungary had marked him out in a +special manner as the object of their hatred; while +his contempt for ordinary military arrangements, his +growing distrust of Görgei, and last, but perhaps not +least, the belief among many military men that he +was deficient in physical courage, tended to strengthen +against him a formidable party in the army which +was eventually to prove too strong for him. But, if +the divided state of Hungarian feeling threw formidable +difficulties in the way of Kossuth, he could find +compensations in the condition of the forces opposed +to him. Windischgrätz does not seem to have been +reckoned, by military critics, a considerable general. +Stratimiroviç, whatever military qualities he may +have possessed, was continually held in check by the +cautious policy of Rajaciç. Puchner, who had succeeded +in giving such force to the Roumanian rising, +was becoming an object of suspicion to the more conventional +Austrian generals, and was shortly to be +removed from Transylvania; while a cause of weakness, +which was perhaps still more important, was to +be found in the withdrawal from the country of a +large body of Austrian and Croatian soldiers, who +were being despatched against the new Government +of the Roman States.</p> + +<p>For in Italy, too, the champions of liberty were +preparing for their final struggle, though under +rather different auspices from those under which it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[464]</a></span> +was being fought out in Hungary. On the very day +when the Declaration of Independence was published +in Hungary, Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini, who had +been elected Triumvirs of the Roman Republic, after +the failure of Charles Albert's final war, appeared in +the Assembly for the first time in their new capacity. +They had no light task before them. Apart from the +enemies who were threatening the Republic from +outside, there were dangers arising from the feelings +of the different parties within the Roman State. The +deposition of the Pope had undoubtedly given a shock +to the feelings of many strong Liberals, of a much +keener, and if one may say so, more intelligible kind, +than the deposition of the House of Hapsburg could +possibly give to any Hungarian leader. Even Castellani, +the Ambassador of the Venetian Republic, +hesitated to identify the cause of his city with that of +the opponents of the Pope; while the feeling among +the priests of the Roman States had been shown by a +formidable conspiracy in Imola and Ascoli. General +Zucchi, who had taken part in this conspiracy, had +even attempted to force his way into the Neapolitan +territory, in order to put himself under the authority +of the Pope. Garibaldi had defeated this attempt, +and Zucchi had been sent as a prisoner to Rome; +but the conspiracy was not forgotten; and, when the +Triumvirs came into power, they found that these +outbursts of priestly opposition were provoking savage +reprisals on the part of the Republicans.</p> + +<p>While Saffi had been only Minister of the Interior, +and Mazzini only a private member of the Assembly, +they had both warned the Government of the probability +of this danger; and they now found that a +Society had been formed at Ancona which threatened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[465]</a></span> +death to the enemies of Liberalism. The Triumvirs +first sent down two officers, who tried to organize the +local leaders into a committee for preserving public +order; but, though their emissaries were satisfied +with their own action, the Triumvirs were less easily +contented. Felice Orsini was sent down with full +powers to put down the insurrection; and, if necessary, +to declare Ancona in a state of siege. He at +once arrested twenty men, called out the National +Guard, put down opposition by force, and carried off +his prisoners to Rome, where they were shut up in +the Castle of St. Angelo. From Ancona Orsini went +on to Ascoli, where he condemned three of the most +dangerous persons to be shot, and sequestrated the +goods of a cardinal, who had stirred up the clerical +insurrection. But the Austrian forces were now +advancing into the Roman territory; and Orsini was +compelled to retire to Rome.</p> + +<p>Even in the capital the Triumvirs had to use strong +measures to check the fierce feeling against the priests. +This feeling had just been roused to an unusual +height by special discoveries of priestly cruelty. In +sweeping away the various irregular tribunals, which +had grown up under the papal tyranny, the Triumvirs +had to deal with the question of the Inquisition. +They appropriated the former offices of that celebrated +institution, as dwellings for the poor; but, in +making the buildings available for this purpose, they +threw open the secret dungeons, and discovered prisoners +who were slowly dying of their imprisonment. +One bishop, who had remained there since the time +of Leo XII., had absolutely lost the power of walking. +The horrible instruments of torture, which were found +in the same place, excited still further the indignation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[466]</a></span> +of the people; and that feeling found yet a new cause +for its expression, when a book was discovered in the +library of the Inquisition, containing the secrets of the +principal families of Italy, which had been obtained +through the revelations of confessors. Several of the +fiercer spirits in Rome at once made an attack on the +pulpits and confessionals, and burnt some of them in +the Piazza del Popolo. These tumults were sternly +checked by the Triumvirs; and they succeeded in +protecting from the popular vengeance the convent +in which the chief Inquisitor lived. But while they +protected the persons and private property of the +priests, they appropriated the greater part of the +ecclesiastical lands to the support of the poor, arranging +that every family of three persons should have as +much land as could be managed by a pair of oxen. +At the same time the jurisdiction of the clergy over +the universities and schools was taken away.</p> + +<p>While the attention of the Government was thus +devoted to the restoration of internal order, and the +carrying out of necessary reforms, they did not neglect +the vigorous measures which were needed for the +resistance to foreign enemies. The forces which had +been rather carelessly scattered in the outlying provinces +of the Roman State, were concentrated by the +Triumvirs near Bologna. That gallant little city +had been in a state of alarm ever since the early part +of February, when the Austrian forces had again +attacked Ferrara; and the difficulties of communication +between these two cities had increased the alarm +of the Bolognese, though it had also strengthened +their eagerness for resistance. But even before this +Austrian invasion, the Roman Republicans had been +alarmed at the threats issued by another Power.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[467]</a></span> +Three days after the flight of the Pope, General +Cavaignac announced in the French Assembly that +he had sent three frigates to Civita Vecchia to secure +the safety of His Holiness. This expedition had +excited much opposition in France; and, during the +subsequent contest for the Presidency, the following +letter was addressed by one of the candidates to the +editor of a French newspaper:—</p> + +<blockquote><p> +"<span class="smcap">Mr. Editor</span>, +</p> + +<p>"Knowing that my agreement to the vote for +the Expedition to Civita Vecchia has been remarked +upon, I think myself bound to declare that, whatever +may have been decided about the arrangements suitable +for guaranteeing the liberty and authority of the +chief Pontiff, nevertheless I cannot approve by my +vote a military demonstration that appears dangerous +both to the sacred interests that they pretend to +protect, and that has a tendency to compromise +European peace.</p> + +<p class="sig"> +"Yours respectfully,<br /> +"<span class="smcap">Louis Napoleon Buonaparte.</span></p> +<p>"December 2, 1848."</p></blockquote> + +<p>As this pacific candidate had been shortly after +elected President of the French Republic, there seemed +little fear that an expedition "tending to compromise +European peace," would again be entered upon by +France; and the Mountain of the French Assembly +had lately sent greetings to the Roman Republic.</p> + +<p>Since then the immediate danger to Rome seemed +to come rather from the North than from the West, +the Triumvirs watched with much anxiety the hesitating +attitude of Guerrazzi and the Tuscan Government. +So eager had the leaders of the Roman<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[468]</a></span> +Assembly been for a union between Tuscany and the +Roman States that they had even offered to Montanelli +and Guerrazzi places in the first Triumvirate, which +had been formed before Mazzini and Saffi had been +called to power. Guerrazzi, however, had refused to +accept this offer; and, while declaring his desire for +union with Rome, he professed his inability to find +a means for effecting that union. Indeed, Guerrazzi +held an almost impossible position. Though unable +to make up his mind to accept a Republican Government, +he was yet determined to resist any interference, +either by Piedmontese or Austrians, in favour of the +former Government of Tuscany. And while he still +seemed to cherish Italian ideas, he felt that the defeat +of Charles Albert had taken away the hopes for any +satisfactory continuance of the War of Independence. +Under these circumstances the champions of the +restoration of the Grand Duke naturally gained +ground in Tuscany. Guerrazzi, distrusted alike by +Republicans and Royalists, was unable either to resist +this movement, or to guide it according to his own +theories; and on April 12 the Municipality of +Florence took the matter out of the hands both of +Guerrazzi and the Assembly, and decreed the recall +of the Grand Duke.</p> + +<p>This catastrophe, though a subject of regret, could +scarcely have caused much surprise to the leaders of +the Roman Republic. A feeling of far deeper pain +must have been roused by the final failure of the +earliest of all the struggles for liberty of this period. +The <i>coup d'état</i> at Naples of May 15, 1848, +though it had shattered the hopes of the Neapolitans, +had only intensified the zeal of the Sicilians in their +struggle against Ferdinand. As they had just deposed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[469]</a></span> +him from the throne, and proclaimed the Duke +of Genoa as their King, they thought themselves safe +against the restoration of Neapolitan rule; and the +Ambassadors of France and England tried to persuade +the King of Naples not to send an expedition to +Sicily. He refused, however, to listen to these +remonstrances; the expedition sailed; and, by his +bombardment of Palermo, Ferdinand won for himself +throughout Sicily the title of <span lang="it">Il Re Bombardatore</span>, +which was quickly shortened into Bomba. Ruggiero +Settimo, who had taken part in the struggles of 1812 +and 1821, was placed at the head of the Sicilian +Government, and Garibaldi was invited to come to +defend the island. Garibaldi, however, did not arrive; +and the chief defence of the island was entrusted to +the Polish General Mieroslawski, who, having failed +to save Posen from the hands of the Prussians, had +become a kind of knight errant of liberty in other +parts of Europe. He brought, however, but little +good to the causes which he defended. He quarrelled +with the Italian General Antonini, and was so often +defeated, that the Sicilians began to fear treachery, +and at last compelled him to resign his command. +The struggle had, in fact, now become hopeless; and +on April 17, 1849, the Sicilian Parliament decided to +meet no longer. Then Ruggiero Settimo called his +friends together, and declared that he was ready to +undergo all his troubles again, if they decided to +continue the contest. But they believed that the case +was now desperate, and voted for peace. Then +Settimo consulted the National Guard, but also in +vain; and finding that any further efforts were useless, +he resigned his Presidency, and left the island. +The separateness of the Sicilian movement lessened,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[470]</a></span> +no doubt, in some degree the importance of this +defeat; but the gallantry of their struggle had excited +much sympathy in Rome; and their fall set free the +Neapolitan forces for action against the Roman +Republic.</p> + +<p>This addition to the dangers which were harassing +the Republic would not perhaps have been so formidable +had not a new and more important enemy begun +to show signs of hostility at the same period. The +election of Louis Napoleon as President of the French +Republic had been hailed with some satisfaction both +in Venice and Rome; and, after the Roman Republic +had been established, two envoys were sent to Paris, +who reminded the President of the share he had +taken in one of the insurrections against Gregory XVI. +Louis Napoleon replied that the time of Gregory XVI. +had gone by in Rome, and that his youth was also +gone by. Both remarks were undoubtedly true, nor +were they in themselves very alarming; but Ledru +Rollin, one of the few Frenchmen who really sympathized +with Italy, warned Mazzini that danger +was coming; and the nature of the danger soon +became apparent. On April 16 Odillon Barrot +moved in the French Assembly a proposal for +a vote of twelve hundred thousand francs for an expedition +to Italy; an expedition, he said, which was +not to restore the Pope; but to protect liberty and +humanity. On April 20 General Oudinot took the +command of the expedition, and told his followers +that his object was to maintain the old legitimate +French influence, and to protect the destinies of Italy +from the predominance of the stranger, and of a party +who were really in a minority. So kindly was the +tone of the French Ministry towards the Romans,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[471]</a></span> +that Colonel Frapolli, one of the envoys of the Roman +Republic, obtained the leave of the French President +to organize a French Legion, which was to fight for +the defence of Rome, and to be commanded by Pierre +Buonaparte. But Pierre Buonaparte suddenly resigned +his command; the prefect was ordered to +hinder the embarkation of the Legion; and a large +supply of muskets, which had been bought by the +Roman Republic, were confiscated by the French +Government. In the meantime Oudinot had set sail, +and on April 24 he appeared before Civita Vecchia.</p> + +<p>About the time when the French troops were landing, +there arrived at the same place a very different +force. The leader of this force was Luciano Manara, +who had fought so gallantly in the "Five Days" of +Milan, and who had afterwards been so hampered by +Casati and Charles Albert in his attempt to rescue the +Southern Tyrol from Austrian rule. He, like others, +had been disappointed by the failure of Charles +Albert's final war; but he had refused to join in the +Genoese insurrection, which followed the defeat at +Novara, and had preferred to set out with 8,000 men +to help the Roman Republic. The difficulties thrown +in the way of their march were, however, so great that +only 600 remained with Manara by the time that he +reached Civita Vecchia. Oudinot, with extraordinary +impudence, disputed the right of the Lombards to +interfere on behalf of Rome; and he even tried to +persuade them that the cause of Rome was so distinct +from that of Lombardy, that the Lombards could +consistently join their forces with the French against +Rome. Manara indignantly repelled the suggestion; +and then Oudinot in vain attempted to exact a promise +that the Lombard forces should not act against<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[472]</a></span> +him until the 4th of May. Manara, having refused +this further demand, Oudinot was forced to allow the +Lombards to pass; and Manara marched to Rome to +tell the Romans how the French Republic was preparing +to defend the cause of "liberty and humanity."</p> + +<p>In spite of this plain evidence of his intentions, +Oudinot still attempted to play his double part; and, +since his utterance about the government of a party +in a minority had alarmed the inhabitants of Civita +Vecchia, he authorised the Secretary of the Legation +to declare the sympathy of the French for the +Romans, and to assure the citizens of Civita Vecchia +that the French Army had only come to defend them +against the Austrians. Mannucci, the Governor of +Civita Vecchia, had wished to oppose the first landing +of the French; but he was overborne by the Chamber +of Commerce and the Municipal Council, who were +convinced that the French could not really intend to +destroy the freedom which they so much professed to +cherish. No sooner, however, had Oudinot effected +a landing, than he announced that he would not protect +the Anarchical Government of Rome, which had +never been officially recognised. The Municipality +became alarmed; and Oudinot again altered his tone, +and declared that the French would respect the vote +of the majority of the population, and did not desire +to impose any special form of Government upon them. +In spite of the warnings given by Oudinot's previous +proclamation, the Municipal Council consented to +admit him into the town; and, no sooner was he +there, than he disarmed the battalion which was to +have defended the town; and still further showed his +zeal for the interests of "Liberty and humanity," by +suppressing a printing office in Civita Vecchia, because<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[473]</a></span> +it had recently printed an address in which the Papacy +was condemned.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the news had spread to Rome; +and the Assembly were debating how they should +receive Oudinot. So deep was the conviction of the +reality of the French zeal for freedom, that Armellini +actually suggested that Oudinot should be received +as a friend. But, while the Assembly were +debating, Mazzini entered the hall, and announced +that Colonel le Blanc had confessed that the expedition +was sent to restore the Papacy. Thereupon the +Assembly voted that the Triumvirs should have +power to resist force with force. But another difficulty +arose; the officers of the National Guard declared +that they did not believe their soldiers would +fight. Thereupon Mazzini ordered that the battalions +of the Guards should defile next morning in +front of the Quirinal, where the Assembly were +meeting; and, as the Guards passed, he put to them +the question whether they were for peace or war. A +loud shout of "<span lang="it">Guerra, guerra!</span>" answered his appeal; +and the defence was at once resolved on.</p> + +<p>In every district the heads of the people and the +representatives of the Assembly were to organize the +defence of every inch of the country. Barricades +were thrown up; arms were to be given to all the +people; while the municipality undertook to provide +them with corn, meat, and other eatables. At the +same time all foreigners, and particularly all Frenchmen +living in Rome, were to be placed under the protection +of the nation. Anyone who injured them was +to be punished as having violated the honour of +Rome. With regard to the actual soldiers to be used +in the first defence of the city, they were arranged as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[474]</a></span> +follows:—the 1st brigade, commanded by Garibaldi, +guarded the line outside the walls, which extends +from the Porta Portese to the Porta San Pancrazio. +The 2nd brigade, commanded by Colonel Masi, was +drawn up before the Porta Cavalleggieri, the Vatican, +and the Porta Angelica. The 3rd, under Colonel +Savini, stood in reserve in the Piazza Navona. Colonel +Galletti commanded the 4th, which was stationed in +the Piazza Cesarini; while a reserve force under +General Galletti, in which Manara and his Lombard +volunteers were included, was held back for the present, +to come up when needed. The whole of the +forces were supervised by General Avezzana, who had +organized the insurrection in Genoa after the defeat +at Novara, and who now acted apparently both as +Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief.</p> + +<p>On April 29 Avezzana took his staff up to +Monte Mario, from which point he could see the +French army advancing from Civita Vecchia. As +they marched along the road, the French saw everywhere +a singular inscription painted upon the walls +and posts. It ran as follows:—"Article 5 of the +preamble of the French Constitution. The French +Republic respects foreign nationalities as it intends +to make its own respected. It does not undertake +any war of conquest. It will never use its own +forces against the liberty of any people." Whether +as a kind of answer to this challenge, or in contempt +of it, Oudinot announced to his troops that they came +to liberate Rome from the factious party which had +expelled the Pope, and which had answered his words +of conciliation with ill-considered provocations.</p> + +<p>It was at 11.30 a.m. on April 30 that the French +and Roman armies first came into collision. Garibaldi<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[475]</a></span> +advanced from Porta San Pancrazio to meet +the French, who were entering the grounds of the +Villa Pamfili, and who, hearing the bells of the city +ring for the attack, supposed that an insurrection +had broken out in favour of the Pope, and that they +would have an easy victory. Garibaldi, however, +repelled them, after a sharp fight, and made 300 prisoners. +But the main attack of the French was in the +meantime directed against the Porta Angelica. There +one of the French captains had hoped to lead a column +into Rome by a secret way near the Vatican. But a +fire was poured on the advancing column from the +Papal gardens, while the troops from Monte Mario +attacked them in the rear. The battle lasted for four +hours. The French captain Picarde managed at first +to drive back the University battalion; but as he +advanced, Colonel Arcioni at the head of a regiment +of the Lombard exiles attacked him on one flank, +and Galletti at the head of the National Guard on +the other; finally Garibaldi, having disposed of his +original opponents at the Villa Pamfili, charged the +French force, and compelled them to lay down their +arms.</p> + +<p>Several acts of special valour marked this battle. +One officer, named Montaldi, having been surrounded +by the French, was beaten to his knees, and fought +on with only a piece of his sword left. He had +fought under Garibaldi at Monte Video, and was a +Genoese by birth. Ugo Bassi<a name="Anchor-24" id="Anchor-24"></a><a href="#Footnote-24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> distinguished himself +by riding about the field urging the Romans to +battle. His horse was killed under him, and, as he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[476]</a></span> +was embracing it with tears, the French came up and +took him prisoner. Garibaldi himself was wounded; +but would not allow it to be known until the battle +was over, when he sent privately for the doctor.</p> + +<p>On the following day the battle was renewed; the +people flocking to the defence of the walls, and the +French sharp-shooters being finally driven out from +the Pamfili gardens. Garibaldi would now have been +able to cut off the French retreat and destroy their +army; but the Triumvirs, though they had no faith +in Oudinot's promises, believed that, if the French +were generously treated, the Republican feeling +would awake again in France and overthrow the +Government, or defeat their plans; but that, if they +were driven to extremities, the French vanity would +hinder even the most consistent Republicans from +opposing the war. On these grounds, they allowed +the French to retreat, granted them a short truce, +and set free the prisoners who had been captured.</p> + +<p>But the hope of any change of feeling in the French +was soon found to be utterly vain. A debate, indeed, +had been begun in the French Assembly soon after +the sailing of the expedition, and a Committee had +been appointed to enquire into the object of the +expedition; but Jules Favre, the chairman of that +Committee, reported that the Government had no +intention of making France a party to the overthrow +of the Roman Republic; and that it only interfered +in order that, under the French flag, humanity might +be respected; and that a limit might be placed on +the pretensions of Austria. In spite, therefore, of +the opposition of Ledru Rollin, the money for the +expedition had been voted by 325 against 283. But +even Jules Favre could not be entirely blinded by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[477]</a></span> +such phrases as these, when considered in the light +of Oudinot's actions; and on May 8 the National +Assembly invited the Government to take, without +delay, the necessary measures for preventing the +expedition to Italy from being diverted from the +scope assigned to it; and they therefore decided +to send Ferdinand Lesseps to negotiate with the +Triumvirs for terms of peace.</p> + +<p>In the meantime, the Roman Republic realized that +it had to guard itself against two other enemies. On +May 2, a Neapolitan army was found to be on its way +to Rome. On the 4th, Garibaldi marched to Palestrina, +and, with the help of Manara and his Lombard +battalion, utterly defeated the Neapolitan forces. +Just at the same time, the Bolognese became aware +that the threatened attack of the Austrians was about +to become a reality. Ferrara was occupied on May 7; +but, even with the Austrian troops present in the city, +the Municipal Council of Ferrara voted, by thirty-seven +to three, in favour of the Roman Republic. +Such a protest was undoubtedly of use in proving +the earnestness of the Roman provinces on behalf of +the new Government. But something more was +expected, from a city so heroic in its traditions as +Bologna. On May 6 it had been announced by the +President of the Municipality that medals were about +to be distributed in memory of August 8, 1848. On +May 8 it was announced that the Austrians were +advancing upon Bologna. In that city, as in Rome, +the internal defence was organized in special districts +under special leaders, while the National Guard and +the University battalion were to fight side by side +with the regular troops. By nine o'clock in the +morning of the 8th the Austrians were at the gates<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[478]</a></span> +of Bologna, and before eleven o'clock fierce struggles +had taken place at the Porta Galliera, the Porta San +Felice, and the Porta Saragozza. The people indignantly +refused every proposal for capitulation, and +at about four o'clock the Austrians began to bombard +the city. Before the end of the day, the President +had resigned his office, believing that resistance was +useless; but the Municipality having in vain endeavoured +to obtain the terms which they had hoped +for, the assault was renewed, and the Austrians discharged +rockets into the city from the bell-tower of +the Franciscan convent. A special Commission was +appointed to carry on the struggle, and the band of +one of the regiments, standing under the tree of +Liberty in the Piazza San Petronio, encouraged the +combatants with music and songs. The struggle, +however, was a desperate one, and, on May 10, it was +again necessary to send a deputation to ask for a +truce. But the combat was soon renewed, and the +Bolognese troops were so eager in the attack that the +general had to warn them against firing off their pieces +needlessly. The pastry cooks were ordered to +suspend the making of mere confectionary, in order +that there might be more bread for the defenders of +the city, and reinforcements were expected from the +country districts of the Romagna. General Wimpffen, +who was leading the Austrian troops, denounced the +defence as "the stupid work of a blind faction;" but +the Provisional Government answered that the proclamation +signed by Marshal Wimpffen, and forwarded +by him to the magistrates, having come +without any accompanying evidence, could not be +received by them. Weary of acting merely on the +defensive, the Bolognese made a sortie from the Porta<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[479]</a></span> +Maggiore, repelled an attack of the Austrians, and +succeeded in joining a body of the Romagnoli, who +were coming to the relief of the city. But the chances +of uniting with the outside world became less and +less; for the Austrian troops drew ever more closely +round the city, and, on the 15th, the bombardment +was renewed. Then a number of the citizens requested +leave to go to Rome, to find out how things +were going on there, in order that they might know +what was still required of them at headquarters. But +this proposal seems to have been a mere utterance of +despair; for, on the 16th, it became necessary to +abandon the defence and arrange for terms of surrender.