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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in
+Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, by C. Edmund (Charles Edmund) Maurice
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: The Revolutionary Movement of 1848-9 in Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany
+       With Some Examination of the Previous Thirty-three Years
+
+
+Author: C. Edmund (Charles Edmund) Maurice
+
+
+
+Release Date: April 26, 2012  [eBook #39540]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF
+1848-9 IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND GERMANY***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Henry Flower, Odessa Paige Turner, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images
+generously made available by the Google Books Library Project
+(http://books.google.com)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      or
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+
+
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+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+
+
+
+
+THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848-9.
+
+
+    Es reden und traeumen die Menschen viel
+      Von bessern kuenftigen Tagen:
+    Nach einem gluecklichen, goldenen Ziel
+      Sieht man sie rennen und jagen.
+    Die Welt wird alt, und wird wieder jung;
+    Doch der Mensch hofft immer Verbesserung.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+    Es ist kein leerer schmeichelnder Wahn,
+      Erzeugt im Gehirne des Thoren.
+    Im Herzen kuendet es laut sich an:
+      Zu was Besserm sind wir geboren;
+    Und was die innere Stimme spricht,
+    Das taeuscht die hoffende Seele nicht.
+
+                    SCHILLER.
+
+
+[Illustration: _Giuseppe Mazzini._]
+
+
+THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF 1848-9 IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY,
+AND GERMANY.
+
+With Some Examination of the Previous Thirty-three Years.
+
+by
+
+C. EDMUND MAURICE,
+
+Author of "The Lives of English Popular Leaders in the Middle Ages."
+
+With an Engraved Frontispiece and Other Illustrations.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons
+London: George Bell and Sons
+1887.
+
+[The right of translation is reserved.]
+
+Chiswick Press:--C. Whittingham and Co., Tooks Court,
+Chancery Lane.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The following book is the result of many years' work. It aims at
+showing the links which connected together the various movements in
+Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire in 1848-9. Many as are the
+books which have been written on the various parts of that struggle, I
+do not know of any attempt to link them together. How adventurous this
+effort is I am most painfully aware, and none the less so because I
+happen to know that the task was undertaken and abandoned by at least
+one writer who has many qualifications for it to which I can lay
+no claim. I allude to my friend Dr. Eugene Oswald, who has most
+generously assisted me in carrying out the work for which he was
+unable to spare the time. But I may say without arrogance that however
+deficient my history may be in the learning and ability which Dr.
+Oswald's would have shown, as well as in that lifelikeness which his
+personal share in the important rising in Baden would have enabled him
+to give to the descriptions; yet I shall at least have no temptation
+to any one-sided estimate of the merits of the various races concerned
+in the struggle, a temptation from which the most candid German could
+hardly escape. My only danger in that matter would be that I might be
+tempted to speak too favourably of _all_ the movements of those
+various races; seeing that during my investigations in the cities
+affected by these movements, I received the most extreme courtesy and
+kindness from German and Bohemian, Magyar and Szekler, Saxon and
+Roumanian, Serb, Croat, and Italian; and I feel nothing but pain at
+any word of criticism I have uttered in these pages that may jar on
+the susceptibilities of any of those races.
+
+It will be noticed, of course, that I have omitted from this history
+any account of the French Revolution. My reasons for this have been
+given at the beginning of the seventh chapter. But I may add to what I
+have said there that I had long felt the disproportionate importance
+which many people attached to the French Revolution of 1848, in regard
+to its immediate influence on Europe. From Palermo, not from Paris,
+came the first revolutionary outburst. From Presburg, not from Paris,
+came the word that shook Metternich from power, and secured a European
+character to the Revolution. Under these circumstances, I conceived
+the idea of telling the story of the European Revolution, without
+touching on the French part of it, except in the most incidental
+manner; so that the students of this period may be able fairly to
+estimate the other influences which produced these great results,
+unblinded by the splendour which anything done in Paris seems always
+to have for the student of revolution.
+
+One other peculiarity in my book also needs some explanation. I have,
+as far as possible, avoided references to authorities in notes. Such
+references only worry the general reader, while the student will, I
+think, be more helped by the list of authorities which I append to
+this preface.
+
+It now only remains for me to thank those friends who have helped me
+in my work.--For the German part of the Revolution, I have received
+much help from the kind loan of the "Neue Rheinische Zeitung" by the
+late Dr. Karl Marx. For the special Baden part of it I received help
+not only from Dr. Oswald but also from Dr. Karl Blind, who lent me
+pamphlets not otherwise accessible. For the Bohemian part of the
+narrative I owe much to the kind help of Dr. Gabler, Mr. Naprstek,
+Count Leo Thun the younger, and Dr. Rieger. For hints about the
+Viennese struggle I owe thanks to Dr. von Frankl, the well-known poet
+of the revolution, and also to Dr. Friedjung. For some general hints
+on the Slavonic question I am much indebted to Baron Helfert; and my
+obligation to Dr. Herbst I have acknowledged in a note. For general
+Hungarian information I owe thanks to Mr. Pulszky, to Miss Toulmin
+Smith, to General Klapka, to my kind friend Professor Felmeri of
+Klausenburg, to Dr. Lindner, Mr. Kovacs, Mr. Kovary, Mr. Boros, of the
+same town, and to Mr. Szabo, now Librarian of Klausenburg University,
+formerly a distinguished officer in General Bem's army; also to
+Mr. Fekete, Mr. Sandor, and Professor Koncz of Maros Vasarhely;
+and last but not least to Mr. Paget, the author of "Hungary and
+Transylvania." For special hints about the Saxon question I am indebted,
+amongst others, to Dr. Teutsch, to Professor Senz, and to the late
+"Obergespan" of Hermannstadt, Herr von Brennerberg, whose loss to the
+district I can well understand, since the acquaintance of a week
+enabled me to appreciate the singular justice of his mind, as well as
+his uniform kindness; while for information from the Roumanian point
+of view I owe thanks to Mr. Barritzu. For information on Serb
+questions I am indebted principally to Mr. Polit, and Mr. Hadjic of
+Neusatz, and Mr. Boscovic of Belgrade, for whose acquaintance I have
+to thank the late Servian Minister in England, Mr. Mijatovic. The
+same introducer I have to thank for the kindness shown me by Mr.
+Matkovicu of Agram. In the last mentioned town I also received useful
+information and help from Mr. Subek, and from the Librarian of the
+South Slavonic Academy.
+
+For help in Italian work I have to thank my old friend Madame Venturi,
+Signor Ernesto Nathan, Signor Cardinali, Signor Berti, Professor
+Villari, Signor Guastalla, Professor Aurelio Saffi (the Ex-Triumvir of
+Rome), Signor Galli, Dr. Sacchi, the Syndic of Goito, the Librarian of
+the Biblioteca di Brera at Milan, and my friend Signor Pizzi.--For
+help of various kinds I have to thank Miss Wedgwood, Miss Irby, Dr.
+Brandl and Mr. Garnett of the British Museum.
+
+I have also to acknowledge the kindness of Mr. Dioesy in allowing a
+copy to be taken of his picture of Kossuth, for insertion in my book.
+This favour, with other help, I owe to my friend Mr. B. Gunszt.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                              PAGE
+    AUTHORITIES CONSULTED                                       xi
+
+    CHIEF RACES OF AUSTRIAN EMPIRE                            xvii
+
+    TABLE OF DATES                                             xix
+
+    CHAPTER  I. THE TRIUMPH OF DESPOTISM                         1
+
+      "     II. FIRST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM              19
+
+      "    III. FAITH AND LAW AGAINST DESPOTISM                 52
+
+      "     IV. LANGUAGE AND LEARNING AGAINST DESPOTISM         88
+
+      "      V. DESPOTISM RETIRING BEFORE CONSTITUTIONALISM    117
+
+      "     VI. FIRST MUTTERINGS OF THE STORM                  168
+
+      "    VII. THE DOWNFALL OF DESPOTISM                      216
+
+      "   VIII. THE STRUGGLE OF THE RACES                      275
+
+      "     IX. THE REVOLUTION BREAKS INTO SEPARATE PARTS      334
+
+      "      X. LAST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM              401
+
+      "     XI. THE DEATH STRUGGLE OF FREEDOM                  431
+
+    INDEX                                                      497
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+    GIUSEPPE MAZZINI                             _Frontispiece._
+
+    KOSSUTH LAJOS                       _to face page_        84
+
+    ROBERT BLUM                                "             224
+
+    IL VASCELLO, ROME                          "             483
+
+
+
+
+AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.
+
+
+    GENERAL HISTORY.
+
+    Metternich's Memoirs.
+    Menzel's Geschichte der letzten vierzig Jahre.
+
+
+    GERMANY.
+
+    GENERAL GERMAN HISTORY.
+
+    Arndt, Life of.
+    Blum, Life of.
+    Goerres, Life of.
+    Marx, Neue Rheinische Zeitung.
+    Perthes, Life of.
+    Stein, Life of, by Professor Seeley.
+    Stenographischer Bericht des deutschen Vor Parlaments zu Frankfort.
+    ---- des Fuenfziger Ausschuesses.
+    ---- der deutschen Constituirenden Versammlung.
+    Zimmermann Deutsche Revolution.
+
+
+    PRUSSIA.
+
+    Humboldt Brief-Wechsel mit einem Jungen Freunde.
+    ---- Letters to Varnhagen von Ense.
+    Schmalz Berichtigung einer Stelle in der Bredow-Venturinischen
+          Chronik fuer das Jahr 1808.
+
+    BADEN.
+
+    Goegg (Amand) Rueckblick auf die Badische Revolution (from La Ligue
+          des Peuples).
+    La Liberte de Penser (a journal containing pamphlets, &c., on the
+          Baden Revolution).
+    Morel Der Maerz-Aufstand und Die Badische Revolution.
+    Struve (Gustav) Geschichte der Volks Erhebungen in Baden.
+       "   (Amalie) Erinnerungen, &c.
+
+
+    SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.
+
+    Adressen an eine hohe deutsche Versammlung, &c., von Kiel.
+    Bunsen. Memoir on Constitutional Rights of the Duchies.
+    Droysen. The Policy of Denmark towards the Duchies.
+
+
+    SWITZERLAND.
+
+    Der Untergang des Sonderbundes.
+
+
+    AUSTRIA.
+
+    GENERAL HISTORY.
+
+    Helfert. Geschichte Oesterreichs.
+    Springer. Geschichte Oesterreichs seit der Wiener Frieden, 1809.
+    Pillersdorf. Rueckblick auf die politische Bewegung in Oesterreich.
+
+
+    VIENNA.
+
+    Dunder. Denkschrift ueber die Wiener October Revolution.
+    Gruener. Geschichte der October Revolution.
+    Reschauer. Das Jahr 1848.
+    Reichstag's Gallerie, &c.
+    Verhandlungen des Oesterreichischen Landtages 1848.
+    Violand. Die Sociale Geschichte der Revolution in Oesterreich.
+    Wiener Boten.
+
+
+    BOHEMIA.
+
+    Mueller. Die merkwuerdigsten Tage Prags in der Pfingst-Woche des
+          Jahres 1848.
+    Pameti (Pamphlets and proclamations, &c., in the Archives of
+          Prague).
+    Schoepf. Volks Bewegung in Prag.
+    Staendische Verhaeltnisse des Konigreichs Boehmen.
+    Stiles. Austria in 1848-9.
+    Tomain. Das Boehmische Staatsrecht.
+
+
+    GALICIA.
+
+    Ausschluesse ueber die jungsten Ereignisse in Polen.
+    Krasinski. Panslavismus und Germanismus.
+    Krolikowski. Memoire sur l'Etat de Cracovie, 1840.
+    Zaleski. Die Poelnische Frage.
+
+
+    HUNGARY.
+
+    GENERAL HISTORY.
+
+    Beschwerden and Klagen der Slaven in Ungarn, 1843.
+    Boehmisch-Slavische Helden in der Panslavismus.
+    Deak, Life of.
+    Goergei. My Life and Acts in Hungary.
+    Irby (Miss). Across the Carpathians.
+    Klapka. Memoirs of the War of Independence in Hungary.
+    Kossuth, Memoir of in a History of Hungary by E. O. S.
+    Kovari (Laslo) Okmanytar az 1848-9. (This book, though written in
+          Hungarian, contains some important documents in German, of
+          which alone I have been able to make use.)
+    Mailath (Count Johann) Geschichte von Oesterreich.
+       "    Der Ungarische Reichstag in 1830.
+    Paget. Hungary and Transylvania.
+    Pulszky. Meine Zeit mein Leben.
+       "    (Madame). Memoirs of a Hungarian Lady.
+    Smith (Toulmin). Parallels between Constitution and Constitutional
+          History of England and Hungary.
+    Szechenyi (Vortrag ueber) Ludwig Fezstory.
+    Zur Geschichte des Ungarischen Freiheits-Kampfes Autentische
+          Berichte.
+
+
+    CROATIA AND SLAVONIA.
+
+    Aktenstuecke zur Geschichte des Croatisch Slavonischen Landtages, by
+          Pejakovic.
+    Agramer Zeitung, 1843-8.
+    Deutsche Viertels-Jahr-Schrift (article called Mittheilungen aus
+          Serbien).
+    Le Duc. La Croatie et la Confederation Italienne.
+    Serbes de Hongrie, &c.
+    Verhandlungen des Agramer Landtags in October, 1845.
+    Other pamphlets on the Croatian question.
+
+
+    TRANSYLVANIA.
+
+    Bem. Feldzug in Siebenbuergen, by Czetz.
+    Bonar. Transylvania, its Products and People.
+    Deutsche Worte, a magazine.
+    Friedenfels, Joseph Bedeus von Scharberg.
+    Klausenburg, Collection of documents in Library of.
+    Lauriani. Die Romaenen der Oesterreichischer Monarchie.
+    Maros Vasarhely, Collection of Baron Apor at.
+    Roth. Der Sprach-Kampf in Siebenbuergen.
+    Scharberg. Die Verfassung Siebenbuergens.
+    Unterhaltungen aus der Gegenwart.
+    Vereinigung Siebenbuergens mit Ungarn vom Standpunkte der Sachsischen
+          Nation beleuchtet.
+    Zieglauer. Die Reform-Bewegung in Siebenbuergen.
+
+
+    ITALY
+
+    GENERAL HISTORY.
+
+    Alfieri. Opere. Autobiography.
+    Bianchi (Nicomede), Storia della politica Austriaca rispetto ai
+          Sovrani ed ai Governi Italiani dell'anno 1791, al Maggio
+          del 1857.
+    Coppi. Annali d'Italia.
+    D'Amato. Panteon dei Martiri della liberta Italiana.
+    Farini. Lo Stato Romano (really including much of other parts).
+    Foscolo (Ugo) Scritte politici inediti. Jacopo Ortis.
+    ---- Lettera a Conte Verri.
+    ---- Lettera a Conte di Ficquelmont.
+    ---- (Vita di). Pecchio.
+    Gallenga. Italy in 1848.
+    Gioberti Vincenzo (biography by V. G. in I Contemporanei Italiani).
+          Del Primato Morale e Civile degli Italiani.
+    Gualterio. Gli Ultimi Rivolgimenti Italiani.
+    ---- Delle Negative date dal Conte Solaro della Margherita.
+    La Concordia (paper published at Genoa).
+    La Farina. Storia dell Italia dopo il Settembre del 1847.
+    Manzoni (Alessandro). Cenni Sulla vita Sua.
+    Miscellanee politiche Genovesi (pamphlets, songs, &c., published at
+          Genoa, and bearing on the revolution).
+    Mazzini, Life and Writings of (translated by E. A. V.).
+    Panizzi, Lettere ad, di uomini illustri, &c.
+    Ranalli. Istorie Italiane dal 1846 al 1853.
+
+
+    LOMBARDY AND VENETIA.
+
+    Andryane. Memoires d'un prisonnier d'Etat.
+    Anfossi (Francesco). Memorie sulla campagna di Lombardia del 1848.
+    Biblioteca di Brera (Milan), Collections of Caricatures, Pamphlets,
+          and Proclamations in.
+    Cantu (Cesare). Editions and Lives of Monti and Parini.
+    Casati. Nuove rivelazioni su i fatti di Milano nel 1847-8.
+    Cattaneo. Dell'Insurrezione di Milano.
+       "      Archivio Triennale.
+    Dandolo. Italian Volunteers and Lombard Rifle Brigade.
+    Gazzetta di Milano, 1848.
+    Manin, Documents et pieces autentiques laissees par.
+    Quadro politico di Milano (collection of pamphlets, &c.).
+    Vedovi (Timoleone). I martiri di san Georgio e di Belfiore.
+
+
+    NAPLES AND SICILY.
+
+    Colletta. History of Naples (translated).
+    Ruggiero Settimo. Per Gabriele Colonna.
+
+
+    PIEDMONT.
+
+    Balbo (Cesare) autobiography.
+       "  Speranze d'ltalia.
+    Brofferio. Storia di Piemonte.
+       "       I miei Tempi.
+    Solaro della Margherita, Vita di per Biginelli.
+               "             Memorandum Storico-Politico.
+               "             Avvedimenti Politici.
+
+
+    ROMAN STATES.
+
+    Artaud. Vie de Pie 7.
+       "    Vie de Pie 8.
+    Balleydier. Storia della Revoluzione di Roma.
+    Beghelli. La Republica Romana del 1849.
+    Brasini. L'8 Agosto 1848, Bologna.
+       "     La Resistenza di Bologna nelle otto Giornate di Maggio,
+          1849.
+    D'Azeglio (Massimo) Degli ultimi casi di Romagna.
+       "      Correspondance Politique.
+    Monitorio Romano, 1848 and 1849.
+    Orsini. Memoirs.
+    Pasolini (Memoir of), by his son, translated.
+    Protocollo della Republica Romana.
+    Republica Italiana del 1849 (anonymous clerical).
+    Rossi (Pellegrino). Vita di per Raggi (including other notices of
+          him).
+    Torre (Federico). Memorie Storiche sull'intervento Francese
+          (unfinished).
+
+
+    TUSCANY.
+
+    Guerrazzi (Domenico) Apologia della Vita Politica. (His novels
+          should also be read to estimate his influence.)
+
+
+
+
+CHIEF RACES OF AUSTRIAN EMPIRE.
+
+
+     HUNGARY.
+
+     _Magyars_, ruling race; found in most parts of the Kingdom, but
+     most largely in the Northern parts. Semi-Turkish race (non-Aryan).
+     Various creeds; Calvinism the most distinctive (_i.e._, the one
+     that has most connected itself with the race-struggles). Chief
+     town, Buda-Pesth.
+
+     _Croats_, chiefly found in Croatia, but sometimes in Slavonia and
+     Dalmatia. Creed, Roman Catholic; Slavonic race; chief town, Agram.
+
+     _Saxons_, found in S.E. of Transylvania. Creed, mainly Lutheran;
+     race, German; chief town, Hermannstadt.
+
+     _Serbs_, found chiefly in Slavonia, but also in Banat, Bacska, and
+     in smaller numbers in other parts of Hungary. Creed, Greek Church;
+     race, Slavonic; chief towns, Neusatz and Carlowitz.
+
+     _Slovaks_, found in North Hungary. Creed, Lutheran; race, Slavonic.
+
+     _Szekler_, found in N.E. of Transylvania. Creeds, various; race,
+     same as Magyars; chief town, Maros Vasarhely.
+
+     _Roumanian_, or _Wallack_, in all parts of Transylvania, and a few
+     in the Banat. Creed, Greek Church; race, mixed Dacian and Italian;
+     chief town, Blasendorf.
+
+     _Italians_, found in Dalmatia and Istria.
+
+
+     WESTERN AUSTRIA.
+
+     _Germans_, found everywhere, but chiefly in Archduchy. Creed,
+     mainly Roman Catholic; chief town, Vienna.
+
+     _Slovenes_, found in Krain, Carinthia, and Styria. Race, Slavonic.
+
+     _Czechs_, in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. Creed, chiefly Roman
+     Catholic; race, Slavonic; chief town, Prague.
+
+
+     GALICIA.
+
+     _Poles_, found in all parts. Creed, Roman Catholic; race, Slavonic;
+     chief town, Lemberg.
+
+     _Ruthenians._ Creed, Greek Church; race, Slavonic.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF DATES.
+
+
+    1846.   April  25.   Charles Albert defies Austria about the
+                           salt-tax.
+            June   15.   Election of Pius IX.
+            July    8.   King of Denmark asserts his right to absorb
+                           Schleswig-Holstein.
+             "     16.   Pius IX's. amnesty.
+
+    1847.   Jan.    3.   Landtag summoned to Berlin.
+            July    5.   Pope grants Civic Guard to Rome.
+             "     14.   Clerical conspiracy suppressed in Rome.
+             "     16.   Austrian occupation of Ferrara.
+             "     20.   Swiss Diet resolves to dissolve Sonderbund.
+            Sept.   1.   Unsuccessful rising in Messina.
+             "     12.   Meeting of South German Liberals at Offenburg.
+             "     29.   Metternich formally expresses his approval of
+                           the Sonderbund.
+            Nov.    4.   Motion carried at Pesth for taxation of nobles.
+             "     24.   Troops of the Swiss Diet occupy Luzern.
+            Dec.    9.   Nazari makes his motion for reform in Milan.
+             "     16.   Agreement for Austrian troops to evacuate
+                           Ferrara.
+             "     27.   Ciceruacchio asks the Pope to join the Italian
+                           League.
+
+    1848.   Jan.    2 and 3.   Smoking riots at Milan.
+             "     12.   Sicilian rising begins.
+             "     19.   Arrest of Manin and Tommaseo at Venice.
+             "     29.   Neapolitan Constitution granted.
+            Feb.    4.   Leopold of Tuscany promises Constitution.
+             "     12.   Pope appoints first lay Ministers.
+             "     22.   Martial law proclaimed in Lombardy.
+             "     27.   Meeting at Mannheim to demand German Parliament.
+            Mar.    2.   Second Chamber of Baden demands repeal of
+                           Carlsbad Decrees. Downfall of Ministry in
+                           Bavaria.
+             "      3.   Kossuth's speech at Presburg.
+             "     11.   First meeting at the Wenzelsbad in Prague.
+             "     13.   Rising in Vienna. Workmen's petition in Berlin.
+                           Granting of Liberal Ministry by King of
+                           Saxony.
+             "     15.   Abdication of Metternich.
+             "     16.   Students' rising in Pesth. Rising in Berlin.
+                           Granting of Constitution by Pope.
+             "     17.   Serb meeting at Pesth.
+             " 18 to 22. Five days of Milan.
+             "     22.   Rising in Venice.
+             "     23.   Manin chosen President of Venetian Republic.
+                           Jellacic made Ban of Croatia. Charles Albert
+                           declares war on Austria.
+             "     25.   Prussian Assembly opens.
+             "     26.   King of Naples deposed by Sicilians.
+             "     31.   Meeting of Vor-Parlament at Frankfort.
+            April   2.   Bundestag repeals Carlsbad Decrees.
+             "      4.   Bundestag authorises Prussia to act for Germany
+                           in Schleswig-Holstein.
+             "      8.   First battle of Goito.
+             "     11.   Palacky refuses to join the Committee of Fifty
+                           at Frankfort.
+             "     16.   First Baden insurrection.
+             "     29.   Papal allocution against the Italian war.
+            May     1.   Slavs summoned to meet in Prague.
+             "      3.   Mamiani Ministry formed.
+             "     13.   Meeting of Serbs at Carlowitz. Provisional
+                           Government at Milan declare for fusion.
+             "     15.   Coup d'etat in Naples. Second rising in Vienna.
+                           Meeting of Roumanians at Blasendorf.
+             "     18.   First meeting of Constituent Assembly at
+                           Frankfort. Flight of Emperor of Austria to
+                           Innspruck.
+             "     28.   Battle of Curtatone.
+             "     29.   Unsuccessful riot in Milan. Completion of vote
+                           of fusion.
+             "     30.   Slavonic Congress in Prague. Abolition of
+                           Transylvanian Parliament. Surrender of
+                           Peschierato Charles Albert.
+            June    2.   First encounter between Magyars and Roumanians.
+             "      3.   Separate Provisional Government formed in
+                           Bohemia.
+             "     11.   Hrabowsky's attack on Carlowitz. Fall of
+                           Vicenza.
+             " 12 to 18. Rising in Prague.
+             "     19.   Ferdinand declares Jellacic a traitor.
+             "     29.   Jellacic made Dictator by Croatians. Archduke
+                           John chosen Administrator of the German
+                           Empire.
+            July    4.   Venice accepts the fusion with Piedmont.
+             "     22.   Kossuth supports vote for sending troops against
+                           Italians.
+            Aug.    5.   Capitulation of Milan.
+             "      8.   Expulsion of Austrians from Bologna.
+             "     11.   Restoration of Manin's dictatorship in Venice.
+             "     26.   Truce of Malmo signed.
+             "     31.   Abolition of feudal dues in Vienna.
+            Sept.   5.   Frankfort Assembly condemns the Truce of Malmo.
+             "      9.   Jellacic crosses the Drave.
+             "     11.   Meeting of Roumanians to protest against
+                           Hungarian conscription.
+             "     16.   Frankfort Assembly rescinds its vote about the
+                           Truce of Malmo.
+             "     18.   Emeute in Frankfort.
+             "     21.   The "Struve Putsch."
+             "     25.   Official appointment of Lamberg at Buda-Pesth.
+             "     28.   Murder of Lamberg.
+            Oct.    3.   Jellacic declared Dictator of Hungary.
+             "      6.   Murder of Latour.
+             "      7.   Croat army surrenders to the Hungarians.
+                           Ferdinand flies to Innspruck.
+             "      8.   Kossuth threatens death to those who won't hang
+                           out the Hungarian flag.
+             "     10.   Auersperg and Jellacic join forces.
+             "     11.   Bohemian deputies meet in Prague.
+             "     18.   Puchner's appeal to the Transylvanians.
+             "     21.   Hungarian troops cross the Austrian frontier.
+             "     22.   First meeting of Kremsier Parliament.
+             "     30.   Battle of Schwechat.
+            Nov.    1.   Windischgraetz enters Vienna.
+             "      9.   Blum shot.
+             "     15.   Murder of Rossi. Prussian Assembly votes that no
+                           more taxes be paid.
+             "     24.   Flight of Pope.
+             "     28.   Prussian Assembly decide to leave Berlin.
+                           Cavaignac announces intended expedition
+                           to Rome.
+            Dec.    2.   Abdication of Ferdinand.
+             "      5.   Final dissolution of Prussian Parliament.
+             "     13.   Address from Forli asking for Constituent
+                           Assembly.
+             "     18.   Frankfort Parliament abolishes feudal dues.
+             "     31.   Hungarian Committee of Defence retreats to
+                           Debreczin.
+
+    1849.   Jan.   11.   Frankfort Parliament votes for exclusion of
+                           Austria from Germany.
+             "     22.   Goergei sends Waizen Declaration to
+                           Windischgraetz.
+            Feb.    1.   Saxons apply for help to Russians.
+             "      6.   Re-occupation of Ferrara by Austrian troops.
+             "      8.   Flight of Grand Duke from Tuscany.
+             "      9.   Proclamation of Roman Republic.
+             "     19.   Goergei superseded by Dembinski.
+             "     21.   Announcement that the Austrians have crossed
+                           the Po.
+             "     26.   Opening of Prussian Parliament.
+            Mar.    7.   Dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament.
+             "     11.   Capture of Hermannstadt by Bem.
+             "     12.   Charles Albert declares war on Austria.
+             "     20.   Formal announcement of new Austrian
+                           Constitution.
+             "     23.   Battle of Novara. Abdication of Charles Albert.
+             "     28.   Frankfort Parliament decides to offer Crown of
+                           Germany to King of Prussia.
+             "     29.   Mazzini, Saffi, and Armellini made Triumvirs.
+            April   1.   Capture of Brescia by Haynan.
+             "      3.   King of Prussia refuses the Crown of Germany.
+             "     14.   Declaration of Hungarian Independence.
+             "     17.   Final meeting of Sicilian Parliament.
+             "     24.   French arrive before Civita Vecchia.
+             "     25.   Re-occupation of Pesth by the Hungarians.
+             "     27.   Dissolution of Prussian Parliament.
+            May    14.   Beginning of third Baden insurrection. King of
+                           Prussia recalls Prussian members from
+                           Frankfort Parliament.
+             "     15.   Neapolitans capture Palermo.
+             "     20.   Bologna captured by Austrians.
+             "     26.   Proposals of Lesseps accepted by Triumvirs.
+             "     30.   Frankfort Parliament resolves to adjourn to
+                           Stuttgart.
+             "     31.   Oudinot rejects Lesseps' Convention.
+            June    4.   Russian proclamation of intended invasion of
+                           Hungary.
+             "     13.   Ledru Rollin's insurrection in Paris.
+             "     17.   First Russian victory in Transylvania.
+             "     18.   Final dissolution of German Parliament.
+             "     19.   Austrians capture Ancona.
+             "     30.   Roman Assembly decides to yield. Prussians
+                           surround Rastatt, which is centre of Baden
+                           movement.
+            July    3.   French enter Rome.
+             "     15.   Papal Government restored.
+             "     28.   Death of Charles Albert. Hungarian Diet
+                           dissolves itself.
+            Aug.    5.   Capture of Hermannstadt by Russians.
+                   11.   Goergei made Dictator. Kossuth flies from
+                           Hungary.
+             "     13.   Goergei surrenders at Vilagos.
+             "     28.   Austrians enter Venice.
+            Sept.  26.   Klapka surrenders Komorn.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE TRIUMPH OF DESPOTISM. 1815-1819.
+
+     Condition of Europe in 1815.--Metternich's position.--Character of
+     Alexander of Russia.--Metternich's attitude towards
+     religion.--Madame de Kruedener.--The Holy Alliance.--Aspirations of
+     the Germans.--Stein _v._ Metternich.--Schmalz's pamphlet.--The
+     Rhine Province.--Arndt and Goerres.--The Small States of
+     Germany.--Wuertemberg.--Weimar.--The Jena demonstration.--The
+     Burschenschaft.--The Wartburg demonstration.--The Murder of
+     Kotzebue.--The Carlsbad decrees.--The Final Act of
+     Vienna.--Metternich's triumph.
+
+
+In the year 1814 Napoleon Buonaparte ceased to reign over Europe, and,
+after a very short interregnum, Clement Metternich reigned in his
+stead. Ever since the fall of Stadion, and the collapse of Austria in
+1809, this statesman had exercised the chief influence in Austrian
+affairs; and, by his skilful diplomacy, the Emperor had been enabled
+to play a part in Europe which, though neither honourable nor
+dignified, was eminently calculated to enable that Prince to take a
+leading position in politics, when the other Powers were exhausted by
+war, and uncertain of what was to follow. But Francis of Austria,
+though in agreement with Metternich, was really his hand rather than
+his head; and thus the crafty Minister easily assumed the real
+headship of Europe, while professing to be the humble servant of the
+Emperor of Austria.
+
+The system of the new ruler resembled that of Napoleon in its contempt
+for the rights of men and of nations; but it was to be varnished over
+with an appearance of legality, a seeming respect for the rights of
+kings, and a determination to preserve peace and avoid dramatic
+sensations, which made it welcome to Europe, after eighteen years of
+almost incessant wars or rumours of wars. As he looked round upon the
+countries that had fallen under his rule, the contemplation of the
+existing state of Europe seemed to promise the new monarch a fairly
+successful reign. France had been satisfied by the preservation of
+Alsace and Lorraine, and by the sense that, from having been the focus
+of revolution, she had now become the corner-stone of legitimacy.
+England had at first seemed to give pledges to the cause of liberty by
+her promise of independence to Genoa, and her guarantee of the
+Sicilian Constitution; but with the help of Castlereagh, whom
+Metternich described as "that upright and enlightened statesman," the
+Austrian Government had succeeded in persuading the English to consent
+to look on quietly while Genoa was absorbed in the Kingdom of
+Sardinia, and while the Anglo-Sicilian Constitution was destroyed by
+Ferdinand of Naples; and the English zeal for independence had been
+happily diverted from the support of constitutions and civic liberties
+to the championship of the most contemptible of Napoleon's puppets,
+the King of Saxony.
+
+The King of Prussia, who in 1813 had seemed in danger of becoming the
+champion of popular rights and German freedom, was now, with his usual
+feebleness, swaying towards the side of despotism; and any irritation
+which he may have felt at the opposition to his claim upon Saxony,
+had been removed by the concession of the Rhine Province.
+
+Among the smaller sovereigns of Europe, the King of Sardinia and the
+Pope alone showed any signs of rebellion against the new ruler of
+Europe. The former had objected to the continued occupation of
+Alessandria by Austrian forces; while the representatives of the Pope
+had even entered a protest against that vague and dangerous clause in
+the Treaty of Vienna which gave Austria a right to occupy Ferrara.
+
+But, on the other hand, the King of Sardinia had shown more zeal than
+any other ruler of Italy in restoring the old feudal and absolutist
+regime which the French had overthrown. And though Cardinal Consalvi,
+the chief adviser of the Pope, was following for the present a
+semi-Liberal policy, he might as yet be considered as only having
+established a workable Government in Rome. And a Pope who had been
+kidnapped by Napoleon was hardly likely to offer much opposition to
+the man who, in his own opinion, was the overthrower of Napoleon.
+
+Yet there were two difficulties which seemed likely to hinder the
+prosperity of Metternich's reign. These were the character of
+Alexander I. of Russia, and the aspirations of the German nation.
+
+Alexander, indeed, if occasionally irritating Metternich, evidently
+afforded him considerable amusement, and the sort of pleasure which
+every man finds in a suitable subject for the exercise of his
+peculiar talents. For Alexander was eminently a man to be managed.
+Enthusiastic, dreamy, and vain; now bent on schemes of conquest, now
+on the development of some ideal of liberty, now filled with some
+confused religious mysticism; at one time eager to divide the world
+with Napoleon, then anxious to restore Poland to its independence; now
+listening to the appeals of Metternich to his fears, at another time
+to the nobler and more liberal suggestions of Stein and Pozzo di
+Borgo;[1] only consistent in the one desire to play an impressive and
+melodramatic part in European affairs.
+
+But, amusing as Alexander was to Metternich, there were circumstances
+connected with the condition of Europe which might make his weak love
+of display as dangerous to Metternich's policy as a more determined
+opponent could be. There were still scattered over Europe traces of
+the old aspirations after liberty which had been first kindled by the
+French Revolution, and again awakened by the rising against Napoleon.
+Setting aside, for the moment, the leaders of German thought, there
+were men who had hoped that even Napoleon might give liberty to
+Poland; there were Spanish popular leaders who had risen for the
+independence of their country; Lombards who had sat in the Assembly of
+the Cis-Alpine Republic; Carbonari in Naples, who had fought under
+Murat, and who had at one time received some little encouragement,
+even from their present King. If the Czar of Russia should put himself
+at the head of such a combination as this, the consequences to Europe
+might indeed be serious.
+
+But the stars in their courses fought for Metternich; and a force,
+which he had considered almost as dangerous as the character of
+Alexander, proved the means of securing the Czar to the side of
+despotism.
+
+Nothing is more characteristic of Metternich and his system than his
+attitude towards any kind of religious feeling. It might have been
+supposed that the anti-religious spirit which had shown itself in the
+fiercest period of the French Revolution, and, to a large extent, also
+in the career of Napoleon, would have induced the restorers of the old
+system to appeal both to clerical feeling and religious sentiment, as
+the most hopeful bulwark of legitimate despotism. Metternich was far
+wiser. He knew, in spite of the accidental circumstances which had
+connected Atheism with the fiercer forms of Jacobinism, that, from the
+time of Moses to the time of George Washington, religious feeling had
+constantly been a tremendous force on the side of liberty; and
+although he might try to believe that to himself alone was due the
+fall of Napoleon, yet he could not but be aware that there were many
+who still fancied that the popular risings in Spain and Germany had
+contributed to that end, and that in both these cases the element of
+religious feeling had helped to strengthen the popular enthusiasm. He
+felt, too, that however much the clergy might at times have been made
+the tools of despotism, they did represent a spiritual force which
+might become dangerous to those who relied on the power of armies, the
+traditions of earthly kings, or the tricks of diplomatists. Much,
+therefore, as he may have disliked the levelling and liberating part
+of the policy of Joseph II., Metternich shared the hostility of that
+Prince to the power of the clergy.
+
+Nor was it purely from calculations of policy that Metternich was
+disposed to check religious enthusiasm. Like so many of the nobles of
+his time, he had come under the influence of the French philosophers
+of the eighteenth century; his hard and cynical spirit had easily
+caught the impress of their teaching; and he found it no difficult
+matter to flavour Voltairianism with a slight tincture of respectable
+orthodox Toryism.
+
+The method by which he achieved this end should be given in his own
+words: "I read every day one or two chapters of the Bible. I discover
+new beauties daily, and prostrate myself before this admirable book;
+while at the age of twenty I found it difficult not to think the
+family of Lot unworthy to be saved, Noah unworthy to have lived, Saul
+a great criminal, and David a terrible man. At twenty I tried to
+understand the Apocalypse; now I am sure that I never shall understand
+it. At the age of twenty a deep and long-continued search in the Holy
+Books made me an Atheist after the fashion of Alembert and Lalande; or
+a Christian after that of Chateaubriand. Now I believe and do not
+criticize. Accustomed to occupy myself with great moral questions,
+what have I not accomplished or allowed to be wrought out, before
+arriving at the point where the Pope and my Cure begged me to accept
+from them the most portable edition of the Bible? Is it bold in me to
+take for certain that among a thousand individuals chosen from the men
+of which the people are composed, there will be found, owing to their
+intellectual faculties, their education, or their age, very few who
+have arrived at the point where I find myself?"
+
+This statement of his attitude of mind is taken from a letter written
+to remonstrate with the Russian Ambassador on the patronage afforded
+by the Emperor Alexander to the Bible Societies. But how much more
+would such an attitude of mind lead him to look with repugnance on the
+religious excitement which was displaying itself even in the Arch
+Duchy of Austria!
+
+And, to say the truth, men of far deeper religious feeling than
+Metternich might well be dissatisfied with the influence of the person
+who was the chief mover in this excitement.
+
+The Baroness de Kruedener, formerly one of the gayest of Parisian
+ladies of fashion, and at least suspected of not having been too
+scrupulous in her conduct, had gone through the process which Carlyle
+so forcibly describes in his sketch of Ignatius Loyola. She had
+changed the excitements of the world for the excitements of religion,
+and was now preaching and prophesying a millennium of good things to
+come in another world, to those who would abandon some of the more
+commonplace amusements of the present. The disturbance which she was
+producing in men's minds specially alarmed Metternich; and, under what
+influence it may be difficult to prove, she was induced to retire to
+Russia, and there came in contact with the excitable Czar.
+
+Under her influence Alexander drew up a manifesto, from which it
+appeared that, while all men were brothers, kings were the fathers of
+their peoples; Russia, Austria, and Prussia were different branches of
+one Christian people, who recognized no ruler save the Highest; and
+they were to combine to enforce Christian principles on the peoples of
+Europe. When the draft of this proclamation was first placed before
+Metternich it was so alien from his modes of thought that he could
+only treat it with scorn; and Frederick William of Prussia was the
+only ruler who regarded it with even modified approval. But with all
+his scorn Metternich had the wit to see that the pietism of Alexander
+of Russia had now been turned into a direction which might be made use
+of for the enforcement of Metternich's own system of government; and
+thus, after having induced Alexander, much against his will, to modify
+and alter the original draft, Metternich laid the foundation of the
+Holy Alliance.