</p> + +<p>While the Bolognese were engaged in this desperate +struggle, Ferdinand Lesseps had arrived in Rome, +and was rapidly becoming converted to the belief +that the Republican Government was the free choice +of the people, and that it was better able to maintain +order than the Papacy had been; while a conversation +with Mamiani had shown him that even the so-called +Moderate Liberals were unwilling to act against the +Republic. But, though Lesseps was honest enough +to confess these facts, his vanity, both personal and +national, prevented him from making the natural +inference that neither he nor Oudinot were needed +in Rome. He, therefore, proposed that the Roman +States should request the paternal protection of the +French Republic; that the Roman populations should +pronounce freely on their form of government; that +Rome should receive the French as their friends; and +that Roman and French troops should act together +in defence of the city. The Assembly rejected these +proposals, on the ground that Rome had no need of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[480]</a></span> +protection, and that the name of the Roman Republic +was not mentioned in the negotiation; and they +further complained that, on May 19, while the truce +was still in force, the French soldiers had crossed the +Tiber. Then the Triumvirs proposed, in their turn, +that the Roman Republic should acknowledge the +help offered by the French nation against foreign +intervention; that the Constitution which had been +adopted by the General Assembly should be sanctioned +by a popular vote; that Rome should welcome +the French soldiers as brothers; but that they should +stay outside the city till the Roman Republic called +for them. These proposals were accepted, with some +modifications, by Lesseps, within the time of the +truce; and he left Rome, well satisfied with Mazzini, +still better with himself.</p> + +<p>Great, however, was the indignation of this unfortunate +diplomatist, when, on reaching the camp of +Oudinot, he found that the general, without waiting +for the expiration of the truce, had suddenly occupied +Monte Mario! Lesseps was divided between his +feelings as a man of honour and his unwillingness to +oppose his countrymen. He threatened at first that +if the order for assault were not withdrawn, he would +himself go back to Rome and give the alarm; but +when, on his return to the city, the Triumvirs questioned +him about the breach of the truce, he assured +them that Monte Mario had only been occupied in +order to prevent its falling into the hands of the +French reinforcements, which were on their way to +Rome. The fact was that, from first to last, Lesseps +had been the dupe of the unscrupulous men who +were ruling France. While he had been entrusted +with apparently peaceful negotiations, secret instructions<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[481]</a></span> +had been sent to Oudinot to the following +effect:—"Tell the Romans that we do not wish to +join with the Neapolitans against them. Continue +your negotiations in the sense of your declaration. +We are sending you reinforcements. Wait for them. +Manage to enter Rome by agreement with the inhabitants; +and if you should be compelled to assault it, +do it in the manner that shall be most likely to secure +success." Oudinot fully understood his instructions. +On May 31 he scornfully rejected the convention +which had been accepted by Lesseps; and on the +same day Lesseps received his recall to Paris, and +Oudinot received orders to take Rome by force.</p> + +<p>In the meantime an unfortunate occurrence had +called attention to another danger which was threatening +the Roman Republic. General Roselli had +now been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the +Roman army; but he found it very difficult to control +Garibaldi. After the defeat of the Neapolitan +forces, Garibaldi had desired to push on to Velletri. +Roselli forbad him to do so; but Garibaldi disobeyed +the orders of his chief, and marched forward. Part +of the troops who followed him had not learned to +stand fire, and fled at the first attack. Garibaldi was +in such danger that he was obliged to send to Roselli +for fresh troops. With the help of these reinforcements, +Garibaldi drove back the Neapolitans; but he +then disobeyed Roselli's orders for the second time, +marched forward to Velletri, and entered it on +May 20. Fierce recriminations followed between the +friends of Garibaldi and those of Roselli; Garibaldi +and his friends maintaining that, but for Roselli's +delay, the victory would have been more complete; +the supporters of Roselli declaring that, if it had not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[482]</a></span> +been for Garibaldi's rashness, Ferdinand himself, and +a great part of his army, would have fallen into the +hands of the Romans. Roselli further demanded +that Garibaldi should be summoned before a Court-Martial +for his disobedience to orders. But the +Triumvirs felt that there would be a certain incongruity +in such a trial, which could only lead to +mischief, and they persuaded Roselli to abandon his +proposal. Garibaldi's influence, indeed, was strong, +not only among his soldiers, but also among the +members of the Assembly; and Sterbini, who seems +generally to have suspected all existing Governments, +demanded that Garibaldi should be made Dictator, +and that Roselli's command should be taken from +him. This proposal, however, the Assembly rejected, +and, on June 3, declared itself in permanence.</p> + +<p>On that very day Oudinot gave another proof of +his peculiar ideas of French honour. The day +before, he had promised to defer the attack until +June 4. The grounds of the Villa Pamfili lie at a +short distance from the Porta San Pancrazio, and were +then more thickly wooded than they are now. On +the night of June 2 they were occupied by three +companies of Bolognese. These soldiers, trusting +to the honour of Oudinot, were sleeping peacefully, +when suddenly two French divisions entered +the wood. They surrounded and captured 200 of +the soldiers; but the remaining 200 retreated fighting, +before a body of 8,000 French. Garibaldi hastened +up with reinforcements, and the fight lasted from +2 a.m. till 6 p.m. on June 3. Four times were +the houses in the grounds of the Villa Pamfili +lost and won. The walls shook with the thunder of +the French and Roman artillery; and the houses +were filled with the dead and wounded of both armies. +But the treachery of Oudinot had been successful in +securing him so good a position, that the houses at +last remained in the hands of the French, although +they were so ruined that they afforded them very +little protection.</p> + +<div class="center"> + <a name="illo_vascello" id="illo_vascello"></a> +<a href="images/illo_vascelloh.jpg"> +<img src="images/illo_vascello.jpg" width="600" height="395" + alt="" + title="" /> + </a> + <p class="caption">IL VASCELLO, ROME (<i>taken since the siege</i>).</p> + +</div> + +<p>This struggle seemed only to rouse the energies of +the Romans to new efforts. Between the Villa Pamfili +and the Porta San Pancrazio, stood an old house +which, from its shape, was known as the Vascello or +little ship; and it was by the walls of this house that, +for nearly a month from this time, General Medici +and Garibaldi held their own against the numbers, +the training, and the treachery of the French. Nothing +could exceed the enthusiasm of the Romans in +the defence of their city. The walls were crowded +with people during the fight; youths, not able yet to +bear arms, rushed into the crash of battle. And +girls went, while the cannon was still firing, to search +for the dead, to encourage the combatants, and to +heal the wounded. But treachery steadily gained +ground upon valour. Enrico Dandolo, a young captain +in Manara's regiment, was about to attack a +company of Frenchmen, when the French captain +cried out, "We are friends!" Dandolo ordered the +attack to be suspended, and advanced to the Frenchman, +holding out his hand. The French at once +fired, and Dandolo and more than a third of his company +fell dead. Oudinot, however, over-estimated +the credulity of the Romans; for on June 12 he +demanded to be admitted into Rome, on the ground +that his intentions had been misunderstood, and that +he wished to secure Roman liberty. When, however, +he was reminded of his violation of Lesseps's agreement,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[483]</a><br /><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[484]</a></span> +he showed his zeal for Roman liberty by proceeding +to bombard the city.</p> + +<p>But there were still some Frenchmen who held +different views from Oudinot's on the subject of their +country's honour. On the very day when the bombardment +of Rome began, Ledru Rollin and his +friends, having in vain tried to secure a condemnation +of the Roman expedition from the French Assembly, +took up arms for a final effort to vindicate the honour +of France against its faithless rulers. But the revolutionary +force of France had been wasted in the +Socialist insurrection of the previous year; and, after +a gallant struggle, the champions of French honour +and liberty were suppressed by General Changarnier. +The failure of this effort must, no doubt, have been +terribly disappointing to those Romans who had +hoped to the last that France would vindicate herself +against those who were dishonouring her. And, as +if to bring home to the Romans how isolated their +position was becoming as defenders of liberty, there +came to them, shortly after, the news of the final +downfall of German liberty.</p> + +<p>Ever since April 24, when the King of Prussia +refused the crown of Germany, he had been following +a steady course of opposition to the Liberal movements +in favour of German unity; and on May 24 +he had recalled the Prussian Deputies from the +Frankfort Assembly. This had encouraged the +other Princes of Germany to dissolve their local +parliaments and recall their subjects from the Frankfort +Parliament; while the strengthening of the +troops near Frankfort seemed to limit the freedom +of debate among the few deputies who remained. +At last, on June 6, the few remaining representatives<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[485]</a></span> +of German unity decided to transfer their place +of meeting from Frankfort to Stuttgart. The Baden +Republicans had in the meantime taken the stronger +course of appealing for the last time to insurrection; +but both the constitutional and the revolutionary +attempt to save the liberties of Germany proved +hopeless. On June 18 the remnant of the German +Parliament was dispersed by the Würtemberg soldiers; +the Baden rising failed, to a great extent from +the quarrels between the Polish general Mieroslawski +and the Baden general Sigel; and the Prussian soldiers +trampled out the last remains of German liberty.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Austrians were capturing +city after city in the Roman provinces; and the +French were pressing nearer to the city. But the +enthusiasm of the Romans did not slacken. As +Garibaldi went through the hospitals to visit the +wounded, several of the sufferers sprang from their +beds to embrace his knees, with cries of "Papa, +papa"; and the women exerted themselves gallantly +to relieve the sufferings of the wounded. The French +did not even now seem absolutely certain of victory; +for when a sortie, planned by Garibaldi on June +22, had ended in a fiasco, a certain M. Corcelles +attempted to reopen diplomatic negotiations. But +Mazzini, warned by his experience of Lesseps, sternly +repelled all proposals for negotiation; and the struggle +was renewed. The state of the Roman Republic was, +however, really desperate. On June 24 came the news +that, after twenty-five days' struggle, Ancona had +fallen into the hands of the Austrians, who had +almost immediately violated the understanding on +which it had been surrendered.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the French slowly advanced in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[486]</a></span> +the struggle by the Vascello, Medici continually +driving them back. Many of the houses were battered +down, but the inhabitants were provided by the +Triumvirs with fresh lodgings in the deserted houses +of the Cardinals. When the French knocked down +part of the walls, the citizens picked up the stones to +repair them. At last, however, on June 29, Oudinot +resolved to make a final effort, and directed his forces +against Garibaldi's house, which was known as the +Villa Spada. Twice the invaders attacked this house, +and twice they were repelled. Then they succeeded +in capturing a barricade which had been raised in +front of the house; but again the Romans recaptured +it. Garibaldi fought in the midst of his followers, +singing a war-song; and more than a hundred of his +soldiers fell round him. Seven times the barricade +was taken and retaken; the gallant Manara was +killed; and at last, after twelve hours' fighting, it was +discovered that the Porta San Pancrazio was no +longer tenable.</p> + +<p>On June 30 the Roman Assembly met, and Mazzini +propounded to them three alternatives. Either +they should continue the defence, which now seemed +impossible; or they should yield altogether; or, +thirdly, they should cut their way out into the provinces, +and continue the struggle there. Mazzini +strongly urged the third course. While the debate +was still proceeding, Garibaldi in his red shirt, +covered with mud, sprang into the Assembly. He +declared that further defence was impossible, unless +they were prepared to abandon the Trastevere, and +break down the bridges. Under these circumstances, +he supported Mazzini's recommendation, that they +should cut their way out into the provinces, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[487]</a></span> +carry on the struggle there. Cernuschi, however, proposed +the following resolution:—"The Roman Constituent +Assembly abandons a defence which has +become impossible, and remains at its post." This +motion was carried; the Triumvirs resigned their +post to the Municipality, and a new Triumvirate was +elected to carry out the terms of peace.</p> + +<p>Then Garibaldi called round him his followers in +the Piazza San Pietro, and addressed them as follows:—"I +have nothing to give you but hunger, sufferings, +and battles; the bare earth for your bed, and the +burning sun for your refreshment. Yet let him who +does not yet disbelieve in the fortune of Italy follow +me." He then marched out from the Porta San +Giovanni, followed by 4,000 men. They made their +way to the northern part of the Roman States; but +after much suffering and privation, they were forced +to abandon the struggle. Ugo Bassi and others fell +into the hands of the Austrians, and were shot. +Garibaldi and a small remnant of his followers succeeded +in escaping from the country.</p> + +<p>In the meantime the Roman Municipal Council +attempted to make terms with Oudinot; but finding +it impossible to secure honourable conditions, they +declared that they yielded only to force. On July 3 +the French troops entered Rome; and while they +marched through the city they found all the shops +closed, and heard from every side the cries of "Death +to Cardinal Oudinot! Death to the soldiers of the +Pope! Death to the Croats of France!" On the +same day the Roman Assembly proclaimed from the +Capitol the Constitution of the Republic. On the +next day a regiment of French infantry dissolved +the Assembly by force; and soon after a Commission<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[488]</a></span> +of three Cardinals was appointed to govern +Rome.</p> + +<p>The hopes of Italy now centred in Venice, where, +ever since the abandonment of Milan by Charles +Albert in the previous August, the Republican +Government had struggled alone against Austria. +So fierce had been the feeling caused by Charles +Albert's treatment of Venice, that it had required all +Manin's influence to hinder a violent attack on the +Sardinian Commissioner. The Sardinian Admiral, +indeed, attempted at first to disregard the orders of +Charles Albert, and to continue the defence of Venice, +but he was compelled after a time to withdraw. +Manin, however, was anxious to secure foreign allies +for Venice; and, shortly after his abandonment by +Charles Albert, he appealed to France for help. The +French Government answered by those vague and +cheap promises which meant nothing; while the +English Consul at Venice tried to form an Austrian +party in the city; and Lord Palmerston worried +Manin with all sorts of useless proposals for diplomatic +compromises. But if Manin found little help +from foreign Governments, he received much encouragement +from those Italians who had not yet +despaired of their country. In September, 1848, +1,200 soldiers who had served under Durando arrived +in Venice; and on October 3 a vessel brought 6,000 +guns from Genoa. The Austrian blockade, indeed, +pressed ever closer, and on October 10 it had become +so close that food could not be brought into the +town. But so little did Manin lose heart that on +October 11 he declared to the Assembly that Venice +was in a better state for defence than when the +Dictatorship had been established in August; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[489]</a></span> +the Assembly in turn voted that Manin and the two +colleagues who had been appointed to assist him +should be entrusted with all political negotiations, +saving the ratification by the Assembly of the final +treaty. So great was the mutual confidence between +Manin and the poorer classes of Venice, that in +January, 1849, two Gondoliers were chosen to assist +him in the Government.</p> + +<p>The proclamation of the Republic in Rome had +excited both the sympathies and the fears of Manin; +for while he saw in it a step towards an Italian Republic, +in which Venice might take a part, he also +saw that it might hasten an Austrian intervention in +the Roman States. The failure of Charles Albert's +final effort in April, 1849, so alarmed the Venetians +that Manin began to speculate on the desirability of +accepting an Austrian Prince as Constitutional Sovereign +of Lombardo-Venetia. But the Hungarian +Declaration of Independence once more revived his +hopes, and from that time his one aim in foreign +policy was to secure and strengthen an alliance +between Venice and Hungary. Yet the month of +May, in which this alliance was concluded, seemed +one of the most desperate periods in the fortunes of +Venice. The fortress of Malghera, which lies on an +island in the lagunes, about two hours' gondola +journey west of Venice, was the scene of one of the +fiercest struggles between the Austrians and Venetians. +General Haynau had effected a landing on +this island, and attempted to seize the fortress; but +the Venetians on their side let loose the waters to +swamp the Austrian trenches, sent boats under the +fire of the Austrians to bring food to the defenders, +and made expeditions to carry off oxen, even from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[490]</a></span> +the country already occupied by the Austrians. So +desperate was the resistance that Radetzky treated +Haynau's attempt as a failure, and sent General +Thurn to take his place. But, partly by breaking a +truce, partly by force of superior numbers, the +Austrians succeeded in carrying the day; and on +May 26, when the fortress had been reduced to +ruins, the Venetians were compelled to abandon +Malghera, and to retreat to some islands nearer the +city. In the following month Manin again tried to +enter into negotiations with Radetzky; but a letter +from Kossuth encouraged him to stand firm; and he +made such demands for independence that the +Austrians scornfully rejected them.</p> + +<p>In spite, however, of the encouragement which he +had sent to Manin, Kossuth's own position was one of +increasing danger. The Declaration of Independence +of April 14 had been followed by the resignation of +several Hungarian officers; and Görgei, though +unwillingly retaining his command, became more and +more antagonistic in his attitude towards Kossuth. +This mutual distrust was one of the main causes of +a step not very creditable to either party, and which +is reckoned by military critics one of the most +unfortunate in the war. On April 26, Görgei +and General Klapka had, by a desperate march, +rescued the fortress of Komorn from the Austrians; +and Klapka and others believed that, if Görgei had +followed up this success by marching to Raab, he +might have been able to reopen communications with +Vienna. Kossuth, however, was anxious that Buda-Pesth +should not be allowed to remain in the hands +of the Austrians, and he therefore desired Görgei to +turn his forces to the deliverance of the capital.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[491]</a></span> +Görgei, in common with all the military leaders, +believed this proposal to be a mistake; but he has +frankly recorded his reasons for readily obeying +Kossuth's orders. If he had followed up his advantages +and marched into Austria, a Republic, he +believed, would have been proclaimed in Hungary; +and a compromise with the Austrian Government +would have become impossible; whereas, by occupying +Buda-Pesth, he thought that he should gain a +vantage ground which would enable him to persuade +both parties to accept the modified Constitution for +Hungary which he desired. Hence it came to pass +that the greater part of May was taken up by the +siege of the fortress of Buda, while Görgei was +intriguing with Kossuth's opponents in the Diet, and +the Austrians were gaining ground in Hungary. +And while he was with difficulty holding his own +against Görgei's intrigues, Kossuth was alarmed by +the news that a more formidable enemy had once +more appeared on the scene.</p> + +<p>On May 1 the Emperor of Austria had formally +appealed to the Russians to assist him against his +Hungarian subjects; and in June the Russian forces +began to gather near the passes of the Carpathians. +On the 17, Colonel Szabò encountered the Russians +near the Temos Pass. When he first advanced to +meet them, he believed that he had only to do with +some skirmishing troops, such as those with whom he +had previously dealt. But more and more soldiers +pressed in to the attack, and Szabò was compelled to +retreat. Two days later Colonel Kiss, at the head of +a band of Szeklers, came up to resist the invaders; +and, while those who were on the hills above hurled +down stones and wood on the Russians, the soldiers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[492]</a></span> +below, though only 400 in number, resisted so gallantly +that the Russians at first fled before them. At +last, however, Kiss was laid senseless by a shot, and +his soldiers were seized with a panic and fled in +disorder.</p> + +<p>Bem, who had returned to Transylvania about the +end of May, now attempted to rally the Szekler by +inspiriting appeals to the memories of their former +struggles. On June 25 he recaptured the Saxon +town of Bistritz, and then encountered in the open +field a combined corps of Russians and Austrians. +For seven hours he held out against them; but new +reinforcements came up, and he was compelled to +retreat. The enormous numbers of the Russians +seem to have impressed Bem's followers, and to have +increased their original panic. The country was overrun +by the enemy; Hermannstadt was captured and +recaptured, and when, on August 5, it at last fell into +the hands of the Russians, Bem narrowly escaped +with his life. Even then he wished to continue the +struggle; but on August 7 he was summoned to +North Hungary by Kossuth, to advise him in his +difficulties with Görgei.</p> + +<p>After an attempt to supersede Görgei by Meszaros, +Kossuth had been compelled to allow the former to +resume the command; but he had by no means recovered +confidence in him, and he felt ready to clutch +at any proposal which would extricate himself and +his country from their difficulties. Amongst other +suggestions he proposed to offer to Jancu and the +Roumanian leaders independent commands in the +Hungarian Army, and to concede to them most of the +points about which they had been fighting. He had +even opened negotiations with Jancu for this purpose;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_493" id="Page_493">[493]</a></span> +but Bem steadily opposed the scheme, and the negotiations +came to nothing. But Kossuth's great hope +was to supersede Görgei by Bem. This proposal, +however, was opposed, not only by Görgei himself, but +also by Csanyi, who seems throughout to have +sympathised with Görgei, as against Kossuth. Bem, +therefore, returned to the war. Kossuth, left unsupported, +became more and more alarmed. Csanyi and +Görgei pressed for his resignation; and, while he was +doubting, he received the news that Bem had been +dangerously wounded in battle. The report, indeed, +was exaggerated; and Bem wrote a letter to assure +Kossuth of the slightness of his wound, and to +encourage him to stand firm. But this letter never +arrived, and the next news which Bem received was +that Kossuth had abdicated, and Görgei been declared +Dictator of Hungary. Bem wrote a letter of remonstrance +to Kossuth, and, at the same time, marched +towards Lugos, in the Banat, to meet the Russians. +Dembinski, who was now in Bem's army, disobeyed +his orders, and Bem was defeated. On that very day, +August 13, Görgei surrendered at Vilagos with all +his forces to the Russian general.</p> + +<p>This surrender is now believed to have been +necessary on military grounds. The advances made +by the Austrians during the siege of Buda, and the +Russian conquest of Transylvania had placed Hungary +at the mercy of the conqueror. Nevertheless, +it cannot be doubted that the quarrel between Görgei +and Kossuth, and the factions which the former had +stirred up in the army, had tended considerably to +bring about this result; while, with regard to the +terms of surrender, General Görgei has never +been able to explain how it was that, while the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[494]</a></span> +amnesty was so scrupulously observed towards himself +both by the Austrians and Russians, the generals, +whose only fault was that they had served under +him, were ruthlessly put to death by Haynau. Anyhow, +whatever may have been the excuses for the +act, the surrender of Vilagos produced a startling +close to the Hungarian War. Bem, indeed, hastened +back to Transylvania, and attempted to rouse his +former followers; and General Klapka held out for a +month longer at Komorn. But Bem's efforts were +of no avail; Klapka's defence only served to secure +rather better terms; and both these generals, as well +as Kossuth, were forced to take refuge in Turkey.</p> + +<p>The news of the surrender of Vilagos did not +reach Venice till August 20. There Manin had had +much difficulty in still retaining the control which +had been necessary for the guidance of affairs; +and on August 6 a minority of 28 in the Assembly +had protested against his reappointment as +Dictator. The cholera had now been added to the +other horrors of the siege; provisions were growing +scarce; and thus the news of Görgei's surrender +came as the last straw to break down the hopes of +the defenders of Venice. On the 22nd, therefore, +the Government agreed to yield. Manin succeeded +in preventing the riots which seemed likely to break +out on the news of the capitulation; and on August +30 the final surrender of Venice to the Austrians +brought to a close the long struggle for liberty +which had begun with the Sicilian rising of 1848.</p> + +<p>On December 20, 1849, there appeared the +following statement in a Swiss paper: "In front +of Manin's door was a stone on which his name was +engraved. The Austrians broke it to pieces; but the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[495]</a></span> +smallest fragments of it have been collected by the +Venetians as sacred relics."</p> + +<p>So ended the revolutionary period of 1848 and +1849. Those Revolutions had displayed, in a way +unknown before, the strength and the weakness of +the national principle. The enthusiasm for liberty, +and the power of generous self-sacrifice, which was +kindled by the feeling for a common language and +common traditions, had been shown in each of the +Revolutions; and they had struck a blow at the +merely diplomatic and military settlements of States +which produced a lasting effect. But, on the other +hand, with the love for men of the same race and +language there awoke in all these nations, with +terrible force, the hatred and scorn for men of other +races and languages; and thus, while the leaders of +the movement taught tyrants their danger, they +supplied them at the same time with a defence +against that danger,—with another justification of +the old maxim of tyrants, "<span lang="la">Divide et impera</span>." And +so the work of the Revolutionists did not fail; but +yet it could not achieve all the noble ends for which +it was intended.</p> + +<p>The time which followed the defeat of the Revolutionists +was to show both their failure and their +success. The dreary period of reaction from 1849 +to 1859 could not have been expected by any sane +man to be of long duration. But the time of reawakening +was not like the time of the first dawn of hope. +The work which had been ennobled by the thought +of Mazzini, by the sword of Garibaldi, by the statesmanship +of Manin, and the eloquent enthusiasm of +Ciceruacchio, was to be carried to completion by the +intrigues of Cavour, and the interested speculation<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[496]</a></span> +of Louis Napoleon. In the place of the wisdom of +Robert Blum, and the wild popular energy of +Hecker, was to arise the stern hard policy of "blood +and iron"; and, as Germany had failed to absorb +Prussia, Prussia was finally to absorb Germany. The +blunders and prejudices of the leaders of the Vienna +Revolution were to be reproduced by Schmerling, +without their self-sacrifice or generosity. But at +the same time Francis Deak, the wise statesman, who +had stood aside in dislike of the fiercer and more +unscrupulous policy of other Magyar leaders, was to +re-establish gradually for his country the freedom +which she had lost for a time during the Revolutionary +struggle. The race struggles of the Austro-Hungarian +Empire were to be renewed in a milder +form, and the solution of their difficulties postponed +to a distant future; while the yet more dangerous +problems of Socialism, which had forced themselves +in so untimely a manner on the citizens of Vienna +and Berlin, were gradually to assume ever greater +prominence in the affairs of Europe. Thus it will +be seen that the Revolutions of 1848 to '49 were but +the climax of movements of which we have not yet +seen the end; but, for good and for evil, they left a +mark on Europe, which is never likely to be entirely +effaced.</p> + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top:2em;">THE END.</p><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[497]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2> + +<table style="width:75%;" border="1" summary="Index"> + <tr> + <td> <a href="#IX_A">A</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_B">B</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_C">C</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_D">D</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_E">E</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_F">F</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_G">G</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_H">H</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_I">I</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_J">J</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_K">K</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_L">L</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_M">M</a></td> + </tr> + <tr> + <td> <a href="#IX_N">N</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_O">O</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_P">P</a></td> + <td> Q</td> + <td> <a href="#IX_R">R</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_S">S</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_T">T</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_U">U</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_V">V</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_W">W</a></td> + <td> X</td> + <td> <a href="#IX_Y">Y</a></td> + <td> <a href="#IX_Z">Z</a></td> + </tr> +</table> + +<div> +<a name="IX_A" id="IX_A"></a>A.<br /> +<br /> +Aargau, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Agram, Bishop of in Gaj's time, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Assembly at, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_145">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May Meeting at, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_319">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Prague, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Albrecht (Professor), <a href="#Page_92">92</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Arch_Duke">Arch Dukes</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alessandria, occupation of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1821, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatened by Radetzky, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Alexander" id="Alexander"></a>Alexander I. of Russia, character of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with M<sup>me</sup> de Krüdener, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan of Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supports Sardinia, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in 1820, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Greece, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alfieri, Vittorio, influence of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Manzoni's feeling to, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence in Piedmont, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Allemandi, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Alliance, Holy. <i>See</i> <a href="#holyalliance">Holy Alliance</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Altieri, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ancona, in 1831, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by French, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">by Triumvirs, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Andrian, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Anfossi, Augusto, conspiracy against Charles Felix, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Milan, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Francesco, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span lang="it">Antologia</span>, of Florence, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_55">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Antonelli, Cardinal, supports Italian war, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suspected of treachery, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Antonini, General, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Apponyi, Chancellor of Hungary, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Arch_Duchess_Sophia" id="Arch_Duchess_Sophia"></a>Arch Duchess Sophia, opposed to Metternich, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">favours Jellaciç, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Arch_Duke" id="Arch_Duke"></a>Arch Duke Albert, in March insurrection, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Francis Charles, in Imperial Council, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by merchants, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Metternich, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- John, promises to Italy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his toast at Cologne, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>-<a href="#Page_210">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his liberalism, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pressure on Metternich, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made administrator, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">forms new ministry, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opens Viennese Parliament, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intervenes in Croatian question, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Louis, helps to govern Vienna, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes removal of Hye, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warns Metternich, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his proposal about Windischgrätz, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Maximilian, in March rising, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_243">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Sigismund, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Stephen, deserts Hungary, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Arcioni, at defence of Rome, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Armellini, in provisional government, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumvir, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>; feelings to French, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Arndt, relations with Stein, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">professor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1816, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restored by Frederick William IV., <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">thanked at Frankfort, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>; vote on truce of Malmö, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Arthaber, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ascoli, Duke of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_35">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_498" id="Page_498">[498]</a></span>---- conspiracy in, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Auersperg, General, in October rising, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Auerswald, death of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Austria, Arch Duchy of, relations with Bohemia and Hungary, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_253">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Emperors of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Francis">Francis</a>, <a href="#Ferdinand">Ferdinand</a>, <a href="#Francis_Joseph">Francis Joseph</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Empire of, special evils of in Italy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">German language in, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_133">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political character of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Möring's view of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Moring">Möring</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kossuth's view of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of Bohemians towards, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Viennese towards, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed federation of, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radetzky's position in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Estates of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Estates">Estates</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Austria_House_of" id="Austria_House_of"></a>---- House of, policy towards Serbs, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_282">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling to Italy, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deposed in Hungary, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>-<a href="#Page_461">61</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Avezzana, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_B" id="IX_B"></a>B.<br /> +<br /> +Bach, his soup kitchen, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his treatment of Rieger, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Baden, from 1815-47, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-<a href="#Page_220">20</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movement in in 1847-8, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_221">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">programme of leaders of, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_233">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrections in, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">8</a>, +<a href="#Page_485">485</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Struve">Struve</a>, <a href="#Hecker">Hecker</a>, and <a href="#Republicans_South_German">Republicans, South German</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Balbo, Prospero, supposed liberalism of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1821, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inconsistencies, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_121">1</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Cesare, early career, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span lang="it">Speranze d'Italia</span>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_122">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Banat, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bandiera Brothers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_120">20</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bassermann, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bassi, Ugo, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Batthyanyi, Louis, in 1839, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1857, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Prime Minister, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his difficulties, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his appeal to Szeklers, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his interview with Jellaciç, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_384">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling about Lamberg, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his resignation, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted mediation, <a href="#Page_462">462</a></span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Battles" id="Battles"></a>Battles, of White Hill, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_251">1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Goito first, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Cornuta, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Curtatone, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Somma Campagna, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Custozza, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Schwechat, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_397">7</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Novara, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bava, General, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_364">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bavaria, treatment of by Metternich, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest against concluding act of Vienna, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance of to Metternich, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1848 in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel of with Baden, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Beauharnais, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bem, early career, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of Vienna, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Kossuth and Görgei, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first campaign in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>-<a href="#Page_447">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Csanyi, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>-<a href="#Page_450">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggle of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>-<a href="#Page_493">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flies to Turkey, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bentinck, Lord William, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Berczenczei, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bergamo, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Berlin, March rising in, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>-<a href="#Page_249">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discontents in, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riots in, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_406">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle of Assembly in, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_414">14</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bern, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bible, Metternich's view of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bini, Carlo, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blasendorf, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_314">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Blum, Robert, first appearance, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Ronge, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">victory of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Poland, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March rising, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_225">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence in Preparatory Parliament, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hinders May rising, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of Truce of Malmö, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in Frankfort riot, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difference with Hecker, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_377">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his republicanism, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Vienna, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_397">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his death and its effects, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_398">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Blumenthal, Major von, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_413">13</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bohemia, division of classes in, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">national feeling in, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of in 17th and 18th centuries, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>-<a href="#Page_253">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revival of language in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>-<a href="#Page_254">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_260">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">race difficulties in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_292">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_499" id="Page_499">[499]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of to Frankfort Parliament, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on of May rising, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">peculiarity of its position, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling towards Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triumphed over by Frankfort Parliament, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deputies of in Viennese Parliament, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Deputies at Olmütz, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>-<a href="#Page_416">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Kremsier, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of in Constitution of 1849, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Slavs">Slavs</a>, <a href="#Prague">Prague</a>, <a href="#Rieger">Rieger</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bologna, in 1830, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Corsica, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Lombards, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in August, 1848, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>-<a href="#Page_369">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle of in 1849, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>-<a href="#Page_479">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bolza, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bonn, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Borrosch, tries to save Latour, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Kremsier, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bozzelli, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brandenburg, General, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- City, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>-<a href="#Page_414">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brescia, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anfossi's service at, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Garibaldi's march to, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rising in 1849, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="#Page_429">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Breslau, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brunetti. <i>See</i> <a href="#Ciceruacchio">Ciceruacchio</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Buda-Pesth" id="Buda-Pesth"></a>Buda-Pesth, March movement in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Presburg, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death of Lamberg in, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of its defence, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieged by Görgei, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bund, constitution of in 1815, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on of Carlsbad Decrees, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">strengthened in 1834, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed reform of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Bundestag, duty of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decrees of in 1830, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Schleswig-Holstein question, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action of in March, 1848, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Frankfort Parliament, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>-<a href="#Page_373">3</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Buonaparte_Charles_Lucien" id="Buonaparte_Charles_Lucien"></a>Buonaparte, Charles Lucien, at Genoa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venice, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_193">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advocates Italian Assembly, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Napoleon I., <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Buonaparte_Louis_Napoleon" id="Buonaparte_Louis_Napoleon"></a>---- Louis Napoleon, expulsion of from Switzerland, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter on Cavaignac's expedition, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected President, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">answer to Roman deputation, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Buonaparte, Pierre, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Buonarotti, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Burschenschaft, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_C" id="IX_C"></a>C.<br /> +<br /> +Camarilla, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Camphausen, his policy, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fall, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Campo Formio, Treaty of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Canino, Prince of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Buonaparte_Charles_Lucien">Buonaparte, Charles Lucien</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Canning, George, his foreign policy, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's opinion of him, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Greece, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his death, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Capo d'Istria, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carbonari, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rise and work of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1820, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_32">2</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini's relations with, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Carlowitz, importance of to Serbs, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May meeting at, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">June attack on, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>-<a href="#Page_320">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Prague, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- General von, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carlsbad Decrees, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carlsruhe, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carpathians, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Casati, honours Confalonieri, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and position, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">behaviour in smoking riots, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March rising, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>-<a href="#Page_266">6</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Lombard war, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini's relations with, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in May rising, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Castellani, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Castlereagh, in 1815, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1821, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suicide, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cavaignac, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cavour, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cernuschi, conduct in March rising, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrested in May, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>-<a href="#Page_358">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his proposal in Rome, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Charles_Albert" id="Charles_Albert"></a>Charles Albert, early career, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visits hospitals, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in 1821, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accession, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of Italians to, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_63">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_500" id="Page_500">[500]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini's letter to, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position in Italy, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_66">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conduct in 1846, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>-<a href="#Page_137">7</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathies with Sonderbund, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in February 1848, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_182">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action about Lombard rising, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-<a href="#Page_338">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mistakes and victories, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_341">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pope's suspicions of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Venetia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>-<a href="#Page_350">50</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action about fusion, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">causes of influence, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_352">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later victories and defeats, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>-<a href="#Page_356">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">betrayal of Milan, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rossi's suspicions of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guerrazzi's feeling to, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuked by Pope, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">last war with Austria, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman feeling towards, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abdication, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>-<a href="#Page_430">30</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Charles_Felix" id="Charles_Felix"></a>Charles Felix, his politics, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>-<a href="#Page_37">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accession, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of government, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Mazzini, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- VI. of Germany, treatment of Serbs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Christian VIII. of Denmark, policy