+
+But there still remained the troublesome question of the aspirations
+of the German nation; and these seemed likely at first to centre in a
+man of far higher type and far more steady resolution than Alexander.
+This was Baron von Stein, who, driven from office by Napoleon, had
+been in exile the point of attraction to all those who laboured for
+the liberty of Germany. He had declared, at an early period, in favour
+of a German Parliament. But Metternich had ingeniously succeeded in
+pitting against him the local feeling of the smaller German States;
+and instead of the real Parliament which Stein desired, there arose
+that curious device for hindering national development called the
+German Bund.
+
+This was composed of thirty-nine members, the representatives
+of all the different German Governments. Its object was said to
+be to preserve the outward and inward safety of Germany, and the
+independence and inviolability of her separate States. If any change
+were to be made in fundamental laws, it could only be done by a
+unanimous vote. Some form of Constitution was to be introduced in each
+State of the Bund; arrangements were to be made with regard to the
+freedom of the press, and the Bund was also to take into consideration
+the question of trade and intercourse between the different States.
+All the members of the Bundestag were to protect Germany, and each
+individual State, against every attack. The vagueness and looseness of
+these provisions enabled Metternich so to manage the Bundestag as to
+defeat the objects of Stein and his friends, and gradually to use this
+weakly-constituted Assembly as an effective engine of despotism.
+
+But in fact Stein was ill fitted to represent the popular feeling in
+any efficient manner. His position is one that is not altogether easy
+to explain. He believed, to some extent, in the People, especially the
+_German_ People. That is to say, he believed in the power of that
+people to _feel_ justly and honourably; and, as long as that feeling
+was expressed in the form of a cry to their rulers to guide and lead
+justly, he was as anxious as anyone that that cry should be heard. He
+liked, too, the sense of the compact embodiment of this feeling in
+some institution representing the unity of the nation. But, with the
+ideas connected with popular representation in the English sense, he
+had little sympathy. That the People or their representatives should
+_reason_ or act, independently of their sovereigns, was a political
+conception which was utterly abhorrent to him.
+
+In short, Stein's antagonism to Metternich was as intense as that of
+the most advanced democrat; but it was not so much the opposition of a
+champion of freedom to a champion of despotism, as the opposition of
+an honest man to a rogue. Metternich wrote in his Memoirs, when he was
+taking office for the first time in 1809, "From the day when peace
+is signed we must confine our system to tacking and turning and
+flattering. Thus alone may we possibly preserve our existence till the
+day of general deliverance." This policy had been consistently
+followed. The abandonment of Andrew Hofer after the Tyrolese rising of
+1809, the adulterous marriage of Maria Louisa, the alliance with
+Napoleon, the discouragement of all popular effort to throw off the
+French yoke, the timely desertion of Napoleon's cause, just soon
+enough to give importance to the alliance of Austria with Prussia and
+Russia and England, just late enough to prevent any danger of defeat
+and misfortune; these acts marked the character of Metternich's policy
+and excited the loathing of Stein.
+
+As he had been repelled from Metternich by arts like these, so Stein
+had been drawn to Arndt, Schleiermacher, and Steffens by a common love
+of honesty and by a common power of self-sacrifice; but he looked upon
+them none the less as, to a large extent, dreamers and theorists; and
+this want of sympathy with them grew, as the popular movement took a
+more independent form, until at last the champion of Parliamentary
+Government, the liberator of the Prussian peasant, the leader of the
+German people in the struggle against Napoleon, drifted entirely out
+of political life from want of sympathy with all parties.
+
+But it was not to Stein alone that the Germans of 1813 had looked for
+help and encouragement in their struggle against Napoleon. The People
+had found other noble leaders at that period, and it remembered them.
+The King of Prussia remembered them too, to his shame. He was
+perfectly aware that he had played a very sorry part in the beginning
+of the struggle, and that, instead of leading his people, he had been
+forced by them most unwillingly into the position of a champion of
+liberty. It was not, therefore, merely from a fear of the political
+effects of the Constitutional movement, but from a more personal
+feeling, that Frederick William III. was eager to forget the events of
+1813.
+
+But if the King wished to put aside uncomfortable facts, his
+flatterers were disposed to go much further, and to deny them. A man
+named Schmalz, who had been accused, rightly or wrongly, of having
+acted in 1808 with Scharnhorst in promoting the Tugendbund,[2] and of
+writing in a democratic sense about popular assemblies, now wrote a
+pamphlet to vindicate himself against these charges.
+
+Starting from this personal standpoint, he went on to maintain that
+all which was useful in the movement of 1813 came directly from the
+King; that enterprises like that by which Schill endeavoured to rouse
+the Prussians to a really popular struggle against the French were an
+entire mistake; that the political unions did nothing to stir up the
+people; that the alliance between Prussia and France in 1812 had saved
+Europe; and that it was not till the King gave the word in February,
+1813, that the German people had shown any wish to throw off the yoke
+of Napoleon.
+
+This pamphlet at once called forth a storm of indignation. Niebuhr and
+Schleiermacher both wrote answers to it, and the remaining popularity
+of the King received a heavy blow when it was found that he was
+checking the opposition, and had even singled out Schmalz for special
+honour. The great centre of discontent was in the newly-acquired Rhine
+province. The King of Prussia, indeed, had hoped that by founding a
+University at Bonn, by appointing Arndt Professor of History, and
+Goerres, the former editor of the "Rhenish Mercury," Director of Public
+Instruction, he might have secured the popular feeling in the province
+to his side.
+
+But Arndt and Goerres were not men to be silenced by favour, any
+more than by fear. Goerres remonstrated with the King for giving a
+decoration to Schmalz, and organized petitions for enforcing the
+clause in the Treaty of Vienna which enabled the Bund to summon the
+Staende of the different provinces. Arndt renewed his demand for the
+abolition of serfdom in his own province of Ruegen, advocated peasant
+proprietorship, and, above all, Parliamentary Government for Germany.
+
+The feeling of discontent, which these pamphlets helped to keep alive,
+was further strengthened in the Rhine Province by a growing feeling
+that Frederick William was trying to crush out local traditions and
+local independence by the help of Prussian officials.
+
+So bitter was the anti-Prussian feeling produced by this conduct, that
+a temporary liking was excited for the Emperor of Austria, as an
+opponent of the Prussianizing of Germany; and Metternich, travelling
+in 1817 through this province, remarked that it is "no doubt the part
+of Europe where the Emperor is most loved, _more even than in our own
+country_."
+
+But it was but a passing satisfaction that the ruler of Europe could
+derive from this accidental result of German discontent. He had
+already begun to perceive that his opposition to the unity of Germany,
+and his consequent attempt to pose as the champion of the separate
+States, had not tended to secure the despotic system which his soul
+loved.
+
+Stein had opposed the admission of the smaller German States to the
+Vienna Congress, no doubt holding that the unity of Germany would be
+better accomplished in this manner, and very likely distrusting
+Bavaria and Wuertemberg, as former allies of Napoleon. Metternich, by
+the help of Talleyrand, had defeated this attempt at exclusion, and
+had secured the admission of Bavaria and Wuertemberg to the Congress.
+But he now found that these very States were thorns in his side.
+
+They resented the attempts of Metternich to dictate to them in their
+internal affairs; and, though the King of Bavaria might confine
+himself to vague phrases about liberty, the King of Wuertemberg
+actually went the length of granting a Constitution. Had this King
+lived much longer, Metternich might have been able to revive against
+him the remembrance of his former alliance with Napoleon. But when,
+after his death in 1816, the new King of Wuertemberg, a genuine German
+patriot, continued, in defiance of his nobles, to uphold his father's
+Constitution, this hope was taken away, and the South German States
+remained to the last, with more or less consistency, a hindrance to
+the completeness of Metternich's system.
+
+But the summary of Metternich's difficulties in Germany is not yet
+complete. The ruler of another small principality, the Duke of Weimar,
+had taken advantage, like the King of Wuertemberg, of the permission to
+grant a Constitution to his people; and had been more prominent than
+even the King of Wuertemberg in encouraging freedom of discussion in
+his dominions. This love of freedom, in Weimar as in most countries of
+Europe, connected itself with University life, and thus found its
+centre in the celebrated University of Jena; and on June 18th, 1816,
+the students of the University met to celebrate the anniversary of the
+Battle of Leipzig. There, to the great alarm of the authorities, they
+publicly burnt the pamphlet of Schmalz, and another written by the
+play-writer Kotzebue, who was believed to have turned away Alexander
+of Russia from the cause of liberty, and now to be acting as his tool
+and spy.
+
+The head of the Rhine police, conscious, no doubt, of the ferment in
+his own province, remonstrated with the Duke of Weimar on permitting
+such disturbances.
+
+This opposition increased the movement which it was designed to check.
+Jahn, who had founded the gymnastic schools which had speedily become
+places of military exercise for patriotic Germans during the war, now
+came forward to organize a Burschenschaft, a society which was to
+include all the patriotic students of Germany. Metternich and his
+friends had become thoroughly alarmed at the progress of the opposition,
+but again events seemed to work for him; and the enthusiasm of the
+students, ill-regulated, and ill-guided, was soon to give an excuse for
+the blow which would secure the victory for a time to the champions of
+absolutism.
+
+The desire for liberty seems always to connect itself with love of
+symbolism; and the movement for reform, naturally led to the revival
+of sympathy with earlier reformers. Actuated by these feelings, the
+students of Leipzig and other German Universities gathered at the
+Wartburg, in 1817, to revive the memory of Luther's testimony for
+liberty of thought; and they seized the opportunity for protesting
+against the tyranny of their own time.
+
+Apparently the enthusiasm for the Emperor of Austria had not extended
+to Saxony; for an Austrian corporal's staff was one of the first
+objects cast into the bonfire, which was lighted by the students;
+while the dislike to Prussia was symbolized by the burning of a pair
+of Prussian military stays, and the hatred of the tyranny which
+prevailed in the smaller States, found vent in the burning of a
+Hessian pig-tail. The demonstration excited much disapproval among the
+stricter followers of Metternich; but Stein and others protested
+against any attempt to hinder the students in their meeting.
+
+In the following year the Burschenschaft, which Jahn desired to form,
+began to take shape, and to increase the alarm of the lovers of peace
+at all costs. Metternich rose to the occasion; and boasted that he had
+become a moral power in Europe, which would leave a void when it
+disappeared. In March, 1819, the event took place which at last gave
+this "moral power" a success that seemed for the moment likely to be
+lasting.
+
+Ludwig Sand, a young man who had studied first at Erlangen and
+afterwards at Jena, went, on March 23rd, 1819, to the house of
+Kotzebue at Mannheim, and stabbed him to the heart.
+
+It was said, truly or falsely, that a paper was found with Sand,
+declaring that he acted with the authority of the University of ----.
+It was said also that Sand had played a prominent part in the Wartburg
+celebration. With the logic usual with panic-mongers, Metternich was
+easily able to deduce from these facts the conclusion that the
+Universities must, if left to themselves, become schools of sedition
+and murder.
+
+The Duke of Weimar, with more courage, perhaps, than tact, had
+anticipated the designs of Metternich by a proclamation in favour of
+freedom of thought and teaching at the Universities, as the best
+security for attaining truth.
+
+This proclamation strengthened still further the hands of Metternich.
+Abandoning the position which he had assumed at the Congress of
+Vienna, of champion of the smaller States of Germany, he appealed to
+the King of Prussia for help to coerce the Duke of Weimar, and the
+German Universities.
+
+Frederick William, in spite of his support of Schmalz, was still
+troubled by some scruples of conscience. In May, 1815, he had made a
+public promise of a Constitution to Prussia; Stein and Humboldt were
+eager that he should fulfil this promise, and even the less scrupulous
+Hardenberg held that it ought to be fulfilled sooner or later.
+
+But Metternich urged upon the King that he had allowed dangerous
+principles to grow in Prussia; that his kingdom was the centre of
+conspiracy against the peace and order of Germany, and that, if he
+once conceded representative government, the other Powers would be
+obliged to leave him to his fate.
+
+The King, already alarmed by the course which events were taking, was
+easily persuaded by Metternich to abandon a proposal which seemed to
+have nothing in its favour except the duty of keeping his word. Arndt
+was deprived of his professorship, and tried by commission on the
+charge of taking part in a Republican conspiracy; Jahn was arrested,
+and Goerres fled from the country, to reappear at a later time in
+Bavaria as a champion of Ultramontanism against the hateful influence
+of Prussia.
+
+Then Metternich proceeded to his master stroke. He called a conference
+at Carlsbad to crush the revolutionary spirit of the Universities. A
+commission of five members was appointed, under whose superintendence
+an official was to be placed over every University, to direct the
+minds and studies of students to sound political conclusions. Each
+Government of Germany was to pledge itself to remove any teacher
+pronounced dangerous by this commission; and if any Government
+resisted, the commission would compel it. No Government was ever to
+accept a teacher so expelled from any other University. No newspaper
+of less than twenty pages was to appear without leave of a Board,
+appointed for the purpose, and every state of Germany was to be
+answerable to the Bund for the contents of its newspapers. The editor
+of a suppressed paper was to be, _ipso facto_, prohibited from
+starting another paper for five years in any state of the Bund; and a
+central Board was to be founded for inquiry into demagogic plots.
+
+These decrees seem a sufficiently crushing engine of despotism; but
+there still remained a slight obstacle to be removed from Metternich's
+path. The 13th Article of the Treaty of Vienna had suggested the
+granting of Constitutions by different rulers of Germany; and, vaguely
+as it had been drawn, both Metternich and Francis felt this clause an
+obstacle in their path.
+
+As soon, therefore, as the Carlsbad Decrees had been passed,
+Metternich summoned anew the different States of Germany, to
+discuss the improvement of this clause. The representatives of
+Bavaria and Wuertemberg protested against this interference with the
+independence of the separate States; and, although the representative of
+Prussia steadily supported Metternich, it was necessary to make some
+concession in form to the opponents of his policy.
+
+It was, therefore, decided that the Princes of Germany should not be
+hindered in the exercise of their power, nor in their duty as members
+of the Bund, by any Constitutions. By this easy device Metternich was
+able to assume, without resistance, the Imperial tone, which suited
+his position. The entry in his memoirs naturally marks this supreme
+moment of triumph. "I told my five-and-twenty friends," he says, "what
+we want, and what we do not want; on this avowal there was a general
+declaration of approval, and each one asserted he had never wanted
+more or less, nor indeed anything different."
+
+Thus was Metternich recognized as the undisputed ruler of Germany,
+and, for the moment, of Europe.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] A Corsican of noble birth who left his country after it fell under
+the rule of France, and whose influence was used with Alexander to
+encourage him in a Liberal policy.
+
+[2] A popular and patriotic society, for training the Germans in
+resistance to the French yoke.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FIRST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM, 1820-1832.
+
+     Effect of Napoleonic Wars on Italian Feeling.--Austrian promises
+     and performances in Lombardy.--Vincenzo Monti.--Ugo
+     Foscolo.--Alessandro Manzoni.--Federigo Confalonieri.--Position of
+     Sardinia.--Relations of Sardinia with Austria.--Reaction under
+     Victor Emmanuel.--Ferdinand I. of Naples.--The Carbonari.--The
+     Spanish rising.--The Spanish Constitution.--The Neapolitan
+     rising.--Guglielmo Pepe.--The Conference at Troppau.--Palermo and
+     the Constitution of 1812.--Divisions in the Liberal
+     Camp.--Ferdinand's attitude.--The movement in Piedmont.--Santa
+     Rosa.--Charles Albert.--"Voleva e non voleva."--The Students'
+     rising.--The rising in Piedmont, and causes of its
+     failure.--Reaction in Italy.--The first martyr.--The Greek
+     rising.--Alexander of Russia.--George Canning.--Breaking of the
+     Holy Alliance.--The Movements of 1830-31.--The Frankfort
+     Decrees.--Metternich's second triumph.
+
+
+Of all the countries of Europe, none had been more affected than
+Italy, both for good and evil, by the Napoleonic wars; and in no part
+of Italy were the traces of these wars so evident as in Lombardy.
+Though settled liberty had been unknown there since the cities of the
+Lombard League had fallen under their petty tyrants; though any sense,
+even of national independence, must have ceased since the sixteenth
+century; yet the real misery of the position of a conquered country,
+the sense of an absolutely alien rule, seems hardly to have been fully
+realised by the Lombards, until the Peace of Utrecht, in 1713, had
+substituted the Austrian rule for that of the Spaniards. The Spanish
+tyranny, however cruel, had been softened to the Italians by the sense
+of community of race and similarity of language; and the readiness of
+the conquerors to inter-marry with the conquered had given hopes of an
+ultimate amalgamation between the races. But under the German rule
+there were no such modifications of the evils of conquest. The new
+rulers held aloof from the Italians; and the latter were reminded at
+every moment that they were not merely slaves, but slaves to an alien
+and unsympathetic master.
+
+When, then, an Italian, at the head of a French army, offered the
+Lombards deliverance from German rule; when he organized them into a
+separate legion, and showed special trust in them throughout his wars;
+when he established the Government of the Cis-Alpine Republic, and
+held out before their astonished eyes the vision of an united Italy,
+it was natural that such appeals should awaken hopes of a newer life,
+and a prouder position in the councils of Europe.
+
+It was true that their confidence had received terrible shocks. The
+horrible treachery of the Treaty of Campo Formio, the manipulation of
+the Constitution of the Cis-Alpine Republic, the gradual changes which
+tended to absorb it into the French Empire; these had been tolerably
+clear signs to the Lombards of what they might ultimately expect from
+their so-called liberator.
+
+Yet amid all these acts of violence and treachery, Napoleon had still
+kept before them the idea of a separate kingdom of Italy, if not in
+the present, then in the not distant future. If Napoleon failed them,
+Eugene Beauharnais might realise the ideal with which his step-father
+had mocked them; if Eugene Beauharnais proved false, King Joachim of
+Naples might lead them to freedom.
+
+And then, most wonderful of all! came the announcement that the
+Austrian might become, in his turn, the liberator. In 1809, Archduke
+John had promised to the Italians, in the name of the Emperor Francis,
+"a Constitution founded on the nature of things, and a frontier
+inaccessible to any foreign rule. Europe well knows," continued the
+Archduke, "that the word of this Prince is sacred, and that it is as
+unchangeable as it is pure. It is Heaven that speaks by his mouth."
+
+General Nugent, the leader of the Austrian forces, followed up this
+proclamation, at a later time, by equally strong promises of Italian
+independence, and as late as April 26, 1814, Lord William Bentinck,
+the founder of the Sicilian Constitution of 1812, had added his
+guarantee for the liberty, prosperity, and independence of Italy.
+
+The Italians, therefore, had some hopes of justice from the Powers of
+Europe. These were shaken by the Congress of Vienna; and the Lombards
+received a new shock when they found how unreal were even the seeming
+concessions made by that Congress. A central Congregation of Lombardy,
+which had no power of initiating reforms, and hardly leave to utter
+complaints, was the sole embodiment of the principle of Italian
+independence; and the "frontier guaranteed against the foreigner" was
+unable to exclude, not only Austrian soldiers from the garrisons of
+Lombardy, but even Austrian judges from her tribunals, and Austrian
+professors from her universities; secret tribunals tried Lombards,
+who were arrested for they knew not what cause; taxes out of all
+proportion to the size of Lombardy drained the country for the benefit
+of other parts of the empire; and police dogged the footsteps of the
+most distinguished citizens.
+
+Nor could Lombardy be even certain of her own sons. The wisest
+Lombards might well have been confused by the rapid changes of
+government which had taken place in the short space of eighteen years.
+They had seen Austrian tyranny give place to a Cis-Alpine Republic;
+they had passed from republican rule by somewhat confused stages under
+the despotism of Napoleon, a despotism which had in its turn to give
+way to the freer rule of Eugene Beauharnais; and lastly they had seen
+Beauharnais overthrown, and Austrian rule restored in a more crushing
+form than before.
+
+Not merely their political judgment, but their sense of right and
+wrong had been unsettled by such changes. When men of high genius,
+like the poet Vincenzo Monti, could begin his literary career by a
+fierce poem against France, continue it by songs in praise of the
+French conquerors as promoters of liberty, then write eulogies on
+Napoleon's empire, and finally join in the inauguration of a library,
+which was to be the means of reconciling the Italians to their
+Austrian conquerors, it can scarcely be wondered at if men of lower
+intellect found themselves equally ready to worship each new ruler as
+he rose into power, and to trample on the memory of fallen heroes.
+
+A man of nobler type than Monti expressed, perhaps still more clearly,
+the sense of despair which seemed likely to become the keynote of
+Italian feeling. Ugo Foscolo was, from his very birth, an embodiment
+of the confused state of Italy at that period. He was born in 1778, in
+the Isle of Zante, then a colony of the Venetian Republic, and in a
+condition of the utmost lawlessness. He was sent from thence to study
+at Padua, and thus grew up to manhood during the period of those
+continual changes in Lombardy which marked the period of the struggle
+against France. At one time he thought of becoming a priest, but soon
+devoted himself to literature.
+
+The sole models for the Italian dramatists, at that period, were the
+writings of Vittorio Alfieri, whose feelings and literary taste had
+led him to adhere, as closely as he could, to the old classical
+traditions. At the age of nineteen Foscolo chose, as his first subject
+for a drama, the horrible story of Thyestes; but though this work was
+received with great applause, his literary career was, for a time, cut
+short by the Treaty of Campo Formio.
+
+His political convictions seem already to have been strongly
+developed, for he was forced to leave Venice to escape the persecution
+of the new Government. Yet the creation of the Cis-Alpine Republic
+revived his hopes, and he hastened to Milan to take a share in the new
+life. There he became acquainted with the two leading poets of the
+day, Vincenzo Monti and Giuseppe Parini. From the former he gained
+several hints in style; from the latter he learnt the nobler lesson of
+hatred of corruption and servility. But the growing tyranny of
+Napoleon, the sense of the fickleness of his own countrymen, and the
+loathing of the rule of the Austrians, produced in Foscolo a bitter
+tone of cynicism and despair.
+
+It was while in this state of mind that he fell in with Goethe's
+romance of Werther; and on this he modelled the strange rhapsodical
+story of Jacopo Ortis, in which the hero, disappointed in love and
+politics, takes refuge, like Werther, in suicide. But while the German
+romance was merely the expression of a passing feeling, which the
+author took pleasure in throwing into an artistic form, the Italian
+story was the deliberate expression of Foscolo's most permanent state
+of mind, and was accepted as the embodiment of the feelings of many
+other Lombard youths.
+
+Foscolo, after fighting for the independence of Italy against the
+Austrian invasion of 1815, withdrew in disgust to England; but some of
+those who would gladly have welcomed him as a fellow-worker still
+remained in Lombardy, and tried to form a nucleus of free Italian
+thought.
+
+Of these, the most remarkable was Alessandro Manzoni, best known to
+foreigners as the author of "I Promessi Sposi." Manzoni's influence
+was more widely felt in Italy at a later period; but the presence of
+such a man among the Lombard patriots of 1816-20 is too remarkable a
+fact to pass without notice. He, like so many other young nobles, had
+gone through a phase of eighteenth-century scepticism. But in 1808 he
+had been attracted by a beautiful Protestant lady, who, after her
+marriage to Manzoni, drifted into Roman Catholicism, and eventually
+led her husband to accept the same faith. Many of his old comrades
+denounced his conversion, and some even attributed it to evil motives.
+But they soon discovered that his new faith, far from weakening his
+Italian feeling, had strengthened, while in some sense, it softened
+it. The hard classicism of which Alfieri had set the fashion, and
+which Foscolo could not shake off, was repugnant to Manzoni, who
+desired to become the sacred poet of Italy, and who was recognized by
+Goethe as being "Christian without fanaticism, Roman Catholic without
+hypocrisy."
+
+Manzoni disliked Eugene Beauharnais for wishing to derive his title to
+the kingdom of Italy from Alexander of Russia; but he sympathized with
+the attempt of Murat, and was ready to act with those Lombards who
+wished to rouse Italian feeling in literature and politics.
+
+But though men like Foscolo and Manzoni had a wider and deeper
+influence in all parts of Italy, the person who most attracted the
+hopes of the Lombards and the fear and hatred of Metternich, at this
+period, was a man whose name is now little remembered outside his own
+country. This was Count Federigo Confalonieri. He, like so many of the
+better men of his country, had become equally disgusted with French
+and Austrian rulers; and, when a proposal was made by the Italian
+Senate in 1814 to secure from the allies an independent kingdom
+of Italy, to be governed by Eugene Beauharnais, Confalonieri headed
+a protest against the proposal. The Austrian spies seized the
+opportunity to stir up a riot against the Senate; and in this
+disturbance Prina, one of the ministers, was seized by the mob and
+murdered, in spite of Confalonieri's indignant protest.
+
+The Senate fled; and the new Provisional Government of Lombardy sent
+Confalonieri to Paris, to plead for an independent kingdom of
+Lombardy. His appeal, however, was in vain; and, when the Austrians
+recovered their rule, Confalonieri was banished from Milan. He soon,
+however, returned, and devoted himself to developing in all ways the
+resources of his country. He had studied in London and Paris the
+principle of mutual instruction; and he founded schools for that
+purpose in Lombardy. He succeeded in getting the first steamboat
+built in Milan, introduced gas light, and encouraged all kinds of
+improvements, both artistic and industrial.
+
+But his great work was the gathering round him, for literary and
+political purposes, of the great writers of Lombardy; and he founded a
+journal called "Il Conciliatore," to which contributions were sent by
+the poet Silvio Pellico, by the historians Sismondi and Botta, by
+Manzoni and Foscolo, and, amongst others, by a certain Lombard exile,
+who was afterwards to earn a short and sad celebrity in Italian
+history, Pellegrino Rossi. Thus, as a great noble encouraging the
+material growth of his country, as the centre of a literary movement,
+and above all as a known champion of freedom, Confalonieri riveted the
+attention of all who knew him.
+
+But, however zealous this small knot of Lombards might be for the
+progress and freedom of their country, none of them supposed that
+Lombardy could throw off the yoke of Austria without assistance from
+other Powers. The question therefore was, to whom they should look for
+help.
+
+Their nearest neighbour, the King of Sardinia, had some special
+grounds for grievance against the Emperor of Austria, besides the
+tradition of dislike which he had inherited from Victor Amadeus. That
+unfortunate king had had reason to regret the prominent part which he
+had taken in defying the French Republic in 1796. For he found that
+Francis of Austria was eager on every occasion to take advantage of
+the weakness of his ally. When Savoy was hard pressed by the French,
+the Austrians had demanded that, in return for any help that they
+might give to the King of Sardinia, he should surrender to them part
+of the territory in Lombardy which had been secured to him by recent
+treaties. Victor Amadeus endeavoured to resist this proposal as
+long as he could; but he was induced by the pressure of English
+diplomatists to consent that, if in the war any lands were taken from
+Austria, he would compensate the Austrians by part of the territory
+which they demanded.
+
+Victor Emmanuel found in 1815 that alliance with Austria cost him as
+dear as it had cost his predecessor in 1796. For, even in the last
+desperate struggle against Napoleon, the Austrians demanded that the
+treaty of alliance between Austria and Sardinia should contain a
+clause for the destruction of the fortifications of Alessandria; and
+in the Congress of Vienna they tried to take from Victor Emmanuel the
+district of Novara. By the help of Alexander of Russia these intrigues
+were defeated; but the Austrians, in revenge, made all the delay that
+they could devise in evacuating Piedmont; and, when they finally left
+it in 1816, they destroyed the fortress outside Alessandria. Under
+these circumstances it was natural enough that the King of Sardinia
+should bear a bitter grudge against the House of Austria.
+
+But, on the other hand, there was great reason to doubt whether Victor
+Emmanuel could be persuaded to take the lead in any war that savoured
+of revolution. For, hostile as he was to the claims of Austria, the
+newly-restored king resented yet more strongly the changes which had
+been introduced during the French occupation. On his restoration in
+1814, he abolished by one sweeping Act all laws passed since 1800 in
+Piedmont; primogeniture, aristocratic privileges, ecclesiastical
+tribunals, tortures, secret inquisitions, were all restored. Even at
+the universities learned men were deposed, as likely to be friendly to
+the French, and were replaced by men who had no claim but their social
+rank. A system of espionage was introduced, at least as inquisitorial
+and degrading as that of Metternich, and it was soon found that to
+maintain that system it was necessary to sacrifice national dignity,
+and to have recourse to the great master in the art of tyranny. Thus
+it came about that Austrian officers were chosen to control the police
+in Turin.
+
+In two important respects the government of Victor Emmanuel was even
+worse than that of Austria. Clerical injustice and oppression were as
+distasteful to Francis and Metternich as they had been to Joseph and
+Leopold; while in Piedmont, on the contrary, friars and monks were
+allowed a licence which speedily became a new source of evil. The
+other point of difference was that, tyrannical and unjust as the
+Austrian tribunals were in cases where political questions were
+involved, they were perfectly pure in cases between man and man
+unconnected with politics; whereas in Piedmont judicial decisions were
+sold to the highest bidder.
+
+Under these circumstances, the eyes of the champions of Italian
+liberty naturally turned to that kingdom from which the last effort
+had been made for the unity of Italy.
+
+Naples had contributed a very large proportion of those who had died
+for the cause of liberty in the earlier struggles, and even before
+that time had produced at least one man who had left his mark on
+sciences which tended to promote good government. Gaetano Filangieri
+had been one of the most distinguished writers on law and political
+economy, and had gained great influence at one period over Ferdinand
+I. of Naples. Ferdinand himself, though intensely weak, and capable of
+cruelty under certain circumstances, was not a man of habitually cruel
+character, nor even of so despotic a temperament as Victor Emmanuel of
+Sardinia.
+
+But, like most of the sovereigns of Italy, he found himself compelled
+to rely more and more on Austria for the re-establishment of his
+power. He appointed Nugent, the Austrian general, as the head of his
+army, and a central council interfered with the liberties which had
+grown up in Naples. His refusal to carry out the promises of liberty
+which he had made in his time of difficulty naturally irritated his
+people against him, while the recollections of Murat stirred in them
+the desire for new efforts for freedom.
+
+But the great ally which Naples supplied at this time to the cause
+of liberty was the Society of the Carbonari. Connected by vague
+traditions with some societies of the past, Carbonarism had received
+its first distinct political shape in the year 1811, when Murat was
+reigning in Naples. In 1814, when Murat had shown signs of a despotic
+spirit, it transferred its allegiance to King Ferdinand, then reigning
+only in Sicily. When Ferdinand had been restored to the throne of
+Naples, he found Carbonarism a dangerous element in his kingdom, and
+he began to prosecute the members of the Society. This had not,
+however, deprived the Carbonari of their monarchical sympathies; they
+merely transferred them from Ferdinand to his son Francis, who, having
+assisted at the establishment of the Constitution of 1812 in Sicily,
+was supposed to be committed to the cause of liberty.
+
+A vague talk about equality, and a more definite demand for the
+independence of Italy, constituted the programme of the Carbonari. But
+the Society was surrounded by various symbols of an impressive
+character, and its rules were enforced by a secret and vigorous
+discipline. It was evident that, in some way, it was suited to the
+wants of the time; for it spread rapidly from Naples to other parts of
+Italy, and took root both in Lombardy and Piedmont. In Lombardy it
+speedily attracted the attention of the Austrian police, and in 1818
+several arrests were made; but such attempts merely strengthened the
+growth of the movement, and Carbonarism soon appeared in Spain.
+
+In the latter country the betrayal of the Constitutional cause had
+been, perhaps, baser than in any other part of Europe.
+
+With the exception of Frederick William of Prussia, no sovereign had
+owed more to the zeal of his people in the struggle against Napoleon
+than Ferdinand of Spain. In 1812, before he had been restored to his
+throne, he had been forced to grant a Constitution to his people,
+which, on recovering full power, he had abolished; and anyone who
+ventured to speak of liberty had been exiled or imprisoned. Among
+those who had been forced to fly from the country was Rafael del
+Riego, who had been one of the earliest to rise on behalf of Ferdinand
+against Napoleon. He had succeeded, by the help of the Carbonari, in
+establishing relations with many of the discontented soldiers in the
+Spanish army; and in January, 1820, he suddenly appeared at Cadiz and
+proclaimed the Constitution of 1812.
+
+His success was rapid, and Ferdinand was compelled once more to swear
+to maintain the Constitution.
+
+This, the first Constitution proclaimed since the downfall of
+Napoleon, was remarkable for its democratic character. Parliament was
+to have the power of making laws in conjunction with the king, and if
+they passed a law three times, the king was to lose the right of
+vetoing it. Ministers were to be responsible to Parliament. Freedom of
+the press was to be secured, and a Council of State was to advise the
+king on questions of peace or war and the making of treaties. At the
+same time, the nation was to prohibit the practice of any but the
+Roman Catholic religion.
+
+The news rapidly spread to Naples; for not only was there continual
+communication between the Carbonari of Spain and those of Naples, but
+even official duty would make speedy communication necessary, since
+Ferdinand of Naples was the next heir to the Spanish throne, and it
+was therefore held that this Constitution would be binding on him.
+The Carbonari were ready for the emergency; and while some of
+them, in the city of Naples, were demanding concessions, the more
+revolutionary districts of Calabria and Salerno had already risen in
+open insurrection. Ferdinand was able to arrest some of the leaders in
+the city; but he soon found that the insurrectionary spirit had spread
+even among the generals of his army. Officer after officer declared for
+the Constitution; and even those who were not ready to take that step
+were suspected by, and suspicious of, their fellows. Guglielmo Pepe,
+known as a supporter of the previous movement of Murat, and at one time
+sentenced to death for his opposition to the Bourbon rule, was marked
+out by the Carbonari as their leader. He at first hesitated to join
+them, and was even chosen by Nugent to lead the king's forces against
+the insurgents; but Ferdinand distrusted him, and opposed his
+appointment, and Pepe was finally driven to accept the leadership of the
+revolution. On July 5th he gathered round him a great body of the
+officers and soldiers, and led them to Naples; and Ferdinand, finding
+that he had no one to rely upon, yielded to the insurgents and consented
+to the appointment of a provisional Junta (composed to a great extent of
+the previous supporters of Murat), and swore to accept the Spanish
+Constitution.
+
+Metternich was greatly startled at the completeness of this popular
+victory. He had been convinced that, with a people like the Neapolitans,
+blood would flow in streams; and he was alarmed to find that the leading
+Carbonari were men of high character. He at once assumed that Alexander
+of Russia was at the bottom of the conspiracy; and he set himself to
+convert him once more to the side of order. But that fickle Prince seems
+never to have seriously resumed the championship of liberalism in
+Europe, after the death of Kotzebue; and though he may have wished
+occasionally to play with the Carbonari, and may have been flattered by
+their appealing to him, he was much more anxious to put in force those
+principles which Mme de Kruedener had taught him, which forbade kings to
+keep faith with those subjects to whom they had granted liberties. He
+therefore readily consented to come to Troppau, to consider the best
+means of checking the Neapolitan insurrection.
+
+In the meantime, suspicions had arisen between the Carbonari and the
+old followers of Murat, and the want of organization in their forces
+seemed to doom the insurrection to failure.
+
+But a still more fatal cause of division was the attitude of Sicily.
+The news of the proclamation of the Spanish Constitution had, at
+first, been welcomed there; but the nobles of Palermo cherished the
+recollection of that short time of independence when Ferdinand, driven
+out of Naples, had ruled Sicily as a separate kingdom; the Sicilian
+Constitution of 1812, which was welcome to the nobles of Palermo, as
+more aristocratic in its character than the Spanish Constitution,
+was acceptable to all the Palermitans as the symbol of Sicilian
+independence. The cry, therefore, of "the Constitution of 1812"
+was raised in Palermo, in opposition to the cry of "the Spanish
+Constitution."
+
+A Neapolitan intriguer, named Naselli, did his best to fan the flame
+of this division; riots arose; and the news spread to Naples that the
+Sicilians were enemies of Naples, and were opposing the Spanish
+Constitution. The Palermitans, on their part, appealed to the King by
+the memory of the old fidelity which the Sicilians had shown him when
+he was in exile. The King, and some others, might have responded to
+this appeal; and General Florestano Pepe, who was sent to suppress the
+rising, ended by conceding to the Sicilians the right of deciding by
+popular vote between the two Constitutions. But the Neapolitan pride
+was excited; a cry arose that the King was surrendering an important
+part of the kingdom, and thereby violating the Constitution.
+
+In the meantime, however, it had become clear that the preference of
+the Palermitans for the Constitution of 1812 was not shared by the
+whole body of the Sicilian people. Messina, followed by other towns,
+rose on behalf of the Spanish Constitution; and, while the Neapolitans
+were preparing new forces to suppress the rising in Palermo, the
+Palermitans were sending their troops against Messina.
+
+During this state of confusion the news arrived that the
+representatives of the Powers at the Congress of Laybach had urged
+pacific means of intervention, but at the same time had advised the
+Neapolitans to modify their Constitution.
+
+Under these circumstances, considerable alarm was caused by the news
+that the King intended to go to Laybach. Ferdinand, to check this
+alarm, declared to the Parliament that, whatever happened, he would
+defend the fundamental principles of the Constitution, freedom of the
+press, equality before the law, sole right of representatives to vote
+taxes, independence of judicial power, and responsible ministry.
+This speech, instead of calming the fears of the people, raised new
+alarms; for it seemed as though the King were meditating already
+_some_ changes in the Government; and the people declared that they
+could only allow him to depart if he went to defend the Spanish
+Constitution. But Ferdinand earnestly assured them that he had meant
+nothing against the Constitution, and that, if he could not defend the
+rights of the people and the crown by his words at Laybach, he would
+return to defend them by his sword.
+
+The Duke of Ascoli, an old friend and confidant of the King, asked him
+privately for more specific directions; and Ferdinand urged him to
+try to maintain peace; but, if it should be necessary, to prepare for
+war. With such promises, Ferdinand left Naples for Laybach in January,
+1821.
+
+In the meantime, the work of the Carbonari had been spreading in
+Piedmont; and other sects of a similar character, and with more
+definite objects, had sprung up by their side. Unlike the Neapolitans,
+the Piedmontese Liberals had no French political traditions, either to
+encourage or to hamper them. Although the House of Savoy was French
+in its origin, both rulers and people had been forward in their
+resistance to the aggressions of the French Republic. Their ideas of
+liberty were derived, not from France, but from their own poet,
+Vittorio Alfieri; and these ideas had been strengthened by the love of
+independence which they had developed in the struggle against France,
+and which was now wholly directed against Austria.
+
+The risings in Spain and Naples had attracted the sympathies of the
+Piedmontese; and it was even rumoured that Victor Emmanuel I. himself
+had said that if his people demanded a Constitution he would grant it.
+His minister, Prospero Balbo, who had previously served under
+Napoleon, was supposed to have Liberal leanings.