of in 1846, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_164">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_372">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Chrzanowski, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Ciceruacchio" id="Ciceruacchio"></a>Ciceruacchio, his myth of Pius IX., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_143">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his suppression of clerical conspiracy, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his demands for reform, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desires Lombard war, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Civita Vecchia, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>-<a href="#Page_473">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coblenz, resistance to King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cologne, Archbishop of, quarrel of with Frederick William III., <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">released, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- socialism in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Como, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Concordat of Seven, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Confalonieri, Federigo, position and work, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>-<a href="#Page_26">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1821, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisoned, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_46">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of death, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Congress_of_Laybach" id="Congress_of_Laybach"></a>Congress of Laybach, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Congress_of_Verona" id="Congress_of_Verona"></a>---- of Verona, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Congress_of_Vienna" id="Congress_of_Vienna"></a>---- of Vienna, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Consalvi, Cardinal, policy, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest about Ferrara, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Constitution, promise of in Bundes-act, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">granted by King of Würtemberg, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promised by King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crushed in 1819, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- for Austria, proposed by Kossuth, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of April 1848, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>-<a href="#Page_306">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of May, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of March 1849, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>-<a href="#Page_458">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- of Bohemia, old, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_254">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Germany, devised at Frankfort, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Hungary, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_75">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Naples in 1848, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Piedmont, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Prussia in April 1848, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="#Page_404">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Sicily, destruction of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1820, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Spanish, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Naples, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sicily, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Piedmont, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corcelles, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cornuta, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Correnti, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corsica, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Corsini, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cosenza, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>-<a href="#Page_120">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +County Assemblies of Hungary, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cracow, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>-<a href="#Page_132">32</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_135">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cremona, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Crnojeviç, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Croatia, early traditions of, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_98">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">language movement in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">internal struggles, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by Magyars, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy of with Saxons, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kossuth's view of in March 1848, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_228">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">soldiers of in Milan, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venice, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>-<a href="#Page_273">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in March 1848, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition of to "Twelve Points," <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Serbs, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_319">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling in about Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy of with Roumanians, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of to Constitution of 1849, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_501" id="Page_501">[501]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of Jellaciç in, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Csanyi, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_451">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Curtatone, Battle of, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>-<a href="#Page_356">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_D" id="IX_D"></a>D.<br /> +<br /> +Dahlmann, in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1840, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes truce of Malmö, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">subsequent action in Parliament, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_98">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dandolo, Enrico, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dante, influence of on Mazzini, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_56">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Darmstadt. <i>See</i> <a href="#Hesse_Darmstadt">Hesse</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dawkins, Consul, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.<br /> +<br /> +D'Azeglio, Massimo, "I Casi di Romagna," <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_129">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">championship of Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>-<a href="#Page_138">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">praise of Gizzi, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands Constitution, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">puts pressure on Pope, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Deak, in 1832, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>-<a href="#Page_82">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuke to Gaj, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resignation in 1843, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">helps in reforms, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position in first Ministry, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuke to Saxons, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempted mediation, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final triumph, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Debreczin, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.<br /> +<br /> +De Laugier, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Del Caretto, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Della Torre, in 1821, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dembinski, made commander, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Görgei, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_453">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dismissal, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Denmark, relations of with Schleswig-Holstein, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_372">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war with Germany, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dessewfy, in 1825, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deym, Count, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dresden, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_225">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Durando, Giacomo, conspiracy of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">book on Italy, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_126">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands Constitution, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Giovanni, made Papal general, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>-<a href="#Page_340">40</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Radetzky, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Charles Albert and Manin, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Cornuta, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of Vicenza, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrenders Vicenza, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Düsseldorf, resistance to King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_E" id="IX_E"></a>E.<br /> +<br /> +Endlicher, Professor, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +England, policy of in 1815, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"madness of," 49;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Cracow, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>-<a href="#Page_132">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gagern's feeling to, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in Sicily, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Eötvös, controversy with Kossuth, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in first Ministry, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in deputation to Vienna, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retirement, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Estates" id="Estates"></a>Estates of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Lower Austria, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">promises of Metternich to, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in March rising, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_239">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- of Schleswig-Holstein, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Esterhazy in Hungarian Ministry, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ewald, protest in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_F" id="IX_F"></a>F.<br /> +<br /> +Fabbri, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Faster, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Favre, Jules, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Ferdinand" id="Ferdinand"></a>Ferdinand of Austria, accession, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_86">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Croats, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Kossuth, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling of Vienna towards, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_208">8</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>-<a href="#Page_246">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March deputation to, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle with Ministers, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_245">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions to Viennese, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-<a href="#Page_247">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Bohemia, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal of Bohemians to, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_302">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in May, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Jellaciç, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Roumanians, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Palacky's gratitude to, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supposed friendship with St Januarius, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">return to Vienna, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards rival races, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_385">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Hungarians, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>-<a href="#Page_387">7</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second flight, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abdication, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>-<a href="#Page_416">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>-<a href="#Page_461">1</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- I. of Germany, Bohemian policy, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Turks, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- II. of Germany, Bohemian policy, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- III. of Germany, Bohemian policy, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>-<a href="#Page_252">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_502" id="Page_502">[502]</a></span> +<a name="Ferdinand_I_of_Naples" id="Ferdinand_I_of_Naples"></a>---- I. of Naples, destroys Sicilian Constitution, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of Filangieri on, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in 1816, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1820, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">goes to Laybach, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>-<a href="#Page_35">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tyranny, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Ferdinand_II_of_Naples" id="Ferdinand_II_of_Naples"></a>Ferdinand II. of Naples, government of Sicily, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_170">70</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his birthday, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>-<a href="#Page_178">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins Lombard war, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">jealousy of Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May coup d'état, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-<a href="#Page_353">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">re-conquers Sicily, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>-<a href="#Page_470">70</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- of Spain, tyranny, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1820, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ferrara, Austrian claim to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first Austrian occupation, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_150">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of Austrians from, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">second occupation, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">third attack on, <a href="#Page_466">466</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vote of, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ferrari, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ferrero, action in 1821, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ficquelmont, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Filangieri, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fischhof, on March 13th, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>-<a href="#Page_239">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals about Press Law, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to save Latour, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>-<a href="#Page_392">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Kremsier, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fiume, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Florence, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_425">5</a>, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Forli, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Foscolo, Ugo, early career, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">writes "Jacopo Ortis," <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"<span lang="it">Il Conciliatore</span>," <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fossombroni, his policy, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_54">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of his death, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="France" id="France"></a>France in 1815, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Poland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Poland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Cracow, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_218">18</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Roman Republic, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ambassador in Sicily, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francis" id="Francis"></a>Francis, Emperor of Austria, relations with Metternich, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popularity in Rhine Province, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Hungary, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Gaj, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions to Cracow, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebuke of Salzburgers, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of death, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dislike of Jesuits, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Estates of Lower Austria, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Serbs, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francis_IV" id="Francis_IV"></a>Francis IV. of Modena, character and policy, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francis_V" id="Francis_V"></a>---- V. of Modena, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_150">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francis_of_Naples" id="Francis_of_Naples"></a>---- of Naples, supposed liberalism, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tyranny of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Francis_Joseph" id="Francis_Joseph">---- Joseph</a>, Kossuth's hopes from, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accession, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summons Kremsier Parliament, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissolves it, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">issues new Constitution, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostility to Hungary, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to Russians, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Frankfort" id="Frankfort"></a>Frankfort, Decrees at in 1832, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Preparatory Parliament at, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_297">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Committee of Fifty at, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- riots at, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Constituent Assembly at, proposed, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early action of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_363">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">causes of loss of power, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure in Schleswig-Holstein question, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of towards Prussian Parliament, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers Crown of Germany to Frederick William, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>-<a href="#Page_485">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Frankl, <a href="#Footnote-17">note to 399</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Frederick II. of Prussia, attitude to German literature, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Frederick_William_III" id="Frederick_William_III"></a>---- William III. of Prussia, in 1815, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>-<a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling to Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Schmaltz, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">scruples, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Archbishop of Cologne, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and death, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_94">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Frederick_William_IV" id="Frederick_William_IV"></a>---- William IV. of Prussia, character, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Metternich, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summons to Estates, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>-<a href="#Page_166">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conduct in March rising, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-<a href="#Page_249">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Posen, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares war on Denmark, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">makes truce, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_374">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with Jacoby, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>-<a href="#Page_409">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dissolves parliament, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>-<a href="#Page_414">14</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalls deputies from Frankfort, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_503" id="Page_503">[503]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">suppresses Baden rising, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> also <a href="#Prussia">Prussia</a>, <a href="#Frankfort">Frankfort</a>, <a href="#Jacoby">Jacoby</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Freyburg, Canton, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_161">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Town, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fröbel, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Füster, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_G" id="IX_G"></a>G.<br /> +<br /> +Gabler, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_255">5</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gaeta, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gagern, Heinrich von, influence in Darmstadt, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gaj, his Illyrian movement, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_99">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his answer to Deak, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of his work, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March movement in Vienna, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suspected by Greek clergy, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_284">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his attitude to Serbs, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his feelings to Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Galicia, insurrection of,1846, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_134">4</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Maria Theresa's treatment of, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">April rising in, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>-<a href="#Page_307">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wish for separation, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Galletti, General, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Minister, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Garibaldi, repulsed by Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>-<a href="#Page_367">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">excluded from Bologna, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Zucchi, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invited to Sicily, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Oudinot, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>-<a href="#Page_476">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Neapolitans, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Roselli, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>-<a href="#Page_482">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle by the Vascello, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>-<a href="#Page_486">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popularity, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advice to Assembly, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final effort, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gavazzi, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gedeon, General, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Genoa, treatment of, by England, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1821, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1847-8, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>-<a href="#Page_182">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends volunteers to Lombardy, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final insurrection in, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Germany, aspirations of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">religious feeling in, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Bund, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stein's feeling towards, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discontent in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of from 1819 to 1840, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_91">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">literary and religious movement in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_96">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of unity of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_223">3</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_249">9</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>-<a href="#Page_294">4</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of to Vienna, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Bohemia, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>-<a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling in to Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Prussia, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on, of fall of Vienna, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of liberties of, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>-<a href="#Page_485">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Germany, South, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_222">22</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gervinus, in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gioberti, writes for "Young Italy," <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>-<a href="#Page_123">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"<span lang="it">Il Primato</span>," <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_125">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Jesuits, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affected by Pius IX.'s election, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans for restoring Pope, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Giskra, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>-<a href="#Page_308">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Gizzi, Cardinal, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>-<a href="#Page_142">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goegg, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goethe, influence on Foscolo, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Manzoni, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Goito. <i>See</i> <a href="#Battles">Battles</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goldmark, on March 13th, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to reconcile Germans and Bohemians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saves Rieger from violence, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to save Latour, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Görgei, early career, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_434">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made commander, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrels with Kossuth, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>-<a href="#Page_439">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings to Bem, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">removed from command, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Dembinski, <a href="#Page_452">452</a>-<a href="#Page_454">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political creed, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>-<a href="#Page_459">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures Komorn, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieges Pesth, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made Dictator, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his surrender, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>-<a href="#Page_494">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Görres, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Greece, rising in, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">7</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Greek Church, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>-<a href="#Page_284">4</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Gregory_XVI" id="Gregory_XVI"></a>Gregory XVI., treatment of Gaj, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">unpopularity of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renzi's charges against, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state of government at death of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_139">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's attitude to, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Swiss reformers, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms proposed to him, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Louis Napoleon's insurrection against, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Grillo, Giovanni, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_172">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grimm brothers, in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Guerrazzi, literary leadership, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">liberalism of, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_504" id="Page_504">[504]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisoned, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plans for Leopold, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in provisional government, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes Mazzini, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_425">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes Gioberti, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of his government, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>-<a href="#Page_468">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Guizot" id="Guizot"></a>Guizot, relations with Metternich, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_H" id="IX_H"></a>H.