+
+But while all these circumstances tended to connect the desire
+for liberty in the minds of the Piedmontese with the support of
+monarchical principles, and while the absence of any interest in
+political affairs on the part of the peasantry, or the artizans,
+prevented any strong democratic organization, it was yet necessary, if
+the movement was to be successful, that there should be some leader
+who was not afraid of revolutionary measures. Such a man was Santorre
+di Santa Rosa, an officer who had fought in the royal guard against
+the French, and who was now a major of infantry in Turin. His
+sympathies were not only monarchical, but in some respects even
+aristocratic; and when the Spanish Constitution was first proclaimed,
+he was inclined to prefer some other Constitution like that of Sicily,
+or even the charter which had been granted in France. But, with keen
+insight, he quickly perceived that the Spanish Constitution had become
+a watchword which was thoroughly understood by the people, and that
+any new cry would only cause division.
+
+Nor were the designs of Santa Rosa limited to his own State. He knew
+that no struggle for Piedmontese liberty could be successful which did
+not aim at throwing off the yoke of Austria; and that that could
+only be done by combining with the other States, which were groaning
+under the same oppression. The patriots of Lombardy were willing
+enough to act with the Piedmontese, for Confalonieri was already in
+communication with the Neapolitans and other Italian Liberals, and was
+ready to provide arms for the rising.
+
+But there was still needed a figure-head who must be placed in front
+of the movement, if it was to retain any appearance of monarchical
+Constitutionalism.
+
+Whatever casual remarks Victor Emmanuel may have let fall, it soon
+became evident that _he_ was disposed to resist the Constitutional
+movement, and he even began to increase the guards about his palace.
+Charles Felix, his brother, the next heir to the throne, was known to
+be a yet sterner champion of despotism than the King himself; and it
+was under these circumstances that the eyes of the Liberals of
+Piedmont were for the first time turned to the head of the younger
+branch of the House of Savoy, Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano.
+
+He had been brought up as a simple citizen in a public school, and had
+specially attracted attention by the favour which he had shown to
+Alberto Nota, whom he had made his secretary. Nota was a writer who
+had set himself to restore the national comic theatre in Piedmont, who
+had excited the suspicion of the courtiers of Victor Emmanuel by his
+Liberal principles, and who had at last been banished from Turin.
+
+But, though the favour shown by Charles Albert to Nota was the fact in
+the Prince's life which had most impressed the Piedmontese, other
+influences had already been brought to bear on him; for he had also
+studied at Paris under an Abbe, who had impressed on him a loathing
+for the French Revolution. He was only twenty-three, and was still
+hesitating between the lessons of these rival teachers.
+
+But before Santa Rosa and his friends could carry out their schemes,
+the first sign of protest against tyranny in Turin was given from a
+different quarter. Although the desire for liberty had not yet
+penetrated to the poorer classes of Italy, and though the leadership
+of these movements naturally fell into the hands of men of noble
+birth, like Confalonieri and Santa Rosa, yet there was another class
+in the State which was already full of the new ideas, and which was
+eventually to play an important part as a link between the more
+intelligent members of the aristocracy and the still silent classes
+of the community. The University students of Germany, Austria, and
+Italy, from the time of the gathering at Jena in 1816 down to the fall
+of Venice in August, 1849, were to hold a position in the great
+movements of the time which affected considerably the character of
+those movements, both for good and evil.
+
+The share of the Turin students in the Piedmontese rising of 1821 was
+touched with a certain character of boyish frolic. On January 11th,
+some of the University students appeared at the theatre at Turin in
+red caps. The police at once arrested them. But their companions rose
+on their behalf and demanded that they should be tried by the
+tribunals of the University. In this demand they hoped that the
+professors would support them; but the rector of the college was
+opposed to the movement, and the professors were unwilling to
+interfere. Thereupon the students took matters into their own hands,
+took away the keys of the University from the door-keeper, placed
+guards at all the entrances, defended the two principal gates with
+forms and tables, tore up the pavements, and barred the windows. Then
+they despatched two delegates to Count Balbo, to entreat him to set
+free their comrades, or to hand them over to the authorities of the
+University.
+
+The representatives of the provincial colleges flocked to the
+assistance of the Turin students; and the sight of the soldiers, who
+were called out to suppress their rising, only roused them to more
+determined resistance.
+
+The delegates returned speedily, followed by Count Balbo himself, who
+promised to defend the cause of the students before Victor Emmanuel,
+if they would in the meantime remain quiet. The students, therefore,
+consented to wait for further news; but the soldiers remained encamped
+outside the University. Suddenly the attention of the soldiers was
+attracted by some boys coming out of school; and, irritated presumably
+at some boyish mischief, they attacked the children with bayonets. The
+students, indignant at the sight, threw stones at the soldiers, who
+thereupon charged the barricades of the University, and a general
+massacre followed.
+
+The news of this massacre caused the most furious indignation in
+Turin, and tended to swell the growing revolutionary feeling. Charles
+Albert paid a special visit to the hospitals to console those who had
+been wounded by the soldiers.
+
+But in the meantime the proceedings at the Congress of Laybach were
+alarming the lovers of liberty. The King of Naples, by all sorts of
+pretences, had tried to lull to sleep the vigilance of the Junta at
+home; but it soon became known that the Powers had resolved to
+suppress the Neapolitan Constitution, and in February, 1822, their
+forces were on the march to Naples. The Piedmontese Liberals were
+eager to protest against this violation of national independence; and
+their fears were further roused by a rumour that Austria was renewing
+her demands for the surrender of the Piedmontese fortresses. These
+rumours were specially rife in Alessandria, which had known the
+degradation of an Austrian occupation; and Victor Emmanuel in vain
+tried to convince the Alessandrians of the unreasonableness of this
+panic.
+
+On March 6th, Santa Rosa and his friends went to Charles Albert and
+asked him to put himself at the head of the movement; and it was now
+that Santa Rosa discovered the character of the man with whom he had
+to deal, and left on record that saying which summed up the whole life
+of that unhappy Prince--"Voleva e non voleva" (He would and would
+not). On March 6th, says one writer, "I do not know if Charles Albert
+_con_sented, but he certainly _as_sented" to the proposals of Santa
+Rosa.
+
+The rising was fixed for the 8th, but on the 7th Charles Albert had
+changed his mind and wished to delay the movement. Again Santa Rosa
+and his friends urged him to act with them, but without telling him on
+which day the insurrection was to break out.
+
+There was, indeed, no time to be lost; for suspicions had already
+arisen of the designs of the Liberals, and arrests were being made.
+On March 10th, therefore, Count Palma seized on the citadel of
+Alessandria and proclaimed the Spanish Constitution. Almost at the
+same time Captain Ferrero occupied the little town of San Salvario and
+unfurled the Italian flag in the church. Students and soldiers readily
+joined the insurgents, and both King and Ministers in Turin were
+seized with panic. Orders came from the Powers at Laybach that Victor
+Emmanuel should march to Alessandria, and Balbo called on all loyal
+soldiers to return to Asti.
+
+But Santa Rosa was as firm in his purposes as the Royalists were
+undecided. The Spanish Constitution was proclaimed in the fortress of
+Turin, and the soldiers, who were sent to attack the people, fled
+after a few shots; Charles Albert represented to the King the wishes
+of the people; and on the night of March 14th, Victor Emmanuel
+abdicated in favour of his brother Charles Felix, appointing Charles
+Albert Regent in Turin. On the following day Charles Albert, in his
+capacity of Regent, swore to accept the Spanish Constitution.
+
+But it was soon apparent that one vigorous man could not make a
+revolution successful, when he had to depend on a nobility many of
+whom were servile admirers of Austria, and on a Regent who "would and
+would not." Men were appointed to posts in the new administration who
+had no claim to their office except their rank. The leaders in
+Alessandria suspected the leaders in Turin; while the hopes of
+persuading Charles Albert to declare war on Austria grew fainter and
+fainter.
+
+In the meantime, the new King, Charles Felix, was residing in Modena,
+under the protection of the Grand Duke. Francis IV. of Modena had
+shown himself the most distinctly tyrannical of all the princes of
+Italy; while his extravagance and indifference to the welfare of his
+people had startled even Metternich. His relationship to the House of
+Savoy had led him to sympathise at first with Victor Emmanuel in
+his irritation at the arrogance of Austria; but that very same
+relationship now led him to hope that he might succeed to the throne
+instead of Charles Albert, if the latter offended the ruling Powers.
+He therefore readily supported Charles Felix in his protest against
+the proceedings of the new Regent.
+
+Charles Felix, on his side, was a man of more rugged and narrow spirit
+than Victor Emmanuel, and had none of the sense of national dignity
+which occasionally interfered with the despotic inclinations of his
+brother. When, therefore, he issued from Modena a denunciation of the
+new Government, he did not scruple to add that, if order were not soon
+restored, his august allies would come to his rescue. In the same
+letter he ordered Charles Albert to go to Novara and place himself
+under the orders of Della Torre. "I shall see by this," said Charles
+Felix, "if you are still a Prince of the House of Savoy, or if you
+have ceased to be so." Charles Albert concealed this letter from his
+Ministers; and, after a few days of hesitation, fled secretly to
+Novara.
+
+The feeble officials of Turin would have at once deserted the cause;
+but, in defiance of their opinion, Santa Rosa published a proclamation
+declaring that the King was a prisoner in the hands of the enemy, and
+that _he_, as Minister of Charles Albert, called on them to stand by
+the Constitution and declare war on Austria. One or two of the
+generals fled to Della Torre, at Novara; but at the same time the
+Genoese rose on behalf of the Spanish Constitution. Della Torre
+sent orders to Santa Rosa, in the name of the King, to resign his
+authority. Santa Rosa refused to recognize the King while he remained
+in a foreign country, and despatched a force against Novara.
+
+But, in the meantime, the news came that General Pepe had in vain tried
+to rally his forces in defence of the Neapolitan Constitution; that his
+bands had been dispersed at the first attack of the Austrians; and that
+the Austrians, having crushed out the freedom of Naples, were marching
+northwards. The Russian Ambassador thereupon entreated the Junta to
+modify the Spanish Constitution. Some of the Ministers were inclined to
+consent; but Santa Rosa knew that to lose the Spanish Constitution was
+to lose the watchword of the Revolution; and no doubt he felt the
+indignity of yielding to a foreign ambassador. He therefore refused this
+proposal, and once more despatched forces against Della Torre, who was
+now preparing to march on Turin.
+
+Colonel Regis, the leader of the Constitutional forces, succeeded in
+reaching Novara before Della Torre had begun his advance. The armies
+met outside the town; but in the middle of the battle the news arrived
+that the Austrians had crossed the Ticino and were marching into the
+country. Regis and Ferrero fought gallantly; but the double forces
+against them were too strong; and though they once or twice repelled
+the Austrian attack, the want of discipline of the Piedmontese
+soldiers, combined with the superior force of the enemy, led to a
+crushing defeat. Santa Rosa, finding it impossible to defend Turin,
+retreated first to Alessandria and then to Genoa; but the men on whom
+he relied had lost courage and hope; and he and such of his friends as
+were fortunate enough to reach Genoa were soon obliged to leave it
+again and to fly from Italy, most of them to fight in foreign
+countries for the liberty which they had lost at home.
+
+The reaction set in with the greatest fury. In Piedmont the system of
+espionage was resumed with double force. The University was closed.
+Under the influence of favouritism, and in the absence of any free
+expression of public opinion, corruption of tribunals revived, and the
+Jesuits, who had lost power during the Liberal interregnum, speedily
+recovered it. In Naples, the Austrians, after recommending mildness
+to Ferdinand, yielded to his demands for the right to punish; and the
+sense of his dishonourable position seems to have called out in him a
+savagery which he had not previously shown; while the presence of the
+Austrian troops irritated the country into a state of intermittent
+insurrection.
+
+Lord William Bentinck attempted a protest in the English House of
+Commons against a second destruction of Sicilian independence; but
+Castlereagh defeated the motion, and Sicily fell back under Neapolitan
+rule.
+
+Metternich specially devoted himself to restoring order in Lombardy. He
+established an Aulic Council at Vienna to superintend the affairs in
+that province, so as to crush out still further any local independence.
+At the same time a special committee was formed at Milan to enquire into
+the conspiracy. Several leading conspirators were arrested. One tried to
+save his friends by confessing his own fault; but the confession was
+used as a new clue by the police. Confalonieri was urged to save himself
+by flight; but he answered, "I will not retire in face of the storm
+which I wish to confront. Let what God will become of me!" He was soon
+after arrested; and, after being kept in doubt of his fate for nearly
+two years, he was condemned to death. His case excited sympathy even in
+Vienna, where the Empress interceded for his life; and at last, after
+long entreaty, his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life in the
+fortress of Spielberg. There Metternich in vain tried to extort from him
+the betrayal of his fellow-conspirators. But the crafty statesman
+little knew the result of this treatment. One of those who suffered
+imprisonment about the same time describes the effect of Confalonieri's
+influence by contrasting him with the head of the Austrian police in
+Lombardy. "Confalonieri and Salvotti seemed to represent, in the eyes of
+the Milanese, the angel of Liberty and the demon of Slavery, striving
+not more for the success of their respective causes than for the triumph
+of their individual personalities. About Confalonieri gathered the
+prayers of honest people, of men of feeling hearts, who saw in him an
+unfortunate persecuted being whom adversity clothed with all the lustre
+of devotion and courage."
+
+This passage strikingly exhibits that noble, but illogical, popular
+instinct which so often confuses the hero and martyr with the mere
+victim of unjust oppression. Confalonieri had undoubtedly organized an
+insurrection, and his arrest and imprisonment might fairly be
+justified by the ordinary rights of self-defence which exist in every
+Government. Yet the instinct of horror and pity for this imprisonment
+had a truth deeper than logic. Under the system of government then
+prevailing, the prison or the scaffold was the natural place for such
+men; but the pity of it was that a system of government should prevail
+which logically necessitated the imprisonment of Confalonieri and the
+triumph of Metternich. And it was a sign of the deep folly of the
+latter that he called the attention of the public to this fact, and
+provided the cause of Italian unity with its first prominent martyr.
+The stories of Confalonieri's imprisonment spread from mouth to mouth,
+and were preserved as tender memorials. It was told, for instance,
+how, when his wife had visited him, he had tried to preserve the
+cushion on which her tears had fallen, and how the guards had
+insisted on taking it from him; how his friends had devised a plan for
+his escape, and he had refused to avail himself of it because his
+fellow-prisoners would not be able to escape with him; and lastly, of
+the continual pressure which had been brought to bear upon him to
+reveal the secrets of his fellow-conspirators, and his steady refusal
+to purchase health and liberty by their betrayal.
+
+The defeat which despotism had sustained by the imprisonment, and
+still more by the persecutions, of Confalonieri would hereafter be
+plain. At present Metternich might think that he had conquered in
+Lombardy; but elsewhere he could not feel sure of victory, for there
+came to him at this time two unmistakeable warnings that he was no
+longer to be allowed to reign undisturbed in Europe.
+
+Even at that very Congress of Laybach which succeeded in crushing out
+the independence of Naples, the question of Greece, which could
+not be so easily disposed of, came before the Powers, and puzzled
+considerably the mind of Metternich. The pietistic maunderings of
+Alexander might be made use of in defence of the rights of Roman
+Catholic kings, but he could not be persuaded that the principles of
+the Christian religion justified him in supporting the tyranny of the
+Turks over Christian populations. He had indeed abandoned the
+Wallachian leader, Alexander Ypsilanti, when he discovered that the
+rising in Wallachia was simultaneous with the risings in Naples and
+Piedmont; but the Greeks could not so easily be persuaded that their
+patron, the Czar of Russia, had deserted their cause.
+
+The Hetairiai of Wallachia and Greece had done the same work which the
+Carbonari had accomplished in Spain and Italy; and on April 4, 1821,
+the Greeks suddenly rose at Patras and massacred the whole Turkish
+population. In three months the southern part of Greece was free; and
+by January, 1822, a Provisional Government had been formed, with
+Alexander Mavrocordatos at its head.
+
+Religious feeling, classical sentiment, and the loathing of the
+barbarous rule of the Turks combined to rouse in Europe an amount of
+sympathy which Metternich could not afford to disregard. He admitted
+the right of Alexander of Russia to sympathise with the Greeks, both
+on the ground of Christian sentiment and on the pretext of rights
+granted by previous treaties with Turkey; and he even intervened
+diplomatically to secure concessions from the Porte to its Christian
+subjects.
+
+But, though he felt the danger of the precedent which even this amount
+of concession to the revolutionary spirit would cause, Metternich yet
+believed that, by timely compromise and judicious diplomacy, he could
+bring back Alexander to sounder principles. The influence of Capo
+d'Istria was indeed an antagonistic power in the Court of St.
+Petersburg; but, on the other hand, Tatischeff, the rival minister at
+the Russian Court, seems to have been a mere tool of Metternich, and
+could be used effectively for the interests of Austria.
+
+So successfully did this diplomacy work, in Metternich's opinion, that
+on May 31, 1822, he writes exultingly in his memoirs, that he has
+"broken the work of Peter the Great, strengthened the Porte against
+Russia, and substituted Austrian and English influence for Russian in
+Eastern Europe." So he wrote in May; in August of the same year "that
+upright and enlightened statesman," Lord Londonderry, committed
+suicide. Then George Canning became Minister for Foreign Affairs, and
+hastened to cut the knot which linked the interests of Austria with
+those of England.
+
+The change in England's policy soon became evident. No doubt the feeling
+of dislike to Metternich had been gradually growing in that country. Its
+representatives had held aloof even from the Congress of Laybach; and
+when, in 1822, the Powers met again at Verona to encourage the French
+Cabinet in their attempt to restore Ferdinand of Spain, England entered
+a decided protest against the proceedings of the Congress. Nor did the
+protest remain a barren one. The invasion of Spain by the French was
+followed by the recognition of the independence of the Spanish colonies
+by England; and when the absolutist movement threatened to spread to
+Portugal, Canning despatched troops to protect the freedom and
+independence of that country.
+
+It is amusing to note the growth of Metternich's consciousness of the
+importance of the opponent who had now arisen. "A fine century," he
+writes at first, "for these kinds of men; for fools who pass for
+intellectual, but are empty; for moral weaklings, who are always ready
+to threaten with their fists from a distance when the opportunity is
+good."
+
+But in the following year he writes: "Canning's nature is a very
+remarkable one. In spite of all his lack of discernment, the genius
+which he undoubtedly has, and which I have never questioned, is never
+clouded. He is certainly a very awkward opponent; but I have had
+opponents more dangerous, and it is not he who chiefly compels me to
+think of him." And in 1824 he sums up this difficulty, satisfactorily
+to himself, in these words: "What vexes me with the English is that
+they are all slightly mad. This is an evil which must be patiently
+endured, without noticing too much the ludicrous side of it."
+
+This outburst of insanity on the part of England naturally drove
+Metternich back into the arms of Russia; and this change became more
+congenial to him when, in 1825, the fickle Alexander died and was
+succeeded by the stern despot Nicholas.
+
+It seemed, too, as if the Greek rising might end about that time in
+the success of the Turks. Ibrahim, the Pasha of Egypt, had come to the
+rescue of the Sultan, and was carrying all before him. Marco Botzaris,
+the chief general of the Greeks, had been killed in battle; and in
+1826 the garrison of Messolonghi blew up their fortress and themselves
+to avoid surrendering to the Egyptian forces.
+
+But Metternich soon found that, whatever objection Nicholas might have
+to revolution elsewhere, he felt as much bound to protect the Greeks
+as had Alexander before him; and in August, 1827, Nicholas consented
+to Canning's proposal that England, France, and Russia should send a
+fleet to the Bay of Navarino to enforce an armistice between the
+Greeks and the Turks. Then followed the celebrated battle which
+Wellington afterwards described as "that untoward event." This
+convinced even Metternich that the results of the Greek insurrection
+would have to be recognized by the Powers, and perhaps even secured by
+force. The Russian war of 1828 followed, and Metternich had to admit
+that the European alliance of 1814-15 was practically broken.
+
+But though the effect of the Greek insurrection in weakening the
+chances of Metternich's system was certainly important, it soon began to
+be doubtful whether the change would be permanent. England, indeed, in
+spite of the death of Canning and the short rule of Wellington,
+was evidently hopelessly lost to the cause of despotism. But the
+revolutionary movements of 1830-31 seemed to leave far less trace of
+freedom in Europe than the previous risings of 1820-22. The July
+monarchy of Louis Philippe was soon forced to become Conservative; and
+the Belgian revolution seemed to have little connection with the other
+movements of Europe. The Polish rising and its sudden collapse only
+secured Nicholas to the side of despotism. The treachery of Francis of
+Modena to Ciro Menotti destroyed for a time the tendency to believe in
+revolutionary princes. The rising in Bologna, by compelling the
+intervention of the Austrians, strengthened their hold over the Papacy,
+and even enabled Metternich cheaply to pose as the adviser of reforms
+which, out of respect for the independence of the Papacy, he would not
+enforce.
+
+But his greatest triumph of all was in Germany. There Constitutions had
+been proclaimed in Bavaria, Wuertemberg, and Saxony; and Metternich
+resolved to follow up the Carlsbad Decrees by a still more crushing
+enactment. So it was decided at the Federal Diet of 1832 that a German
+prince was _bound_, "as a member of the Confederation, to reject
+petitions tending to the increase of the power of the Estates at the
+expense of the power of the Sovereign," and further, "that the internal
+legislation of the States belonging to the German Confederation
+should in no case be such as to do prejudice to the objects of the
+Confederation."
+
+Thus Metternich had again triumphed; but it was for the last time. Two
+forces of very different kinds were already in motion, to undo the
+work of his life. Two men were about to cross his path, very different
+from each other in moral calibre, in width of sympathy, and in the
+means at their disposal, but alike in that power of reaching the heart
+of a People, for want of which the leaders of the previous Liberal
+movements had failed in their objects. These men were Giuseppe Mazzini
+and Louis Kossuth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+FAITH AND LAW AGAINST DESPOTISM. 1825-1840.
+
+     Tuscany under Fossombroni.--"Il Mondo va da se."--The
+     Antologia.--Romanticism v. Classicism.--Domenico
+     Guerrazzi.--Giuseppe Mazzini.--His early career.--His experiences
+     as a Carbonaro.--His plans in the fortress of Savona.--His first
+     banishment.--Louis Philippe and the Italian
+     Revolutionists.--Collapse of the rising of 1831.--Accession of
+     Charles Albert.--Italian belief in him.--Mazzini's letter.--Charles
+     Albert's position.--Mazzini's second banishment.--His
+     influence.--La Giovine Italia.--Its enemies and friends.--Charles
+     Albert's cruelties.--The expedition to Savoy.--Menz and Metternich
+     v. Mazzini.--The special position of Hungary.--The County
+     Government.--The Germanization of the nobles.--The Diet of
+     1825.--Szechenyi.--The Magyar language.--Material
+     reforms.--Metternich and Szechenyi.--Wesselenyi.--The Transylvanian
+     Diet.--Poland and Hungary.--Serfdom in Hungary.--The
+     Urbarium.--Francis Deak.--Wesselenyi at Presburg.--Louis
+     Kossuth.--His character.--His first work.--Arrest of Kossuth and
+     Wesselenyi.--The protest.--Metternich's defeat.
+
+
+While Piedmont and Naples had been vibrating between revolution and
+despotism; while the government of the popes had been steadily growing
+more tyrannical and unjust; and while the rulers of Parma, Lucca, and
+Modena had remained (with whatever occasional appearance to the
+contrary) the mere tools of Austria, the government of Tuscany had
+retained a peculiar character of its own.
+
+The vigorous programme of reform, introduced by Leopold I. when the
+government first passed into the hands of the House of Austria, had
+not been further developed by his successors. But a tradition of
+easy-going liberality had been kept alive both under Ferdinand III.
+and Leopold II. Fossombroni, the chief minister of Tuscany, took for
+his motto "Il mondo va da se" (the world goes of itself); and thus a
+certain liberty of thought and expression continued to prevail in
+Tuscany that was hardly to be found in other parts of Italy.
+
+This might have excited the alarm of the Austrian Government, and of
+the other princes of Italy; for conspirators condemned by them took
+refuge in Tuscany. But two circumstances protected this freedom. The
+fact that the ruler of Tuscany was a member of the House of Austria
+seemed to exclude him from the chance of ever becoming the leader of a
+purely Italian movement; and Metternich was, perhaps, not sorry to be
+able to show the opponents of Austria that an Austrian prince could be
+the most popular ruler in Italy. Secondly, Fossombroni, while so
+easy-going in internal matters, maintained a dignified independence in
+foreign affairs; and Ferdinand and Leopold had enough of the spirit of
+the founder of the dynasty to second the efforts of their Minister.
+
+Thus, when the Austrian officials sent to Ferdinand a list of the
+Carbonari in Tuscany, with the request that he would punish them, he
+simply burnt the list; and when, on the death of Ferdinand in 1824,
+the Austrian Minister demanded that Leopold's accession should not be
+publicly notified until the terms of the notice had been approved by
+Austria, Fossombroni at once announced Leopold's accession as the only
+answer to this insolent demand. Lastly, in 1831, when the Austrians
+were trampling out the liberties of Bologna, Fossombroni prevented
+them from extending their aggressions in Italy by an invasion of
+Tuscany.
+
+Here, then, it was natural that the thought of Italy, whether taking a
+literary or political form, should find its freest expression. The
+Conciliatore of Manzoni and Confalonieri had been suppressed in
+Lombardy, but its work was revived by the Florentine journal called
+the "Antologia." Manzoni's influence gained much ground here among the
+literary men, who connected the struggle between the old classicism of
+Alfieri, and the freer and more original writing to which the name of
+Romanticism was given, with the struggle for a freer life in Italy
+against the traditions of the past.
+
+The writer who attracted the most attention, and whose name became
+most widely known among the Romantic School, was Domenico Guerrazzi.
+It is, perhaps, a little difficult for an Englishman to understand the
+attraction of this author's novels; but an Italian writer thus
+explains it: "The singularity of his forms and the burning character
+of his style, the very contradiction of principles that are perceived
+in his writings, gave to Guerrazzi the appearance of something
+extraordinary, which struck upon imaginations already excited by
+misfortunes and grief." Moreover, perhaps, Guerrazzi, more definitely
+than most of these writers, connected the literary movement with the
+political; and even in Tuscany he became an object of some alarm from
+his desire for Italian freedom.
+
+He naturally gathered round him a knot of young men of more decided
+type than the ordinary contributors to the "Antologia;" and it was to
+him, therefore, that the proposal was addressed to revive in Leghorn a
+Genoese journal which had been just suppressed by the Sardinian
+Government. The proposal was probably made to Guerrazzi in the first
+instance by a young and enthusiastic Livornese named Carlo Bini; but
+the chief promoter of the enterprise was a young Genoese of between
+twenty and thirty years of age.
+
+This youth was chiefly known as having recently sent to the
+"Antologia" at Florence an article on Dante which had been rejected by
+them, but which was subsequently inserted in another paper. Among his
+contemporaries at the University the new comer had already excited an
+enthusiasm which was not yet understood by the outer world. Such was
+the first appearance in public life of Giuseppe Mazzini.
+
+Under the influence of a very earnest and remarkable mother, he had
+early been interested in the cause of Italian liberty, and he dated
+his first impression of the importance of this cause from an interview
+with one of the exiles who was about to leave Italy on account of his
+share in the struggle of 1821.
+
+Mazzini had been intended by his father for the profession of the law;
+but he had already shown a decided preference for literature and
+politics; and while still at the University he had been influenced by
+the gloomy romance of Jacopo Ortis. But, though that strange book had
+deepened his feeling for the miseries of his country, the scepticism
+and despair which were its keynote could not long hold him in slavery.
+On him, as on all the greatest minds of Italy, Dante soon gained a
+powerful hold; and while he profoundly admired the "Divina Commedia,"
+he learned from the "De Monarchia" that mystic enthusiasm for Rome
+and that belief in the theological basis for political principles
+which was to colour so deeply his later career.
+
+The journal which, with Guerrazzi's help, Mazzini started at Leghorn
+was called the "Indicatore Livornese." It soon became so alarming even
+to the mild Tuscan Government that after some warnings it was
+suppressed.
+
+Shut out for the moment from the literary expression of his faith,
+Mazzini turned to more directly political action. He felt that it was
+his duty to make use of whatever existing machinery he could find for
+carrying on the struggle for Italian freedom; and he therefore joined
+the Carbonari. The very formula of the oath which was administered to
+him, on entering this Society, seemed to suggest the inadequacy of
+this body for stirring up the faith of a people. For, instead of
+speaking of work to be done for the freedom or unity of Italy, the
+words of the oath merely exacted implicit obedience to the Order.
+Mazzini's spirit revolted alike against this slavery, and against the
+solemn buffooneries with which the rulers of the Order tried to
+impress those who joined it with the sense of its importance.[3] His
+irritation at the uselessness and tyranny of the Carbonari brought on
+him the stern rebuke of some of their leaders.
+
+The July Insurrection of 1830, in France, woke new hopes in Mazzini, as
+in other Italians; but before he could join in any active movement, he
+was arrested at Genoa, and, without trial, was soon after imprisoned in
+the fortress of Savona. The explanation given to Mazzini's father, by
+the Governor of Genoa, of the reasons for this arrest affords a striking
+picture of the despotism of the time. The Governor said that Giuseppe
+was a young man of talent, very fond of solitary walks by night, and
+habitually silent as to the subject of his meditations; and that the
+government was not fond of young men of talent the subject of whose
+musings was unknown to it. The real cause of the arrest was Mazzini's
+connection with the Carbonari, which had been betrayed by a pretended
+member of the Society, who, however, declined to support his charge in
+public.
+
+It was during this imprisonment that Mazzini came to the conclusion
+that the Society of the Carbonari had failed to accomplish the purpose
+for which it was founded, and that some new organization was required
+in its place. While he was considering the objects which such an
+organization should set before itself, there arose before his mind the
+idea of Italian unity. The failure of the local efforts of 1821 and
+1831 had been due to the want of common action between the different
+Italian States; and the mystic enthusiasm for Rome supplied a poetical
+argument in favour of the practical conclusion which he drew from
+these failures. While too the treachery of Charles Albert and of
+Francis of Modena had left on Mazzini a deep-rooted distrust of kings,
+and inclined him to believe that a republic was necessary to solve the
+difficulties of his country, he was willing, as will presently appear,
+to accept any leader or form of government which should bring about
+the unity of Italy. Anarchy he loathed with all his heart. He
+thoroughly disliked the French doctrine of the Rights of Man; and he
+desired to assert authority when legitimately established.
+
+But the great distinction between Mazzini and the other political
+leaders of his time was, that his aim was not merely to establish a
+form of government, but to imbue the people with a faith. The unity of
+Italy was not with him a mere political arrangement, but the working
+out of God's government over the world, a development of a nobler and
+better life.
+
+This affected his attitude to the question both of the relation of
+classes to each other, and of the relation of Italy to the rest of
+Europe. Though he appealed to the working men of Italy with an effect
+that no previous politician had produced, he never appealed to them on
+the ground of purely selfish interests; for he felt that the special
+motives for improving their condition should always be subordinated to
+the general welfare of the nation. And it is a striking proof of the
+extent to which this side of his teaching has taken hold of his
+followers, that, in the demonstration to his memory at Genoa in the
+year 1882, among the banners borne in the procession, and inscribed
+with quotations from his works, was one on which were written the
+words "Fight not against the bourgeoisie, but against egotism,
+wherever it grows, under the blouse of the workman, as under the coat
+of the capitalist."
+
+Italy too was to help in the regeneration of Europe, but not after the
+manner of the French Republic, by merely establishing a foreign
+tyranny, calling itself Republican, in the place of native kings.
+Patriotism, with Mazzini, was not the hard, narrow thing which it
+became in the minds of too many of the leaders of the revolution. The
+Peoples were to help each other in developing their own national life
+after their own fashion, and to respect each other's national claims
+as they claimed respect for their own.[4]
+
+After long delay Mazzini was acquitted of the charge laid to him, no
+evidence being brought forward against him. Thereupon the Governor of
+Genoa appealed to Charles Felix to set aside the decision of the
+judges, and to condemn Mazzini. The King consented; and Mazzini was
+ordered to choose between banishment from Italy and confining himself
+to a place of residence in one of the small towns in the centre of
+Piedmont. He believed that the former alternative would offer him
+freer scope for action; and he sailed for France.
+
+The hopes of the Italian exiles had been roused, first by the July
+Revolution in France, and secondly by the risings at Modena and
+Bologna. General Regis, who had played such an important part in the
+Piedmontese insurrection of 1821, was organizing with other exiles an
+expedition, composed of Italians and French, to go to help the
+insurgents who were still holding out in Bologna.
+
+But the hopes of the insurgents were doomed to disappointment. Louis
+Philippe, after playing with them for some time, came to the same
+sagacious conclusion about Revolution that he afterwards announced
+with regard to war, viz., that to talk about assisting a Revolution,
+and to assist a Revolution, were two different things.[5] Just as the
+expedition was on its march, orders were issued to abandon it, and a
+body of cavalry were sent to enforce the command. Some abandoned the
+attempt; but Mazzini and a few friends escaped to Corsica, which was
+still Italian in feeling, though French in government; and there they
+hoped to organize an expedition to help the Bolognese.
+
+The Bolognese, however, though gallant enough in their own struggles,
+were unwilling to commit themselves to a wider programme than the
+defence of their own State. So they refused to send to Corsica the
+money which was necessary for the expeditionary force. The Austrians
+soon after entered the Papal territory; and when they had crushed out
+the insurrection they were in many cases welcomed by the inhabitants
+as a protection against the cruelties of the Papal troops.
+
+Two other points in the insurrection alone need notice. One was, that
+at the surrender of Ancona Terenzio Mamiani, already known as a
+philosophic writer, refused to sign the conditions of capitulation,
+and was consequently forced to go into exile. The other was that,
+while the representatives of the Pope showed themselves, as a rule,
+utterly reckless in violating the conditions under which the surrender
+of the towns was made, one honourably distinguished himself by keeping
+his word. This was the Governor of Imola, Giovanni Mastai Ferretti,
+afterwards Pius IX.
+
+The movement, however, in spite of its scattered and disconnected
+character, had excited attention in Piedmont, and several leading
+Piedmontese Liberals had determined to press Charles Felix to grant a
+Constitution. Of these Liberals, the most remarkable were Angelo
+Brofferio, the future historian of Piedmont; Augusto Anfossi,
+hereafter to play so brilliant a part in the rescue of Milan from
+Austria; and Giacomo Durando, whose book on Italian nationality was
+afterwards to hold an honourable place among the writings which
+stirred up Italian feeling. The conspiracy was, however, discovered;
+the leaders of the movement were arrested; and, while the prisoners
+were still awaiting their trial, Charles Felix died, and Charles
+Albert succeeded to the throne.
+
+During the time between the failure of the insurrection of 1821 and
+his accession to the throne, Charles Albert's only important public
+act had been his service in the French Army, which was suppressing the
+liberties of Spain. Yet, in spite of this act of hostility to the
+Liberal cause, and in spite of the recollections of his previous
+desertion in 1821, the Liberals still had hopes that he would become
+their champion.
+
+This is a fact which requires more explanation than can be found in
+the mere desire on the part of the reformers of Italy to choose some
+King to lead them against Austria. After the treachery of Francis of
+Modena, no Liberal expected _him_ to return to the cause which he had
+deserted; and, when Francis of Naples had succeeded Ferdinand I., none
+of the passing hopes, which had pointed him out in earlier life as a
+possible constitutional champion, could save him from the hatred which
+his tyranny deserved.
+
+Nor must we be misled by the subsequent history of Italy into the
+theory that there was anything special in the traditions of the
+kingdom of Sardinia which should lead Liberals to fix their hopes on a
+ruler of that country. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia had been the
+foremost of the allies of Austria in the war against the French
+Republic; and though there were continual causes of irritation between
+the aggressive House of Austria and the rulers of the little monarchy,
+these were not of a kind to have attracted the sympathy of any large
+body of Liberals outside Piedmont. The only movement for the unity of
+Italy, previous to the movement of 1821, had come from Naples; unless,
+indeed, Eugene Beauharnais had intended Lombardy to be the centre of a
+similar attempt.
+
+When we take all these points into consideration we must come to the
+conclusion that there was something in the personal character of
+Charles Albert which riveted the attention of Italian Liberals almost
+in spite of themselves; nor could any appearances to the contrary
+induce them to doubt that he had at heart a desire for the liberty
+and unity of Italy such as no previous Italian Prince had entertained.
+
+It was, perhaps, the greatest proof of this strange fascination that
+Mazzini, Republican as he was, yet thought it well to yield to the
+strong feeling of the Liberals of Italy, and to give Charles Albert
+one more chance of playing the part of a leader.
+
+Mazzini, therefore, addressed to the new King a letter in which he
+called his attention to the enthusiasm with which his accession was
+greeted. "There is not a heart in Italy whose pulse did not quicken at
+the news of your accession. There is not an eye in Europe that is not
+turned to watch your first steps in the career now open to you." He
+told him that the Italians were ready to believe that his desertion of
+their cause was the mere result of circumstances; and that, being at
+last free to act according to his own tendencies, the new King would
+carry out the promises that he had first made as a Prince. He warned
+him that a system of terror would only provoke reprisals; and that a
+system of partial concessions would not only fail to satisfy the
+wishes of the people, but would have an arbitrary and capricious
+character which would increase the existing irritation. "The people
+are no longer to be quieted by a few concessions. They seek the
+recognition of those rights of humanity which have been withheld from
+them for ages. They demand laws and liberty, independence and union.
+Divided, dismembered, and oppressed, they have neither name nor
+country. They have heard themselves stigmatised by the foreigner as
+the Helot Nation. They have seen free men visit their country, and
+declare it the land of the dead. They have drained the cup of slavery
+to the dregs; but they have sworn never to fill it again." Mazzini
+then calls on Charles Albert to put himself more definitely at the
+head of a movement for Italian Independence, and to become the King of
+a united Italy. The letter concludes with these words: "Sire, I have
+spoken to you the truth. The men of freedom await your answer in your
+deeds. Whatever that answer be, rest assured that posterity will
+either hail your name as the greatest of men, or the last of Italian
+tyrants. Take your choice."
+
+Before we consider Charles Albert's answer, we must call to mind, once
+more, his position. He came to the throne in the very crisis of a
+conspiracy against his predecessor, and had hardly been able to
+realize what had been the intention of the conspirators towards
+himself. The Duke of Modena, who had plotted to remove him from the
+succession (a proposal discussed at some length in the Congress of
+Laybach), had just recovered his own Dukedom by Austrian help, and was
+no doubt watching with eager eyes any false step which his rival might
+make. Charles Albert, with all his liberal sympathies, was proud of
+being a prince of the House of Savoy; and he was surrounded by the
+courtiers of Charles Felix, who must have persuaded him that the
+dignity and independence of that House could only be maintained by
+opposition to the movement for reform.
+
+There was, too, another influence which must never be forgotten in
+estimating the difficulties of Charles Albert. He was a strong Roman
+Catholic, at a time when the connection between reverence for the Pope
+and reverence for the Church was, perhaps, closer than it had been at
+most previous periods of the history of the Papacy. The commonplace
+tyrannies of Leo XII. and Pius VIII. had not wholly dispelled the halo
+which the heroic attitude of Pius VII.'s early days had shed round the
+Papacy; and it seems highly probable that the most puzzling act of
+Charles Albert's life, his share in the French invasion of Spain, had
+been due, to a large extent, to that strong religious sentiment which
+gathered in so peculiar a manner round the kings of Spain. A man
+influenced by such sentiments could not fail to remark that the most
+vigorous and determined of the insurgents of 1831 had directed their
+attacks against the Papacy; and it might well seem to him that a
+letter which called on him to oppose the Austrian restorers of the
+papal power was the utterance of an enemy to the religion of the
+country.