<br /> +<br /> +Hanover, constitution granted, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abolished, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest of professors in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>-<a href="#Page_92">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- King of, resists March movement, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes Frankfort Assembly, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hansemann, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hapsburg. <i>See</i> <a href="#Austria_House_of">Austria, house of</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Haulik, Bishop, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Haynau, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="#Page_429">9</a>, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Hecker" id="Hecker"></a>Hecker, causes of popularity, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-<a href="#Page_220">20</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of at Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of insurrection, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_377">7</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Heidelberg, March meeting at, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Herbst, Dr., <a href="#Footnote-7">note to 134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hermannstadt, importance in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment by Bem, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hesse Cassel, March rising in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Hesse_Darmstadt" id="Hesse_Darmstadt"></a>---- Darmstadt, March rising in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of Gagern in, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Duke of, his action in Mainz, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hofer, Andrew, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Holy Alliance<a name="holyalliance" id="holyalliance"></a>, end of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Alexander">Alexander</a>, <a href="#Krudener">Krüdener (M<sup>me</sup> de)</a>, <a href="#Frederick_William_III">Frederick William III.</a>, <a href="#Metternich">Metternich</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Honveds, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hormayr, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Horn, Uffo, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hoyos, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hrabowsky, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hungary, difference from other countries, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>-<a href="#Page_75">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of races in, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Croatia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">7</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of national feeling, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>-<a href="#Page_107">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">"nobles," <a href="#Page_103">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">compared with Lombardy, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of, for county government, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_203">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of, with Vienna, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_230">30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gagern's admiration of, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">responsible ministry in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>-<a href="#Page_247">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>-<a href="#Page_387">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of by Jellaciç, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_389">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of after Schwechat, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>-<a href="#Page_433">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">division of parties in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_439">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later struggles in, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_463">63</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Venice, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final effort of, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>-<a href="#Page_494">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hungary, Diet of, in 1825, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1832, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1840, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1843, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1849, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Hye, share in debating Society, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces annexation of Cracow, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hesitations in March, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_235">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Windischgrätz, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude about press law, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="#Page_304">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- House of Magnates of, their concession to Croats, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_I" id="IX_I"></a>I.<br /> +<br /> +Illyrian Movement, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Imola, conspiracy in, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Pius_IX">Pius IX.</a><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Innspruck" id="Innspruck"></a>Innspruck, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inquisition, <a href="#Page_465">465</a>-<a href="#Page_466">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Istria, influence of Venice in, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Italy, conquerors' promises to, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_21">1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition of, in 1820-30, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_53">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">question of unity of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_58">8</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Hungary, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>-<a href="#Page_118">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of Charles Albert in, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_64">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Switzerland, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of other races to, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">separateness of struggle in, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling of Frankfort parliament to, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>-<a href="#Page_363">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Viennese to, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings in towards Roumanians, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggles in, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>-<a href="#Page_488">88</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Young. <i>See</i> <a href="#Mazzini">Mazzini</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_J" id="IX_J"></a>J.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Jacoby" id="Jacoby"></a>Jacoby defies King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with Blumenthal, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_413">13</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_505" id="Page_505">[505]</a></span>Jahn, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jancu, career in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_443">443</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suspicions of Kossuth, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kossuth's negotiations with, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Jellaciç, elected Ban, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in April and May, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advances to Serbs, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>-<a href="#Page_319">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings to Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of Viennese to, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position in June, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with Batthyanyi, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>-<a href="#Page_384">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">change of position, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invades Hungary, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Dictator, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his defeats, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">marches against Vienna, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">publishes Constitution of 1849, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Jesuits, attacks on in Saxony, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gioberti's quarrel with, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence at Rome, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Tuscany, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">expulsion of from Rome demanded, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">from Turin, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred of in Vienna, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Bavaria, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anfossi's hostility to, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks on in Brescia, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">propaganda of against Greek Church, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred of Rossi, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +John, Arch Duke. <i>See</i><a href="#Arch_Duke"> Arch Duke</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Joseph I. of Germany, his treatment of Serbs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- II. of Germany, his policy, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his agrarian reforms, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Germanising attempts of, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_111">11</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in Bohemia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Hungarians, <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Jozipoviç, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_105">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jungmann, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_K" id="IX_K"></a>K.<br /> +<br /> +Kikinda. <i>See</i> <a href="#Velika_Kikinda">Velika Kikinda</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kiss, victory over Serbs, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_386">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle with Russians, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Klapka, captures Komorn, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his defence of it, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Klausenburg, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>, <a href="#Page_446">446</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Knicsanin, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kollar, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kolowrat, relations with Metternich, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds College of Censorship, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mistakes in March, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-<a href="#Page_232">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Bohemians, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March Ministry, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Komorn, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kossuth, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character and early career, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>-<a href="#Page_84">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisoned, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">released, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">starts "<span lang="hu">Pesti Hirlap</span>," <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks Slavs, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_102">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">championship of Jozipoviç, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Poland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dispute with Eötvös, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>-<a href="#Page_201">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of power, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_203">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">programme of reform, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_202">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech of March 3rd, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_229">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its effects, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his welcome in Vienna, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of in March Ministry, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>-<a href="#Page_280">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of to Serbs, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Croats, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_288">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to Ferdinand in May, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suspected by Bohemians, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inconsistencies about Italy, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of Viennese towards, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Croatian army, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">urges advance of Hungarians, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_396">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position after Schwechat, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints Görgei, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrels with Görgei, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>-<a href="#Page_439">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Bem, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">order in October, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Csanyi, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints Vetter, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">issues Declaration of Independence, <a href="#Page_458">458</a>-<a href="#Page_462">62</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">causes of power, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Manin, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggles, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Kotzebue, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kremsier, Parliament at, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>-<a href="#Page_417">17</a>, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>-<a href="#Page_455">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kriny, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_172">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Krudener" id="Krudener"></a>Krüdener, M<sup>me</sup> de, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kübeck in March ministry, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kudler, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kukuljeviç, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_277">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Kuranda, edits "<span lang="de">Grenz Boten</span>," <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">argues with Bohemians, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals against Press Law, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_L" id="IX_L"></a>L.<br /> +<br /> +La Farina, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lago Maggiore, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_506" id="Page_506">[506]</a></span>La Masa, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lamberg, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lambruschini, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Latour, Governor at Vienna, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- War Minister, his intrigues, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_383">3</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends Lamberg to Pesth, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his plot discovered, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sends troops to Hungary, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_391">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his death, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_382">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Laybach. <i>See</i> <a href="#Congress_of_Laybach">Congress of</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lazzaroni, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Le Blanc, Colonel, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leghorn, literary movement in, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>-<a href="#Page_56">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Legion, of Vienna students, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Prague, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leipzig, sympathy of, with Dahlmann, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riot at in 1845, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_225">5</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#University">University</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lemberg, contrasted with Prague, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lemenyi, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leo XII., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Leopold I., Emperor of Germany, treatment of Illyrians, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Transylvania, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Serbs, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- II., Emperor of Germany, Bohemian policy, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions to Serbs, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, contrasted with his successors, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, policy, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Renzi, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">banishes D'Azeglio, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">becomes a reformer, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Lucca and Modena, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_150">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grants Constitution, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>-<a href="#Page_180">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">declares war on Austria, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motives of action, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lesseps, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>-<a href="#Page_481">81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Libelt, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Löhner, his proposal in March, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Latour, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Kremsier, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lola Montez, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lombardy, effect on of Napoleon's wars, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weakness of Central Congregation, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">condition in 1815, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Carbonarism in, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">state in 1821, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_46">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Menz's plans for, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>-<a href="#Page_73">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1846, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_144">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>-<a href="#Page_186">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">grievances of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">February edict in, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_215">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March risings in, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_269">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war in, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_368">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austrian treachery in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Charles Albert's last war in, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="#Page_429">9</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#Nazari">Nazari</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Louis, Arch Duke. <i>See</i> <a href="#Arch_Duke">Arch Duke</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Napoleon. <i>See</i> <a href="#Buonaparte_Louis_Napoleon">Buonaparte</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Philippe, his conservatism, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in 1833, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Guizot">Guizot</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lucca, political position, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Tuscany, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Lüders, General, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Luzern, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>-<a href="#Page_154">4</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Lychnowsky, his death, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_M" id="IX_M"></a>M.