+
+But the fact was, as Mazzini afterwards confessed, that any king who
+was to undertake the work which he had suggested to Charles Albert
+must possess at once "genius, Napoleonic energy, and the highest
+virtue. Genius, in order to conceive the idea of the enterprize and
+the conditions of victory; energy, not to front its dangers--for to a
+man of genius they would be few and brief--but to dare to break at
+once with every tie of family or alliance, and the habits and
+necessities of any existence distinct and removed from that of the
+people, and to extricate himself both from the web of diplomacy and
+the counsels of wicked or cowardly advisers; virtue enough voluntarily
+to renounce a portion at least of his actual power; for it is only by
+redeeming them from slavery that a people may be roused to battle and
+to sacrifice."
+
+If such were the qualities required by any prince who undertook this
+office, what must have been needed from one who had to contend with a
+Power which had ten years before helped to crush out the aspirations
+of his people, and which was just then triumphantly ruling in the
+centre of Italy? A man of genius might have undertaken the task;
+Charles Albert was only a man who "would and would not." But, if
+Charles Albert refused to listen to Mazzini's appeal, he had no
+alternative but to protest against it; and he did so by banishing
+Mazzini, under pain of imprisonment if he should return to Italy.
+
+Nevertheless, the letter had produced its effect on the nation. The
+demand for the unity of Italy had been openly and definitely made, and
+put forward as a boon to be struggled for by Italians, and not to be
+conferred by a foreign conqueror. The attention of the youth of Italy
+was at once attracted to the writer of the letter, and none the less
+that he was an exile. The personal fascination which he exercised even
+over casual observers may be gathered from the following letter,
+which seems to refer to this period. It was written by one of his
+fellow-exiles, describing his first sight of Mazzini in the rifle
+ground at Marseilles.
+
+"I went into the ground, and, looking round, saw a young man leaning
+on his rifle, watching the shooters, and waiting for his turn. He was
+about 5ft. 8in. high, and slightly made; he was dressed in black Genoa
+velvet, with a large Republican hat; his long curling black hair,
+which fell upon his shoulders, the extreme freshness of his clear
+olive complexion, the chiselled delicacy of his regular and beautiful
+features, aided by his very youthful look, and sweetness and openness
+of expression, would have made his appearance almost too feminine, if
+it had not been for his noble forehead, the power of firmness and
+decision that was mingled with their gaiety and sweetness in the
+bright flashes of his dark eyes, and in the varying expression of his
+mouth, together with his small and beautiful moustache and beard.
+Altogether, he was at that time the most beautiful _being_, male or
+female, that I had ever seen, and I have not since seen his equal. I
+had read what he had published; I had heard of what he had done and
+suffered, and the moment I saw him I _knew_ it could be no other than
+Joseph Mazzini."
+
+It was under such auspices that the Society of Young Italy was
+founded. The general drift of the principles of that Society has
+already been sufficiently indicated in the account of Mazzini's
+meditations in the fortress of Savona. It was to make Italy free,
+united, Republican, recognizing duty to God and man as the basis of
+national life, rather than the mere assertion of rights. But the great
+point which distinguished it from all the other societies which had
+preceded it was that, instead of trusting to the mysterious effect of
+symbols, and the power of a few leaders to induce the main body of
+Italians blindly to accept their orders, it openly proclaimed its
+creed before the world, and even in the articles of association set
+forth the full arguments on which it grounded the defence of the
+special objects which it advocated. And the principles were further to
+be preached in a journal which was to be called, like the Society,
+"Giovine Italia."
+
+But while he put forward a definitely Republican programme, Mazzini
+never fell into the French mistake of thinking that a knot of men,
+monopolizing power to themselves, can, by merely calling themselves
+Republicans, make the government of a nation a Republic. While he
+fully hoped, by education, to induce the Italians to accept a
+Republican Government, he was quite prepared to admit the possibility
+of failure in that attempt, and to accept the consequence as a
+consistent democrat. This is distinctly stated in the first plan of
+Young Italy.
+
+"By inculcating before the hour of action by what steps the Italians
+must achieve their aim, by raising its flag in the sight of Italy, and
+calling upon all those who believe it to be the flag of national
+regeneration to organize themselves beneath its folds--the association
+does not seek to substitute that flag for the banner of the future
+nation."
+
+"When once the nation herself shall be free, and able to exercise that
+right of sovereignty which is hers alone, she will raise her own
+banner, and make known her revered and unchallenged will as to the
+principle and the fundamental law of her existence."
+
+Plentiful as was the scorn and misrepresentation showered upon Mazzini
+and his doctrines, the two years from 1831 to 1833 brought a vast number
+of supporters to the Society of Young Italy; and the revolutionary
+movement in other countries gained organization and definiteness of
+purpose from this model. In the meantime, the Government of Louis
+Philippe was becoming more and more definitely committed to the cause of
+reaction; and every kind of slander was being circulated by Frenchmen
+against the Society of Young Italy. The theory that this Society
+undertook to exterminate all who disobeyed its orders was supported, by
+attributing to its action any casual violence which might take place in
+the streets of Paris; and though Mazzini prosecuted one of these
+slanderers for defamation a few years later, and compelled him to make a
+complete retractation in the law courts, the slander was too convenient
+to be allowed easily to drop.
+
+On the other hand, men of the older type of revolutionist, who had
+drawn their ideas from the first French Republic, and had afterwards
+hoped to find their realization in the methods of the Carbonari,
+objected to Mazzini as "too soft and German" in his ideas.
+
+But nevertheless some who were afterwards known in other ways came
+forward to contribute to the Journal of Young Italy. Amongst them may
+be mentioned the historian Sismondi and a future opponent of Mazzini,
+the Abate Vincenzo Gioberti. By 1833 the Society had established
+centres in Lombardy, Genoa, Tuscany, and the Papal States, and it was
+resolved to attempt an invasion of Savoy.
+
+For, in spite of the promises which Charles Albert had held out of
+reforms in the government, the prosecutions for the conspiracy of 1831
+were being carried on with renewed rigour, and the prisons of some of
+the chief towns of Piedmont were filled with men in many cases
+arrested on the barest suspicion, and who were threatened with death
+if they would not reveal the secrets of their fellow-conspirators.
+Such cruelties were used to extort confessions that Jacopo Ruffini, a
+young friend of Mazzini's, committed suicide in prison for fear he
+should be compelled to betray his friends.
+
+The news of these acts quickened the eagerness of the Italians for the
+invasion of Savoy, and they desired to co-operate with men of other
+countries. Among these, there were few from whom they expected so much
+sympathy as the Poles. Unable to organize successful insurrections in
+their own country, the Poles were scattered over Europe, a revolutionary
+element in every land in which they were to be found. They, like the
+Italians, had at first expected sympathy from the July monarchy in
+France. They, too, had been bitterly disappointed. But this had not
+prevented them from maintaining a centre at Paris; and many of those who
+had fought in vain in 1830 for the liberty of Poland came back to Paris
+to learn there what further was to be done.
+
+Amongst these came a man named Ramorino, a Savoyard by birth, who had
+acted as a general in the Polish struggle of 1830. The part which he
+had played in that insurrection was only known very indistinctly to
+most of the Italians who were organizing the new expedition; but the
+mere fact that he had been a leader in a war for liberty was enough to
+make them desire his help. Mazzini had gathered from the Polish exiles
+the opinion generally held of Ramorino by those who knew the facts of
+the insurrection of 1830. He found that the reputation which Ramorino
+had held at that period was very low, both for trustworthiness and
+military ability; and he opposed his election as leader of the
+expedition to Savoy. The only result of the opposition was a charge
+against Mazzini of personal ambition.
+
+The expedition had already been weakened by the opposition of one of
+those fanatical revolutionists who had before denounced Mazzini as too
+soft and German in his ideas. This man, who bore the honoured name of
+Buonarotti, had complained of the members of the expedition for
+admitting men of noble rank and some wealth to the position of
+leadership in it, and he had succeeded in detaching from the movement an
+important section of its supporters. Mazzini, therefore, saw that,
+under these circumstances, to lose the friends of Ramorino would ruin
+the chances of the expedition; and, feeling that any further opposition
+would only excite division, he consented to act with Ramorino.
+
+The new leader soon showed his true character by hindering the
+expedition as long as possible; but in February, 1834, he yielded to
+the pressure of Mazzini and began the march. Unfortunately, Mazzini
+was seized with a fever on the route, and Ramorino, finding this
+obstacle to his treachery removed, ordered the columns to be dissolved
+and rode away.
+
+Plenty of scorn was heaped upon the failure of this first expedition
+of Young Italy. But Metternich, at any rate, judged more truly. In
+April, 1833, he had written to the chief of his spies in Lombardy to
+warn him against the growth of a new revolutionary party, and
+particularly against the advocate Mazzini, one of the most dangerous
+men of the faction; and he told him to procure copies of the journal
+called "La Giovine Italia," and two copies also of Mazzini's pamphlet
+about guerilla warfare. Menz, the spy in question, while believing
+that the journal of Young Italy was losing ground, yet considered that
+it was the most dangerous of the newspapers which circulated in
+Lombardy.
+
+This request of Metternich's was, indeed, made a few months before the
+actual invasion of Savoy, and Menz, no doubt, began to think that
+after that failure the power of Mazzini would decline; but it is
+tolerably clear that Metternich did not share that delusion, and kept
+his eye steadily on the new leader. Nor did even Menz believe that
+mere repression would now suffice to win the sympathies of the
+Lombards to Austria, and he proposed to divert the intellectual zeal
+of disaffected Lombards into a direction favourable to the State by
+offering prizes for the solution of questions in different branches of
+human knowledge. From the winners of these prizes, he thought, might
+be chosen professors, inspectors, and directors of studies, and
+encouragement might be given to compositions of poems and paintings,
+of which "the subject, and even the colour," was to be dictated by
+Government.[6]
+
+He further proposed that, with this object, an Academy of Poetry
+should be founded in Lombardy, under the absolute direction of the
+Austrian Government, who are to see that the nation should take part
+in an intellectual movement "with a correct view, and that these
+productions of the imagination, bearing the impress of a tendency
+profitable to the well-being of society, would, in their turn, act in
+a very favourable manner on the public spirit."
+
+Further, as "the Circus was in the time of the Romans the secret means
+of the State for rendering the people submissive to the Government,"
+... so "the Austrian Government should give a very generous subsidy to
+the theatre of La Scala (at Milan); but it would be also desirable
+that it should make some sacrifice for the provincial theatres." A few
+modifications of the Austrian code, some reduction on customs duties,
+and lessening of the restrictions on passports, are also suggested in
+the Report. Such were the means by which the trusted servant of
+Metternich hoped to counteract the influence of Mazzini and Young
+Italy.
+
+But in the meantime another form of opposition to the power of
+Metternich was growing up in a country very different from Italy, both
+in its circumstances and the character of its people.
+
+While, in all other countries of Europe, Metternich looked upon every
+approach to self-government with suspicion, and tried to crush it out
+either by force or diplomacy, both he and Francis recognized that in
+Hungary there were reasons for maintaining and even encouraging
+Constitutional feeling.
+
+For here the Constitutional rights did not rest upon any revolutionary
+basis; at any rate, not upon any revolution of modern times. They were
+not connected with the sort of national aspirations which made the
+movements in Italy and Germany so alarming to Metternich. There was,
+as yet, no desire here to redistribute the country according to
+popular aspirations; all rights rested on clearly defined laws handed
+down from a distant past, and in many cases these rights had been the
+subject of a peaceable contract between the previous rulers of the
+country and the House of Austria. So much was this felt by Francis
+that he even appealed on one occasion to the Hungarian Diet for
+sympathy against the revolutionary methods of Liberal leaders of other
+countries.
+
+But, indeed, had the liberty of the Hungarians depended, like that of
+other nations, on the assertion of the power of a central parliament,
+they might have been crushed as the other peoples had been; for from
+1813 to 1825 no Diet met in Hungary. But the full force of Hungarian
+liberty dwelt in the organization of those county assemblies which
+the Magyars had probably derived from the conquered Slavs. The
+Government could not enforce its laws except through the county
+officers, all of whom, with one exception, were elected by the
+landholders of the district. That one Government official was bound to
+call together once a year a meeting of the nobles and clergy of the
+county. _There_ the wants and grievances of the district were
+discussed, and orders were sent to the representatives of the county
+in the Diet at Presburg to introduce bills to remedy those grievances.
+
+These county assemblies could raise taxes and levy soldiers; and they
+not only possessed, but exercised the right to refuse to obey the
+orders of the King himself if, after discussion, such orders proved
+illegal.
+
+In the county elections all freeholders of Hungary had votes; and in
+the smaller village elections the suffrage was still wider. The
+electors in the villages chose, not only legislators, but judges of
+their village concerns. The non-freeholding peasantry were, indeed,
+often oppressed; the towns were in a backward state as regards
+self-government; but yet this system of county organization secured a
+wider diffusion of general interest in political affairs than
+prevailed in any other country of Europe.
+
+At the same time, there were elements in Hungary which might give
+Metternich some hopes that he could drain out the forces of Hungarian
+liberty. The Magyar nobles were drawn more and more to Vienna; and a
+process of Germanization was going on of so effective a kind that many
+of the nobles had almost forgotten their own language. Thus, though the
+Magyar aristocracy had more often acted as champions of independence
+than the nobles of any other country in Europe, they were gradually
+being drifted away from the main body of the people, and were becoming
+absorbed in the ranks of Austrian officialism. But when the Spanish
+Revolution of 1820 began to stir men's minds, the discussions in the
+Hungarian county assemblies took a wider range, and representations were
+made to Francis which he could not long resist. He did not at first,
+indeed, realize the full force of the opposition, and in 1822 he tried
+to levy new taxes on the Hungarians without summoning the Diet. But this
+attempt failed, and in 1825 the Diet at Presburg was once more called
+together.
+
+It seemed, indeed, to some of those who afterwards played a prominent
+part in the struggles of 1848 as if little was gained by this Diet;
+and as if it was even less satisfactory than its predecessor of 1791.
+But a movement was inaugurated on this occasion which, though it may
+have contained in it the seeds of future misunderstanding, and even of
+civil war, was yet in its beginning as noble in its intention as it
+was necessary to the welfare of Hungary; and, had it been pursued in
+the spirit of its first leader, might have produced in time all the
+blessings which have since been secured to Hungary, without any of
+those terrible divisions and bitternesses that hinder those blessings
+from producing their full effect.
+
+The leader of this new movement was Count Stephen Szechenyi, a
+member of one of the great families of Hungary. His father had held
+office at the Court of Vienna, but had grieved over the process of
+denationalization which was going on among the nobles of Hungary.
+
+Count Stephen was early trained to sympathize with the desire for the
+restoration of Hungarian life. He saw that the withdrawal of the great
+nobles from Hungary to Vienna led to the mismanagement of their
+estates, the growth of an evil class of money-lenders, and the
+separation between the aristocracy and the rest of the nation.
+
+The abandonment of the Magyar language was, in his eyes, the great
+source of all evil; and the Diet of 1825 afforded him the first
+opportunity of protesting against it. While the Hungarian nobles
+talked German in private, they used Latin in the management of public
+affairs; and Szechenyi, as a protest against this practice, spoke in
+the Magyar language in bringing forward a question in the House of
+Magnates.
+
+But, before the Diet had risen, he gave a much more solid proof of his
+zeal for his native tongue. On November 3rd, 1825, he offered, in the
+House of Magnates, to give a whole year's income, 60,000 gulden, to
+found a Society for promoting the Study of the Magyar Language. His
+example was followed, with more or less zeal, by other nobles; and in
+1827 a Hungarian Academy was established by Royal Decree.
+
+The movement which Szechenyi had stirred up was in danger of being
+brought to ridicule by some of its supporters, for Count Dessewfy
+actually proposed that a law should be passed forbidding the marriage
+of any Hungarian maiden who did not know her native tongue; but this
+was resisted as too strong a measure.
+
+But though Szechenyi opposed these wilder schemes of his supporters,
+he was none the less ready to use all possible attractions for
+carrying out his chief object, the drawing Hungarian nobles back to
+their country. As one of these means, he established a horse-race at
+Pesth, and founded a union for training horses. He promoted, too, the
+material advantages of Hungary by introducing steamships on the
+Danube.
+
+The work to which he devoted most attention was the erection of a
+suspension bridge, to connect Pesth with Buda. Szechenyi's enthusiasm
+in this matter seemed to many ludicrously disproportionate to the
+result to be obtained; but the fact was that he intended this work to
+give the opportunity for the first blow at that great injustice, the
+exemption of the Hungarian nobles from taxation. If he could induce
+the Magnates to consent that the burden of so important a national
+undertaking should fall in part upon them, they might be willing
+hereafter to accept a more just distribution of the whole burdens of
+the State.
+
+While, however, Szechenyi was labouring to promote Hungarian national
+life, and was willing to sacrifice personal comfort, and any unjust
+privileges of his order, for the sake of that object, he remained
+essentially the Conservative Magyar Magnate. He not only shrank from
+any movement for Constitutional reform, but even hoped to accomplish
+his ends with the sympathy of the Austrian Government.
+
+It was not indeed that he was deficient in courage, or in the tendency
+to speak his mind plainly in private conversation. He said boldly that
+"the promises of the King are not kept, that the law is always
+explained in favour of the King to the disadvantage of the people;
+and, to speak plainly, affairs just now have the appearance as if the
+Constitution were being overturned." And in the same conversation he
+further nettled Metternich by suggesting to that statesman that his
+high position might prevent him from seeing some things.
+
+Yet it was not merely offended vanity that irritated the ruler of
+Europe against Szechenyi. Metternich seems always to have had a
+preference for the thorough-going men among his opponents. He might
+hate and desire to crush them; but what pleased him was that he
+understood the logic of their position and, as he supposed, their
+motives. The moderate and Constitutional Liberals were always a puzzle
+to him. But when a man like Szechenyi actually thought that he could
+work with him, while undermining the centralization which was the
+essence of his schemes, and appealing to that positive form of
+patriotism which it was the object of Metternich to crush out, so
+inconsistent a position drove the Prince beyond the bounds of ordinary
+courtesy.
+
+Taking advantage of his own high position and Szechenyi's youth, he
+told him that he was a man lost through vanity and ambition, asked him
+if he could really confess to his friends the kindly feeling to the
+Austrian Government which he had expressed to Metternich; and, on
+Szechenyi making some admission of the difficulties of such a course,
+"Then," said Metternich, "you must be a traitor either to me or to
+your friends, that is to yourself."
+
+But if Szechenyi's position was unintelligible to Metternich, he found
+it far easier to understand another nobleman who came forward a little
+later and played a different, but hardly less important, part. This was
+Nicolaus Wesselenyi, the descendant of a family of nobles who had
+constantly held their own against both king and People. The father of
+Nicolaus had been a fiery, overbearing man, who had indulged in private
+feuds, and who had fought scornfully for the special privileges of the
+nobles. His son had all the fire of his family, and the same love of
+opposition, but directed by the circumstances of the time into healthier
+channels.
+
+It was not, however, at Presburg that the Wesselenyis had hitherto
+played their principal part, but at the Diet which met at Klausenburg,
+in Transylvania. The circumstances and organization of that peculiar
+province will be more naturally considered in connection with the
+movements which arose a few years later. For the present, the
+important point to remember in connection with Wesselenyi's position
+is, that the Austrian Government tolerated an unusual amount of
+freedom in the Transylvanian Diet, in the hopes thereby of weakening
+that larger Hungarian feeling which gathered round the central Diet at
+Presburg. When both the Hungarian and the Transylvanian Diets were
+called together in 1830, and a demand was made by the Emperor for new
+recruits for the army, the House of Magnates in Transylvania showed,
+under Wesselenyi's leading, a bolder and firmer opposition than the
+House of Magnates at Presburg. In the central Diet, indeed, the chief
+opposition to the Emperor came from the Lower House, and the nobles
+were disposed to yield to the demands of Francis. But Wesselenyi, with
+his splendid bearing and magnificent voice, stirred up a far more
+dangerous opposition in Transylvania; and the Government at Vienna
+began to mark him out as their most dangerous opponent.
+
+But in the meantime new questions were coming to the front in Hungary,
+and new leaders were being called forth by them. The Polish insurrection
+of 1830 had roused more sympathy in Hungary than probably in any other
+country of Europe; and a connection between the two nations was then
+established which had a not unimportant influence on the subsequent
+history of Hungary.
+
+The wiser men among the Hungarian leaders saw the great defect which
+marred all struggles for liberty in Poland. Whatever aspirations may
+have been entertained by the Polish patriots of 1791, certain it is
+that, when Poland fell before the intrigues of Russia and Prussia, the
+new Constitution had not had time to bring about any better feeling
+between noble and peasant; and the Polish peasantry looked with
+distrust and suspicion on movements for freedom inaugurated by their
+oppressors.
+
+The Hungarian reformers saw that, if they were to make the liberties
+of Hungary a reality, they must extend them to the serf as well as to
+the noble. In spite of the air of freedom of discussion which the
+County Assemblies of Hungary spread around them, there were, at this
+time, out of the thirteen millions of Hungarians, about eleven million
+serfs. These were not allowed to purchase an acre of the soil which
+they cultivated; they paid all the tithes to the clergy and most of
+the taxes to the State, besides various payments in kind to their
+landlords; their labour might be enforced by the stick; while for
+redress of their grievances they were obliged, in the first instance,
+to apply to the Court over which their landlord presided.
+
+The reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II., while modifying the evils
+of the position of the serf, had taught him to look to the Court of
+Vienna, rather than to the Diet of Presburg, for help in his troubles.
+
+The Edict of Maria Theresa, called the Urbarium, had granted the
+peasant the right of leaving the land when he pleased, or of remaining
+if he liked, while he complied with certain conditions; and by this
+act he was allowed to bequeath the use of his land to his descendants.
+Further, a right of appeal had been granted from his landlord's
+decision to the official court at Buda, known as the Statthalterei. By
+the same law the labour to be performed by the peasantry had been
+fixed, instead of being left to the will of the lord, as heretofore.
+
+The reforms of Joseph II. had, like most of his attempts, been too
+vigorous to be lasting; but he had done enough to strengthen in the
+minds of the oppressed peasantry of Hungary the desire to look to the
+Emperor as their liberator. Thus the satisfaction of the claims of
+humanity had tended to weaken Constitutional freedom.
+
+The bitter feeling between noble and peasant was illustrated most
+painfully in the year 1831, when an outbreak of cholera in Hungary was
+attributed by the peasantry to the poisoning of the wells by the
+nobles. Agrarian risings had followed, and more than fifty peasants
+had been hung without trial.
+
+Such was the state of feeling when the Diet of 1832 met at Presburg.
+Had the leader of the movement for agrarian reform been a mere
+champion of Constitutionalism, the work of drawing together the
+peasant and noble might have been more difficult. But fortunately the
+work fell into the hands of a man who, though not deficient in powers
+of oratory, was far less a popular leader than a thoughtful and humane
+student of affairs. This was Francis Deak, then thirty years of age,
+trained, like so many leaders of the time, for the bar, and already
+known as a speaker in the County Assembly of Zala. He was not a man of
+the delicate, cultured type of Szechenyi; nor did he possess the
+commanding figure and lion voice of Wesselenyi. He was broad and
+sturdy in figure, his face was round and humorous, and his eye
+twinkled with fun. Yet he was not without a deep shade of melancholy.
+He was a man who inspired in all who came near him a sense of entire
+trust in his honesty and steadiness of purpose; and this feeling,
+though unlike the enthusiasm which is roused alike by the highest
+genius and by merely popular gifts, was yet exactly the form of
+confidence needed to enable Deak to do the special work which lay
+before him.
+
+The question of the reform of the Urbarium he at once made his own.
+Besides the miseries of the peasantry above mentioned, they were
+continually exposed to all kinds of petty tyrannies. Their horses were
+liable to be seized by tourists through the country, and soldiers were
+billeted upon them. Deak demanded the extension to the peasant of the
+right of buying land, and better security for person and property.
+
+But it soon became evident that, whatever exceptions there might be to
+the rule, the Magnates of Hungary were not prepared to surrender their
+privileges. The point which the reformers specially insisted on in the
+new Urbarium was a clause enabling the peasant to free himself from
+his feudal dues by a legal arrangement with the landlord. Thirteen
+times the Lower House of the Diet passed the clause; thirteen times
+the House of Magnates rejected it; and when at last that House
+consented to pass it, the Emperor vetoed it.
+
+The reformers were now clearly justified in calling on the people to
+recognize them as their champions against both nobles and sovereign.
+But in order to prevent this recognition the Government had forbidden
+any publication of the debates.
+
+Wesselenyi had met this difficulty in the Transylvanian Diet by
+introducing a private press of his own, with the help of which he
+circulated a report of the proceedings. This so alarmed the Government
+that they dissolved the Transylvanian Diet and established an absolute
+ruler in that province. Wesselenyi then transferred his eloquence to
+the House of Magnates in Presburg, where he thundered against the
+Government for opposing the liberties of the peasantry, denouncing
+them in the following words: "The Government sucks out the marrow of
+nine million of men (_i.e._, the peasantry); it will not allow us
+nobles to better their condition by legislative means; but, retaining
+them in their present state, it only waits its own time to exasperate
+them against us. Then it will come forward to rescue us. But woe to
+us! From freemen we shall be degraded to the state of slaves."
+
+But the work which Wesselenyi had half done for Transylvania was to be
+carried out for Hungary more thoroughly by a man who had been
+gradually rising into note. This was Louis Kossuth, of whom it may be
+said that, more than any other man in Europe, he was the author of the
+Revolution of 1848. He was a few years older than Francis Deak, and,
+like him, was trained as a lawyer. He had been appointed, in the
+exercise of his profession, arbitrator between several wealthy
+proprietors and their dependants. In this position he gained the
+confidence of many of the peasantry, and he was also able to give them
+help in the time of the cholera.
+
+He possessed a quick and keen sensibility, which was the source of
+many of his faults and of his virtues. A curious illustration of this
+quality is shown in his renunciation of field sports, in consequence
+of reading a passage in a Persian poet on the duty of humanity to all
+living things. No doubt it was to this sensibility that he owed a
+large part of that matchless eloquence which was to be so powerful an
+engine in the revolutionary war. It was connected, too, with the keen
+statesmanlike instinct which enabled him to see so often the right
+moment for particular lines of action; and which, had it been united
+with a wider sympathy, stronger nerves, and a more scrupulous
+conscience, might have made his career as useful as it was brilliant.
+
+[Illustration: KOSSUTH LAJOS.]
+
+This instinct it was which enabled him to see at this crisis that
+nothing could be effected for Hungary until the work done in the Diet
+was better known to the main body of the people. The private press
+which he now started may have been suggested to him by Wesselenyi's
+attempt in Transylvania; but its work was carried out with an
+ingenuity and resourcefulness which were altogether Kossuth's own. The
+Government became so alarmed at this press that they wished to
+purchase it from him, but, wherever print was hindered, he circulated
+written correspondence. Nor did he confine his reporting to the
+debates in the Diet of Presburg, for he circulated also reports of the
+county meetings.
+
+The Count Palatine, the chief ruler of Hungary, tried to hinder this
+work; but the county officials refused to sanction this prohibition,
+and thus deprived it of legal force.
+
+The Government was now thoroughly roused; and in May, 1837, Kossuth
+was indicted for treason, arrested, and kept for two years in prison
+without any trial.
+
+But great as was the indignation excited by this arrest, it was as
+nothing compared to the storm which was aroused by the prosecution and
+imprisonment of Wesselenyi. The Government had marked him out during
+the Transylvanian debates as an enemy who was to be struck on the
+first opportunity. The printing of the Transylvanian reports would
+have been followed very speedily by a prosecution, had he not escaped
+into North Hungary; but his speech against the Government in the
+Presburg Diet gave a new opportunity for attack.
+
+The enthusiasm which his prominent position, impressive manner, and
+high rank had caused had been strengthened in Transylvania by the
+extreme personal kindness which he had shown towards his peasantry;
+and one of them walked all the way from Wesselenyi's Transylvanian
+estate to Vienna to petition, on his own behalf and that of one
+hundred fellow-peasants, that their landlord might be restored to
+them.
+
+Had Francis been still on the throne, it is possible that Metternich
+would have offered further resistance to the popular demands. But
+Francis had died in 1835, the year before the closing of the Diet. His
+successor, Ferdinand, though, chiefly from physical causes, too weak
+to hold his own against Metternich, was a kindly, easy-tempered man,
+not without a sense that even kings ought to obey the law.
+
+But whether Metternich or Ferdinand were to blame in the matter, the
+concessions of the King were made in a hesitating and grudging manner
+which took away their grace, and made the defeat more vividly apparent
+both to victors and spectators.
+
+A more popular Chancellor of Hungary, Anton Mailath, was appointed;
+another member of the same family was made chief justice; and about the
+same time the Transylvanian Diet was restored. Hoping that he had now
+conciliated popular feeling, Metternich, in 1839, called together the
+Diet of Presburg and demanded four million florins and thirty-eight
+thousand recruits.
+
+But the members of the Assembly had been instructed by their
+constituents to oppose any demands of the Government until Wesselenyi,
+Kossuth, and the members of a club who had been arrested at the same
+time, were liberated. And while Deak still led the opposition in the
+Lower House, Count Louis Batthyanyi came forward as the champion of
+freedom in the House of Magnates. Finally, the Emperor consented, not
+only to grant an amnesty to Wesselenyi, Kossuth, and others, but to
+pass that clause about the peasants' dues which he had vetoed in 1836.
+The Diet then voted the money, and was dissolved.
+
+Thus, while in Italy a new faith was springing up which was to supply a
+force to the struggles for liberty that they had previously lacked,
+in Hungary the different, but hardly less effective, power of old
+traditions of Constitutional freedom was checking Metternich in his full
+career of tyranny, and forcing him to confess a defeat inflicted, not
+by foreign diplomatists, but by that very people who had rallied round
+Maria Theresa in her hour of danger, and who had sternly rejected the
+advances of Napoleon when he had invited them to separate their cause
+from that of the House of Austria.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[3] "He congratulated me on the fact that circumstances had spared me
+the tremendous ordeals usually undergone; and seeing me smile at this,
+he asked me severely what I should have done if I had been required,
+as others had been, to fire off a pistol in my own ear, which had been
+previously loaded before my eyes. I replied that I should have
+refused, telling the initiators that either there was some valve in
+the interior of the pistol into which the bullet fell--in which case
+the affair was a farce unworthy of both of us--or the bullet had
+really remained in the stock: and in that case it struck me as
+somewhat absurd to call upon a man to fight for his country, and make
+it his first duty to blow out the few brains God had vouchsafed to
+him."--_Life and Writings of Mazzini, Vol. I._
+
+[4] As an instance of his way of carrying out this idea may be mentioned
+his feeling to Savoy. He felt that in race, language, and possibly in
+sympathy, Savoy might naturally gravitate towards France, while its
+geographical position and the modes of life of its inhabitants might
+naturally connect it with Switzerland. He therefore desired that by the
+deliberate vote of an elected Assembly, not by a fictitious Napoleonic
+plebiscite, Savoy should decide the question of its connection with
+Italy, France, or Switzerland. Mazzini expressed a hope that it would
+decide in favour of Switzerland.
+
+[5] "Mais M. Bulwer parler de faire la guerre, et faire la guerre sont
+choses bien differentes."
+
+[6] Document 158 to Gualterio Gli Ultimi Rivolgimenti Italiani.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+LANGUAGE AND LEARNING AGAINST DESPOTISM. 1840-1846.
+
+     Contrast between position of German language in North Germany and
+     in Austrian Empire.--Condition of Germany between 1819 and
+     1840.--Literary movements.--Protest of the Professors of Goettingen
+     against abolition of Hanoverian Constitution.--Effect of the
+     protest on other parts of Germany.--Position and character of
+     Frederick William III.--His struggle with the Archbishop of
+     Cologne.--Accession of Frederick William IV.--His character and
+     policy.--Ronge's movement of Church Reform.--Robert Blum's share in
+     it.--Language movement in Hungary.--Position and history of
+     Croatia.--Louis Gaj and the "Illyrian" movement.--"The Slavonic
+     ocean and the Magyar island."--Kossuth's treatment of the Slavonic
+     movement.--Count Zay's circular.--The "taxation of the
+     nobles."--Szechenyi's position.--Deak's resignation.--The Croats at
+     Presburg.--Kossuth's inconsistency.--Ferdinand's intervention in
+     the struggle.--The struggle of races absorbs all other
+     questions.--History of Transylvania.--The "three nations."--The
+     position of the Roumanians.--Effect of Joseph II.'s policy in
+     Transylvania.--The "Libellus Wallachorum."--Andreas
+     Schaguna.--Stephan Ludwig Roth.--General summary of the effect of
+     the revival of national feelings.
+
+
+    'Twas from no Augustan age,
+    No Lorenzo's patronage,
+    That the German singers rose;
+    By no outward glories crowned,
+    By no prince's praise renowned,
+    German art's first blossom blows.
+
+    From her country's greatest son,
+    From the mighty Frederick's throne,
+    Scorned, the Muse must turn away.
+    "_We_ have given thy worth to thee;"
+    "Let our heart-beats prouder be;"
+    Can each German boldly say.
+
+    So to loftier heights arose,
+    So in waves more swelling flows
+    German poet's minstrelsy.
+    He in ripeness all his own,
+    From his heart's deep centre grown,
+    Scorns the rule of pedantry.
+
+
+So sang Schiller; and, while in Germany the Muse was ascending to the
+heights in which Schiller gloried to see her, the opposite process had
+been producing opposite results under the rule of another German
+sovereign. Frederick II. of Prussia preferred bad French to the best
+utterances of his own country; and so the German Muse was free to
+develope in her own way. Joseph II. of Austria felt his heart warmed
+with the greatness of German traditions; he looked round on dominions
+inhabited by men of different races and languages, and, perceiving
+that these differences led to continual misunderstandings, and
+hindered any great work of common reform, resolved to extend the
+blessings of German language and literature to all the races of his
+dominions. To them, he thought, a change would prove a bond of union;
+while neither Bohemian, Hungarian, nor Croat could claim for their
+native tongues, however dear to them, such glorious associations and
+traditions as were already connected with the language which was to
+take their place.
+
+The consequence of this nobly intended effort has been that German is,
+to this day, a badge of tyranny to the majority of the people of the
+western half of the Austrian Empire; and if it has almost ceased to be
+so in the eastern half, that is simply because its supremacy has been
+replaced by the no less crushing tyranny of another language which was
+offered to the various populations of the Hungarian kingdom by its
+rulers, as a symbol of national freedom and unity.
+
+The spirit of literary independence in North Germany, and the rivalry of
+languages in the Austrian Empire, were both forcing themselves on the
+attention of the public during the period of Metternich's rule. To
+outward appearance there was no time at which the condition of Germany
+must have seemed more helpless and hopeless than between 1819 and 1840.
+The German insurrections of 1831 could not be compared for their
+historical importance with either the English reform movement of the
+same period, or with the Italian uprisings; nor for dramatic brilliancy
+with the Polish insurrection of 1830. Even the Hanoverian Constitution
+of 1833, which seemed to be firmly established, went down four years
+later without a sword being drawn in its defence; while the heavy
+burdens of the Carlsbad decrees of 1819 and the Frankfort decrees of
+1832 were made still heavier in 1834 by a new Edict, passed at Vienna,
+establishing courts of arbitration, elected by members of the Bund, to
+decide questions at issue between sovereigns and parliaments. If the
+Assemblies, in defending their rights of taxation, should refuse to
+appeal to this Court, the sovereign might then proceed to levy, without
+further delay, the supplies which had been granted by the previous
+Assembly.
+
+Yet Germany was not dead. Apart from the continual assertions of
+independence by the South German States, the growth of German literature
+was keeping alive the sense of union between the different parts of the
+nation. Stein, after his retirement from political affairs, had devoted
+himself to the encouragement of German literature, and particularly of
+German history. For this purpose he brought together historians from
+different parts of Germany; and Perthes, the bookseller, who had helped
+to defend Hamburg against the French, exerted himself to promote a book
+trade which was to unite the North and South of Germany. Occasionally,
+some prince, like the Duke of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, would show an
+inclination to play the part of the Duke of Weimar as a patron of
+literature, but could only call attention thereby to such life as still
+remained, not evoke any new life. The German Muse was still to thrive by
+her own labours, and the great proof of the existence of a still
+independent literary class was given in 1837, when the King of Hanover
+suppressed the Constitution which his predecessor had established.
+
+On November 17th, 1837, seven professors of Goettingen University drew
+up against this act of tyranny a protest which so ably connected the
+feeling of the true literary man and the true teacher with that of the
+independent citizen that it deserves to be given at length. They said
+that the whole chance of the success of their work depended not more
+certainly on the scientific worth of their teaching than on their
+personal blamelessness. Should they appear before the young students
+as men who would play carelessly with their oaths, then at once the
+blessing of their work would be gone; and what importance could the
+oath of homage possibly have, if the King had received it from men who
+just before had audaciously violated another oath? This protest was
+signed by Dahlmann, Albrecht, Gervinus, the brothers Grimm, Weber, and
+Ewald. They were summarily dismissed from their offices by the King,
+who declared that he could buy professors anywhere for money, as
+easily as dancers. At once the greatest enthusiasm broke out in
+different parts of Germany. In Leipzig and Koenigsberg subscriptions
+were opened for the professors, and in twelve hours the Leipzigers had
+subscribed nearly 1,000 thalers. The subscription of Leipzig was
+followed by a public reception given to Albrecht and Dahlmann; an
+address was delivered in which the professors were told that the whole
+heart of the German people beat with them. The man who delivered this
+address, and who thus first made his appearance before the public, was
+the Leipzig bookseller, Robert Blum. In Saxony the Constitution which
+had been won in 1831 was still nominally in existence, and the Prime
+Minister was even called a Liberal. The Members of the Parliament
+hoped to seize this opportunity of putting Saxony forward as the
+champion of German rights; but the Government shrank from that
+position, and seemed disposed even to check the independent movement
+among the people.
+
+Now in spite of the steady courage that had shown itself among the
+literary men of Germany, the bulk of the nation was still essentially
+monarchical, and they needed some king at the head of the movement for
+freedom and unity. However much of Liberalism might occasionally have
+been shown by some of the smaller princes of Germany, none of them
+were in a position to take the leading part in any common German
+movement. The Emperor of Austria, even had his policy tended in that
+direction, was hindered by his connection with non-German territories
+from assuming such a leadership. And the memories of 1813 gathered, if
+not round the King of Prussia, at least round his kingdom. The
+institution of the Zollverein formed one point of attraction between
+Prussia and the Liberals of Germany; the position of Prussia as the
+great Protestant Power strengthened her influence in Northern Germany;
+and just at the time when the King of Hanover was dismissing the
+professors of Goettingen, the King of Prussia was supporting at the
+University of Bonn professors whom the Archbishop of Cologne was
+trying to suppress. The prohibition of mixed marriages by the same
+Archbishop further excited Frederick William's opposition; and, unable
+to secure obedience by other methods, the King seized and imprisoned
+the Archbishop. An act of tyranny in the interests of liberty seems to
+commend itself more readily to Continental revolutionists than to
+those who have been bred up under the principle of mutual forbearance
+produced by Constitutional life; and there can be little doubt that
+much of the strongest part of North German feeling was enlisted on the
+side of the King of Prussia. But Frederick William III. was not a man
+to take the lead in anything. By the mere accident of his position he
+had become the figure-head of the rising of 1813; and by the same
+accident he continued to attract the wishes, one can hardly say the
+hopes, of those who desired to counteract in Germany the policy of
+Metternich. He could at no time have done much to help forward the
+unity of Germany; and he had long since abandoned any wish to work in
+that direction.
+
+But while the excitement arising from the tyranny of the King of
+Hanover, and the struggle of the King of Prussia with the Archbishop
+of Cologne, were still distracting Germany, Frederick William III.
+died, and was succeeded by Frederick William IV. The new King was a
+man of somewhat poetical and enthusiastic temperament, with a strong
+religious bias, desirous in a way of the welfare of his people, and
+not ill disposed to play a Liberal part within due limits. He restored
+Arndt to his position at Bonn; he set free not only Jahn, but also the
+Archbishop of Cologne; he found a post for Dahlmann in the University
+of Bonn; and he began also to talk Constitutionalism in a way which
+roused new hopes in Germany. He inspired no confidence in those who
+looked more closely into matters; but his career began at a time when
+the Germans were in a state of eager expectation, which had been
+quickened by a movement already preparing in other parts of Germany.
+The first utterance of the new reformers was a protest against
+religious superstition. A Roman Catholic priest, named Ronge,
+denounced the famous worship of the Holy Coat at Treves. This protest
+attracted attention, and was followed by an attack on a number of
+other corruptions of the Roman Catholic Church. The movement spread; a
+reformed Catholic Church was founded in Posen and Silesia, and Ronge
+was appointed minister of the first congregation of the new faith.
+
+It was in 1845 that the movement reached Saxony. Two years before, the
+Liberal Ministry had retired; a complete reaction had set in, and
+Robert Blum had been subjected to a fine and four weeks' imprisonment
+for an article in which he had advocated publicity of trial. Nothing
+daunted by this, Blum threw himself heartily into the new movement,
+and, although a Roman Catholic himself, denounced the practice of the
+confessional and the celibacy of the clergy. The Ultramontanes raised
+a riot in which Blum was personally attacked, and the Saxon Ministry
+declared their determination to put down "the sects." Such a threat
+naturally gave new force to the reformers, and they raised the cry, so
+often to be heard in the coming Liberal movements, of "Down with the
+Jesuits!" That unfortunate Society, so often the object of hatred both
+to kings and Peoples, was in this case specially obnoxious to the
+Liberals from the patronage which was extended to it by the heir to
+the throne. When the Prince appeared to review the troops at Leipzig
+he was received in silence, and when he had retired to his hotel the
+crowd gathered round it with cries of "Long live Ronge!" and "Down
+with the Jesuits!" accompanied by the singing of "Ein fester Burg ist
+unser Gott," and followed by songs of a different description. Stones
+soon began to fly. Then the soldiers were called out, they fired on
+the crowd, and many were killed.
+
+On the following day the students of Leipzig gathered to hear an address
+from Robert Blum. He urged them to abstain from violence, but to put
+into form their demand for legal remedies; and for this purpose a
+committee was chosen. The following demands were laid before the Town
+Council--viz., that the preservation of order should be entrusted to
+the civic guard; that the soldiers should be removed from the town; that
+inquiries should be made into the circumstances of the riot, and a
+solemn burial given to those who had been shot. The Town Council
+yielded, and though the soldiers were soon sent back into Leipzig, a
+beginning had been made which might lead to a larger reform. Blum then
+founded a debating society; and, at the end of 1845, he was chosen
+representative of Leipzig in the Lower House of Saxony.
+
+But while the national feeling of Germany was gathering round the
+intellectual leaders of that country, the feeling for national
+peculiarities and national language was producing widely different
+results in those countries where the unfortunate policy of Joseph II.
+had made the German language a symbol of division rather than of unity.
+The movement for substituting the Magyar language for the Latin (which
+had previously been customary in the Diet at Presburg) was the revival
+of a struggle which had begun in the very time of Joseph II.; and, had
+Hungary been a homogeneous country, the movement might have passed as
+naturally into a struggle for freedom as the enthusiasm for German
+poetry and German learning had chimed in with the desire for German
+political unity. But Hungary had never been a country of one race or of
+common aspirations. Several waves of conquest and colonization had
+passed over different parts of it, without ending, in any case, in that
+amalgamation between the different races which alone could secure
+national unity.
+
+Yet it is just possible that, had the leadership of the Magyars
+fallen into the hands of a man of wider sympathies and more delicate
+feeling than Kossuth, an understanding might have been effected
+between the different peoples of Hungary. During the struggle against
+Joseph II., the other races seem to have submitted to the leadership
+of the Magyars, and to a great extent to have adopted the Magyar
+language, because it was not then thrust on them by force. But when,
+after the Diet of 1830, Hungary began to reawaken to the desire for
+liberty, signs of national feeling soon showed themselves among other
+races than the Magyars.
+
+The first race who felt the new impulse were the Croats. They, more
+than any of the other peoples who had been annexed to the Kingdom of
+Hungary, had preserved their separate government and traditions of
+independence. In 1527 they offered the throne of Croatia to the
+Hapsburgs, without waiting for any decision by the Magyars; and when
+Charles VI. was submitting to the Powers of Europe and to the
+inhabitants of his different dominions the question of the Pragmatic
+Sanction, Croatia gave her decision quite independently of the Diet at
+Presburg.
+
+But apart from her actual legal rights to independence, there remained
+a tradition of the old period when the Kingdom of Croatia had been an
+important Power in Europe, and had extended over Slavonia and
+Dalmatia. But these claims were not undisputed. The hold which Venice
+had gained over Dalmatia and Istria had introduced into those
+provinces an Italian element; and when, in the sixteenth century, the
+Serbs were called into Hungary in large numbers, Slavonia had
+developed a variety of the Slavonic tongue which must have weakened
+the absolute supremacy of the Croats. The sense, however, of a
+connection between the dialects of the different Slavonic States was a
+bond of union between those States which might at any time be drawn
+closer.
+
+When, then, Szechenyi began to stir up the Magyars to develop their
+language and literature, it occurred to a Croatian poet to link
+together the different dialects of the Southern Slavs into one
+language. The Croatians had been so far in advance of their neighbours
+the Serbs that they had abandoned the Cyrillic alphabet, which had been
+introduced at the time of their first conversion to Christianity, and
+had adopted the ordinary Latin alphabet. But the Croatian dialect, by
+itself, would not have been accepted by the other Slavs; and the softer
+language and higher culture of the old Republic of Ragusa supplied a
+better basis for the development of the new language. Louis Gaj, the
+Croatian poet, had studied at the University of Leipzig, which seems to
+have been the centre of a good deal of Slavonic feeling; and he hoped
+to link together, not merely the three provinces of Croatia, Slavonia,
+and Dalmatia, but several, also, of the south-west provinces of
+Austria; and, on the other hand, he wished to draw into this bond of
+sympathy those Slavonic countries which still groaned under the Turkish
+yoke. It was necessary, however, to find a new name for a language
+which was a new combination of dialects. To call it the Croatian
+language would have implied a claim to superiority for Croatia which it
+was most desirable to avoid; and as none other of the Slavonic
+provinces could well be treated as the godmother of the new language,
+Gaj went back to the seventeenth century for a name.
+
+At that period Leopold I. of Austria had granted special privileges to
+the _Illyrian_ nation, and it was only in the eighteenth century that
+the _Illyrian_ Chancellery at Vienna had been abolished. Here, then,
+was a name, recognized by Imperial authority in legal documents, and
+giving no superiority to any one of the Slavonic provinces over the
+others. To carry out his purposes, Gaj started a journal in 1835 to
+which at first he gave the name of the "Gazette of Croatia," but which
+he soon renamed the "National Gazette of Illyria." This newspaper was
+written in the new language, and the Hungarian authorities refused to
+sanction it. Nor were they the only opponents of the new movement. The
+Turkish Pasha in Bosnia was alarmed at the attempt to draw the
+subjects of the Sultan into closer alliance with the Slavs in Hungary;
+and he tried to persuade Francis that Gaj was attempting to shake the
+Imperial authority and found a separate kingdom. At the same time the
+Bishop of Agram warned the Pope of the evident tendency of this
+movement to give the upper hand to the members of the Greek Church,
+who formed the majority of the Southern Slavs, over the Roman
+Catholics of Croatia. But these efforts failed. Metternich saw in
+Gaj's movement an opportunity of weakening the Magyars; Francis sent a
+ring to Gaj, as a sign of his approval; and Gregory XVI. was so far
+from being influenced by the Bishop of Agram's appeal that he removed
+him from his see for having made it.
+
+The fact that Francis had encouraged, and Metternich at all events not
+disapproved, this movement was enough to alarm the sensibilities of
+the Magyars; and when Gaj appeared in the Hungarian Diet of 1840,
+Deak rebuked him for his work. Gaj answered in words which became
+afterwards only too memorable. "The Magyars," he said, "are an island
+in the Slavonic ocean. I did not make the ocean, nor did I stir up its
+waves; but take care that they do not go over your heads and drown
+you." The words were certainly not conciliatory; but they had been
+provoked by the evident signs of hostility on the part of the Magyars.
+If the latter had been content to ignore the movement, it might have
+remained, for their time at least, a purely literary effort; or, if it
+had taken a political form, it might have drifted into union with the
+Bohemian struggle against German supremacy, or even into a crusade
+against the Turks. It is, however, more than probable that the attempt
+to found this new language would have been earlier abandoned had it
+not been for the opposition which it called forth. For Gaj, however
+zealous as a patriot, and however ingenious as a philologer, seems to
+have been deficient in the power of producing such a great work of
+imagination as that which enabled Dante to unite the not less diverse
+elements of the Italian language.
+
+But the Magyar cry of alarm at the demands of the Slavs was now echoed
+by a fiercer voice than that of Deak. In 1841, the year after the
+dissolution of that Presburg Diet by which Metternich had been so
+signally defeated, Kossuth started a paper called the "Pesti Hirlap"
+(the Gazette of Pesth), which soon became at once the most determined
+champion of those liberties which Kossuth desired for his countrymen,
+and the bitterest opponent of those liberties which he grudged to the
+other races of Hungary. For it was not merely in provinces marked off
+from the Magyar world like Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, that a
+movement like Gaj's would produce effect. The Slavs were scattered
+about in nearly all the districts of Hungary, and though they might
+not all desire separate political organizations like those which the
+Croats demanded, the question of the preservation of their language
+concerned even those who had no separate political existence; and they
+too resented any attempt on the part of the Magyars to substitute for
+it the language of the ruling race. Kossuth was as indignant at this
+hindrance to his schemes of national unity as Joseph II. had been at
+the hindrances which had been thrown in the way of the Germanizing of
+the Empire. The same year, 1841, which saw the starting of the journal
+in which Kossuth was to vindicate the liberties of Hungary against
+Metternich, was also the year in which he dealt his first decided blow
+against the liberties of the Slavonic races of Hungary. At a general
+convention of the Hungarian Protestants, he proposed that certain of
+the schools in which the Slavonic clergy studied physical science, and
+other branches of knowledge, should be deprived of these teachings,
+and that mere practice in writing sermons should be substituted. This
+proposal was defended on the ground that Slavonic gatherings, unless
+carefully limited, must be a source of danger to the country. Any one
+who ventured to defend the Slavonic cause at this meeting was howled
+down, and Kossuth's motion was carried.
+
+Fierce attacks on the Slavs and their language now appeared in the
+"Pesti Hirlap," and Kossuth refused to insert the answers to these
+attacks. Count Zay, who had just been appointed chief inspector of
+the Protestant Congregations and Schools, openly announced in a public
+circular his determination to Magyarize the Slavs. The Slavonic
+speech, he said, would prevent the Slavs from being firm in the
+Protestant faith; and while they used that speech they would not be
+capable of freedom, and could not even be considered to have a proper
+share in humanity. The Magyarizing of the Slavs was the holiest duty
+of every genuine patriot of Hungary, every defender of freedom and
+intelligence, and every true subject of the Austrian House. Others
+accused the Slavs of offering sacrifices to their old deity Svatopluk;
+while that great bugbear, the fear of Russian influence, was pushed
+forward on every occasion. Slavonic hymns, previously sung in the
+churches, were prohibited; and Magyar preachers were thrust upon
+congregations who did not understand a word of the Magyar language.
+
+It was while this bitter feeling was at its height that the elections
+began for the Diet of 1843 at Presburg, and for the Croatian Assembly
+at Agram. The Hungarian elections turned, to some extent, on the
+quarrel with the Slavs; but partly also on the question, which was now
+coming to the front, of the exemption of the so-called nobles of
+Hungary from taxation. These "nobles" were not confined to the great
+families who sat in the House of Magnates, but included all the
+freeholders of the country; and great injustice had arisen from the
+fact that the men who laid on the taxes were, in the main, not those
+who paid them. Szechenyi, as before mentioned, had tried to diminish
+this injustice; but the fiery methods of Kossuth, and the growing
+tendency to opposition to the Austrian rule, had alarmed Szechenyi;
+and he shrank more and more from the leaders of the popular movement.
+It was not, however, merely the extreme character of their aims, nor
+their rough-and-ready methods, which alienated him; it was also their
+growing injustice to the Slavs. Szechenyi, who had been so much the
+first in reviving an interest in Magyar language and literature, now
+came forward, as President of the Hungarian Academy, to denounce any
+step for spreading the Magyar language which could offend the Croats.
+On the other hand, the peasant nobles of Hungary protested fiercely
+against the attempt to deprive them of their exemption from taxation,
+and they gathered at the county meetings in a riotous manner,
+breaking, in one case, into the Hall of Election, with knives in their
+hands, and shouting, "Freedom for ever! We will not pay taxes."
+
+This fierce intimidation on the part of the opponents of reform
+provoked reprisals from the reformers. And, where they were unable to
+hold their own by intimidation, they resorted to bribery. One protest
+was made against this defection from the true principles of liberty
+which was of vital importance to the future history of Hungary. The
+election of Zala county had ended once more in the return of Francis
+Deak; and the electors were gathered to hear the announcement of the
+election, when, to their dismay, Deak came forward and stated that, in
+consequence of the way in which the election had been conducted, he
+should refuse to sit as their representative. His friends pressed
+round him, some entreating him not to desert their cause; some even
+venturing to reproach him with cowardice in shrinking from the
+struggle. But he replied that, if he went to the Diet after this
+election, he should always "see bloodstains on his mandate." Thus, at
+a crisis when they most needed a man who would combine genuine popular
+feeling with moderation and justice, the reformers were deprived of
+_the_ leader in the Lower House who possessed those qualities in the
+largest degree. As for Deak himself, it must be remembered that he was
+sacrificing the undoubted position of leader of the reforming party,
+at the time when its objects were becoming more and more definite, and
+its leadership was in consequence growing more attractive to a man of
+courage and patriotism. Though he was still to play a useful part in
+the coming struggles, it was of necessity a secondary one; and it was
+not till twenty-three years later that he was to resume the first
+place in the Hungarian national movement.
+
+In the meantime the Croatian question had become more complicated by
+an element of internal division. In a district not far from Agram,
+there was established a complete settlement of Croatian "nobles," of a
+similar type to those who had been raising the cry against equal
+taxation in the Hungarian counties. These men claimed the right, much
+disputed by the other Croats, to attend the county meetings at Agram
+_en masse_, instead of returning representatives like other citizens.
+In this Diet of 1843, Count Jozipovic, leader of this band of
+"nobles," asserted their right in a very imperious manner; and a
+fierce fight followed in the streets of Agram. Thus began a contest
+which extended, with various degrees of violence, over several years.
+The Croatian Assembly, however, at first attempted to place their
+claims in a moderate manner before the Magyars; and instructed
+Haulik, Bishop of Agram, to assure the Magyars of their desire to live
+on good terms with them, if they were secured in those rights which
+had been granted by law, and guaranteed by the oath of the King.
+They pointed out that many of them were ignorant of the Magyar
+language, and that the Magyars were in many cases ignorant of theirs.
+On the former ground they desired to maintain the right of their
+representatives to speak Latin in the Hungarian Diet. On the latter
+ground they objected to censors being appointed over the Croatian
+press, who were ignorant of the Croatian language. The former right
+was the first to be tested; for no sooner did the Croatian deputies
+begin, according to old custom, to speak Latin in the Diet of Presburg
+than they were interrupted by a clattering of sabres from the Magyar
+members, and a demand that they should speak in the Magyar language.
+Thereupon Jozipovic saw an opportunity of making new friends for his
+cause; and, while he disputed the legality of the election of his
+opponents, he declared that he and his supporters were "body and soul
+Hungarian." Kossuth at once assumed the justice of the cause of
+Jozipovic; and, while he was eagerly opposing the privileges of the
+nobles in Hungary, he thus supported in Croatia an aristocratic
+privilege of doubtful legality, and undoubtedly disorderly and unjust
+in its effects. The Magyars responded to Kossuth's appeal; and the
+Lower House of the Hungarian Diet passed a resolution forbidding the
+use of any language but Magyar in the Diet. The House of Magnates,
+doubtless under the influence of Szechenyi, were disposed to make
+concessions to the Croats; but even they were not able to do much to
+check the storm.
+
+In the meantime the Emperor had been trying to exercise a moderating
+influence on these conflicts. Finding the bitterness caused in Hungary
+by Gaj's movement, Ferdinand prohibited the use of the name "Illyrian"
+in newspapers and in public discussions; but at the same time he
+promised to encourage the development of the Croatian language, and
+urged the Magyars to suspend for six years their prohibition of Latin
+in the Hungarian Diet. While, too, the Magyar language was to be used
+in Church boards and legal tribunals of Hungary, Hungarian officials
+were to accept Latin letters from Croatia and the other outlying
+districts that were united with Hungary. But these proposals,
+unfortunately, did not satisfy the feeling of the Magyars; and some of
+them actually ventured on the extraordinary statement that, if the
+Croat boards could understand letters written in the Magyar language,
+they must necessarily be able to compose Magyar letters in answer; and
+they maintained that the Croats ought not to be allowed to elect any
+members to the Diet who could not then speak the Magyar language.
+
+Thus, although in all parts of the Kingdom of Hungary there was a
+growing demand for freedom and equality, each question in turn became
+complicated by this quarrel between the members of the different
+races. On the one hand, a proposal for admitting men not hitherto
+recognized as "nobles" to the possession of land was met by an
+amendment to limit this concession to those who knew Magyar; and this
+exclusion was rejected by only twenty-eight votes against seventeen;
+while a proposal to limit offices to those who could speak Magyar was
+rejected by a majority of only two. On the other hand, the Croats
+successfully resisted a proposal to allow Protestants to settle in
+Croatia as a part of the scheme for Magyarizing their country. But
+though these divisions hindered the co-operation of the members of the
+different nations who might have worked together for freedom and
+progress, it should always be noted that the desire of each nation
+was, in the first instance, for the development of a free national
+life, connected with true culture and learning, and independent of
+mere officialism. If the Magyars were tyrannical and overbearing
+towards the Croats, it was partly because they believed that these
+divisions, (the fault of which they attributed to the Croats) were
+tending to strengthen the hands of their common oppressors. If, on the
+other hand, the Croats appealed to the Emperor for protection against
+the Magyars, it was not from any courtier-like or slavish desire to
+strengthen the hands of despotism; but partly because they felt that
+the position of the Emperor enabled him to judge more fairly between
+the contending parties, partly because they found from experience that
+Ferdinand of Austria was a juster-minded man than Louis Kossuth.
+
+While the growth of national feeling in Hungary and Croatia was
+tending at once to a healthier life and to dangerous divisions, a much
+more remarkable awakening of new and separate life was showing itself
+in the province of Transylvania. The geographical isolation of that
+province from the rest of Hungary is very striking, even now that
+railways have connected the different parts of the kingdom; but in
+1848 this isolation was far greater, and had a considerable effect on
+the political history of the time. The Carpathians almost surround the
+country, and form a natural bulwark. Between this high wall of
+mountains on the north-east and Buda-Pesth stretches a vast plain. No
+province of the Empire contained a greater variety of separately
+organized nations. The Transylvanian Diet was not, like the other
+local assemblies, the result of an attempt to express the feelings of
+a more or less united people, but arose merely from the endeavour to
+give reasonable solidity to an alliance between three distinct
+peoples. Of the three ruling races, the first to enter Transylvania
+were the Szekler, a people of the same stock as the Magyar, but slower
+to take the impress of any permanent civilization. They conquered the
+original inhabitants of the country, a race probably of mixed Dacian
+and Roman blood, called Wallachs or Roumanians. Towards the end of the
+ninth century came in the Magyars, before whom the Szekler retreated
+to the north-east, where the town of Maros-Vasarhely became their
+capital. This town is on the River Maros, which, rising in the
+Carpathians, flows all across Transylvania.
+
+The Magyars in the meantime extended their rule over all parts of
+Hungary, but the position which they gained in Transylvania was one of
+much less undisputed supremacy than that which they established in
+Northern Hungary; for in the former province they remained a second
+nation, existing by the side of the Szekler, neither conquering nor
+absorbing them.
+
+Much of the country, however, was still uncolonized, and was liable to
+inroads from dangerous neighbours; so in the twelfth century a number
+of German citizens who lived along the Rhine, and some of the German
+knights who were seeking adventures, came into Transylvania to offer
+their services to the King of Hungary. The German knights were unable
+to come to a satisfactory agreement with the King, and went north to
+try to civilize the Prussians; but the citizens remained, acquired
+land, developed trade, and developed, also, a power of self-government
+of which neither Szekler nor Magyar were at that time capable. That
+portion of the country which has been colonized by the Saxons has a
+look of greater neatness and comfort than the rest. The little
+homesteads are almost English in their appearance, with, occasionally,
+gardens and orchards. Hermannstadt, the capital of this district,
+bears traces of its former greatness in several fine old churches, a
+law academy, and picture gallery. Its fortifications must have been
+almost impregnable in old times, with strong watch-towers and walls of
+great height. The portions of the walls that remain show marks of the
+sieges of 1849. The Carpathians, on the south-east, are many miles
+distant, but the Rothenthurm Pass, through which the terrible Russian
+force made its way into the country, is visible in some lights.
+
+These three ruling nations--the Magyar, the Szekler, and the
+Saxon--though separate in their organization, had more than one common
+interest. They were united by a common love of freedom and a common
+temptation to tyranny. In 1438 they formed a union against the Turks,
+which in 1459 was changed into a union in support of their freedoms and
+privileges, "for protection against inward and outward enemies, against
+oppression from above or insurrection from below." And when, in the
+seventeenth century, they separated for a time from Hungary, the three
+nations accepted the Prince of Transylvania as their head. When
+Transylvania and Hungary had both passed under the rule of Austria,
+Leopold I., in 1695, established a separate Government for Transylvania,
+and Maria Theresa increased the importance and the independence of this
+position. It will be noted that among the objects for which the three
+nations combined is mentioned "insurrection from below;" and this was a
+bond of great importance; for, while the Magyar, Szekler, and Saxon were
+enjoying an amount of freedom and independence in Transylvania not
+generally allowed by the House of Austria to its subjects, the original
+population of the country, the Wallachs, or Roumanians, as they prefer
+to be called, were hated and attacked by the Szekler, made serfs of by
+the Magyar, excluded from their territory by the Saxons, and despised by
+all. Even the full benefit of the village organization, which was the
+great protection of the Hungarian peasant, was not extended to the
+Roumanians in Transylvania, for they were never allowed to choose one of
+their own men as president of the village community; and while the
+landowners oppressed them in the country, the Saxon guilds excluded them
+from the trade of the towns. So they remained a race of shepherds,
+without culture and wealth, among the warriors of the Magyar and
+Szekler, and the prosperous traders of the Saxons.
+
+When, then, the reforming zeal of Joseph II. was extended to
+Transylvania, the Roumanians alone hailed it with delight; for, while,
+in his eagerness for a united Empire, the Emperor tried to sweep away
+all the special organizations of separate self-government so dear to
+the ruling races, he introduced sweeping reforms in favour of the
+serfs. He put forth an Edict, securing to the peasant an amount of
+liberty not hitherto enjoyed by him. No peasant was to be hindered from
+marriage, or from studying in other places, or from following different
+kinds of work; none was to be turned out of his village or land at
+bidding of the landlord; the power of the landlord to impose new
+burdens (already restricted by the Urbarium of Maria Theresa) was to be
+still further limited; and the county officials were to protect the
+dependant from any oppression of his landlord. The hopes of the
+Roumanians were naturally raised by this Edict; and many of them
+believed, when a general conscription followed, that by entering
+the army they could escape serfdom. The lords, backed by many
+of the officials, hindered this attempt, and interfered to prevent
+the carrying out of the Edict. Thereupon the Roumanians rose in
+insurrection, under two leaders, Hora and Kloska; and all those horrors
+followed which are naturally connected with an agrarian rising of
+uncivilized serfs, and the violent suppression of it by hardly more
+civilized tyrants.
+
+But among the bishops of the Roumanians, to whom they always granted
+great authority, were some who saw a better way than insurrection for
+the cure of the sufferings of their countrymen. Having observed that
+when the three dominant races were protesting against the reforms of
+Joseph II. they had appealed continually to historic rights, these
+Roumanian leaders drew up a petition, which was called the "Libellus
+Wallachorum," and was presented to the Diet of 1791. It was in this
+document that the Roumanians first put forward that claim to descent
+from the ancient Romans which has ever since exercised such influence
+on the imagination of this singular race. The petition further
+declared that, in the first inroad of the barbarians, the Roumanians
+had continued to maintain that Christianity which they had learned
+under the Roman Empire; and that when the Magyars came into the
+country, the Roumanians had voluntarily accepted the Magyar chief as
+their leader; that though their name was then changed by the invaders
+from Roumanians into Wallachs, their independent rights were still
+secured. They went on to say that even the union of the three ruling
+races in 1438 had not been intended originally to deprive the
+Roumanians of their rights; it was not till the seventeenth century
+that they had been crushed down into their present position. They
+therefore entreated that they might be restored to all the civil and
+political rights which they had possessed in the fifteenth century;
+that the clergy of the Greek Church, to which they belonged, might be
+placed on an equality with those of other religions; and that,
+wherever the Roumanians had a majority in any villages, those villages
+might be called by Roumanian names. The reading of this petition was
+received by the representatives of the three ruling races, after a
+brief silence, with fierce protests; only the Saxons thought it
+necessary to make even vague promises of concession; and those
+promises were not fulfilled.
+
+But, when this demand had once been put into form, the memory of it
+lingered on among the Roumanians; and in 1842, during the general
+wakening of national feeling, they attempted again to make an appeal
+to the Transylvanian Diet for special recognition. Again they failed;
+but their leaders did not, therefore, lose heart. Some of them,
+indeed, were disposed to resort to their old method of insurrection;
+and a few years later they rose, under the leadership of a woman named
+Catherine Varga, and for a long time held their own against the Magyar
+officials. But it is to the suppressor of this movement, rather than
+to its leader, that the Roumanians look back as their national hero.
+This was Andreas Schaguna, who, at the time of Catherine Varga's
+insurrection, was holding the position of Archimandrite. He came down
+to the village, where the Magyar officials had not dared to penetrate,
+rebuked the Roumanians for their turbulence, and carried off Catherine
+Varga from their midst, no one daring to resist. But this, though a
+striking, was not a characteristic exercise of his authority. He was
+far from thinking that force was a remedy for the grievances of the
+Roumanians; and he devoted time and thought to the foundation of
+schools and the education of the people. This education he carried
+out, not by mere teaching, but by seeking out and advising those whom
+he saw fitted for more intellectual occupations, and helping them to
+become lawyers and doctors. Last, but by no means least, he tried to
+reduce into a more literary form the Roumanian language.
+
+But it was not only in their own ranks that the Roumanians were now
+finding champions for their national cause. In 1842 appeared a
+pamphlet by a Saxon clergyman, named Stephen Roth, in which the writer
+protested against the attempt of the Magyars to crash out the rival
+languages in Transylvania; for this, as he pointed out, was a new
+form of tyranny. In North Hungary, indeed, the movement had been
+accompanied by an attempt to improve the condition of the peasant; and
+the Magyar language was held out to him as a new boon to be added to
+the abolition of feudal dues. But in Transylvania little or nothing
+had been done by the Magyars to improve the condition of the peasant;
+and therefore there could be no talk of _benefits_ there. If there
+were to be one official language in Transylvania, it ought, urged
+Roth, to be the language of the majority of the population, that is,
+Roumanian; and though it was undesirable to make this or any other
+language universal, it was certain that the ruling race would never be
+able to Magyarize the Roumanians; who might, however, be pacified by
+greater respect for their dignity as men, completer recognition of
+their form of Christianity, better means of education, provision for
+material need, and a freer position. This pamphlet of Roth's was
+notable, as a sign of sympathy felt by a member of the most cultivated
+race in Transylvania for the complaints of the most uncivilized one.
+But it is no reproach to Roth to say that he was thinking, at the
+time, as much of maintaining the rights of his own race as of
+redressing the wrongs of the Roumanians. For though the Magyars did
+not, as yet, venture to lord it over a German People as they did over
+Slav and Roumanian, they were yet trying, by various underhand
+methods, to weaken the devotion of the Saxons to their race and
+language. Roth and his friends tried to counteract this, partly by
+founding unions for the encouragement of German culture; and also by
+the more effective way of introducing German immigrants from the old
+country. A movement of a similar kind had been inaugurated by Maria
+Theresa about 1731; and for more than forty years it had been carried
+on with success; the German Protestants, who had been driven out of
+other countries, finding a natural refuge in the wholly Protestant
+Saxon settlement of Transylvania. Strange to say, Joseph II. does not
+seem to have carried on his mother's work; perhaps he had made himself
+too unpopular in Transylvania to do it with success. But Roth had
+special friends in the University of Wuertemberg; and in spite of the
+Liberal tendencies of the King of that State, the taxation in that
+country was specially heavy. When, then, in 1845, Roth went to
+Wuertemberg, so many citizens of that State consented to emigrate to
+Transylvania in the following year that the Government at Vienna and
+the Magyars at Pesth became alike alarmed. Ferdinand was persuaded
+that this was a Protestant invasion, and probably, also, a Communistic
+attempt. The Magyars, on the other hand, cried out that this was part
+of an attempt to Germanize Transylvania. Roth defended his cause, and
+refuted the charge of Protestant propagandism by showing that Roman
+Catholic families were among the emigrants; while, as to the idea of a
+Communistic proletariat, many of those who had emigrated were well
+provided with money, and some had been encouraged by the former
+impulse given to the movement by the Viennese Government. But a vague
+prejudice, once excited, is rarely got rid of by mere statements of
+fact; and the Governments, both at Vienna and Pesth, threw such
+difficulties in the way of the emigrants, that they had to suffer
+great misery on their journey; and these sufferings tended (with other
+grounds of prejudice) to excite much indignation against Roth. Nor
+would the Magyars, at any rate, feel more friendly to him when they
+found that an organ of the Croatian patriots at Agram claimed him as
+an ally against the overbearing demands of the Magyars.
+
+Thus, then, it is clear that, during the period from 1840 to 1846,
+there was a general awakening both in Germany and Hungary of strong
+national feelings. In Germany those feelings, gathering round a common
+language and literature, prepared the way directly for a movement
+towards freedom; while in Hungary the divisions of races and languages
+hindered the full benefits of the revival, and gave a handle to the
+champions of despotism. Yet whether among Magyars, Croats, Roumanians,
+or Saxons, the movement was in itself a healthy one, tending to newer
+and more natural life, and weakening the traditions of Viennese
+officialism.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+DESPOTISM RETIRING BEFORE CONSTITUTIONALISM, 1844-DECEMBER, 1847.
+
+     The Bandiera insurrection. Its results.--Career of Cesare Balbo,
+     "Le Speranze d'Italia."--Vincenzo Gioberti. "Il Primato degli
+     Italiani."--The insurrection of Rimini. "Ultimi casi di
+     Romagna."--The risings in Galicia.--History of Cracow since
+     1815.--Causes of the failure of the Galician movement.--The seizure
+     of Cracow. Palmerston's utterances thereon.--Change in Charles
+     Albert's position.--The Ticino treaties.--Mistake of Solaro della
+     Margherita.--"Long live the King of Italy!"--D'Azeglio's
+     policy.--Aurelio Saffi.--Death of Gregory XVI.--State of Roman
+     Government.--Parties in the Conclave.--Election of Pius IX.--His
+     character and career.--The amnesty. Its effect.--Ciceruacchio. His
+     work.--The Congress at Genoa.--Charles Lucien Bonaparte.--Death of
+     Confalonieri.--State of Milan.--Pio Nono's reforms.--The clerical
+     conspiracy.--The occupation of Ferrara. Its effect on Italian
+     feeling.--State of Tuscany.--The Duke of Lucca.--Absorption of
+     Lucca in Tuscany.--The struggle with Modena.--The massacre of
+     Fivizzano.--Occupation of Parma and Modena by Austria.--State of
+     Switzerland.--Position of Bern and Zurich.--The Concordat of
+     Seven.--The refugee question in 1838.--The Aargau monasteries.--The
+     Sonderbund.--The Jesuit question.--Metternich's feelings, real and
+     pretended.--Palmerston's attitude.--Relations between Metternich
+     and Guizot.--The decision of the Swiss Diet.--The Sonderbund
+     war.--Effect of the Federal victory.--The Schleswig-Holstein
+     question.--The official view and the popular view.--Metternich's
+     way out of the difficulty.--Effect of the movement on Germany and
+     Prussia.--State of Europe at outbreak of Sicilian insurrection.
+
+
+The divisions of opinion, which had been hindering progress in
+Hungary, had, in the meantime, been growing less prominent in Italy;
+so that the more active political leaders in the latter country were,
+for a time at least, aiming at a common programme. Yet this point had
+only been reached after much suffering and failure. Conspiracies with
+various objects had been rife in Italy, especially in the Papal
+States; but, though some passing attention was attracted by the
+cruelties exercised in their suppression, these risings had left
+apparently little mark on the country. But an insurrection took place
+in 1844 which proved a turning-point in Italian politics. The
+character and circumstances of the leaders excited a sympathy which
+impressed their memories on the hearts of their countrymen; while the
+failure of the rising led to a change in the general tactics of the
+Italian Liberals.
+
+The rising in question was that organized by the brothers Emilio and
+Attilio Bandiera. These youths were the sons of a Venetian nobleman
+who was an admiral in the Austrian service, and who had attracted
+attention in 1831 by violating the terms of the capitulation of
+Ancona, and attempting to seize the exiles who, under protection of
+that treaty, were on their way to France. Emilio and Attilio had been
+compelled, while still boys, to enter the service of Austria; but they
+soon began to feel a loathing for the foreign rulers of their country;
+and, while in this state of mind, they came into contact with some of
+those who were already acting with the Giovine Italia. At last, in
+1842, Attilio Bandiera wrote to Mazzini expressing the esteem and love
+he had learned to feel for him, his desire to co-operate with him, and
+his belief that the Italian cause was but a part of the cause of
+humanity.
+
+This correspondence with Mazzini was maintained by means of another
+naval officer in the Austrian service, Domenico Moro; in the following
+year a passing struggle in Southern and Central Italy gave new hopes
+to the brothers. They fled from their ships and met Domenico Moro at
+Corfu. But a stronger influence than the fear of Austrian tyranny was
+put forward to hinder the brothers Bandiera from their attempts. Their
+mother wrote from Venice calling on them to return, and denouncing
+them as unnatural for their refusal. Even this pressure, however, they
+resisted, and they prepared to make their first rising in March, 1844.
+
+The desire to free the Neapolitans, already distracted by so many
+insurrections, gave rise to this attempt, of which Cosenza was the
+head-quarters. Unfortunately, the plan of the rising had not been
+understood by some of the insurgents, and a preliminary effort was
+easily suppressed by the Neapolitan troops. Nothing daunted by this,
+the Bandiere planned a new march on Calabria. It was, unfortunately,
+on this occasion that the correspondence of the Bandiere with Mazzini
+was opened by the British Postmaster-General, and communicated by him
+to the Austrians. When, then, the brothers, accompanied by many
+recruits from various parts of Italy, marched upon Cosenza to deliver
+the prisoners who had been taken in the former unsuccessful attempt,
+they found guides prepared to deceive them; and in a wood near Cosenza
+they were met by a large body of gensdarmes, who had been warned of
+their coming. They repelled the attack, however, and retreated to
+Corfu to gather new forces; but the authorities had filled the minds
+of the inhabitants with the belief that the Bandiere and their
+followers were Turks. The people rose against them; and when they
+again marched on Cosenza they were easily overpowered and imprisoned,
+and soon after condemned to death. The brothers received the news of
+their condemnation with cries of "Long live Italy! Long live Liberty!
+Long live our country!" And, to the priests who tried to exhort them
+to repentance, they answered that they had acted in the spirit of
+Christ in trying to free their brethren.
+
+The effect of their death, and of all the circumstances of their
+rising, was deep and wide; and their memory seems to have lived longer
+than that of any previous martyrs for Italian freedom. The bullets
+with which they were shot were collected as sacred relics; and it was
+felt that a new impulse had been given to the struggle against
+Austrian tyranny. But with the indignation at the treachery by which
+the Bandiera brothers had suffered, and with the reverence for their
+memories, there arose in Italy a passing wave of suspicion against
+Mazzini and the leaders of the Giovine Italia, as people who wasted
+the lives of the heroic youth of Italy in useless and ill-organized
+attempts.
+
+It was at this period that two books, written in 1843, began to
+attract attention. These were the "Speranze d'Italia" of Cesare Balbo
+and the "Primato" of Vincenzo Gioberti.
+
+Cesare Balbo was the son of that Count Prospero Balbo who was
+supposed, in the reign of Victor Emmanuel I., to have supplied a
+Liberal element to the Government. There had been, however, little in
+Count Prospero's career to inspire any reasonable confidence in him.
+He served under Victor Amadeus till the fall of Piedmont before the
+French; but after the establishment of Napoleon's power he had
+returned to Piedmont and become head of the University of Turin. After
+the restoration of the House of Savoy he had taken office again under
+Victor Emmanuel, and had played the somewhat doubtful part, described
+above, in the movement of 1821. Cesare had been presented by his
+father, when a boy, to Napoleon; and though Count Prospero had
+considered it a dangerous step, the young man had accepted office in
+Napoleon's Council of State in Turin, and subsequently had served
+under the same ruler in Tuscany. Although shocked at the kidnapping of
+Pius VII., he did not abandon the service of Napoleon until the fall
+of the French Empire in 1814. Yet, after the restoration of the House
+of Savoy, he entered the army of the King of Sardinia, and fought,
+first against Napoleon, and then against Murat. In 1821 he managed to
+remain on friendly terms with Santa Rosa, while he was at the same
+time advising Charles Albert to break with the Revolutionists, and was
+also trying to hinder the proclamation of the Spanish Constitution at
+Alessandria. Such was the man who now tried to tell Italy of her
+hopes.