<br /> +<br /> +Maestri, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Magyars, their relations with other races, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>-<a href="#Page_97">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's hostility to them, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">their hostility to Croats, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">1st settlement in Hungary, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Roumanians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>-<a href="#Page_443">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Roth, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Slovaks, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Slavs, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_282">2</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_286">6</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>-<a href="#Page_320">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in May, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Bohemians, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="#Page_388">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards Italy, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>-<a href="#Page_336">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Vienna, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="#Page_389">9</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mailath, Anton, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mainz, treatment of by Prussians, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Malghera, <a href="#Page_489">489</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Malmö, truce of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its effect in Berlin, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mamiani, Terenzio, his banishment, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence at Paris, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refuses amnesty, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made Minister, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy and fall, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_418">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made Foreign Minister, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>-<a href="#Page_422">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_507" id="Page_507">[507]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude after Pope's fall, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with Lesseps, <a href="#Page_479">479</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Manara, in rising in Milan, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difficulties in Lombard war, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">march to Civita Vecchia, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">controversy with Oudinot, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>-<a href="#Page_472">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at defence of Rome, <a href="#Page_474">474</a>-<a href="#Page_477">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Manin" id="Manin"></a>Manin, promotes railway with Piedmont, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his petitions, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_195">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its effect, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his release, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March rising, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>-<a href="#Page_274">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influenced by Venetian traditions, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Durando, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">welcomes Pepe, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>-<a href="#Page_355">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resists fusion, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to help Vicenza, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>-<a href="#Page_359">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resignation, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_360">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recall, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggle, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his stone, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>-<a href="#Page_495">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mannheim, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mantua, in March rising, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captured by Radetzky, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortification of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movements of Radetzky about, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Manzoni, career and aims, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_25">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growth of influence, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Margherita, Solaro della, opposed to Gioberti, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">politics, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Sonderbund, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Maria Theresa, agrarian reforms of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Transylvania, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Bohemia, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Serbs, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>-<a href="#Page_283">3</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Marinovich, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maros Vasarhely, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maximilian. <i>See</i><a href="#Arch_Duke"> Arch Duke</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mayerhoffer, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Mazzini" id="Mazzini"></a>Mazzini, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_56">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Carbonari, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>-<a href="#Page_57">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political creed, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_59">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first banishment, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">first insurrection, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">letter to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>-<a href="#Page_64">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">personal influence, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_67">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with other revolutionists, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>-<a href="#Page_68">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">founds Young Italy, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_69">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invasion of Savoy, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">impression on Metternich, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation with Brothers Bandiera, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>-<a href="#Page_120">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sympathy with Poland, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of on working classes, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Tommaseo, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal for Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-<a href="#Page_338">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">visit to Milan, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Lombard Government, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advice rejected, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest against fusion, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes May insurrection, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">plan for defence of Milan, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_366">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">last struggle in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Leghorn, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_425">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">work as Triumvir, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">warned by Ledru Rollin, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">urges resistance to French, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling of Lesseps to, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">repels Corcelles, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his final advice to Assembly, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mazzoni, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Medici, last effort in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defends Vascello, <a href="#Page_483">483</a>-<a href="#Page_486">6</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Menotti, Ciro, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mensdorff, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Menz, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>-<a href="#Page_73">3</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Meesenhauser, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Messina, in 1820, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Ferdinand's visit to, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">September rising in, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Meszaros, in Batthyanyi's Ministry, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rebukes Görgei, <a href="#Page_453">453</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">supersedes Görgei, <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Metternich" id="Metternich"></a>Metternich, Prince, rise to power, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system of government, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling to Alexander, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to religion, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>-<a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Stein, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to S. German States, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">a "moral power," <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triumph in 1819, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>-<a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surprise at movement of 1820, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Lombardy in 1821, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Confalonieri, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>-<a href="#Page_46">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Greece, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Canning, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">change towards England, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_49">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">triumph in 1832, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_51">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy towards Tuscany, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Mazzini, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings to Hungary, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Szechenyi, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat in 1839, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_87">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Gaj, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Cracow, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling to Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_136">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_508" id="Page_508">[508]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Canton Ticino, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupation of Ferrara, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards Switzerland, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_152">2</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling about Jesuits, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Guizot, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Frederick William IV., <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Schleswig-Holstein, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position at end of 1847, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions to Lombardy, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Italy, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on Hungarian County Government, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_203">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how affected by Ferdinand's accession, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on <span lang="de">Grenz Boten</span>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">causes of unpopularity, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">oppression of Lombardy, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to S. Germany, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_219">19</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alarm at French Revolution, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hopes to crush Hungary, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vague promises of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>-<a href="#Page_232">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance to March rising, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_241">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands for removal of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>-<a href="#Page_235">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fall, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_244">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opinion of Serbs, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Metternich, Princess, her opinion of Pius IX., <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Frederick William IV., <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</span><br /> +---- Germain, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mieroslawski, in March rising, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enthusiasm for in Berlin, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Sicily, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Baden, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mihacsfalva, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Milan, grain riots in 1847, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demonstration at, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>-<a href="#Page_147">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of in February 1848, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_186">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Provincial Congregation, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smoking riots, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>-<a href="#Page_198">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's concessions to, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of Sicilian revolution in, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>-<a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_269">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of, in Lombard war, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_337">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini's visit to, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>-<a href="#Page_350">50</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Venice, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May rising in, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>-<a href="#Page_367">7</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Military frontier, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Minto, Lord, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Modena, political position, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austrian occupation, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection in, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defended by Durando, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radetzky's policy in, <a href="#Footnote-15">note to 380</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Francis_IV">Francis IV.</a> and <a href="#Francis_V">V.</a></span><br /> +<br /> +Moga, General, hesitations, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>-<a href="#Page_397">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deposition, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Moltke, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moncenigo, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-<a href="#Page_196">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Montanara, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Montanelli, promotes unity in Italy, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brings pressure on Pius IX., <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his scheme of constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins provisional Government, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offered place in Triumvirate, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Montecuccoli, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_239">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Monti, Vincenzo, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Moravia, relations of with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Moro, Domenico, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Moring" id="Moring"></a>Möring, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Murat, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_N" id="IX_N"></a>N.<br /> +<br /> +Naples, Carbonari in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggles for freedom in, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_29">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tyranny in, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Sicily, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>-<a href="#Page_171">71</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection of in 1848, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">riots in, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coup d'état in, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>-<a href="#Page_353">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle of with Rome, <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Kings of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Ferdinand_I_of_Naples">Ferdinand</a>, <a href="#Francis_of_Naples">Francis</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Napoleon. <i>See</i> <a href="#Buonaparte_Charles_Lucien">Buonaparte</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nassau, revolution of '48, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>-<a href="#Page_223">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Nazari" id="Nazari"></a>Nazari, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_190">90</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neuhaus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Neusatz, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_285">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Nicholas" id="Nicholas"></a>Nicholas of Russia, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nopcsa, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nota, Alberto, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Novara. <i>See</i> <a href="#Battles">Battles</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nugent, General, his promises to Italy, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his appointment in Naples, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his choice of Pepe, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his invasion of Venetia, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attack on Brescia, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /><a name="IX_O" id="IX_O"></a> +O.<br /> +<br /> +Ochsenbein, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.<br /> +<br /> +O'Donnell, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_509" id="Page_509">[509]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his carriage, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Offenburg (meeting at), <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Olivieri, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Olmütz, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Opizzoni, opinion of smoking riots, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">saved by Bolognese, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Orsini, preserves order, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oudinot, expedition to Civita Vecchia, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>, <a href="#Page_472">472</a>-<a href="#Page_473">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interview with Manara, <a href="#Page_471">471</a>-<a href="#Page_472">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Garibaldi, <a href="#Page_475">475</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his treachery, <a href="#Page_480">480</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>-<a href="#Page_483">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capture of Rome, <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_P" id="IX_P"></a>P.<br /> +<br /> +Pachta, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_184">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Padua, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Venice, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Durando's wish to assist, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">desire of for fusion, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Palacky, revives Bohemian language, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">refusal to Committee of Fifty, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech in Prague Committee, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_299">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summons Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech in Congress, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_323">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feast of reconciliation, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in June rising, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accused of plot, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Palermo, in 1820, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1847, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>-<a href="#Page_171">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in January, 1848, <i>see</i> <a href="#Sicily">Sicily</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bombardment of, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Palffy, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Palma, Count, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Palmanuova, fall of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Palmerston, protest about Cracow, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in Italy, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Metternich, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy in Switzerland, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Manin, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Papacy, Metternich's respect for independence of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its effect on Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gioberti's view of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>-<a href="#Page_124">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pareto, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parini, Giuseppe, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Paris, contrasted with Palermo and Presburg, <a href="#Page_vi">Preface 2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Young Italy in, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Polish centre in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution in, <i>see</i> <a href="#France">France</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini's address from, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rossi's influence in, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Parma, political position of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">occupied by Austrians, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">throws off Austrian yoke, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defended by Durando, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Passalacqua, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pavia, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peasantry, of Poland, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Hungary, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_83">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pepe, Guglielmo, chosen leader in 1820, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>-<a href="#Page_32">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated in 1821, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heads Lombard expedition, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalled by Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">welcomed by Manin, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Florestano, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Perczel, his quarrel with Görgei, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Perthes, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Peschiera, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pesth. <i>See</i> <a href="#Buda-Pesth">Buda-Pesth</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Petöfy, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pfuel, General von, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Piedmont" id="Piedmont"></a>Piedmont, Gioberti's view of its position, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>-<a href="#Page_125">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Ticino, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_136">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">share of in Lombard war, <i>see</i> <a href="#Charles_Albert">Charles Albert</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">league of princes against, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fusion of with Lombardy, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>-<a href="#Page_351">1</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fusion of with Venetia, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_360">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Rome, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pillersdorf, concessions to Bohemians, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March Ministry, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="#Page_304">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">advice in May, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fall, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pisa. <i>See</i> <a href="#University">University</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Pius_VII" id="Pius_VII"></a>Pius VII., his protest against Treaty of Vienna, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on Papacy of early career, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pius VIII., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Pius_IX" id="Pius_IX"></a>Pius IX., election, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">amnesty, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">popular belief in, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>-<a href="#Page_143">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reforms, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conspiracy against him, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">uncertainties, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>; effect of his reforms, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions at end of 1847, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hesitations, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dragged into Lombard war, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">confusion of his position, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Encyclical of April 29th, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>-<a href="#Page_347">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts Mamiani, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">suspicions of King of Naples, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_510" id="Page_510">[510]</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Radetzky's alarm at his reforms, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in June 1848, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_418">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appoints Rossi, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepts democratic Ministry, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight to Gaeta, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounces Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Poerio, Carlo, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poland, insurrection of 1830, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of exiles with Italy, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">weakness of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of Liberals to, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposals about in Frankfort Parliament, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its share in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pollet, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Portugal, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Posen, Blum's feeling to, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March movement in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_249">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Prussia, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Frankfort Parliament, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruelties of Pfuel in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions to, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pozzo di Borgo, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pragmatic Sanction, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Prague" id="Prague"></a>Prague, in the 17th century, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March movement in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_260">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">race difficulties in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_290">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meeting of Congress at, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>-<a href="#Page_328">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">June rising in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_333">33</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of fall, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>-<a href="#Page_323">3</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Presburg, influence of contrasted with Paris, <a href="#Page_vi">preface 2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of contrasted with Buda-Pesth, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_279">9</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Press, Austrian law on, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_194">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands for freedom of, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">concessions of in Vienna, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>-<a href="#Page_304">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Hungary, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Berlin, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">censorship of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Prussia" id="Prussia"></a>Prussia, position in Europe, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred of in Rhine Province, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of in Germany in 1837, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of to Cracow, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rivalry of with Frankfort, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Posen, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action of in Danish war, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">change of relations with Germany, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">constitutional struggles in, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_414">14</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- King of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Frederick_William_III">Frederick William III.