+
+While appealing to Gioberti as his master, and declaring his preference
+for a moderate party, Balbo dwelt on the want of national independence
+as the chief source of the evils of Italy, and particularly on the
+control exercised by the Austrians over the Pope. He urged his
+countrymen to put aside the old ideas of Dante, and not to go back
+further than 1814 for their conception of Italian Unity. He then
+proceeded to examine the different schemes for attaining this unity,
+and, rejecting alike the schemes of Monarchists and Federalists, as
+well as the plan for a closer unity put forward by the Republicans of
+the Giovine Italia, he pointed out as the only real hope for Italy the
+possibility of the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the consequent chance
+that Italy might be freed in the scramble which would follow.
+
+It is well to dismiss this book of Balbo's first, because its only
+worth is that it shows what scraps of comfort were caught at eagerly
+by Italians at this period; but, as a matter of fact, its publication
+was slightly later than that of the "Primato" of Vincenzo Gioberti, to
+which Balbo alludes in the preface to his book.
+
+Gioberti has already been mentioned as having been a contributor to
+the journal of the Giovine Italia. Previously to that time, he had
+chiefly been known as a writer on ecclesiastical or theological
+subjects. Before the age of twenty, he had written a philosophical
+treatise on Man, God, and Natural Religion; and early in life he had
+also written on the "Wickedness of the Popes," and had tried to
+prove that that wickedness was due to their temporal power. At the
+University of Turin, the Professor to whom he looked up with the
+greatest reverence was driven from his post by the Jesuits, and this
+event awakened in Gioberti his bitter hostility to that Order.
+Gioberti's connection with the Giovine Italia brought him under the
+suspicion of the Piedmontese Government; and he was banished from the
+country shortly before Mazzini's expedition to Savoy.
+
+In that expedition, however, Gioberti had refused to join; and he
+remained at Paris, where many of the Italian exiles were gathered.
+Among these, two of the most prominent were Pellegrino Rossi and
+Terenzio Mamiani. Both of these writers may have confirmed him in his
+dislike of the Jesuits; though they may also have exercised some
+influence in alienating him from the Republicans. He returned, indeed,
+at this period to those philosophical writings for which he was much
+better fitted than for the active life of politics; and, in 1842,
+he was offered a Chair of Philosophy at Pisa. But Solaro della
+Margherita, the Minister of Charles Albert, succeeded in persuading
+the Grand Duke of Tuscany to withdraw this appointment. Such had been
+Gioberti's career up to the time when he brought out the book which,
+by a curious combination of circumstances, was to make his name
+famous.
+
+This book, "Il Primato Morale e Civile degli Italiani," professes to
+show why, and how, the Italians should take the lead in the affairs of
+Europe. The writer begins with a glorification of Italy, though, at
+the same time, he complains that she has too often neglected her
+mission; and he maintains, in this connection, the necessity of
+combining philosophy with political discussion. Very early in
+the argument he goes back to Romulus; but, not content with the
+comparative antiquity of that allusion, he thinks it necessary to
+deduce the origin of civilization from Noah. He then considers the
+relation between the Papacy and the Empire after the time of Charles
+the Great, and the attitude of various Italian writers and patriots
+towards the Papacy. He incidentally notices the fascination of Abelard
+for Arnold of Brescia as one of the causes of that reformer's
+hostility to the Papacy, and as a warning to Italians not to yield to
+the influence of French ideas. It is to the Guelphs that Gioberti
+looks for the embodiment of the political wisdom of the Italians
+of the Middle Ages. Without the Papacy, there could be no real
+political unity for Italy, since through its influence alone could
+there be produced a union of morality, religion, and civilization. He
+deprecates all revolution, all encouragement of invasion, all
+imitations of foreign ideas. Unity, in the complete sense in which it
+was known in England and France, was, says Gioberti, an impossibility,
+because of differences in Government and dialect between the different
+States of Italy. He expresses a belief that Alfieri would have
+repented of his attacks on Popes and Kings if he had lived to see the
+dignified resistance of Pius VII. to Napoleon. The Pope would be
+obliged to act by peaceful means; and while forming an Italian Navy,
+and developing Italian colonies, he should carry on his work through a
+Federal Union, of which he would be the President. But, as the Pope
+must act by pacific means, there would be need of a military leader
+also for Italy; and he must be found in Piedmont. Literature had been
+slower in growth in Piedmont than in other parts of Italy; but in
+proportion to its backwardness in this respect was its superiority in
+military matters. Further, the House of Savoy had been softened by
+religion, and had never produced a tyrant. But moderate reforms were
+necessary in order to make the leadership palatable; especially a
+modification of the censorship of the Press, and greater encouragement
+to science and literature. In urging that Italy must take the lead of
+Europe, not merely in matters of civilization, but in thought, he
+dwells emphatically on the connection between philosophy and politics.
+But, above all, Italy should hold this position because she has never
+fallen into the errors of Protestantism. Passing from the independent
+States of Italy, he dwells on the necessity of a union between
+Lombardy and Piedmont; and then, after discussing what qualities the
+different parts of Italy will contribute to the general character of
+the whole, and dwelling on the possible union among the literary men
+of Italy, he concludes by insisting that religion can be the only
+uniting force; and therefore that the Head of the Christian World must
+be the Head of the Italian League.
+
+This curious book attracted considerable attention; but although many
+expressed admiration for the author, few committed themselves
+definitely to its doctrines. The idea of a Pope as a liberator and
+uniter of Italy clashed with all the experiences which Italy had had of
+the Government of Gregory XVI., and Gioberti was forced to modify his
+words, and to deny that he looked to the Pope then on the throne to
+carry out his programme. This explanation led him into a controversy
+with the Jesuits, which must considerably have increased his
+popularity.
+
+A third writer, who attracted some attention, though far less than
+Balbo and Gioberti, was Giacomo Durando, already mentioned as one of
+the conspirators of 1831. He demanded a league between Peoples and
+Princes, but utterly denied that any initiative of Italian independence
+could come from the Pope. His idea was a Kingdom of Italy divided into
+three parts--Northern, and presumably Central, Italy to be under the
+House of Savoy; the city of Rome and some islands to be left to the
+Pope; and Southern Italy to the King of Naples. He did not, however,
+desire that the League should make war upon Austria, but that it
+should wait, and be ready to resist attacks from that Power.
+
+But while these writers were trying to formulate, in a literary
+manner, the programme of the Constitutional Liberals, the more fiery
+members of that party were anxious to show that they too could do
+something in the way of a political movement of a more determined
+kind; and it was in the Papal States, again, as the centre of the
+worst government of Italy, that this new programme of insurrection was
+put forward. A man named Pietro Renzi undertook to formulate the
+demands of this section of the party. The petition drawn up by Renzi
+went back to the time of Pius VII., to show that hopes of reform had
+once been held out, even in the Papal States. It dwelt on the fact
+that, from the time of the insurrections of 1821 to the death of Pius
+VIII. in 1831, there had been a steady growth of tyranny; that in 1831
+the Papal Government would have fallen but for the intervention of
+Austria; that, when Gregory XVI. had been restored to his power,
+demands had been made for reform in the Papal Government which had
+been steadily opposed; that the Pope and Cardinal Albani were now
+encouraging robbers and murderers on the ground of the support which
+such men gave to the faith. "For eight or ten years past," Renzi
+declared, "it had not been the Pope or Rome or the Cardinals who had
+been governing the people of the Legations; but a sanguinary faction
+of the brutalized populace has been wearing the dress, and performing
+the functions of government." Many young men had been driven from the
+universities, or shut out from liberal professions, by the influence
+of the Jesuits; and the clergy had usurped the control of all
+education. The leaders of the new party, therefore, demanded twelve
+concessions.--1. A general amnesty for all political offences from
+1821 to that time. 2. Publicity of Debate; trial by jury, and
+abolition of confiscations and capital punishment for political
+offences. 3. That laymen should not be subjected either to the
+Inquisition nor any other ecclesiastical tribunal. 4. That political
+offences should be tried by the ordinary tribunals. 5. That municipal
+councils should be freely elected subject to the approval of the
+Sovereign; that these municipal councils should elect the provincial
+councils, and the provincial councils the Supreme Council of State. 6.
+That the Supreme Council should reside in Rome, superintending the
+public funds, and should have a deliberative power in some matters, a
+consultative in others. 7. That all offices, civil, military, and
+judicial, should be held by laymen. 8. That public instruction, other
+than religious, should be taken away from the clergy. 9. That the
+censorship of the Press should be only employed in the case of
+offences against God, the Catholic Religion, and the Sovereign, and
+the private life of citizens. 10. That foreign troops should be
+dismissed. 11. That the Civic Guard should be instituted, and
+entrusted with the maintenance of the laws and of public order. 12.
+That the Government should enter on all those social reforms which are
+required by the spirit of the age, and of which all the _civil_
+governments of Europe have given an example.
+
+Renzi resolved to enforce this programme by a sudden attack on Rimini,
+in which he was completely successful; but an ally of his, who had
+raised a revolt simultaneously in the lower Romagna, was compelled to
+retire before the Swiss troops of the Pope; and Renzi, apparently
+panic struck, retreated into Tuscany. Unfortunately, a reaction was
+then taking place there. Fossombroni had died in 1844, Corsini, the
+Minister who was most in sympathy with Fossombroni's policy, resigned
+in 1845; and the chief of the Jesuit party took his place. The Grand
+Duke Leopold himself was at first disposed to be friendly to Renzi;
+but, as the best protection to him, he advised his escape to France.
+Renzi soon returned, and Metternich, alarmed at the intensity of
+Italian feeling, denounced the Duke for protecting rebels, and, under
+the influence of Austrians, Jesuits, and of the Pope, Leopold
+consented to surrender Renzi to Gregory XVI.
+
+The attention of the country was still further directed to this
+attempt by a pamphlet which came out immediately after, and which was
+written by a young Piedmontese nobleman, Count Massimo Tapparelli
+D'Azeglio. In this pamphlet D'Azeglio complained that the Rimini
+movement had been much misrepresented; but that the action of the
+insurgents had no doubt been a blunder, because the movement had been
+purely local, and they had not considered how to use the forces of the
+whole of Italy. He then proceeded to denounce the corruptions of the
+Papal Government, and the cruelties which had followed the suppression
+of this rising; particularly the gross injustice of imprisoning a
+lawyer because he had defended some of the prisoners. After a
+denunciation in detail of the evils of the Papal Government, he goes
+on to repudiate the use of secret societies, as having failed in their
+purpose; calls on the Italians to unite in peaceable protest against
+abuses, rather than in insurrection; and points to the Tugendbund of
+Germany as a model for Italian combinations. The pamphlet had little
+that was new in it, but attention was fixed upon the author, by the
+fact that he was immediately banished from Tuscany by the Grand Duke,
+and was, shortly after, welcomed in Piedmont.
+
+Metternich's protest against this welcome might have been more decided
+had he not been hampered by the events which were occurring in
+Galicia. Ever since the insurrection of 1830, there had been a steady
+feeling of sympathy towards the Poles, not merely as an oppressed
+nation, but as _the_ nation whose restoration was the chief duty and
+necessity of the champions of liberty. Kossuth declared, at a somewhat
+later time, that there was a close connection between the liberties of
+Hungary and those of Poland. Mazzini had been eager to co-operate,
+where it was possible, with the exiled Poles. Robert Blum had shown a
+special enthusiasm for their cause, and was ready to help in a rising
+in Posen. Every Slavonic race looked on the wrongs of the Poles as the
+typical instance of the oppression of the Slavs by the Great Powers of
+Europe; while, at the same time, they honoured them as the most famous
+fighters in the cause of Slavonic freedom. But it was in France that
+the greatest enthusiasm was felt for the Poles, and the most complete
+organization of the exiles existed. There a special military school
+was founded for them in 1843; and in 1846, after a preparation of
+three years, the democratic section among the Poles resolved to strike
+a decisive blow against Austria.
+
+The city of Cracow, on the borders of Galicia, was the one part of
+Poland which still maintained a nominal freedom. The political
+independence of Cracow had been secured by the Treaty of Vienna. The
+Austrian Government even then wished to absorb it into their own
+dominions; but, under pressure from Russia, Francis consented that
+Cracow should be a free town, governed by its own elected Chamber of
+Representatives, and surrounded by a district which was not to be
+occupied by Austrian troops; and it was also to exercise complete
+control over its army and police. The usual Austrian interpretation of
+liberty, however, was soon to be applied to the Republic of Cracow.
+Although free trade between Cracow and Warsaw had been secured by a
+regular treaty, the protecting Powers, as they were called (Austria,
+Russia, and Prussia), began soon to insist on prohibitive duties being
+introduced on the frontiers of Cracow. Its University, dating from the
+fourteenth century, had been secured in its properties and liberties
+by the Treaty of Vienna; but, unfortunately, a large portion of the
+lands from which the University drew its income lay within the
+dominions of the three protecting Powers, each of whom refused, under
+various pretexts, to give up its share of the land. As to the
+liberties of the University, the Austrian Government, in 1817, had
+declared that it would inflict a fine of 100 ducats on any parent who
+sent his sons to the University of Cracow; in 1822, the Russian
+Government followed this example by a decree forbidding Polish youths
+to study in any foreign country, under which title they specially
+included Cracow. In the meantime, the organizing Commission, which
+had been appointed by the Powers, was gradually destroying the
+Constitution which had been established by the Treaty of Vienna. The
+right to modify laws sent from the Senate was first taken from the
+Chamber of Representatives; while, as to the control of the finances,
+which had been specially mentioned in the Treaty, the House of
+Representatives was informed that the accounts were only to be shown
+to the Chamber in order to convince them that the Senate had spent the
+money, and that the Treasury was empty; though the Commission
+graciously allowed the Chamber to examine and make observations on the
+accounts, and assured them that these observations should be sent to
+the Senate. The self-government of the University was, in a similar
+manner, gradually taken from it; and, under the excuse of a riot in
+1820, the great Powers, six years later, sent a Russian colonel to act
+as supreme ruler of the University. The insurrection of 1830 in Warsaw
+had, of course, given excuse for further interference with the
+liberties of Cracow; and, in 1831, Russian soldiers, for a time,
+occupied the city. It is hardly necessary to add that the liberty of
+the Press, which had been specially guaranteed by the Treaty of
+Vienna, had been gradually crushed out; and a new Commission,
+appointed by the three Powers in 1833, revised the Constitution of
+Cracow, thereby setting aside the claims of England and France to have
+their opinions considered in any revision of the Treaty. Torture was
+revived for the purpose of extorting revelations of crimes which had
+never been committed. The judges had, indeed, retained, for a time,
+the independence secured them by the Treaty; but in March, 1837, the
+Conference, as it was called, of the three Powers abolished the
+offices of Mayors of the Commune and Judges of First Instance, and
+transferred their duties to officers of police. In December of the
+same year, the protecting Powers decided that the question of the
+amount to be expended on the police and militia should not be
+submitted to the Chamber. Then the Chamber, at last, attempted an
+appeal to the two Powers whose opinions had been wholly ignored by the
+other signatories to the Treaty of Vienna; but the appeal was,
+apparently, in vain, and there seemed no remedy left but insurrection.
+
+The centralizing principles of the Austrian Government, on this as on
+later occasions, paralyzing their power of action in emergencies,
+Cracow was seized and occupied by the democratic leader Tyssowski. The
+Government Boards in Galicia were little able to make head against the
+movement; and, if Tyssowski had known how to appeal to the popular
+sympathies, he might have been completely successful. Unfortunately,
+however, the leaders of the insurrection had not yet been able to
+establish that sympathy with the peasantry of Galicia which alone
+would have enabled them to carry out a really popular insurrection;
+and, instead of trying to enlist the sympathies and interest of the
+peasants on behalf of the movement, Tyssowski's only idea was to
+terrorize them into obedience. He issued a proclamation, announcing
+that the whole Empire, during the time of revolution, is one and
+common property in the hands of the revolutionary Government. Every
+priest who opposed the rising was to be deprived of his office; anyone
+who refused to subscribe to the national cause was to be seized and
+brought before a Governor chosen by the insurgents; every inhabitant,
+on pain of death, was to go to the place appointed him, as soon as he
+knew of the outbreak of the insurrection. The peasantry, alarmed at
+hearing that many of them had been condemned to death for their
+unreadiness to assist the revolution, appealed to the officials to
+defend them; nor could they be conciliated by hearing that the
+insurgents were about to abolish all feudal dues and titles of rank,
+and to secure a certain amount of land to every peasant. These offers
+from unknown people could not induce the peasants to make friends
+with those who were threatening them with death. From more than
+seventy districts representatives came from the peasants to the
+official authorities at Tarnow to ask for military help against the
+revolutionary leaders; and they were advised to defend themselves and
+to arrest the agitators. On February 18th, 1846, the insurrection
+broke out, and one of the first actions of the conspirators was to
+fire on the peasants who had refused to join them. Then the peasants,
+stirred to desperation, rose; and a general massacre of the nobles
+began. The dark and underground methods of the Austrian Government,
+and the centralizing principle which had drained out the strength of
+the different local governments, had brought a double Nemesis on its
+founders. For while on the one hand the powerlessness of the local
+boards caused the early successes of the insurgents, on the other hand
+the world at large thought that the massacre of the nobles of Galicia
+must have been organized from Vienna, as a part of the regular
+Austrian policy.[7] This belief was likely to be further strengthened
+by the events which followed. While Mieroslawski and some of the
+leaders of the insurrection surrendered to the Prussian troops, which
+had been despatched to prevent a rising in Silesia and Posen,
+Metternich struck the final blow at the independence of Cracow. The
+account given above shows that there was little independence left to
+be destroyed in that unfortunate city; but somehow the actual
+destruction of liberties never excites so general a horror, especially
+in the diplomatic world, as the final removal of the _forms_ of
+liberty. And Lord Palmerston, who does not seem to have responded to
+the previous appeal from the Assembly of Cracow, now addressed
+indignant remonstrances to Metternich, and uttered the remarkable
+words, "If the treaties of 1815 are null on the Vistula, they may be
+null on the Rhine and the Po."
+
+Thus the occupation of Cracow seemed to many to be an abandonment by
+Metternich of the semi-legal position which till then he had, in the
+eyes of diplomatists, maintained; while his supposed complicity in
+the massacre in Galicia roused against him the feelings of those
+humanitarians who do not understand the wickedness of choking out the
+moral and intellectual life of a nation, but who shrink with horror
+from any physical cruelty. It is, therefore, no unnatural inference
+that the delay which Metternich showed in making any stern protest
+against Charles Albert's new position in Italy may have been due to
+the paralysis caused by the storm of indignation roused against
+Austria by the Galician massacres and the annexation of Cracow. Charles
+Albert profited by this weakness. He had been shifting as usual in his
+policy, encouraged on the one side in moderate reforms by the Liberal
+minister, Villamarina, and dragged, on the other side, into extreme
+clericalism by Solaro della Margherita. But, just about the time when
+D'Azeglio arrived in Piedmont, events were occurring which riveted on
+Charles Albert the hopes of many who had not hitherto believed in the
+sincerity of his desire for reform; and the same circumstances gave him
+that position of champion of Italian independence which, in the eyes of
+perhaps a majority of Italians, he continued to maintain till the fall
+of Milan in 1848. The chief cause of this change of feeling is to be
+found in the following circumstance.
+
+In the year 1751 a treaty had been made between Austria and Piedmont
+by which the former granted to the latter the right of sending through
+Lombardy the salt which they were selling to the Republic of Venice.
+In consideration of this boon the King of Sardinia renounced his trade
+with the Swiss cantons; and the treaty was renewed in 1815, after
+Venice had passed under the Austrian rule. In 1846 Ticino, desiring to
+open a trade in salt with Marseilles, asked the Piedmontese Government
+to allow them to transmit their salt through Piedmont, and Charles
+Albert consented.
+
+The Austrian Government had for some time past looked with suspicion
+on Charles Albert. Metternich had never forgotten his passing outburst
+of Liberalism in 1821; and the continual search of the Italian
+Liberals for some leader in the War of Independence was naturally
+drawing people's eyes to Piedmont. Few, and comparatively unimportant,
+as were the reforms that he introduced, they were enough to increase
+the suspicions of Metternich; and, reformer or not, the King of
+Sardinia was necessarily an enemy to the House of Austria. Moreover,
+Charles Albert had recently given a tolerably clear hint of his
+own feelings; for he had struck a medal representing a lion (the
+well-known badge of the House of Savoy) trampling on an eagle; and on
+the reverse side of the medal appeared, "_J'attends mon astre_."
+
+The concession to the Canton Ticino lighted the spark which had been
+smouldering in the breasts of the Austrian rulers. For of all the
+States of Europe, this little canton had become specially obnoxious to
+Austria in the last few years; and not long before this Metternich and
+Charles Albert had worked together to stamp out its freedom, and
+deprive it of the right of sheltering those Italian exiles who were
+dear to the Italian-Swiss from similarity in race and language.
+Metternich had failed in that effort, and the Liberals had risen in
+the canton and overthrown the Conservative Government and Austrian
+influence together. Any sign, therefore, of friendliness shown by
+Charles Albert to the Ticinese was a special cause of alarm to the
+Austrians. They declared at once that the treaty of 1751 had been
+violated; in April, 1846, they increased the custom duties on the wine
+sent from Piedmont to Lombardy; and in order to mark the hostility of
+the Act more plainly the same decree declared that there would be no
+change with regard to the wines coming from several of the other
+Italian States.
+
+Solaro della Margherita, though his Conservatism naturally inclined
+him to sympathize with the Austrian Government, was a man who valued
+the independence and dignity of Piedmont; and he therefore consented
+to Charles Albert's proposal at once to lower the duties between
+Piedmont and France, in order to facilitate the commerce between those
+countries. The meaning of this act could not be misunderstood; and the
+Austrian ambassador, alarmed at the sudden defiance, made a proposal
+to recall the duty on Piedmontese wines, on condition that Charles
+Albert would consent to withdraw his concession to Ticino. Solaro
+della Margherita, in his anxiety for a friendly understanding with
+Austria, did not perceive that such a concession would give up the
+whole principle at stake, since it would admit the right of Austria to
+forbid Charles Albert to make what terms he pleased with the canton;
+so Solaro actually urged the King to agree to the proposal. But
+Charles Albert stood firm, and, greatly to Margherita's horror,
+D'Azeglio succeeded in persuading the people to get up a demonstration
+in Turin, at which cries were heard of "Long live the King of Italy!"
+
+Charles Albert, however, though showing some signs of his usual
+irresolution, did not draw back from his policy of hostility to
+Austria; and he set himself to promote a railway which should connect
+Lombardy and Venetia more closely with Piedmont. The Austrians made
+some difficulty with regard to this railway, and it was on this
+occasion apparently that the point was carried against the rulers of
+Lombardy, to a great extent, by the energies of a Venetian lawyer,
+Daniele Manin, a name afterwards memorable in the records of Venice.
+In the meantime D'Azeglio had been working hard to convince the rest
+of Italy that Charles Albert was preparing to put himself at the head
+of an Italian movement and to attack Lombardy. In Tuscany Professor
+Montanelli had already formed a Society for promoting the unity of
+Italy. Demonstrations were being made against the Jesuits, and
+petitions for changes in taxation and education were drawn up.
+
+But it was in the Papal States that D'Azeglio most hoped to gain
+ground; and in Forli he came in contact with Aurelio Saffi, who, with
+D'Azeglio's encouragement, prepared an address from the people of
+Forli to one of the clerical rulers, calling attention to the growth
+of Italian feeling and the desire for action against the foreigner.
+The authorities became alarmed and Saffi's arrest and imprisonment
+were determined on, when the death of Gregory XVI. suddenly changed
+the whole position of affairs; and Charles Albert's newly-won fame was
+for a time dimmed by that of another hero of the popular imagination;
+while Gioberti's teaching, hitherto admired only in a small circle,
+and laughed at by many, was suddenly accepted as the utterance of an
+inspired prophet, and as embodying the conception of a profound
+statesman.
+
+The state of Roman government at the death of Gregory XVI. was as
+follows:--The management of affairs was entirely in the hands of
+cardinals, or of laymen appointed by the Pope. The nobles and the rich
+were indeed conciliated to some extent by appointments which seemed a
+concession to lay feeling. The provincial councils, nominated by the
+Pope, laid taxes partly on property and partly on articles of
+consumption. The study of political economy was prohibited in
+the schools; and the study of law and medicine was but little
+provided for. The press was under a triple censorship, that of the
+Inquisition, of the Bishop, and of the Governor of the province. The
+police, though vigorous in repressing political conspirators, were
+utterly unable to check highway robbery. In the tribunals which were
+administered by the clergy, the grossest corruptions prevailed. As a
+natural result of all this, the ablest and best men of the States were
+to be found, not in Rome, but some in France, some in Tuscany,
+and some in Piedmont. The government of Rome and its immediate
+neighbourhood was corrupt; and the government of the Legations in some
+cases became so cruel as to excite shame even in the Pope himself. And
+Monsignore Savelli, one of the worst of these tyrants, had been guilty
+of such a combination of corruption and cruelty that Gregory had been
+compelled to remove him from office.
+
+Such was the state of affairs when Gregory XVI. died. Tremendous
+expectation was roused in the different provinces of the Papal
+States; an insurrection broke out in Ancona; and a colonel, who had
+distinguished himself for cruelty in that town, was killed. The
+cardinals at once despatched Savelli to suppress the rising. In the
+meantime the Conclave met, and the ambassadors of the different
+Powers began to intrigue for their respective candidates. Cardinal
+Lambruschini was one of the most powerful members of the sacred
+college; but he was hated for his injustice and partisan distribution
+of offices; and no sooner had the Conclave opened than attacks were
+made on him by Cardinal Micara, on this very ground. Lambruschini had
+been appointed by the influence of the Austrian Court, and might have
+been supposed to be their candidate. But whether it were that even the
+Austrians desired certain concessions to the policy of reform, which
+they had themselves supported after the rising of 1831, or whether it
+were that their influence was weakened by the events which had recently
+occurred in Galicia, they do not seem to have used very great pressure
+on behalf of Lambruschini.
+
+On the other hand, there had recently arrived in Rome, as French
+ambassador, that same Pellegrino Rossi who had formerly been driven
+into exile by the success of the Austrians in 1815, who had contributed
+to the Conciliatore of Confalonieri, and who had played so important
+and influential a part among the Italian exiles in Paris. Rossi
+declared in favour of reform in the church, and demanded the election
+of someone who both wished and knew how to reform prudently and
+efficiently. The person naturally marked out as the candidate of the
+Liberals was Cardinal Gizzi, who had been known for milder government
+than that of any of the other Cardinals, and who had been singled out
+for exceptional praise by Massimo D'Azeglio. But where a bitter
+conflict of interests arises between the leading candidates, it is only
+natural that some unknown man should slip in; and, as the reformers
+were probably more in earnest and more united than the majority of the
+opponents of reform, other Liberal candidates were withdrawn; Giovanni
+Mastai Ferretti was elected Pope on June 16th, 1846, and, out of
+respect for Pius VII., took the name of Pius IX.
+
+He was then fifty-four years old and had been originally intended for
+the Papal guard; but, being liable to epileptic fits, he had been
+refused admission. He had thereupon become a priest, and had, as
+already mentioned, distinguished himself in 1831 by the honesty with
+which he had carried out the terms of the surrender of Imola. He was
+so little known, however, to the general public that a rumour arose,
+after his election, that it was really Cardinal Gizzi who had been
+chosen. Nor were his future opponents startled at the choice. Princess
+Metternich wrote of him in her diary that he was a man of exemplary
+piety, "_toute fois sans etre exalte_." Nor was it till a month later
+that Pio Nono took the step which was the foundation of his future
+popularity. It was then that he issued a general amnesty in favour of
+all those who had been condemned for political offences. The amnesty,
+indeed, was carefully guarded; for only those were admitted to it who
+would sign a declaration confessing their previous offences, and
+promising future improvement. Mamiani and others refused to sign this
+declaration, and it would have been obvious to anyone who had thought
+over the question that this was a demand which could not be accepted
+by any men of spirit and consistency. But men's minds had been excited
+by previous events; and the teaching of Gioberti led, not only the
+Romans, but Italians in all parts of the peninsula, to place a meaning
+upon this amnesty which was certainly not intended by the Pope
+himself. This belief in the reforming intentions of the Pope was
+further increased by the bitter hostility that he excited in that
+extreme party which had thriven under Gregory XVI., and which was
+urged on by Lambruschini, who, in his disappointed ambition, began to
+throw discredit on the election of his rival and to plot against his
+authority.
+
+The appointment of Cardinal Gizzi as Secretary of State roused the
+hopes of the Liberals still further, and commissions were appointed to
+examine into the question of reforms. Yet Gizzi, who was the only
+cardinal with the most remote claims to the confidence of the
+Liberals, does not seem to have desired anything more than some slight
+administrative reforms. And it may be doubted whether the enthusiasm
+for Pius IX. would long have been sustained, had it not been fostered
+and directed by a man of a very different type from any of the
+philosophical writers on the politics of Italy.
+
+This was Angelo Brunetti, better known by his nick-name of
+Ciceruacchio. He was a man of poor birth, and simple habits, who by
+hard work had made a certain amount of money, while, by personal
+beauty, a peculiar kind of eloquence, and a thorough honesty of
+character, he had gained a special influence among the poorer classes
+in Rome. A kind of imaginative enthusiasm had evidently possessed his
+whole mind; and this was kindled to the highest degree by the idea of a
+reforming Pope. It was to Ciceruacchio, then, rather than to any
+utterance of the Pope himself, that the popular conception of Pius IX.
+was due. A kindly priest, wishing to do more justice than his
+predecessors, was reflected in Ciceruacchio's mirror as the liberator
+and reformer of Italy. The myth quickly grew. Demonstrations in honour
+of the Pope were organized by Ciceruacchio; and, as each new difficulty
+or hindrance arose in the path of progress, he was ready to assure his
+countrymen that these hindrances were all due to the wicked cardinals,
+and that Pius IX. was eager to remove them. And so, while the other
+princes of Italy were being asked to concede various limitations on
+their power, in Rome was heard continually the cry of "Viva Pio Nono
+Solo."
+
+Thus it came about that this quiet and unpretending priest found
+himself magnified in the popular imagination into a leader of heroic
+proportions, half saint, half crusader. It was impossible for him to
+resist altogether the fervour of popular enthusiasm, and it soon
+spread far beyond the limits of the Roman State. In December, 1846, a
+Congress, nominally intended for scientific discussion, met at Genoa.
+These congresses had already begun to give opportunity for the
+expression of political opinion, and two circumstances tended to
+increase the importance of this particular meeting. One was, that 1846
+was the centenary of the expulsion of the Austrians from Genoa, at the
+close of their temporary occupation during the Austrian War of
+Succession. The other was the presence in this Congress of Charles
+Lucien Buonaparte, Prince of Canino. He had already gained some
+reputation as a student of physical science, but his interest in
+politics was even greater than his zeal for learning; and he now came
+to the Congress to invite the men of science to carry on their
+discussions in the Papal States. From this he naturally passed to the
+praise of Pius IX. and of Charles Albert, and to the denunciation of
+Austria and Metternich.
+
+Such an oration, especially when delivered on a non-political
+occasion, naturally excited the alarm of the Austrian Government; and
+that alarm was still further increased by the reappearance in Lombardy
+of the old feeling of irritation against Austrian rule. An attempt on
+the part of the Austrian Government to seize upon the funds of the
+Benevolent Societies of Lombardy, in order to appropriate them for
+their own purposes, had caused such a storm of indignation in the
+provincial Lombard Councils, that the Government had been compelled to
+withdraw the proposal. And as if this awakening of life had not been
+sufficiently significant, it was followed in December, 1846, by a
+still more alarming sign of popular feeling.
+
+Count Confalonieri had been released from the prison at Spielberg by
+Ferdinand on his accession to the throne in 1835, but had been
+deprived of his civil rights, and sent to America. The news now
+reached Milan that, hearing of the new hopes aroused by the accession
+of Pius IX., Confalonieri had set sail for Italy, but had died on the
+way. Instantly a demonstration was organized in his honour, and Count
+Gabrio Casati, Podesta of Milan, took part in the funeral procession.
+Bolza, one of the group of Austrian officials who ruled Milan, took
+note of all who attended the ceremony; and when it was followed by a
+proposal to form a committee for erecting a statue to Confalonieri,
+Bolza threatened to prohibit the committee altogether. He was not,
+however, able to hinder the growing popular feeling in Milan, and
+early in the following year, 1847, the bitterness was increased by a
+famine. Grain riots followed; and the Governor of Milan, as the only
+method for relieving the distress, prohibited the export of grain to
+foreign parts, except to the German provinces of Austria. Again that
+terrible canton of the Ticino protested against this infringement of a
+commercial treaty, made between herself and Austria; and again the
+Austrian Government was compelled to yield, and to re-open the grain
+trade with the Ticinese. Hymns to Pio Nono were answered with cheers
+in the Milanese theatre; while the Viceroy and his family were
+received, in the same theatre, in dead silence.
+
+In the meantime, Pio Nono's reforms, if not important, were numerous.
+On March 12th, 1847, came out a modification of the censorship of the
+press, of which the most important point was that the censorship was
+to be administered in future by four laymen and one ecclesiastic. On
+April 14th, a Council of State was formed, to be chosen by the Pope
+from delegates elected by the provinces; and this Council was to be
+allowed to propound opinions on certain questions of State. Finally,
+on July 5th, the Pope granted a civic guard to Rome, and promised one
+to the provinces.
+
+Metternich had now become thoroughly alarmed, and, whether he
+sanctioned or not the attempt which was now made in Rome, there seems
+to be little doubt that the friends of Lambruschini did actually
+organize a conspiracy against the Pope. The anniversary of the amnesty
+of 1846 was the occasion of the discovery of this conspiracy. A
+popular demonstration had been prepared in honour of the day; but when
+the organizers of this demonstration appeared, their first act was to
+call out the civic guard to arrest the conspirators. Ciceruacchio
+paraded the streets, attended by a great number of people. Several of
+the conspirators were seized and imprisoned, others fled, and none
+attempted any resistance.
+
+How far Metternich had sympathized with this conspiracy can never be
+known; but its failure seemed to decide him to strike the blow which
+he had been meditating. It has already been mentioned that the
+Austrians had succeeded in introducing into the Treaty of Vienna a
+clause, permitting them to occupy some part of Ferrara. Pius VII. had
+protested against this, as an injury to the Holy See. Cardinal
+Consalvi had expressed this protest in the following words:--"This
+clause," he said, "is an unprovoked aggression, deprived of all that
+could make a war legitimate under the rights of nations; an aggression
+against a weak and innocent State, which had solemnly proclaimed its
+neutrality in the war that agitates other States; an act outside every
+human right; and a treaty that is the consequence of an aggression of
+such a kind is essentially null and void."
+
+Such a protest, and the fact that it was disregarded, emphasized the
+important truth that treaty rights, as understood in Europe, are
+simply the rights of the strong to divide the territories of the weak.
+Pius IX. had committed no act of aggression against Austria; and
+nothing new had arisen to justify the enforcement of a clause which
+had been allowed to remain in abeyance so long. When the Powers of
+Europe had desired to compel Gregory XVI. to reform his dominions
+after the insurrection of 1831, Metternich had shrunk, with holy
+horror, from the idea of putting pressure on an independent Prince;
+but now that Pius IX. had introduced reforms far short of those
+recommended by the Powers in 1833, Metternich seized the opportunity
+to despatch Austrian forces to Ferrara.
+
+A cry of indignation arose from all parts of Italy. The Milanese
+seized the opportunity of the appointment of an Italian Archbishop of
+Milan to organize an Italian demonstration. A league was formed for
+commercial purposes between Rome, Sardinia, and Tuscany; and it was
+supposed that Pius IX. and Charles Albert would declare war upon
+Austria. Neither of those Princes, however, were ready for the
+emergency. Pius IX. hardly knew yet what attitude he should take up
+towards the Italian movement. Charles Albert was as usual hesitating
+between different policies. But fortunately, besides the moral
+objections to the occupation of Ferrara, it appeared that there were
+diplomatic doubts about the interpretation of the clause which excused
+it. And, while the mere cowardice and injustice of an insult to a weak
+State might have passed unavenged, the wrong interpretation of the
+word "_place_" in the clause of a treaty could not be permitted
+without a protest.
+
+Lord Palmerston, however, had shown on more than one occasion his
+loathing of the policy of Metternich; and he was doubtless glad enough
+of this diplomatic excuse for forwarding the cause of Constitutional
+Liberty. Lord Minto was despatched to Italy to encourage the various
+princes to stand firm in the cause of reform; and in December, 1847,
+the Austrian troops consented to withdraw from Ferrara, after having
+succeeded, by their occupation of it, in consolidating against them an
+amount of Italian feeling such as they had hardly aroused till then.
+
+The first and most startling expression of this feeling, and of the
+consequent determination of the Italians to break loose from Austrian
+influence, came from a prince whom Metternich had probably hardly
+recognized as an opponent. Leopold of Tuscany, however much disposed
+to avoid collision with his kinsman, the Emperor of Austria, could not
+altogether free himself from the rush of reforming zeal which was
+spreading through Italy. That triumph of Austrian and Papal policy in
+Tuscany, which had been signalized by the surrender of Renzi and the
+expulsion of Massimo d'Azeglio, had lasted a comparatively short
+period, and even during that period the reaction had not been
+complete. The influence of the Jesuits had increased in Tuscany after
+the fall of Corsini, and that influence has always excited an
+hostility which no other form of tyranny has produced; and the
+University of Pisa, under the influence of Cosimo Ridolfi, was
+specially zealous in protesting against their influence. As Ridolfi
+gained ground in Leopold's Council, Metternich had become alarmed, and
+tried to counteract his influence and to drive him from office.
+Leopold, however, refused to yield to this pressure, and, as the
+reforming movement spread, he advanced further and further in his
+sympathies with Italian freedom. Freedom of the press was granted;
+many new journals were started; and when the civic guard was conceded,
+great demonstrations were held in Florence, and an attempt was made to
+revive the memories of Francesco Ferruccio and other heroes of the
+past. Professor Montanelli, already known as a writer, now took a
+prominent part in the political movement, organized a deputation to
+Pius IX. to entreat him to grant liberty of the press, to expel the
+Jesuits, and to declare war upon Austria. Domenico Guerrazzi, who had
+assisted at the foundation of Young Italy, seconded the efforts of
+Montanelli, and Leopold became, almost against his will, marked out as
+a reforming sovereign.