</a> and <a href="#Frederick_William_IV">IV.</a><br /> +<br /> +Prussia, Prince William of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Puchner, relations of with Roumans, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>-<a href="#Page_441">1</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">campaign in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>-<a href="#Page_446">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">negotiates with Russians, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>-<a href="#Page_448">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">deposed, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Pulazky, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_R" id="IX_R"></a>R.<br /> +<br /> +Raab, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Radetzky, appealed to by Duke of Modena, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatens Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Milanese opinion of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hostility of to Lombard clergy, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organizes smoking massacres, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>-<a href="#Page_198">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proclamation by, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>-<a href="#Page_199">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March rising, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_266">6</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accepted as champion of Empire, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retreat from Milan, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">denounced by Durando, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recaptures Mantua, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fortifies it, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Curtatone, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Goito, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">share in May conspiracy, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">captures Vicenza, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>-<a href="#Page_364">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reconquers Lombardy, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invades Roman States, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of in Modena, <a href="#Footnote-15">note to 380</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treachery of in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggle against Venice, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ragusa, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rainieri, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rajaciç, timidity, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summons Serb Assembly, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conduct in Serb Assembly, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">elected Patriarch, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Croats, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle with Stratimiroviç, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_386">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">checks opposition to Austria, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rakoczi, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_282">2</a>. See <a href="#Footnote-11">note</a> also.<br /> +<br /> +Ramorino, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>-<a href="#Page_71">1</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Recsey, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_389">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Regis, Colonel, in 1821, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1831, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Renzi, Pietro, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>-<a href="#Page_128">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Republicans, Italian, in Lombard war, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">attitude of in Milan, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_358">8</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_511" id="Page_511">[511]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of Rome by, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_466">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of Rome by, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>-<a href="#Page_487">87</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Republicans_South_German" id="Republicans_South_German"></a>Republicans, South German, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_233">3</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_378">8</a>, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reichenberg, rivalry with Prague, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Restelli, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rhine Province, Prussian tyranny in, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March rising, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Socialism in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with France, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ridolfi, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Rieger" id="Rieger"></a>Rieger, summons Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accused of plot, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of in Vienna Parliament, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Kremsier, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Riego, Raphael, his insurrection, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">1</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rilliet, General, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rimini, insurrection of, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>-<a href="#Page_128">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rodbertus, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rollin, Ledru, warns Mazzini, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes expedition to Rome, <a href="#Page_476">476</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his insurrection, <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Romagna, insurrection in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roman States, movement in for Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>-<a href="#Page_423">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government of by Triumvirate, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_467">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reconquest of by Austrians, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#Pius_VII">Pius VII.</a>, <a href="#Gregory_XVI">Gregory XVI.</a>, <a href="#Saffi">Saffi</a>, <a href="#Ciceruacchio">Ciceruacchio</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rome, opening of Parliament in, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rising in after Rossi's death, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mazzini in, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Triumvirate in, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_467">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Tuscany, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>-<a href="#Page_468">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French expedition against, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>-<a href="#Page_473">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">siege of, <a href="#Page_473">473</a>-<a href="#Page_477">7</a>, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>-<a href="#Page_484">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_486">486</a>-<a href="#Page_488">8</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#Pius_IX">Pius IX.</a>, <a href="#Mazzini">Mazzini</a>, <a href="#Ciceruacchio">Ciceruacchio</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Ronge, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_95">5</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Roselli, <a href="#Page_481">481</a>-<a href="#Page_482">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rossi, influence at Paris, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">share in election of Pius IX., <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Guizot, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed Minister, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>-<a href="#Page_421">1</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Roth, Stephen, his pamphlet, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>-<a href="#Page_114">14</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">emigration scheme, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_116">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">government in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death, <a href="#Page_450">450</a>-<a href="#Page_452">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Roumanians" id="Roumanians"></a>Roumanians, conquered by Szekler, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on of Joseph II.'s reforms, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_111">11</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span lang="la">Libellus Wallachorum</span>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_112">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by Schaguna, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of by Roth, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May meeting, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_315">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">growing sympathy with Saxons, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_318">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggles of in September and October, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_446">46</a>, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feelings of to Constitution of 1849, <a href="#Page_456">456</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Kossuth's concessions to, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Rovigo, relations of with Venice, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ruffini, Jacopo, his suicide, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ruggiero, Settimo, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_469">469</a>-<a href="#Page_470">70</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Russia, position of in Europe, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy of to Cracow, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hatred of in Vienna, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling of German Liberals to, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Palacky to, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fear of in Berlin, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">invades Transylvania, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeat of by Bem, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquers Transylvania, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Czar of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Alexander">Alexander</a>, <a href="#Nicholas">Nicholas</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ruthenians, demands of in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_S" id="IX_S"></a>S.<br /> +<br /> +St. Gallen, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Saaz, rivalry with Prague, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Saffi" id="Saffi"></a>Saffi, Aurelio, action in time of Gregory XVI., <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal for a Constituent Assembly, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">made Triumvir, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">helps in preserving order, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>-<a href="#Page_465">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Salmen, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Salvotti, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sand, Ludwig, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Santa_Rosa" id="Santa_Rosa"></a>Santa Rosa, Santorre di, his policy in 1821, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Charles Albert, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">policy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_43">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final defeat, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Pietro di, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_512" id="Page_512">[512]</a></span>Sardinia, King of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Victor_Amadeus">Victor Amadeus</a>, <a href="#Victor_Emmanuel_I">Victor Emmanuel</a>, <a href="#Charles_Felix">Charles Felix</a>, <a href="#Charles_Albert">Charles Albert</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sardinia, position of. <i>See</i> <a href="#Piedmont">Piedmont</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sarner Bund, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Savelli, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Savoy, invasion of in 1834, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_71">71</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">House of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Victor_Amadeus">Victor Amadeus</a>, &c.</span><br /> +<br /> +Saxons, position of in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_110">10</a>, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of to Roumanians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>-<a href="#Page_445">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by Magyars, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>-<a href="#Page_115">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest against absorption, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-<a href="#Page_316">16</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vote on that subject, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Puchner, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">application of to Russia, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of by Csanyi, <a href="#Page_449">449</a>-<a href="#Page_452">52</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Saxony, King of, in 1815, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Prussian claim to, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reform movement in, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>-<a href="#Page_96">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">revolution of 1848 in, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_225">5</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schaguna, his work for Roumanians, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">share in May meeting, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>-<a href="#Page_315">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempt to check Roumans, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Puchner, <a href="#Page_445">445</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal to Russia, <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Scharnhorst, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schauffer, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schill, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schiller, on German literature, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schilling, insults Bohemians, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>-<a href="#Page_299">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schleswig-Holstein, question of in 1846, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_165">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_375">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of in Prussia, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_407">7</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schmalz, his pamphlet, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his honours, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schmerling, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schuselka, his pamphlet, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demand for his expulsion, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal against Press law, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to reconcile Germans and Bohemians, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech to Magyar deputation, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>-<a href="#Page_388">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Schütte, organizes April demonstration, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>-<a href="#Page_305">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schwarzenberg, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>-<a href="#Page_269">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schwytz, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>-<a href="#Page_153">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sciva, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_172">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sedlnitzky, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fall, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Serbs, effect of their entry into Hungary, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_98">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Buda-Pesth, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in March 1848, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of in March and April 1848, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>-<a href="#Page_285">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movement for independence, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>-<a href="#Page_287">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May meeting of, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>-<a href="#Page_312">12</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">May insurrection, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's opinion of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">changed character of movement, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_86">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling of to Constitution of 1849, <a href="#Page_455">455</a>-<a href="#Page_456">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of Rajaciç over, <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Sicily" id="Sicily"></a>Sicily, constitution destroyed, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude of in 1820, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_34">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reconquest of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of insurrection, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Neapolitan government of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>-<a href="#Page_170">70</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection in January 1848, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_177">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">offers throne to Duke of Genoa, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>-<a href="#Page_352">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_468">468</a>-<a href="#Page_470">70</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sigel, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silesia, Prussian, effect of famine in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">general condition of, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_403">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman Catholics in, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Austrian, relations of with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Silvio Pellico, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Simon of Breslau, action in Frankfort riots, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>-<a href="#Page_376">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sismondi, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sladkowsky, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slavonia, relations of with Croatia, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_98">8</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">centre of Serb movement, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_284">4</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Slavs" id="Slavs"></a>Slavs, their position in Hungary, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attempts to Magyarise, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_102">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in March 1848, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Germany, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Congress of, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_301">1</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>-<a href="#Page_328">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Southern, connection between, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>-<a href="#Page_99">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Slovaks, relations of with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">demands of in March 1848, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_513" id="Page_513">[513]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Ferdinand, <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Slovenes, demands of in March 1848, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Smolka, tries to save Latour, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Socialism, at Frankfort, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Vienna, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Berlin, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later rise of, <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Solothurn, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sommaruga, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sonderbund, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">war of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_163">3</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sophia, Arch Duchess. <i>See</i> <a href="#Arch_Duchess_Sophia">Arch Duchess</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spain, popular feeling in, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rule of in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rising in 1820, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>-<a href="#Page_31">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">French invasion of in 1822, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Spaur, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_189">9</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Speri, Tito, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stabile, Mariano, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stände. <i>See</i> <a href="#Estates">Estates</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Statella, General, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stein, influence on Czar, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Metternich, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>-<a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loss of power, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude towards Wartburg demonstration, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">zeal for constitution, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stephen. <i>See</i> <a href="#Arch_Duke">Arch Dukes</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sterbini, denounces Rossi, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rossi's feeling to, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appointed Minister, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in provisional government, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Roselli, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Stratimiroviç, character and position, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">burns Crnojeviç's letter, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">finds allies for Serbs, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">overthrow by Rajaciç, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_386">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">counteracted by Rajaciç, <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Strobach, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Struve" id="Struve"></a>Struve, early efforts of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>-<a href="#Page_221">21</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">at Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his fifteen proposals, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_295">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heads September rising, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>-<a href="#Page_378">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Stuttgart" id="Stuttgart"></a>Stuttgart, <a href="#Page_485">485</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Wurtemberg">Würtemberg</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Suplikaç, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Switzerland, struggles in, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_163">63</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacks of Austria on, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of on Baden, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Swornost, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">9</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Szabò, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Szaffarik, work for Slovaks, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on Serbs, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">summons Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Slav Congress, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">action in June rising, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Szechenyi, in 1825, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>-<a href="#Page_76">6</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">political position, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Metternich, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of his movement in Croatia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">championship of Slavs, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_103">3</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Batthyanyi, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Kossuth, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">madness, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Szegedin, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Szeklers, position in Transylvania, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_109">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude to Roumanians, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Magyars, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">collision of with Roumans, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>-<a href="#Page_318">18</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposition to Puchner, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appealed to by Roumans, <a href="#Page_442">442</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruelties, <a href="#Page_444">444</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bem's relations with, <a href="#Page_447">447</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance of to Russians, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Szemere, his Press law, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Szent-Tomas, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_T" id="IX_T"></a>T.