+
+The movement now spread beyond Tuscany and affected the dominions of
+the Duke of Lucca. This Duke was one of those eccentric princes who
+combined despotism and a reliance on Austria with a certain love of
+playing at Liberalism with foreign exiles. This game was not carried
+on with any of those ambitious objects which had led Francis of Modena
+to play with rebellion in 1831; but it rather arose from a love of
+clever literary lions, coupled with those tendencies to eccentricity
+which might be natural to a prince with no great responsibilities and
+a certain amount of cleverness. When, however, the Liberal movement
+spread to Lucca, he dropped his dilettantism and proposed to suppress
+Liberalism by force. Finding that the people rose against him, he
+consented to yield all which Leopold of Tuscany had granted; but his
+subjects were unwilling to trust a prince who was the ruler of so
+small a State under the influence of Austria, and who had only yielded
+to reform under sudden pressure; so they continued to make further
+demands. The Duke, weary of the struggle, and very likely desirous to
+avoid bloodshed, took advantage of a clause in the Treaty of Vienna
+which constituted the Grand Duke of Tuscany his heir, and resigned his
+dominions forthwith to Leopold. At the same time, he desired to exempt
+from this surrender the two towns of Pontremoli and Bagnone and to
+hand them over to the Duke of Modena. Leopold accepted the territory
+of Lucca; but, by the same clause which had constituted him the heir
+to the Duke of Lucca, he was bound, on acquiring the territory, to
+surrender to the Duke of Modena the district of Fivizzano. Now, of all
+the princes of Italy, none had been more utterly subservient to
+Austria than the Duke of Modena, and the people of Fivizzano therefore
+resented the proposal to annex them to Modena. The Duke of Modena
+thereupon called on the Austrian Marshal Radetzky to help him to
+enforce his demands; and, while Leopold of Tuscany was preparing to
+fix a day for the surrender of Fivizzano, the Duke of Modena marched
+his troops into the town and massacred the unarmed inhabitants.
+
+Both the Pope and the Grand Duke protested against this cruelty; and
+Leopold, wishing to keep Fivizzano in consequence of the people's
+preference for his rule, offered to make Charles Albert and the Pope
+arbiters between him and the Duke of Modena. In the meantime the
+citizens of Pontremoli and Bagnone sprang to arms in order to resist
+the entrance of the Duke of Modena. The Austrians had by this time
+sent forces to assist the Duke; but though they were able to secure
+the submission of Fivizzano, the Duke of Modena was forced to
+surrender Pontremoli and Bagnone. Less than a fortnight after this
+treaty the Duchess of Parma died, and the Duke of Lucca succeeded to
+her territory. Here he immediately found himself confronted by a new
+insurrection; but, unwilling to trouble himself further, he fled to
+Milan, leaving the Austrian troops to occupy Parma. This occupation
+and the despatch of forces to Modena tended to strengthen the
+bitterness which had already been roused by the occupation of Ferrara,
+so that, when the Austrians consented to the evacuation of that town,
+they merely incurred the shame of a diplomatic defeat without
+lessening the causes of Italian bitterness against them.
+
+But the evacuation of Ferrara was not the only diplomatic defeat
+which the year 1847 brought to Metternich. The blow which was to be
+recognized by all Europe as one of the most fatal which the cause of
+despotism had yet sustained was to come from a little State which
+seemed to stand outside the ordinary politics of Europe.
+
+The territory of the Swiss Confederation had been increased by the
+Treaty of 1815; but this had by no means led to such a complete
+strengthening of Switzerland as the most patriotic Swiss would have
+desired. The aristocratic party had been restored in several of the
+cantons, and the customs duties on the frontiers of the separate
+cantons had been renewed. But what specially alarmed the Liberals of
+Switzerland was a clause, which the Papal Nuncio had introduced into
+the Treaty of Vienna, giving the monasteries of Switzerland an
+independent position. It must be remembered that the early struggles of
+the Swiss cantons against the House of Austria had been connected with
+the throwing off of the influence of the monks, who had been patronized
+by the Hapsburgs; and in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries the combination of the Roman Catholic cantons had tended to
+strengthen the influence of foreign Powers in Switzerland, and in some
+cases had even endangered the unity of the Confederation. The extreme
+Roman Catholic party in Switzerland were, therefore, naturally inclined
+to oppose reform, and to weaken the Confederation. And after the July
+Monarchy of France had begun to show its Conservative tendencies, the
+Liberals of Switzerland began to fear that their reforms might be
+checked by outside influence. As early as the year 1831, Metternich,
+already alarmed at the Polish and Belgian risings, as well as at the
+movements in Italy and Germany, remarked that there was still another
+question to which the Cabinets must devote their attention, "the moral
+anarchy which reigns in Switzerland." And the expedition of Mazzini in
+1833-4 increased the alarm of the Austrian Government. In the
+steady-going canton of Bern there was always an element of moderate
+Conservatism, which led the Government to shrink from sympathy with the
+insurrectionary plans of other parts of Europe; and they even called
+upon the other cantons to assist them in suppressing the revolutionary
+movement. But the sturdier Liberals of Zurich protested against this
+circular, and led the way in internal democratic changes, in which they
+were followed by several other cantons. Utterances like those of
+Metternich tended to draw the reformers together; and in March, 1832,
+while Metternich was no doubt meditating the Frankfort Decrees, which
+he carried out a few months later, the seven Liberal cantons formed a
+league in which they bound themselves to stand by each other in case of
+an attack on their freedom.
+
+The cantons which entered into this concordat were Bern, Zurich,
+Luzern, Solothurn, St. Gallen, Aargau, and Thurgau. This league
+was considered by its opponents to be a violation of the Swiss
+Confederation, though the champions of it would probably have pleaded
+its purely defensive character. But the Roman Catholic party felt
+themselves justified in retaliation; and they formed, in November,
+1832, an opposition league called the Sarnerbund. This Bund steadily
+set itself to oppose reform; but the men of Schwytz, who were at that
+time its leading spirits, did not confine themselves to argument, but
+invaded Luzern in 1833. Thereupon the Diet interfered, occupied
+Schwytz, and dissolved the Sarnerbund. The reforming party now began
+to spread their ideas, and the new University of Zurich, which was
+founded at this time, became a fresh centre of intellectual life. The
+fugitives from other countries gathered more and more to Switzerland,
+and the excitement roused in that country by Mazzini's expedition to
+Savoy led to the foundation of a society called Young Europe.
+
+The great object to which the reforming party in Switzerland now
+devoted its attention was the breaking down of the authority of the
+clergy, and the placing education and marriage under the State instead
+of under the Church. Their scheme was embodied in fourteen articles
+which excited the indignation of the Roman Catholic cantons; on the
+appeal of the Roman Catholics to Gregory XVI., he declared these
+articles heretical; and a little later Louis Philippe intervened to
+prevent the canton of Bern from enforcing them in the Roman Catholic
+district of the Jura.
+
+The struggle had now risen to great bitterness; and, at this period,
+the bitterness was much intensified by the domestic character of the
+quarrel. The Radical party and the Roman Catholic party struggled
+fiercely against each other in several of the cantons; and there were
+changes in the government, backwards and forwards, which temporarily
+affected the contest. The two changes, however, which were of a
+permanent character, and which had a vital effect on the destinies of
+Switzerland, were that which took place in 1838 in Bern and that in
+Luzern in 1841. Bern, though reckoned, on the whole, among the
+Liberal cantons, in consequence of its undoubted Protestantism, was
+yet under the control of a timid and moderate party. This may have
+arisen from the fact of its important position in the Confederation;
+for though Bern divided at this time with Luzern and Zurich the honour
+of being the meeting-place of the Diet, yet it seems to have assumed,
+even at this period, a certain superior and initiative tone.
+
+Whether it was due to the sense of responsibility inspired by this
+position, or to some other cause, certain it is that the tone adopted
+by the Government of Bern in matters of foreign policy by no means
+satisfied the sterner Radicals of Switzerland. The proposal of Bern for
+an anti-revolutionary proclamation in 1830 had been defeated by the
+protest of Zurich; but when in 1838 Bern considered, not unfavourably,
+the demand for the expulsion of a refugee, the Radicals became furious.
+
+This was one among many instances of that curious irony of history by
+which great principles have to be asserted in defence of persons who
+are in themselves unworthy of protection; for the exile, whose
+surrender was now demanded by Louis Philippe, was Louis Napoleon
+Buonaparte, who had recently made his attempt on Strasburg. But the
+Radicals of Bern rightly felt that the principle of asylum was more
+important than the character of any particular refugee; and when Louis
+Napoleon left Switzerland to avoid being surrendered, the reforming
+party rose in indignation, and Bern became the centre of determined
+Radicalism from that time. The change in Luzern seems to have been due
+to an extension of the suffrage which threw the power more distinctly
+into the hands of the Roman Catholics, who were a majority in the
+canton; and thus Luzern became the centre of the Roman Catholic
+movement.
+
+But before that change had taken place, new elements of bitterness had
+been introduced into the discussion. Neuhaus, the new leader of the
+Bern Government, had been chosen president of the Confederation; and he
+had used the troops of the Confederation to help the Aargau Protestants
+in suppressing the monasteries in that canton. The majority of the
+Swiss Diet had, however, been unwilling to support Neuhaus in this
+action, and had even condemned the suppression of the Aargau
+monasteries. The Aargau Protestants, however, had refused to yield,
+except as to the restoration of two very small monasteries. The feeling
+on both sides had now risen to its highest point, and on September
+13th, 1843, the six cantons of Luzern, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug,
+and Freyburg formed the alliance known as the Sonderbund. They appealed
+to the old treaties on which the Confederation was founded, and
+maintained that even the terms of the Confederation fixed by the Treaty
+of Vienna had not been observed in the matter of the protection of the
+rights of the Roman Catholics.
+
+The compromise to which the Diet had assented in the Aargau question,
+and their non-interference on behalf of some monasteries at Thurgau,
+excited a special protest from the Sonderbund, and they demanded that
+the Diet should set these things to rights. So far the Sonderbund
+could scarcely be logically condemned by those who had joined the
+Protestant Concordat of Seven in 1832. But the Roman Catholic cantons
+went on to say that, if their demands were rejected, they would
+consider that the principles of the Confederation were so completely
+violated that they would secede from it.
+
+The formation of the Sonderbund excited their opponents; and it was
+declared that France, Austria, and the Pope were intriguing against
+Switzerland. The Jesuits, as usual, were supposed to be the centre of
+the intrigues; and the cry was raised that they ought to be expelled
+from the Confederation. Hitherto they had chiefly settled in Schwytz
+and Freyburg; but it was believed that if a cry rose against them they
+would become less safe in those cantons; and Luzern, as one of the
+three chief towns of the Confederation, was supposed to be a safer
+resting-place; therefore, on September 12th, 1844, the Assembly of
+Luzern passed a resolution inviting the Jesuits to settle in Luzern.
+
+Strange to say, Bern and Zurich had somewhat changed places during
+this period; for while the indignation against the former Government
+of Bern, caused by their abandonment of the right of asylum, had
+produced a strong and permanent Radical feeling in that canton, the
+bitter hostility to Christianity shown by some of the leading Radicals
+of Zurich had, on the other hand, scandalized the more moderate
+Liberals, and produced a Government less keenly Radical than that
+which now ruled in Bern. At this crisis, unfortunately, the Government
+of Bern took a step which could scarcely have tended to the order and
+unity of Switzerland. They appointed a committee to attack the
+Jesuits, and organized volunteer regiments, which they despatched
+against Luzern. And the want of confidence in the central power, which
+had been proclaimed by the Sonderbund, seemed to be almost justified
+by the action of the Diet at their next meeting; for that body, while
+condemning the Bernese volunteers, refused to take any steps to hinder
+their march. The attack of the volunteers was, however, successfully
+repelled by Luzern; and the Sonderbund soon after proceeded to form a
+council of war for its own protection.
+
+In the meantime, Metternich had become more and more alarmed at the
+progress of affairs in Switzerland. The defeat of the efforts of
+Austria and Sardinia to defend the Conservative cause in the Ticino,
+and the subsequent alliance between the Ticinese and Charles Albert,
+had strengthened the fears which had been previously aroused in the
+Austrian Government by the shelter given by the Swiss to the European
+Revolutionists. Even in 1845 Metternich had despatched troops to the
+frontier of Switzerland; he looked upon the struggle of the Catholic
+cantons as a means for carrying out his policy of weakening the union
+of Switzerland; and, through the help of Solaro della Margherita, he
+succeeded in rousing Charles Albert's sympathies for the cause of the
+Sonderbund. But to others he frankly said that he was not fighting in
+the least for the Jesuits--"They do not make us hot or cold;" and
+instead of resting his appeal to the Diet on so doubtful a ground, he
+earnestly entreated Louis Philippe to prevent the violent substitution
+of a unitary and propagandist government "for the cantonal government
+of Switzerland."
+
+To say the truth, it was for the stability of Austrian government in
+Italy that Metternich was now alarmed; and Mentz had warned him that a
+strong and united government in Switzerland would be dangerous to
+Austria in Lombardy. When, then, the election of a Radical government
+by the canton of St. Gallen made the character of the coming Swiss Diet
+tolerably certain, Metternich thought that the time had come for
+decided action; and he desired that before the meeting of the Diet,
+Austria, France, Russia, and Prussia should declare that they would not
+suffer cantonal authority to be violated. England, however, Metternich
+well knew would be opposed to him. Ever since the recognition of Greek
+independence in 1830 Metternich had become aware that a statesman had
+arisen in England who, though inferior to Canning in width of sympathy
+and capacity for sudden and ready action, yet was Canning's equal in
+strength of will, and in the thorough grasp of the two convictions that
+Constitutionalism was better than Despotism, and that Metternich was a
+dangerous politician who should always be opposed.
+
+Palmerston, indeed, had not accomplished any such brilliant stroke of
+foreign policy as the breaking up of the Holy Alliance, or the defeat
+of Absolutism in Portugal, and had only played a late and subordinate
+part in the Greek question. But he had helped to save Belgium from the
+clutches both of France and Holland. He had uttered as decided a
+protest as was, perhaps, possible to him, against the Frankfort
+Decrees. And he had recently intimated plainly his opinion about the
+annexation of Cracow. The occupation of Ferrara had not at that time
+taken place; but Palmerston's utterance about the Treaty of Vienna on
+the Po had sufficiently indicated to Metternich the line which English
+feeling was taking with regard to Italian policy. But, though
+certain of the hostility of Palmerston, Metternich fully hoped to
+counterbalance that danger by securing France to his side. With
+Guizot he had long been on terms of cordial friendship; and each had
+sympathized with the other in various points of their political
+career. But, unfortunately for Metternich, in the Italian question
+Guizot had not seemed entirely sympathetic with Austria; for the
+Lombard exile, Pellegrino Rossi, who was now French ambassador at
+Rome, was the special friend and _protege_ of Guizot; and as it was
+primarily for the sake of Austrian rule in Italy that Metternich cared
+about the Swiss question, he might find that here, too, French opinion
+did not coincide with Austrian.
+
+It soon appeared that Louis Philippe shrank from an alliance with
+Austria. He declared that any declaration by the four Powers, instead
+of hindering any outburst in Switzerland might hasten it; and Guizot
+was directed to propose that, instead of a common action by the four
+Powers, Austria should undertake alone the defence of the Sonderbund,
+France merely occupying some position in the territory of the
+Confederation. Metternich, however, remembered that during the
+intervention in the Papal States, in 1831-2, a French general had
+seized on Ancona, and had attempted a demonstration there, at first of
+a Republican character, and throughout entirely anti-Austrian. And he
+feared that, if he consented to Guizot's proposal, the French Radicals
+might turn the occupation of Swiss territory to their advantage.
+
+While France and Austria were thus wasting their time in wrangling,
+the Swiss Diet met. Ochsenbein, an even more energetic man than
+Neuhaus, had been chosen President of the Confederation; and on the
+20th July, 1847, the Diet had declared that the Sonderbund was
+incompatible with the Treaty of Confederation. This was speedily
+followed by the dismissal from the service of the Confederation of all
+those who held office in the cantons of the Sonderbund; and finally,
+in September, the Diet decreed that the Assemblies of Luzern, Schwytz,
+Freyburg, and Valais should be invited to expel the Jesuits from their
+territory. The Sonderbund probably felt that a direct military
+resistance to the whole forces of the Diet would be hopeless, and
+therefore they resolved to make a separate attack on some of the
+smaller cantons. With this view they prepared to march their troops
+from Luzern against Aargau, which they considered one of the centres
+of Protestant tyranny; and about the same time the canton of Uri
+resolved to invade the Ticino. In both these cases the Sonderbund
+hoped to rouse a popular insurrection on their side, but in this they
+were singularly mistaken.
+
+Previously to 1815 Uri had exercised a special authority over Ticino,
+and had used it to thrust in German officials in place of Italian. The
+Treaty of Vienna had secured Ticino from these tyrannies; but the
+Ticinese remembered them, and resented this new invasion. The troops of
+Uri were indeed able to gain one or two successes; but the people of
+Ticino rose against them, and, after a short, sharp struggle, succeeded
+in driving them out of the canton. The expedition to Aargau proved
+equally unsuccessful, and, in the meantime, the Federal Diet was
+organizing its forces under the command of General Dufour, a Genevese.
+They resolved that Freyburg, as the nearest of the Sonderbund cantons
+to Bern, and as geographically separated off from its allies, should
+be the first object of attack; and on November 7, Rilliet, the
+commander of the first division of the Federal forces, issued the
+following order of the day to his troops:--
+
+"You are the first Federal troops who have entered the Freyburg
+territory. Your bearing at this moment will give the tone to the whole
+division. Consider that you are entering on a Federal territory, that
+you are marching against members of the Federation, who for centuries
+have been your friends, and will be so again. Consider that they are
+rather misled than guilty. Consider that they are neighbours, and that
+you ought to be fighting under the same flag. Therefore be moderate;
+refute the slanders of those who are driving them on. Listen not to
+false rumours, nor to foolish provocations to violence. Listen only to
+your leaders, and leave to your opponents the responsibility of having
+fired the first shot against the Federal flag. Soldiers! I rely on you
+as on myself; and do you trust in God, who marches before the flag of
+good, right, and honour."
+
+To the Freyburger Rilliet appealed to receive the Federal troops as
+brothers and friends, and as obeying the God whom Protestants and
+Catholics alike worship. "Lay down your arms," he said, "not before
+us, but before our flag, which is yours also."
+
+These appeals were not without result. At one of the first towns at
+which the Federal troops arrived in the canton of Freyburg, the
+townsfolk threw off the authority of the Cantonal Boards, raised the
+Federal flag, and admitted the Federal troops. Two slight skirmishes
+took place after this between the Federal forces and those of the
+canton; but the former were easily victorious. On November 12 the
+Federal troops appeared before the town of Freyburg; and on the 14th
+it was surrendered to them. Large numbers of the citizens received
+them with cries of "Long live the Confederates! Down with the
+Sonderbund! Down with the Jesuits!"
+
+The leaders of the Sonderbund at Luzern were startled at this sudden
+collapse, and resolved to apply for foreign help; and it was on
+November 15, 1847, that the descendants of Reding and Winkelried
+appealed to the descendants of Leopold of Hapsburg for help against
+their fellow-confederates.
+
+Metternich would gladly have intervened; and he hastened to assure the
+Sonderbund that the Emperor of Austria considered their cause a just
+one. Still, however, he desired the co-operation of France; but Guizot
+hesitated, and when Palmerston announced that any demonstration in
+favour of the Sonderbund would be met by a counter-demonstration by
+England on the side of the Federal Diet, the French Government
+distinctly refused to have any share in intervention.
+
+In the meantime the Sonderbund was rapidly breaking down. The
+Protestant party had gained the upper hand in the little canton of
+Zug, and persuaded the Government to surrender to the Diet even before
+the Federal troops had appeared in the canton. The occupation of Zug
+was speedily followed by a march to Luzern. On November 23 the Federal
+troops encountered the forces of Luzern and drove them back after a
+sharp fight. On the following day the War Council of the Sonderbund
+fled from Luzern and the Federal troops entered it. After this defeat
+there was no further serious resistance; by November 29 the last
+canton of the Sonderbund had surrendered to the Diet, and on December
+7 the Diet passed a formal resolution refusing to admit any mediation
+from the Great Powers. So ended the Sonderbund war; and whatever
+harshness the Diet and the Protestant cantons may have shown in the
+earlier part of the struggle towards their Catholic neighbours,
+they had at least consistently upheld the principle of national
+independence, and by their vigour and determination they had saved the
+unity of Switzerland and defeated Metternich.
+
+Nor were these the only defeats which the ruler of Europe sustained in
+the year 1847. In Germany, too, there were signs that the old system
+was giving way. Metternich, indeed, had hoped that the King of Prussia
+had been about to abandon the policy which he had followed from 1840
+to 1843; for in 1846 a meeting had taken place between Metternich and
+the King in which Frederick William had shown signs of alarm at the
+popular movement. But this change of feeling had been only temporary,
+for an event had occurred soon after which had given a new impulse
+to German national feeling, and re-awakened thereby the popular
+sympathies of the King of Prussia.
+
+On July 8, 1846, the King of Denmark, Christian VIII., issued a
+proclamation in which he declared that he should consider the provinces
+of his Crown as forming one sole and same State. This was felt
+to be undoubtedly aimed at the independence of Schleswig-Holstein.
+That Duchy had, since the middle of the fifteenth century, been
+recognized as a separate province, of which the King of Denmark was duke
+(till that time Schleswig had been a fief of Denmark and Holstein of
+Germany). In the seventeenth century a practically absolute Government
+had been established in Denmark; but in 1830 the liberties of that
+country had been restored, and soon after a cry had arisen from some of
+the Radical party at Copenhagen in favour of the conquest of Schleswig.
+
+But the object of the popular party and that of the King were entirely
+unlike; the Democratic party desiring to assert what they considered a
+national principle by the separation of Schleswig from Holstein and its
+absorption in Denmark; the King wishing to absorb Schleswig-Holstein
+whole into the Danish dominions, without consideration for anything but
+selfish aggrandizement. As a compromise between his own aims and those
+of the people of Copenhagen, Christian, in 1831, conceded separate
+assemblies to Holstein and Schleswig; but he had followed this up by
+steadily trying to Danize the Duchies. Danish officers were introduced
+into their army and navy, even into their private ships; Danish teachers
+were appointed in the University of Kiel; the liberty of the Press was
+continually interfered with, and arms were removed from the forts of
+Schleswig-Holstein to Copenhagen. Thus it became evident that the
+proclamation of July, 1846, was merely another step towards the complete
+denationalization of the Duchies.
+
+Metternich was in a difficult position. On the one hand he was bound
+by the Treaty of Vienna to assert the rights of Austria to protect
+Holstein as a member of the German Confederation; on the other hand he
+knew that by so doing he was strengthening that German national
+feeling which he so much dreaded. "In the University of Heidelberg,"
+wrote Metternich, "in the municipal councils of German towns, in the
+gatherings of professors and of choral societies, the cry is being
+raised for the Fatherland." The professors of Heidelberg had sent a
+special address to the Holsteiners, and it was clear on every side
+that German sentiment was rising to boiling point. Under these
+circumstances Metternich tried to steer between the dangers of
+encouraging popular feeling and that of neglecting to assert the legal
+influence of Austria. Finally, he persuaded the Federal Diet, on
+September 17, 1846, to pass two resolutions--First, that, apart from
+his letter of July 8, the King of Denmark should respect all the
+rights which he had promised to respect in a private letter of August
+22; but, secondly, that, "while the Confederation pays just honour to
+the patriotic sentiments shown on this occasion by the Confederated
+German States, it regrets the passionate accusations and irritations
+which were produced by this circumstance."
+
+So for the moment Metternich hoped to stave off the natural results of
+this outburst of popular feeling. But he could not prevent the effect
+which that outburst would produce on the more impressionable character
+of the King of Prussia. One of those who had had much opportunity of
+observing that king remarked that whoever was a favourite with him for
+the time and managed to indulge his fancies had the game in his own
+hands; and the Ministers who then enjoyed the confidence of Frederick
+William were eager to encourage him in complying with the popular
+feeling. So, in spite of Metternich's warnings, the King of Prussia,
+in January, 1847, had summoned to Berlin the representatives of all
+the Provincial Estates to discuss affairs. "The King," said Princess
+Metternich, "has promulgated this Constitution without force and
+without virtue, which is nothing to-day, but which to-morrow may
+change into thunder and destroy the Kingdom."
+
+But the concessions which the King of Prussia was making only embodied
+a feeling which was stirring in various parts of Germany. A terrible
+famine in Silesia was quickening the desire of the poorer classes for
+some change in their condition; the booksellers and literary men were
+uttering various demands for freedom of the Press; and when a meeting
+of the Baden Liberals at Offenburg tried to formulate these demands,
+the organizers of the meeting were threatened with a prosecution which
+never took place.
+
+Such, then, was Metternich's position towards the close of 1847;
+discredited as a champion of legality by the annexation of Cracow,
+looked on with suspicion by many orthodox Catholics in consequence of
+his attempt on Ferrara, his power as a ruler and his reputation as a
+diplomatist alike weakened by the result of the Sonderbund war. The
+result of these various failures was seen in the attitude both of
+kings and peoples. The King of Prussia was breaking loose from
+Metternich's control; France was suspicious and England hostile;
+Charles Albert was assuming more and more an attitude of defiance to
+Austria; the Pope was drifting gradually into the position of a
+champion of Italian Liberty; German national feeling, which Metternich
+had hoped to stamp out in 1834, was bubbling up into new life under
+the triple influence of the Schleswig-Holstein question, the King of
+Prussia's reforms, and the growing Liberalism of Saxony and Baden;
+while Hungary, which had seemed hopelessly divided, was gradually
+solidifying into opposition to Austrian rule. Such were the chief
+points in the spectacle which presented itself to Metternich as he
+looked upon Europe. Yet he was far indeed from thinking of yielding in
+the struggle, or of abandoning in the slightest degree his faith in
+his great system. He was still prepared to crush Switzerland and
+Charles Albert, to lead back the Pope and the King of Prussia into
+wiser courses, to quench the spirit of German enthusiasm, to wear out
+Hungarian opposition, to recover the friendship of France, and to defy
+the enmity of England. Such results seemed still possible when, in an
+Italian island to which Metternich had not recently given much
+attention, there first broke out that revolutionary fire which, under
+judicious guidance, was to spread over Europe and overthrow the system
+of Metternich.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[7] I feel that some explanation is needed for the rejection of what
+was once one of the most deeply-rooted traditions among all Liberals
+who interested themselves in the politics of this period. I must,
+therefore, state that my chief authority for my account of the
+paralysis of the Austrian Government in the Galician insurrection, and
+their consequent innocence of any organized massacre, is Dr. Herbst,
+the well-known leader of the German Liberals in the Austrian Reichstag,
+who was in Galicia at the time of the insurrection.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+FIRST MUTTERINGS OF THE STORM. SEPTEMBER, 1847-MARCH, 1848.
+
+     State of Naples and Sicily under Ferdinand II.--The birds and the
+     King.--The conspiracy.--The September rising and its
+     results.--Christmas in Naples.--The 12th of January in
+     Palermo.--The insurrection spreads to Naples.--The first
+     Constitution of 1848.--The effect in Rome--in Tuscany--in
+     Genoa.--The editors of Turin.--"Voleva e non voleva."--The
+     government of Milan.--The Milanese view of their rulers.--Count
+     Gabrio Casati--Ficquelmont.--The "Panem et Circenses"
+     policy.--Giambattista Nazari--His speech in the Congregation.--Its
+     effect.--Rainieri and Spaur on Nazari.--The grievances of different
+     parts of Lombardy.--Condition of Venetia.--Charles Bonaparte in
+     Venice.--Daniele Manin.--Niccolo Tommaseo.--Manin's
+     programme.--Moncenigo's treachery.--Manin's imprisonment.--The
+     tobacco massacres at Milan.--Their effect.--Metternich's programme
+     of Italian reform.--"Viva il sangue Palermitano!"--The
+     "Administrators" in Hungary.--The programme of Kossuth and
+     Deak.--The Constitutional victories in Hungary.--State of
+     Vienna.--The division of classes.--The ruling trio.--Effect of
+     Ferdinand's accession in Vienna.--The
+     "Lese-Verein."--Hye-Andrian.--Kuranda and Schuselka.--The German
+     movement in Vienna considered morally.--The Archduke John's
+     toast.--The relations between rich and poor.--The anti-Jesuit
+     feeling.--The illegal soup-kitchen.--The "Professional"
+     opposition.--Die Sibyllinische Buecher.--"The Austrian has no
+     fatherland."--The censorship.--Metternich's policy in
+     Switzerland--in Lombardy.
+
+
+The failure of the struggles for liberty in Naples and Sicily in 1821
+had not prevented continual abortive insurrections from breaking out
+after that period; and, while these attempts produced no immediate
+results except the strengthening of tyranny, they were yet gradually
+teaching Sicilians and Neapolitans the two great lessons of confidence
+in each other and distrust of the Bourbons. Francis had succeeded to
+Ferdinand I., and Ferdinand II. again to Francis; and, unless there
+were some slight variety in the forms of cruelty and tyranny, the
+change of kings may be said to have brought no change to the peoples
+whom they governed. Corruption and espionage prevailed both in Naples
+and Sicily. The only perceptible distinction between those two
+countries was that the clergy exercised rather more tyranny in Naples,
+while in Sicily robbery and brigandage were more rife. The Bourbons,
+like the Hapsburgs, sought to keep alive the disunion between the
+different races of their subjects, thus hoping to increase their own
+power; and so Sicilian Ministers were brought to govern Naples, and
+Neapolitan commissioners sent to Sicily. The desire for reform
+awakened by the accession of Pius IX. was a bond between all the
+different countries of Italy, and the King of Naples recognized this
+by suppressing all newspapers in his dominions that praised Pius IX.
+But Ferdinand was not to be left altogether without warning before the
+blow against his power was actually struck. In June, 1847, he paid a
+visit to Sicily to inspect the military defences of the island. In
+visiting Messina he found several statues of himself, but the ears of
+all of them had been stopped up. The King was alarmed; for, whether he
+understood or not this significant practical joke, he saw at least
+that some insult was intended. Perhaps he was able to accept the
+explanation of his courtiers that "the birds had chosen the ears of
+the royal statues to build their nests in." At Palermo he received
+another hint as to the nature of the birds who had paid this homage to
+royalty, for there he was met by a petition for freedom of the Press.
+He angrily rejected this request, and refused to make any inquiry into
+the growing misery of the Sicilians. More soldiers and stronger forts,
+he considered, were the only needs of the country.
+
+Yet at this very time an insurrection was preparing of a far more
+dangerous character than the spasmodic outbursts in Messina and
+Calabria which had disturbed the repose, but scarcely endangered the
+throne, of Ferdinand's predecessors. The Sicilians and Neapolitans had
+now learned to act together, and planned a simultaneous rising in
+Calabria and Sicily. The revolutionists were to march upon the nearest
+fortified places, and eventually to seize Naples, where they were to
+proclaim the Unity of Italy. According as circumstances guided them,
+they were either to compel the King to accept the Constitution, to
+depose him in favour of his son, to choose a new dynasty, or, if
+necessary, to proclaim a Republic; but in any case they were to assert
+the unity and independence of Italy.
+
+Some hint of an approaching outbreak seems to have reached the ears of
+the King or his Ministers; for in August two artillery officers and
+some other citizens were arrested in Palermo. "But," says La Farina,
+the Sicilian historian, "nothing could be discovered, since the
+Sicilians knew better than any nation how to stand firm in preserving
+silence in all tortures: an ancient virtue not yet destroyed by modern
+corruption."
+
+The miserable local jealousies which had hindered the former struggles
+for liberty had for a time disappeared; but there was still in this
+conspiracy, as in every other, the natural division between the
+impetuous and the prudent, between the party of speedy action and the
+party of delay. And while the fiery spirits of Messina and Calabria
+were eager for an immediate rising, the citizens of the two capitals,
+Palermo and Naples, were in favour of slower action. At Messina,
+therefore, the first outbreak took place. On September 1 some officers
+met at an inn in that town to celebrate the promotion of one of their
+generals by a dinner. The conspirators seized this opportunity for an
+outbreak, and surrounded the inn as if from mere curiosity; but when
+sufficient numbers had gathered they suddenly unfurled the tricolour
+flag and raised the cries of "Viva Italia!" "Viva Pio Nono!" "Viva la
+Costituzione!" The officers at last became alarmed, and, rushing out,
+summoned the soldiers and ordered them to fire. They hesitated to obey,
+and listened to the appeal of the conspirators, who urged their common
+cause and the duty of Neapolitans and Sicilians to stand together
+against their common oppressor. Discipline, however, proved stronger
+than patriotism; the soldiers fired, and several Sicilians fell,
+amongst them Giovanni Grillo, the youth who had played the part of the
+birds in stopping the ears of the King's statues.
+
+The insurgents retreated; but a shoemaker named Sciva, who was at work
+near the scene of action, left his shop and rushed forward to rally
+them; and a priest named Kriny also fought gallantly in their ranks.
+The movement, however, had been too hastily organized; the insurgents
+were either forced to fly or were arrested on the spot, and Sciva,
+the shoemaker, was condemned to death. The authorities, indeed, hoped
+to persuade him to save his life by betraying his friends; but he
+refused, even on the scaffold, to accept a pardon on such terms, and
+died bravely. Kriny, as a priest, had his sentence commuted from death
+to imprisonment. Grillo died of his wounds.
+
+Desperate efforts were made by the Government to obtain information as
+to the details of this conspiracy. Three hundred ducats were offered
+to anyone who would kill the chief conspirators; a thousand to anyone
+who would arrest them. But, though the leaders of the insurrection
+were hidden in the houses of very poor men, no one could be found to
+betray them, even for the sake of so large a reward. Even where the
+Government had made sure of their prey, it sometimes slipped through
+their hands. One of the insurgents was brought wounded to a house, and
+his hiding-place was discovered and surrounded by soldiers; but, by a
+false alarm, the guards were frightened away and the wounded man
+conveyed elsewhere. The owner of the second place of refuge was
+arrested, but the fugitive was again enabled to escape. His wound
+brought on fever, and he remained hidden for fifteen days without
+food, sucking the end of a sheet for nourishment; he was then so
+exhausted that his friends thought him dead and carried him to a
+church; but he revived, and was at last shipped to Marseilles, where
+he recovered.
+
+A people so vigorous and determined were obviously not far from
+freedom. The heroism of the Sicilians had strengthened the courage of
+the Neapolitans; and on Christmas Day the latter rose to the cry of
+"Evviva Palermo!" This demonstration, however, was only the forerunner
+of the Revolution; for it was still from Sicily that the first
+successful action was to come. So little did the Sicilians care to
+conceal their intentions that a pamphlet was circulated fixing January
+12 as the day for the actual rising. The police, thinking that they
+would be able easily to suppress the movement, began to make arrests;
+but their efforts were in vain.
+
+La Farina, who afterwards became a member of the Sicilian Assembly,
+gives the following account of the rising:--
+
+"On the night that preceded the 12th January, 1848, the streets of
+Palermo were silent and deserted; but in the houses the citizens were
+wakeful, agitated by fears and hopes. At the dawning of the new day the
+soldiers were in arms in fortified places and in their own quarters;
+some battalions of infantry and gensdarmes occupied the public places
+of the prefecture of police and of the royal palace, where the General
+De Majo, the Lieutenant of the King, General Vial, Commandant of the
+Piazza, and other royal officers, were assembled in council. The
+cannons of Castellamare were drawn out for a festival, for it was the
+birthday of Ferdinand II., and the roads were extraordinarily full of
+people; all were waiting for the conspirators to appear, for the sign
+to be given, for the first cry to break out, when Buscerni, a bold and
+ready youth, weary of delay, raised on high a musket that he had held
+concealed, and cried resolutely, 'To arms! To arms!' Then Pasquale
+Miloro came out armed into the street of the Centorinari; the abbot
+Ragona and the priest Venuti exhorted the people to rise in the name
+of God. There ran up to them, in arms, the advocate Tacona, Giuseppe
+Oddo, Prince Grammonte, Baron Bivona, Lo Cascio, Pasquale Bruno,
+Francesco Ciaccio, Giancinto Carini, Amodei, Enea, and a few others.
+Giuseppe La Masa bound to a stick a white pocket-handkerchief, a red
+one, and a green ribbon, and waved the three Italian colours. Santa
+Astorina went about distributing tricolour ribbons and cockades."
+
+"At the sight of the arms, and of the small number of those who bore
+them, the crowd grew thin and dispersed; the shops were closed, and
+the few eager men remained alone. A few of the unarmed remained with
+them to divide the honour and perils of the attack; and among these,
+distinguished by the loftiness of their mind and remarkable probity,
+were Vincenzo Errante and the Baron Casimiro Pisani. They were not
+disheartened; they stood firm and bold in their resolve; the bells of
+the Church of Orsola sounded an alarm, those of the Convent of the
+Gangia answered them; the Revolution had become irrevocable. Small
+bands were forming themselves here and there. They had neither rules,
+orders, nor plans; they did not barricade the streets; they did not
+make trenches, as is usual in other cities; they did not make head in
+any one position; troops of children preceded them, dancing and
+singing; they drew near to the troops, watched their motions and acts,
+and returned to warn the insurgents even while the blood was dropping
+from the blows that they had received. One band of the insurgents put
+to flight a military patrol in the street of the Albergava; others had
+the same fortune in the Raffadale street, at the church of San
+Gaetano, near the gate of St. Antonino, in the street of Calderari,
+and in other places. Thus passed the whole day; two of the insurgents,
+among whom was L'Amodei, were dead, and ten soldiers; the wounded were
+more numerous. The insurgents withdrew within the Piazza of Fiera
+Vecchia, which since the morning had been the centre of the movements
+and the seat of a committee formed of the first insurgents. There were
+not more than fifty who had firearms; a company of infantry would have
+been sufficient to disperse them; but the soldiers remained immovable
+in the positions which they had taken up, because, remembering the
+year '20, they had determined not to advance into the populous
+quarters of the city. To this it is necessary to add that all the
+houses were lighted for the festival, and that the balconies of the
+windows were crowded with men, women, and children, who all clapped
+their hands and gave loud Vivas to Italy, the Sicilian Constitution,
+and Pio Nono; a spontaneous, unexpected, and universal agreement of
+the people which made the rulers lose their heads and the soldiers
+their hearts. In the night the insurgents were recruited from the
+country districts and the neighbouring communes. The first to arrive
+were sixty countrymen from Villabate; then others from Misilmeri and
+from other places. By the next day Fiera Vecchia contained about 300
+men armed with guns, and as many more armed with scythes, billhooks,
+knives, spits, and those iron tools which the popular fury changes
+into arms. The fortress of Castellamare bombarded the city; the
+artillery of the royal palace was dragged along the Cassero; but the
+insurgents attacked, stormed, and destroyed the police commissariats
+and made themselves masters of the military hospital of San Francesco
+Saverio; the soldiers who remained prisoners were embraced as
+brothers, and provided with every accommodation which they needed."
+
+Brilliant as these successes sound, the victory was not yet complete;
+and to diplomatists, at any rate, the result seemed still uncertain.
+The Consuls of Austria, France, and Sardinia tried to persuade the
+insurgents even now to yield, on condition of obtaining a pardon. An
+attack made by La Masa on the Royalist forces was repelled, and
+several of the revolutionary committees fled from Palermo. But many of
+the leaders stood firm, and Mariano Stabile declared that Sicily
+should recover her ancient liberties, and that Ferdinand and not the
+people was the rebel. At the same moment the bells sounded, and the
+Royalist artillery was brought to bear upon the city. For three hours
+the struggle lasted; but at the end of that time the Royalists were
+driven back. The Neapolitan soldiers, grown savage by their defeats,
+began to sack private houses and commit various acts of cruelty; and
+when the foreign Consuls went again to the Governor's palace to ask
+for mercy to the insurgents, they were fired upon.