<br /> +<br /> +Taaffe, opposition to Pillersdorf, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tatischeff, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Teleki, Governor of Transylvania, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thun, Count Leo, controversy with Pulszky, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins National Committee, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">threatens Swornost, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeals to Windischgrätz, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisoned, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>-<a href="#Page_330">30</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +---- Count Matthias, summons Slavonic Congress, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thurgau, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thurn, General, <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ticino, Canton, relations with Piedmont, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>-<a href="#Page_137">7</a>, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for free trade, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attacked by Uri, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tommaseo, his petitions, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_194">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">early career, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arrest and release, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_271">1</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tries to help Vicenza, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposes fusion, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_360">60</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Torres, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_514" id="Page_514">[514]</a></span>Torresani, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>-<a href="#Page_183">3</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Transylvania, position of its Diet, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diet dissolved in 1832, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Diet restored in 1839, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">geographical position of, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-<a href="#Page_108">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ethnology of, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>-<a href="#Page_109">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roth's view of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on Hungary, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_282">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">position of Roumanians in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">loss of independence, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>-<a href="#Page_317">17</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">later struggles in, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>-<a href="#Page_452">52</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">conquest of by Russians, <a href="#Page_491">491</a>-<a href="#Page_492">2</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Treviso, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Trieste, Italian attack on, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Trojan, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tugend Bund, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Turansky, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Turin, in February 1848, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>-<a href="#Page_182">2</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> <a href="#Santa_Rosa">Santa Rosa</a>, <a href="#University">University</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Turkey, hostility of House of Austria to, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">flight of Hungarian leaders to, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tuscany, special position of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_54">4</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guerrazzi's hopes for, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_424">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rising in 1849, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>-<a href="#Page_425">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">failure of movement in, <a href="#Page_467">467</a>-<a href="#Page_468">8</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tyrol, Italian, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- German, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> <a href="#Innspruck">Innspruck</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tyssowsky, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_U" id="IX_U"></a>U.<br /> +<br /> +Udine, relations of with Venice, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Universities, their effect on revolutionary movement, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Germany, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="University" id="University"></a>University, of Berlin, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Göttingen, in 1837, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Heidelberg, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>-<a href="#Page_165">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Leipzig, Slavonic feeling in, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Munich, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Padua, closing of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Pavia, closing of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Pisa, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Prague, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>-<a href="#Page_259">9</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>-<a href="#Page_309">9</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Turin, in 1821, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>-<a href="#Page_39">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in 1848, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +University, of Vienna, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>-<a href="#Page_235">5</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="#Page_304">4</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- of Zurich, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Unruh, von, struggle with Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>-<a href="#Page_410">10</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude at Brandenburg, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of his action, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Urban, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Urbarium, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Urbino, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>-<a href="#Page_357">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Uri, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Utrecht, Peace of, its effect in Lombardy, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_V" id="IX_V"></a>V.<br /> +<br /> +Varga, Catherine, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vay, <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Velika_Kikinda" id="Velika_Kikinda"></a>Velika Kikinda, effect of riot at, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_286">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Venetia, compared with Lombardy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with Venice, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_345">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">struggle in, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>-<a href="#Page_349">9</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fusion of with Piedmont, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_360">60</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Venice, influence in Dalmatia and Istria, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">trade of with Piedmont, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of before revolution, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movements in, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_196">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_274">4</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">contrasted with Milan, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_344">4</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations with other cities, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Pepe welcomed at, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>-<a href="#Page_355">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">vote of fusion at, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_360">60</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">recalls Manin, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">sympathy of with Bologna, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">feeling in towards Pius IX., <a href="#Page_464">464</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">towards Louis Napoleon, <a href="#Page_470">470</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">final struggle of, <a href="#Page_488">488</a>-<a href="#Page_490">90</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">surrender of, <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#Buonaparte_Charles_Lucien">Buonaparte (Charles Lucien)</a>, <a href="#Manin">Manin</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Verona, transference of Viceroy to, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">Radetzky's relations with, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>See</i> also <a href="#Congress_of_Verona">Congress</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vetter, <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vicenza, relations of with Venice, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defence of, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Austrian treachery in, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Victor_Amadeus" id="Victor_Amadeus"></a>Victor Amadeus, King of Sardinia, his relations with Austria, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>-<a href="#Page_27">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Victor_Emmanuel_I" id="Victor_Emmanuel_I"></a>Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, protest in 1815, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his relations with Austria, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_515" id="Page_515">[515]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">his despotism, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>-<a href="#Page_28">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in 1820, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>-<a href="#Page_36">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">abdication, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Victor Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, afterwards King of Italy, wounded at Goito, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">accession to throne of Piedmont, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vienna, effect of on Lombardy, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_190">90</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Metternich's government of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>-<a href="#Page_208">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on of Ferdinand's accession, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>-<a href="#Page_208">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">double position of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movements in, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_214">14</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>-<a href="#Page_226">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_247">47</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">its effect in Bohemia, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Milan, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Venice, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Prague, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_326">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">July Parliament in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>-<a href="#Page_380">80</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relations of with Hungary, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Bohemia, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">with Italy, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_380">80</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">October rising in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_397">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fall of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_399">9</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of fall on Prussia, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</span><br /> +---- Concluding Act of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>-<a href="#Page_318">18</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Decrees of 1834, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.<br /> +<br /> +---- Treaty of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, +<a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, +<a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Congress_of_Vienna">Congress</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vilagos, <a href="#Page_493">493</a>-<a href="#Page_494">4</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Villamarina, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_W" id="IX_W"></a>W.<br /> +<br /> +Waizen, declaration of, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>-<a href="#Page_439">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wallachia, rising in in 1821, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_47">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wallacks. <i>See</i> <a href="#Roumanians">Roumanians</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Warsaw, trade with Cracow, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">insurrection in, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wartburg, Feast of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weimar, Duke of, his policy, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Welden, General, besieges Bologna, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>-<a href="#Page_369">9</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cruelty of in Pavia, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wellington, his opinion of Navarino, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small effect of his rule, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wesselenyi, position and influence, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech at Presburg, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment and its results, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>-<a href="#Page_86">6</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">appeal to Szeklers, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">joins deputation to Vienna, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">retirement from politics, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Willisen, General von, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wimpffen, General, <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Windischgrätz, made commandant of Vienna, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">proposed Dictatorship of, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_241">1</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_245">5</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest against deposition of Metternich, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">announcement on March 22nd, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irritation of Bohemians with, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>-<a href="#Page_324">4</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">attitude in June rising in Prague, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>-<a href="#Page_332">32</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">besieges Vienna, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>-<a href="#Page_397">7</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeats Görgei, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>-<a href="#Page_438">8</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">his offer to Görgei, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">rejects mediation in Hungary, <a href="#Page_462">462</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">military opinion of his generalship, <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Workmen's movements, in Vienna, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>-<a href="#Page_240">40</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_390">90</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Berlin, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>-<a href="#Page_406">6</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Prague, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Silesia, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Wrangel, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>-<a href="#Page_411">11</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Wurtemberg" id="Wurtemberg"></a>Würtemberg, first two Kings of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">protest of against Concluding Act, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roth's relations with, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">resistance of to Metternich, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">March rising in, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>-<a href="#Page_222">2</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quarrel with Baden, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_Y" id="IX_Y"></a>Y.<br /> +<br /> +Ypsilanti, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<a name="IX_Z" id="IX_Z"></a>Z.<br /> +<br /> +Zay, his circular, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>-<a href="#Page_102">2</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zichy, Governor of Venice, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.<br /> +---- Hungarian Count, his execution, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zitz, action of in Frankfort riots, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zollverein, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zucchi, recalled to Milan, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">treatment of Garibaldi, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>;</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">defeated by Garibaldi, <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Zug, Canton, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Zurich, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>. <i>See</i> also <a href="#University">University</a>.<br /> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_516" id="Page_516">[516]</a></span></p> + + + + +<p class="center" style="margin-top:5em;"> +CHISWICK PRESS:—C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT,<br /> +CHANCERY LANE.<br /> +</p> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h2>FOOTNOTES.</h2> +<ol> +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-1" id="Footnote-1"></a> A Corsican of noble birth who left his country after it fell +under the rule of France, and whose influence was used with +Alexander to encourage him in a Liberal policy.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-2" id="Footnote-2"></a> A popular and patriotic society, for training the Germans in +resistance to the French yoke.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-3" id="Footnote-3"></a> "He congratulated me on the fact that circumstances had +spared me the tremendous ordeals usually undergone; and +seeing me smile at this, he asked me severely what I should +have done if I had been required, as others had been, to fire off +a pistol in my own ear, which had been previously loaded before +my eyes. I replied that I should have refused, telling the +initiators that either there was some valve in the interior of +the pistol into which the bullet fell—in which case the affair +was a farce unworthy of both of us—or the bullet had really +remained in the stock: and in that case it struck me as somewhat +absurd to call upon a man to fight for his country, and +make it his first duty to blow out the few brains God had vouchsafed +to him."—<i>Life and Writings of Mazzini, Vol. I.</i></p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-4" id="Footnote-4"></a> As an instance of his way of carrying out this idea may be +mentioned his feeling to Savoy. He felt that in race, language, +and possibly in sympathy, Savoy might naturally gravitate towards +France, while its geographical position and the modes of +life of its inhabitants might naturally connect it with Switzerland. +He therefore desired that by the deliberate vote of an elected +Assembly, not by a fictitious Napoleonic plebiscite, Savoy should +decide the question of its connection with Italy, France, or +Switzerland. Mazzini expressed a hope that it would decide in +favour of Switzerland.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-5" id="Footnote-5"></a> "<span lang="fr">Mais M. Bulwer parler de faire la guerre, et faire la guerre +sont choses bien différentes.</span>"</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-6" id="Footnote-6"></a> Document 158 to <span lang="it">Gualterio Gli Ultimi Rivolgimenti Italiani</span>.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-7" id="Footnote-7"></a> I feel that some explanation is needed for the rejection of +what was once one of the most deeply-rooted traditions among +all Liberals who interested themselves in the politics of this +period. I must, therefore, state that my chief authority for my +account of the paralysis of the Austrian Government in the +Galician insurrection, and their consequent innocence of any +organized massacre, is Dr. Herbst, the well-known leader of the +German Liberals in the Austrian Reichstag, who was in Galicia +at the time of the insurrection.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-8" id="Footnote-8"></a> I do not know what relation he was to the more celebrated +Santa Rosa of 1821.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-9" id="Footnote-9"></a> The word "<span lang="de">Anschluss</span>" seems hardly to imply so complete a +union as was afterwards aimed at by the German party in Vienna.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-10" id="Footnote-10"></a> This petition must be given at length in order that students +of the Revolution may realize the peculiar character of the +Bohemian movement, since this is the only one of the March +risings in which the claim of an oppressed people to live in +peaceable equality beside their former oppressors was, for the +time, successfully established.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-11" id="Footnote-11"></a> Rakoczi is still to a great extent a national hero among the +Magyars, as is shown by the name of the Rakoczi March, which +is given to one of the national airs; for the Magyars, in the +seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, were +willing to risk the separation of Transylvania from Hungary if +thereby they could secure an independent background to their +struggles for liberty against Austria, much as the Venetians in +1859 were thankful for the liberation of Lombardy from Austria, +though it involved the loss to Venetia of fellow-sufferers under +Austrian oppression.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-12" id="Footnote-12"></a> English readers may be reminded by this scene of that fiery +debate on the Grand Remonstrance, when the members of the +House of Commons would "have sheathed their swords in each +other's bowels, had not the sagacity and great calmness of Mr. +Hampden, by a short speech, prevented it."</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-13" id="Footnote-13"></a> Out of the various efforts of the Roman Catholics to bring +back the Greeks to the Roman Church, there had arisen a community +called the United Greeks, which acknowledged the power +of the Pope while maintaining the Greek ritual.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-14" id="Footnote-14"></a> To avoid needless controversy, I may add that I am perfectly +aware of the tyranny exercised by Milan over Lodi and other +small towns; but the fact remains that the real force of the +Lombard League, in its struggle against Barbarossa, lay in the +<i>equal</i> union of the greater towns of Lombardy.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-15" id="Footnote-15"></a> It must be admitted that a protest was made by some of the +members against Radetzky's restoration of the Duke of Modena; +but then the Duke of Modena was not subject to the Viennese +Parliament, and Radetzky, in restoring him, had acted without +their authority.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-16" id="Footnote-16"></a> The boundary river between Croatia and Hungary.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-17" id="Footnote-17"></a> It is also worth noting that the first production of the freed +Press of Vienna in March, 1848, was a poem by L. A. von Frankl, +in praise of the services of the students to the cause of liberty; +but, though this poem gained some celebrity at the time, it does +not as easily lend itself to translation as the one translated above.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-18" id="Footnote-18"></a> The following dialogue is taken from the "<span lang="de">Neue Rheinische +Zeitung</span>."</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-19" id="Footnote-19"></a> This alludes to the dissolution of several clubs by Wrangel's +orders.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-20" id="Footnote-20"></a> I must admit that my estimate of Görgei is, in many +respects, lower than that of men whose opportunities of observing +the facts, and whose general candour of judgment entitles their +opinion to great respect. I can only plead that the severest +judgments which I have passed upon him are founded upon his +own memoirs; that is, partly upon the facts narrated in them, +and partly upon the tone in which they are written.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-21" id="Footnote-21"></a> This was the title of the Emperor Ferdinand in his capacity +of King of Hungary.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-22" id="Footnote-22"></a> It will observed that the Roumanians used, wherever possible, +the old Roman titles, in order to assert their connection with +ancient Rome.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-23" id="Footnote-23"></a> The Council which advised the Ban.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> </li> + +<li class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote-24" id="Footnote-24"></a> A Bolognese priest, who followed Garibaldi partly in the +character of a chaplain and partly as aide-de-camp. See "The +Disciples," by Mrs. E. H. King.</p> +<a title="Return to text." href="#Anchor-24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> </li> +</ol> +</div> +<hr class="full" /> +<div class="transnote"> +<h2>Transcriber's Notes.</h2> + +<p>Many old spellings have been preserved; in particular, the spelling of many Slavic names with a ç has been left unchanged. +Obvious misspellings and punctuation errors have been corrected, and dashes representing ranges have been regularised as +endashes (–) rather than emdashes (—). +</p> + +<p>Additionally:</p> + +<p>"Raizenstadt" and "Raitzenstadt";</p> + +<p>"Voyvodschaft" and "Voyvodeschaft";</p> + +<p>"Windischgräts" and "Windischgrätz";</p> + +<p>"Buda Pesth" and "Buda-Pesth";</p> + +<p>"Krudener" and "Krüdener";</p> + +<p>"Pressburg" and "Presburg";</p> + +<p>"Gaëta" and "Gaeta";</p> + +<p>and "Crnojevic" and "Crnojeviç" have in each case been regularised to the latter form. Instances of a.m. and p.m. +in small capitals on page 482 have been regularised to lower case +("from 2 a.m. till 6 p.m.").</p> + +<p>All references to Madame de Krüdener have been regularised as "M<sup>me</sup>", which +was the form used in the main text. The index entry for de Krüdener on page 505 has been moved to fit the alphabetical order.</p> + +<p>Both "Daniele Manin" and "Daniel Manin" were used in the text and have not been changed.</p> + +<p>A duplicated word on page 319 ("disputed the right of of the Serbs to +stay in Hungary") has been removed.</p> +</div> + +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<hr class="pg" /> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF 1848-9 IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND GERMANY***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 39540-h.txt or 39540-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> +<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/9/5/4/39540">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/5/4/39540</a></p> +<p> +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p> +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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