+
+In the meantime new insurgents were pouring in from the country
+districts, and the revolution was developing a government. Mariano
+Stabile was made secretary of the Governing Committee, and Ruggiero
+Settimo, an old man of seventy who had held office under the original
+Constitution of 1812, and who had helped to proclaim the Spanish
+Constitution in Sicily in 1820, was chosen President. Nor was the
+movement any longer confined to Sicily. The Neapolitans had risen in
+Salerno. The King, in a panic, had dismissed Del Caretto, the head of
+the police, from office; and General Ruberti, the Commandant of the
+fortress of St. Elmo, had told the King that he would not fire upon
+the people. A demonstration in favour of the Constitution of 1820 had
+taken place; and when the rain threatened to disperse the people, the
+umbrellas which were opened displayed the Italian colours.
+
+Alarmed at the risings in Naples and Sicily, and uncertain on whom he
+could depend, Ferdinand, on January 29th, conceded a Constitution to
+Naples. At the same time he entreated Lord Minto to intervene between him
+and the Sicilians. Neither Neapolitans nor Sicilians, however, were
+entirely satisfied. In the Kingdom of Naples the Constitutionalists met
+with much opposition from the supporters of the old system, and some
+skirmishes followed between these two parties. In Sicily the Liberals
+demanded that the granting of a Constitution should be followed by an
+adhesion to an Italian Confederation. They therefore answered Lord
+Minto's appeal by a renewed attack on the fortress of Castellamare,
+which they succeeded in capturing after four hours' fighting, and thus
+destroyed the last hold of Ferdinand over Palermo, and left in his hands
+no important Sicilian position except the citadel of Messina. The hopes
+thus raised were soon increased by the appointment of two men who had
+recently suffered imprisonment for their liberal opinions. These were a
+lawyer named Bozzelli, who became Prime Minister, and the new head of
+the police, Carlo Poerio, who belonged to a family which had given many
+champions and sufferers to the cause of Liberty, and who had himself
+been imprisoned in the previous year. When, then, the Constitution was
+actually promulgated on February 12, the hopes of the Neapolitans had
+risen to their highest pitch. The Constitution itself was but a poor
+affair, far less encouraging to popular hopes than its Spanish
+predecessor of 1820. It was founded, indeed, on the French Constitution
+of 1830, and the Parliament was therefore composed of two Houses, the
+upper one nominated by the King. A nominal freedom of the Press was
+secured, but carefully limited, especially in matters treating of
+religion. And there seems to have been hardly any security for
+Ministerial responsibility. But the granting of a Constitution against
+his will by a Bourbon King was, whatever its deficiencies, a fact which
+naturally supplied a spark to the combustible material to be found in
+all parts of Italy.
+
+The news of the movement in Sicily had already kindled new hopes in
+Rome. There matters had been proceeding more slowly than in the first
+months of Pius IX.'s rule. Even Ciceruacchio had begun to think that a
+more definite programme might be accepted by the Pope; and on December
+27, 1847, he drew up a list of the reforms which he thought especially
+needed in Rome. In these, while professing continued zeal for Pio
+Nono, he put forward requests of a kind not likely to be conceded;
+such as the removal of the Jesuits, the abolition of monopolies, and
+the emancipation of the Jews; while other demands were so vague that
+the Pope might easily have seemed to concede them without much
+trouble. For instance, Ciceruacchio required that the Pope should
+show confidence in the people, that individual liberty should be
+guaranteed, and that restraint should be put on excessive exercise of
+power.
+
+The Pope, though not disposed to accept the exact programme of
+Ciceruacchio, was influenced by this address, and on December 31, 1847,
+he issued a decree promising separate and independent responsibility to
+each of the Ministers. When, then, the news arrived of the Sicilian
+insurrection, the enthusiasm in Rome rose to the greatest height; and
+when the Pope next appeared in public, people scattered flowers in his
+way, and Ciceruacchio displayed a banner bearing the words, "Santo
+Padre fidatevi nel Popolo" (Holy Father, have confidence in the
+people). Still, it was rumoured that the wicked cardinals were holding
+back the good Pope, and that they were opposing the armaments voted by
+the Council of State.
+
+During the excitement caused by this fear the news arrived that the
+Sicilians had been successful, and that Ferdinand had granted a
+Constitution to Naples. Again the Romans rose, and this time with the
+cry of, "Away with the men of bad faith! Long live the secular
+ministry! Give us arms!" A Minister appeared on the balcony, promising
+the people a secular ministry and increase of the army. This was
+actually conceded a few days later, and Ciceruacchio once more called
+upon the people to have confidence in the reforming Pope. The news of
+the Sicilian and Neapolitan movements steadily spread northwards, and
+in Tuscany they chimed in with the new belief that Leopold was a
+reforming sovereign.
+
+But matters took here a rather different complexion from that which
+they had assumed in Rome. The zeal of the Tuscans had been kindled by
+their struggle with the Duke of Modena, and the free life of Tuscany
+had attracted many democratic Italians; while, on the other hand,
+though Leopold might have wiped out the memory of the surrender of
+Renzi, he could not cease to be a Hapsburg, and could never attract to
+himself the same imaginative enthusiasm which was kindled by the dream
+of a reforming Pope. At any rate, the first spark of a revolutionary
+movement had been kindled by Guerrazzi in Leghorn, before the success
+of the Sicilians had been known; and though Ridolfi had suppressed the
+movement and imprisoned Guerrazzi, the bitterness caused by it still
+remained. And even when the news of the Neapolitan Constitution
+reached Florence, the Tuscan reformers hastened to congratulate, not
+the Neapolitan Ambassador, but a representative of the revolutionary
+Sicilians who happened to be in Florence. But Leopold was ready to
+yield with a much better grace than Ferdinand; and when, on February
+17, the Constitution appeared it was found, in the matter of religious
+liberty, to be considerably in advance of the Neapolitan Constitution.
+
+In the Kingdom of Sardinia the city of Genoa supplied the same kind of
+element which the Tuscans found in Leghorn. The questionable manner in
+which that city had been annexed to Piedmont had left, no doubt, a
+continual soreness and readiness for revolution among the Genoese;
+while, on the other hand, its important geographical position and
+great commercial reputation had led Charles Albert to push forward its
+development as much as possible. It soon came to the front during the
+movement for reform, and its citizens tried to urge on Charles Albert
+whenever he hesitated. As he drifted gradually in the direction of
+bolder action, the Genoese were ready to encourage festivals in his
+honour, and on the occasion of a demonstration in November, at Genoa,
+a citizen had called out to him, "Charles Albert, cross the Ticino and
+we will follow thee." When, then, the news arrived of the Sicilian
+rising, the Genoese sent to Turin a petition for the expulsion of the
+Jesuits and the concession of a national guard. In the meantime the
+editors of leading newspapers in Turin were meeting to decide on the
+policy which they should support, and Count Cavour, who had hitherto
+been disinclined to Liberal movements, proposed that they should
+demand a Constitution. D'Azeglio, Durando, and others, supported the
+proposal, and Cavour was despatched to present it to the King.
+
+While Charles Albert was still hesitating, the news of the Neapolitan
+Constitution arrived. The people of Turin at once made a demonstration
+in honour of the event, and Pietro di Santa Rosa[8] proposed in the
+Municipal Council that that body should support the petition for the
+Constitution. The Municipal Council, though previously a reactionary
+body, accepted the proposal by a large majority. But Charles Albert
+still hesitated. On February 7th, he held a meeting of his Council, in
+which he at first refused to discuss the question whilst the crowd was
+gathering outside. On their dispersal, he began to consider the
+proposals, and the discussion lasted for eight hours. When the sitting
+of the Council was concluded, the representatives of the Municipality
+arrived, but were received very coldly by Charles Albert. While
+things were still in this state, a message arrived from the Governor
+of Genoa that, unless the Constitution was proclaimed, it would be
+necessary for the King to place Genoa in a state of siege. At last he
+consented to grant what was called a Statuto, of which the terms
+seemed at first very indefinite, while the delays in carrying it into
+execution irritated the more decided reformers. But the faith of
+Charles Albert's admirers was as robust as that of the admirers of
+Pius IX. Banquets were held in his honour, and those who took part in
+these exulting demonstrations had at least the excuse for their joy
+that the promise of the Statuto had roused the irritation of the
+Austrians; and Radetzky even threatened to occupy Alessandria. But
+Radetzky and the Austrians had enough to think of nearer home.
+
+The Government of Milan was at this time in a very peculiar condition,
+seeing that there were not less than seven people who were, in
+different ways, responsible for the maintenance of order in the town
+or its neighbourhood. Of these, the nominal head was probably
+Rainieri, the Viceroy; but he seems to have been a man of less vigour
+than some of those who acted under him; and though willing enough
+to do acts of violence, yet not able altogether to control his
+subordinates. The second, probably, in nominal importance was Spaur,
+the Governor of Milan: a Tyrolese nobleman, credited, even by his
+opponents, with some remains of honourable feeling, but crushed in
+spirit by his habit of constant deference to the Court, and to
+Metternich. Next came Torresani, the head of the police, a man who
+must have been in some respects pleasanter to deal with than the
+other rulers; for, though not disinclined to cruelty and tyranny, he
+managed to cover them with a certain Italian wit and courtesy which
+must have been rather a relief, as a contrast to the tone of some of
+his colleagues. Thus, for instance, on one occasion the Town Council
+remonstrated with him for the action of the police in a riot, and
+urged that he should take measures for preserving order among his
+subordinates; Torresani chose to interpret the idea of order in his
+own fashion, and the next day issued a stern public notice against
+disorderly meetings, while at the same time he sent a polite note to
+the Council, pointing out that, by this proclamation, he had met their
+wishes for the preservation of order.
+
+But if Torresani could soften by witticisms the necessary savageries
+of his position, any deficiencies in roughness on his part were amply
+atoned for by his subordinate Bolza, who was looked upon as the
+completest embodiment of the spirit of cruelty in the Government. On
+the other hand, the craft and treachery of the system were best
+represented by a Bohemian named Pachta. He was one of those men whose
+complete loss of reputation in private affairs fits them to become
+useful engines of despotism. He had been known previously as having
+swindled a lady out of some jewels which she had entrusted to him; and
+he had plunged so heavily into debt, that nothing but his favoured
+position protected him from arrest. He held some nominal office in the
+Council at Milan; but his real duty was to act as a spy upon his
+colleagues. Indeed, it may be said that that description might, with
+more or less force, apply to all the rulers of Milan, and to many
+others of the Government officials. A spy was set by the Home
+Government upon Torresani, and another to watch that spy. Rainieri was
+entrusted with one set of police, Spaur with another, Pachta with
+another. But while all these men divided the civil administration of
+Milan, there stood at their back the one man who did enjoy more of the
+permanent confidence of the Government than anyone else in Lombardy.
+This was the celebrated Field-Marshal Radetzky.
+
+It is somewhat strange that this man, who has been considered, by many
+of those interested in these movements, as one of the most complete
+embodiments of Austrian cruelty, was yet looked upon by the Milanese
+at this time mainly as a theatrical buffoon. In the caricatures which
+are preserved at Milan, Rainieri generally appears as a hypocrite,
+sometimes cunning, sometimes maudlin; Bolza as a ferocious ruffian;
+while in Pachta and Torresani the appearance of cruelty is modified by
+a slightly idiotic expression. But Radetzky is invariably the
+theatrical blusterer, who might have supplied Shakespeare with a model
+for Ancient Pistol. Such was the Government with which Lombardy was
+blessed under the Metternich system.
+
+On the other hand, the only official embodiment of popular feeling
+during the longest period of this rule had been the Town Council of
+Milan. The Central Congregation which had embodied the Austrian idea
+of a Lombard Constitution had been deprived of all freedom of
+utterance; but the Town Council was no doubt considered a more
+harmless body, and therefore had been allowed a certain amount of
+freedom. Since 1838 this Council had been presided over by Count
+Gabrio Casati, who has probably received more praise and more blame
+than he deserved. He seems to have been a man by no means deficient
+either in courage or patriotism; and had he continued to exercise his
+office during a period when passive resistance and formal protests
+were still useful weapons, he might have left a reputation somewhat
+like that of Speaker Lenthall or Lord Mayor Beckford in our own
+History. As it is, he was called on by circumstances to play a part in
+the struggle against Austria for which he was unfitted; and, while he
+has received undue praise from those who have accepted him as the
+embodiment of Milanese heroism, he has, on the other hand, been
+somewhat too fiercely condemned by those who noted his actual
+shortcomings, and could not make allowance for the difficulty of his
+position. During the first years of his office he did his best to bring
+before Metternich and his colleagues the evils which prevailed in the
+Government of Lombardy; and when the growth of the Italian movements
+led to the demonstrations in favour of the Italian Archbishop of Milan,
+and the solemn funeral to Confalonieri, Casati showed his sympathy with
+the popular feeling, and protested against the various acts of cruelty
+which were perpetrated in the suppression of these movements. Indeed,
+so prominent a part did Casati play in these matters that Sedlnitzky,
+the head of the Viennese police, wrote to Spaur to tell him to keep his
+eye on Casati, and to see that on the next occasion a Podesta of better
+principles was elected.
+
+In October, 1847, Metternich added a new element to the confusion of
+the Milanese Government by sending a new agent to share the authority
+of the other rulers of Lombardy. This new emissary was Count
+Ficquelmont, whose work was of a much more definite character than his
+official position. This work was, in fact, the carrying out of that
+part of Menz's programme which had been modelled on the Circus shows of
+the Emperors of Rome. This was to be effected by the introduction of
+Fanny Ellsler and other people of a similar character to the
+pleasure-loving population of Milan. But the mission only succeeded in
+eliciting new signs of discontent. Ficquelmont and his protegees appear
+in the collection of Milanese caricatures; and a popular agreement to
+abstain from theatre-going was so rigorously carried out that, on one
+evening, only nine tickets were sold for the principal theatre in
+Milan.
+
+But, before this remarkable abstention had come into force, a new
+character had been given to the Lombard resistance to Austrian rule.
+The Central Congregation of Lombardy had suddenly awakened to life;
+and the grievances under which the country suffered had been placed
+before their rulers at Vienna with a clearness previously unknown. The
+author of this sudden change affords one of those curious instances of
+men who do a great and important work for their country, and then pass
+suddenly into obscurity before their reputation has spread beyond
+narrow limits. Giambattista Nazari was a lawyer of Treviglio. All that
+seems to be known of him previously to his election to the Central
+Congregation was that he was a man of moderate fortune, with a large
+family; but both those facts may be taken as adding something to the
+courage of his public action. Treviglio is a town in the district of
+Bergamo; the people of that district, presumably with Austrian
+sanction, had accepted Nazari as their representative, and on December
+8 or 9, 1847, he came forward in the Central Congregation to give, for
+the first time since 1815, free and peaceable expression to the wants
+of the people of Lombardy.
+
+"Illustrious Congregation," he said, "it does not require much
+shrewdness to discern that for some time past there have been in this
+province manifest signs of discontent shown by all classes of
+citizens, as the rulers themselves ought to have known every time that
+they have tried to deaden its effects. And from whence does the
+agitation which has thus been produced arise--an agitation which
+increases the more they try to restrain it? From whence comes this
+universal disquiet? From whence this suspicion between governors and
+governed? The latter have, perhaps, just reasons to complain; and if
+they have, who ought to present those reasons to the Prince? For my
+part, I do not see that anyone can be better interpreters of the
+desires of our country than we; since, even in our private condition,
+we are sharers of the good and evil which are the fruits of good and
+evil institutions; and since, moreover, we have the precious office of
+discovering the needs of the populations and of presenting them at the
+Imperial Throne. In order, then, that that agreement between ruler and
+people which alone can secure the quiet of the State may be restored,
+I am resolved to propose that you should choose as many men as there
+are provinces in Lombardy, and give them a commission to examine
+specially into the present conditions of the country; and when they
+have discovered the causes of discontent, to refer them to the whole
+Congregation in order to give fitting opportunity for petitions. This
+I say and advise, from a desire for the public good, from affection
+for my Prince, and from a sentiment of duty. For as citizen I love my
+country, as subject I desire that the Emperor should be adored and
+blessed by all, and as deputy I should think that I had failed to keep
+my oaths if I did not say what was imposed on me by the duty of not
+being silent."
+
+On December 11 this protest of Nazari's was presented in due form to
+the rulers of Milan, and produced from them the sternest rebukes. The
+awkward point of the protest was that, both in form and substance, it
+was undoubtedly legal, and could not therefore be wholly disregarded.
+Accordingly, Rainieri told Spaur that it was desirable that a
+commission should be appointed; but that, instead of being composed of
+representatives chosen from the Lombard provinces, it should be
+limited to those few people who were noted for their zeal and
+attachment to the Austrian Government. Further, such commissioners
+were not to assume that discontent existed, nor even to make mention
+of such discontent in their discussions. At the same time, Nazari was
+to be told that he had acted irregularly in bringing forward his
+motion, and Torresani was to be directed to keep a special watch on
+this dangerous agitator.
+
+Spaur thereupon addressed the Congregation, telling them that the
+Viceroy had consented to Nazari's proposal, provided that the
+Congregation limited itself strictly to the powers entrusted to it by
+the Constitution; and, further, that the Government was occupying
+itself with the wishes of the Lombard provinces, and that the Viceroy
+had left to Spaur's decision the appointment of the members of the
+Commission. Spaur concluded with a rebuke to Nazari for the want of
+confidence that he had shown in him, as President of the Congregation,
+in not communicating to him his intended motion. Nazari answered that
+he had wished to take upon himself the sole responsibility of his act;
+and that, as to the proposed previous application to Spaur, he would
+rather be wanting in confidence than respect; for that if he had told
+Spaur of his intention, and Spaur had tried to persuade him to be
+silent, he would have been compelled to be rude enough to disobey him.
+
+In the meantime the motion had created the greatest enthusiasm, and
+many Milanese hastened to pay their respects to Nazari; four thousand
+visiting cards were left on him, and petitions flocked in from various
+places in support of his movement. In the Provincial Congregation of
+Milan, indeed, the supporters of Nazari encountered the same kind of
+official obstruction which their leader had met with in the Central
+Congregation of Lombardy, for the President refused to join his
+colleagues in signing the petition. Thereupon the members of that body
+threatened to resign; and the Viceroy, who had just declared Nazari's
+protest irregular, urged the President to yield. But the movement had
+spread far into the provinces. Many of the provincial towns had their
+own causes of grievance against the centralizers of Vienna. Pavia had
+been deprived of its arsenal; Brescia had been compelled to close its
+armourers' shops, Bergamo its ironmongeries; Cremona had lost one
+trade, Salo another; Como and other towns had lost their linen trade.
+Everywhere there had been signs of the sucking out of the strength of
+the country by the Central Government at Vienna. Nazari's protest,
+therefore, naturally attracted sympathy far beyond Milanese circles;
+and amongst other petitions came one from the old Lombard capital of
+Pavia asking that it might be specially represented on the Commission
+proposed by Nazari, and suggesting special reforms needed in Lombardy
+and Venetia.
+
+But by far the most remarkable of the Lombard petitions produced by
+Nazari's protest was one which was apparently signed by the Lombards
+irrespective of their provincial divisions. In this the petitioners
+call upon the Central Congregation to keep alive the courage which had
+been shown by Nazari's protest. They remind the deputies of the
+promises previously made by the Austrian Government, and the breach of
+them. They declare that "The Lombards were formerly distracted by
+discordant hopes, but are now almost miraculously unanimous in their
+desires;" and they call on the deputies "to speak out the whole truth,
+to proclaim that they have faith in God, and that they leave to others
+the infamy of lying."... They call upon them "To declare the abuses of
+the Tribunals which are concealed by secret bribery; the arrogance of
+the police, the puerile corrections of the censorship; but above all to
+proclaim the great truth of nationality, to demand a federal union, and
+to remind Austria of her proclamation of April 16, 1815, in which she
+promised to conform the institutions of Lombardy to the character of
+the Italians. Ten million Italians are now united by an agreement
+between princes and people, defended by a flourishing army, and
+sanctioned by the authority of the Pope." The petitioners then proceed
+to call attention to the success of Hungary in its Constitutional
+struggle; and they point out that, while Austria had held out hopes of
+a special representation for Lombardy and Venetia, she had, in fact,
+drawn the power more and more to Vienna, while the Press had been
+subjected to the most petty persecutions. "An invisible network of
+information, conjectures, suspicions, has surrounded all the citizens.
+The Government is arbitrary both by ignorance and violence. It is only
+the representatives of the people who can explain _that_; and they must
+show that all these evils spring from the first great falsehood of a
+people that has not the life of a people, of a kingdom that has not the
+life of a kingdom. Lombardy is governed by foreign laws and foreign
+persons. It is taxed for the benefit of Austrian industries, while a
+barrier of customs duties separates it from Italy."
+
+It is worth noting that now, for the first time, the leaders of
+Italian political movements began to consider the special grievances
+of the poor. As Mazzini had roused the working men to care for the
+liberty and unity of their country, so a common suffering had
+gradually taught the wealthier leaders to care for the troubles of
+their poorer neighbours; and these petitions enumerate a number of
+taxes which specially weighed on the poor. The tax on salt was the
+material burden most generally felt; while the lottery, with its
+deliberate encouragement of the spirit of gambling, increased the
+moral loathing of the Lombards for the Austrian rule. But the crushing
+out of national feeling and intellectual life were still the two main
+complaints of these petitioners; and, besides the more general proofs
+of these mentioned above, the petitioners dwelt with great emphasis
+on the conscription which carried off the youth of the country for
+eight years. And they finally demand that the representatives of the
+people should ask for "A complete and irrevocable separation in every
+branch of the administration; that they should be governed by a
+person, not by a foreign people;" and that "their own nationality,
+history, language, and brotherhood with other Italians should not be
+considered as crime and rebellion." They finally close with the words,
+"To-day you can still speak of peace. The future is in the hands of
+the God of Justice."
+
+The petition of Nazari had, as already mentioned, produced effects in
+the Lombard provinces; but it had also called out sympathy, though a
+little more slowly, in the neighbouring province of Venetia. There the
+hand of Austria seemed to have weighed more heavily than even in
+Milan. Perhaps the absence of old traditions of internal freedom,
+and the terrible corruption which had hastened the fall of its
+independence, may have had something to do with the silence of Venice.
+Perhaps, too, the sense of the singular baseness of the crime, by
+which they had become possessed of the Venetian district, may have
+goaded the Austrians into greater tyranny than even that which they
+exercised in their other dominions. But, whatever was the cause, there
+seems to be no doubt, as one of the historians of the time puts it,
+that Venice was then reckoned "the least sturdy city in the kingdom,
+and the one least disposed to movement." But even Venice could not be
+shut out from the influence of the Italian spirit, and the first sign
+of awakening life was called out, curiously enough, by a Buonaparte.
+The Prince of Canino, who had already succeeded in turning Scientific
+Congresses at Genoa and Milan into opportunities for political
+demonstrations, had come, in September, 1847, to Venice to preside in
+the Geological Section of the Congress. There he had introduced a
+discourse on Pius IX., which was received with loud applause; and when
+the Austrian police compelled him to leave the State, people followed
+him on his road with cheers of sympathy. But the spark which Charles
+Buonaparte had lighted required other hands to keep it alive; and it
+appeared that there was no one in the Venetian Congregation bold
+enough to take up the part which had been played at Milan by Nazari.
+
+Under these circumstances, Daniele Manin, the lawyer, who had already
+opposed the Austrian Government about the Lombardo-Venetian railway,
+came forward to take upon himself the office from which the official
+members of the Congregation had shrunk. He presented a petition
+calling on the members of the Venetian Congregation to imitate the
+example of Nazari, ending his appeal with the words, "It is unjust and
+injurious to suppose that the Government has granted to this kingdom a
+sham national representation."
+
+This address of Manin's was sent to the Congregation on December 21st.
+On the same day Niccolo Tommaseo addressed a letter to Baron von
+Kuebeck, one of the Viennese ministry, asking for permission to print a
+discourse which he had just delivered at Venice on the Austrian press
+law. In this discourse he had shown that the Austrian law was in
+theory more liberal than the Piedmontese law, but that it was not
+carried out, a fact which he illustrated by the signatures to a
+petition which was then being circulated in favour of the proper
+enforcement of the Austrian law. "If this petition be granted," said
+Tommaseo, "the country will find peace, and Austria an honourable
+security." He ended with a remarkable warning--"If the movements of
+the brothers Bandiera alarmed the Austrian Government, how much more
+will there be danger now that the altar is no longer on the side of
+the throne?"
+
+Tommaseo had already been marked out by the Government as a dangerous
+person. He had been the first to introduce Mazzini to the public by
+securing the publication of his article on Dante which had been
+refused by the "Antologia," and he had joined with Mazzini in the
+revolutionary struggle of 1833. It was therefore as a pardoned man
+that he had been allowed to return to Venice; and the authorities were
+doubly indignant that he should venture to come forward again. But
+Manin's attempt to stir up the Venetian Congregation attracted the
+hostility of the Government more than Tommaseo's petition. He had
+already protested against a new form of official cruelty--the shutting
+up of a political prisoner in a lunatic asylum; and Palffy had
+threatened to let the prisoner out and shut up Manin instead. But
+it seemed for a time as if his attempt to stir up the Venetian
+Congregation would fail, for he could get no member to present his
+petition for him. Nothing daunted, however, he printed it, and sent it
+himself to the Congregation. This act soon attracted attention, and
+several provincial governments sent in similar petitions.
+
+Still the Venetian Congregation would not stir; so, on January 8,
+Manin sent in a second petition, in which he no longer confined
+himself to vague appeals, but set forth the necessary programme of
+reform. He demanded that the laws should be published and obeyed, that
+no obedience should be required to unpublished laws, and that the
+territories of Lombardy and Venetia should form a separate kingdom,
+not a province, "still less a mere outlying village of Vienna. We
+ought to be governed," he said, "according to our character and
+customs; to have a true national representation, and a moderately free
+press which could control and enlighten the chiefs of the Government
+and the representatives of the nation."... "The germs planted by the
+laws of 1815 had not developed, and only a madman or an archaeologist
+would refer to them as a guide." He then proceeded to demand that the
+Viceroy of Lombardo-Venetia should be completely independent of all
+but the Emperor; that the finances and the army should also be
+separated from the government at Vienna; that the communal governments
+should be more independent than at present, and that trials should be
+by jury, and should be oral and public; that the power of the police
+should be limited, and that a moderate law should be substituted for
+the existing censorship of the Press; that a civic guard should be
+granted; that citizens should be made equal before the law; that
+Jewish disabilities and feudal tenures should be abolished, and that
+there should be a general revision of the laws.
+
+Manin's petition alarmed the timid spirits of the Congregation; and one
+of them named Moncenigo sent it to Governor Palffy. Manin had already
+protested against the appointment of this Moncenigo on the sham
+Commission of Enquiry which the Viceroy had granted; and no doubt
+personal irritation combined with political cowardice to prompt
+Moncenigo's breach of confidence. But, whatever its motives, this
+act of servility produced a protest from another lawyer, who,
+while denouncing Moncenigo's act as unworthy of the dignity of a
+commissioner, alluded to the period of Napoleon's rule as one of
+greater freedom than had ever been allowed by Austria. The police had
+in the meantime been preparing a report for the criminal tribunal; and
+on January 19, 1848, Manin was suddenly seized and carried off to
+prison on the charge of disturbing the public peace.
+
+In the meantime the Milanese movement had been assuming a more serious
+character. Demonstrations at the theatre, or abstentions from it,
+songs and other public expressions of opinion, were continually
+alarming the authorities. That separation, too, between the altar and
+the throne, to which Tommaseo had called attention, was even more
+marked in Milan than in Venice; and Radetzky a little later ordered
+his soldiers not to attend the sermons or the confessional of the
+Milanese clergy, "since they are our enemies." But this ferocious
+commander was resolved at all hazards to drive the Milanese to
+extremities; and he soon found an opportunity for carrying out his
+plans. One of the most universal forms of protest against the
+Government in Lombardy was the determined abstention from tobacco on
+the ground that it was a Government monopoly. This protest began on
+January 1, 1848, and it seemed at first as if it would be allowed
+to pass without remark. But Radetzky, in spite of the advice of
+Torresani, ordered his soldiers to appear in public, smoking. This
+order was carried out on January 2, 1848. In some parts of the town
+this demonstration provoked nothing but a few hisses from the crowd;
+but in one part, where the police and soldiers had collected in large
+numbers and many citizens had gathered to watch the smokers, the
+soldiers suddenly turned upon the crowd with their bayonets and
+charged them. Casati remonstrated with Torresani, but could get no
+redress, and was even himself assaulted by the police when he appealed
+to them.
+
+This, however, was merely the preliminary of Radetzky's proceedings.
+The following afternoon a much larger force of soldiers appeared in
+Milan, and every one of them was smoking. The crowd gathered as
+before, and was, as usual, largely composed of boys. Suddenly two of
+the sergeants gave a signal, and the soldiers, drawing their swords,
+rushed upon the crowd, wounding many boys seriously and killing an old
+man of seventy-four. The crowd fled at the attack; but the soldiers
+followed them, breaking into the shops in which they took refuge,
+destroying what they found there, and killing or wounding those whom
+they came across. In one place they broke into an inn, gave the
+hostess several severe wounds in the head, besides beating violently a
+little girl of four years old.
+
+Throughout the city these scenes of barbarity continued during the
+greater part of the day, and naturally aroused the most tremendous
+indignation. Similar smoking demonstrations took place in Brescia,
+Cremona, and Mantua; but in these places they seem to have passed off
+without a riot. In Pavia and Padua, on the other hand, the smokers
+came into collision with the students, who fought with their bare
+fists against the soldiers' swords. In Milan the indignation was not
+confined to the opponents of Austria. Monsignore Oppizzoni, who was on
+the whole a supporter of the Government, headed a deputation to the
+Viceroy in which he used these words:--"Your Highness, I am old, and
+have seen many things. I saw the profanation of the Jacobins and the
+cruelty of the Russians; but I never saw nor heard of before such
+atrocious acts as have happened in the days just past."
+
+Companies of ladies met at the Casa Borromeo to collect funds for the
+wounded. In all the principal cities of Lombardy funeral rites were
+performed for those who had died in the riots; and the people refused
+to walk in the Corso Francesco, which had been the scene of the
+principal massacre, and went instead to another street, which they
+renamed the Corso Pio Nono. Even some of those who had served the
+Austrian Government raised a protest against these atrocities. Count
+Guicciardini, for such a protest, was deprived of his office; while
+the Councillor, Angelo Decio, declared that he would resign if the
+Government would not put a restraint on the undisciplined soldiers.
+The Viceroy, taken aback at this sudden outburst of indignation,
+promised reforms and dismissed some of the troops from Milan.
+
+But the saner members of the Austrian Government had completely lost
+hold of affairs, and Radetzky had become the sole ruler of Milan. He
+harangued his troops in one of those bombastic addresses whose
+absurdity seemed to take even a deeper root in men's minds than the
+atrocity of his acts. "Let us not," he said, "be forced to open the
+wings of the Austrian eagle which have never yet been clipped." This
+calm ignoring of Austerlitz and Marengo specially tickled the fancy
+of the Milanese; more particularly as Radetzky was credited, whether
+justly or unjustly, with having played a somewhat ignominious part in
+the latter battle. A few utterly inadequate and trivial reforms were
+won from Metternich by the spectacle of the Sicilian revolution, the
+growing popularity of the Pope, and the Neapolitan Constitution. On
+January 18 it was proposed that the Viceroy should transfer himself
+from Milan to Verona; that he should be surrounded by persons better
+informed than his subordinates were; that the Government of Milan
+should be made more strong; and that some of the members of the
+Central Congregation of Milan should be summoned to Vienna. How
+absurdly unlike these concessions were to the real wishes and needs of
+the Lombard people it is scarcely necessary to point out; but, had the
+concessions been far more important, they would have been utterly
+worthless while they were accompanied by the closing of the clubs, the
+arrest of suspected persons, and, above all, while Radetzky still
+ruled Milan.
+
+It was to a population excited by this state of things that there came
+the news of the Neapolitan Constitution. The Milanese at once flocked
+to the Cathedral to return thanks, and on the walls of Milan were
+written up the words, "Viva il sangue Palermitano! Seguiamo l'esempio
+di Sicilia! Il pomo e maturo." And near these inscriptions was drawn
+the picture of a house in ruins, and over it, "Casa d'Austria." New
+riots followed, and the Universities of Pavia and Padua were closed by
+authority. But it was felt that the electric current had now spread
+right through Italy from Palermo to Milan; and, on the very day before
+the University of Pavia was closed, a secret circular was issued by the
+friends of Italy at Milan urging that further demonstrations should be
+abandoned for the present on the ground that "the cause of Italy is now
+secure."
+
+And though Metternich was still disposed to dispute that view, though
+he still held to the opinion which he had uttered in August, 1847,
+that "Italy was a mere geographical expression," he yet felt the shock
+of the Sicilian insurrection, and was willing to secure friends in
+other parts of the Austrian dominions by more important concessions
+than those which he had made to Lombardy and Venetia. _The_ most
+important, or at least the most obvious, of these popular victories
+had been gained in Hungary. There, indeed, Metternich had ingeniously
+contrived to defeat his own purpose, to weaken that division which had
+been gradually growing between the different sections of his opponents
+in Hungary, and to throw into the hands of Kossuth far more power than
+he had previously possessed. At the close of the Diet which had met in
+1843 these elements of division were more various and more prominent
+than at any other period of the struggle. Besides the quarrel between
+Magyar and Slav, there had grown up a difference of opinion between
+the Magyar champions of reform. For while Kossuth was advocating the
+strengthening of the county governments as the great hope for
+Hungarian liberty, Baron Eoetvoes was urging the necessity for making
+the central parliament stronger at the expense of the local bodies.
+But Metternich, as if determined to consolidate the various elements
+of opposition against him, shortly after the dissolution of the Diet,
+took a step which, while it seemed to justify Kossuth's belief in the
+importance of county governments, silenced at the same time all those
+who were opposed to Kossuth, whether on grounds of race or party, and
+roused the dislike to Metternich's system to a height not previously
+known in Hungary. Mailath, the popular Chancellor of Hungary, was
+removed, and his successor, Apponyi, was directed to supersede the
+Hungarian County Assemblies by administrators appointed by himself.
+
+No step could possibly have been taken more likely to defeat
+Metternich's own objects; for if there was one institution round which
+all the peoples of Hungary rallied, it was their County Governments.
+Kossuth felt the strength of his position, and tried to remove the
+causes of division. For the moment he seemed even disposed to abandon
+his extreme anti-Slavonic policy, and opposed a proposal for compelling
+the use of the Hungarian language in elementary schools. The opposition
+to the Administrator system in the counties seemed to Kossuth an
+opportunity for bringing forward the whole body of reforms which he had
+long desired. The movement for relieving the peasants of their burdens
+had naturally widened the circle of those who took interest in
+political affairs; and a famine which was quickening the political
+feeling of the Silesian peasants and of the artizans of Berlin had also
+spread to Hungary, and was making the ordinary grievances of the
+peasant doubly grievous to him. Along with the demands for the relief
+of the peasantry from their burdens, Kossuth and his friends now put
+forward proposals for Constitutional reforms. Deak, though no longer a
+member of the Assembly, gave his assistance in putting their plans
+into shape, and for the first time there was formed, in 1847, a
+complete programme of the Hungarian Liberals. Their demands were:
+Publicity of parliamentary debates; a parliamentary journal in which
+speeches were to be published in full; triennial elections and regular
+yearly meetings of the Diet; improvement of the government of the towns
+and enlargement of their right of election to the Diet; universal
+taxation of all classes; the abolition of forced labour of the peasant,
+and of other restrictions on his mode of life.
+
+But while it was of importance that the reformers should thus be able
+to put into shape their programme of reform, it was round the
+"Administrator" question that the real fight gathered, and Metternich
+was urged to make at least some concessions on this point. When, then,
+the Diet met in 1847, Kossuth found himself supported by many who
+might have shrunk back from parts of his policy before. Count
+Batthyanyi had formerly acted with Szechenyi; but he now arrived at
+the conclusion that the opposition of that nobleman to Kossuth was
+unwise, and he drifted more and more into the position of the Leader
+of Opposition in the House of Magnates. Eoetvoes, too, however much he
+may have retained his belief in the importance of a centralizing line
+of policy, yet could not refuse to stand by his countrymen in defence
+of County Government against the Administrators of Metternich.
+Batthyanyi and Eoetvoes were thus willing to suspend their special
+grounds of opposition to Kossuth; but it was still impossible for them
+to carry with them the House of Magnates; and Kossuth's great
+influence in the country was increased by the fact that the centre of
+reform was rather to be found in the class of professional men to
+which he belonged than in the nobles who had been previously looked to
+as the leaders of the country. The Diet of 1847, therefore, saw a
+repetition of the struggle of the two Houses which had formed so
+prominent a part of the parliamentary history of 1839. In the Lower
+House Kossuth carried a measure for enforcing municipal taxes on
+nobles, and it was thrown out by the House of Magnates, who called
+upon the Lower House to limit themselves to votes of thanks or to
+express their grievances in general terms.
+
+But neither the land question nor the question of parliamentary
+liberty were felt by the Hungarian leaders to be as important at this
+crisis as the rescue of the counties from the tyranny of Metternich's
+Administrators; and it was the struggle on this point which was
+brought to a crisis by the news of the Sicilian Revolution and of the
+growing discontents in Milan. Again Metternich was disposed to make
+concessions, and again his concessions were so framed as to be utterly
+inadequate to the occasion. He declared that the Administrators should
+only be appointed under exceptional circumstances; and that the
+present Administrators should be withdrawn when the exceptional
+circumstances in the counties were removed. This proposal was
+unwelcome to all parties; and so much force did the discontent of the
+country gain that on February 29 a motion in favour of reform in the
+representation was carried in the House of Magnates. When this
+resolution had passed the House of Representatives Szechenyi entered
+in his diary the words, "Tout est perdu."
+
+In the meantime the Hungarian movement had been keeping alive hopes
+which in late years had begun to show themselves in Vienna. In that
+centre of the Metternich system it was not wonderful that political
+death had been more complete and unmistakeable than in any other part
+of Europe. While in other parts of Europe the press was interfered
+with, here Count Sedlnitzky, the head of the police, had it completely
+under his control. In other parts of the Empire national feeling was
+discouraged. Here, for even reminding the Austrians of the popular
+efforts against Napoleon, Hormayr was driven from the Archduchy of
+Austria. In other parts of the Empire local affairs might sometimes be
+interfered with, but were often passed over as unimportant; in Vienna
+officials were thrust into the place of the elected Town Council. Nor
+was there any assembly at all fitted to be the mouthpiece of Austrian
+discontent in communications between the people and the Government.
+The only assembly which met at Vienna, except the Town Council, was
+that of the Estates of Lower Austria. This assembly represented mainly
+the aristocracy, even the richer burghers not possessing more than a
+nominal voice in their councils. Therefore, even if this body had
+possessed as much freedom as was allowed to the Hungarian Diet, they
+could not have rallied the people round them, because they did not
+understand their wants and had no sympathy with them. Indeed, the
+barrier between rich and poor, noble and serf, seems to have been more
+marked, or at any rate more painfully felt, in the province of Lower
+Austria than in any part of the Empire, except, perhaps, Bohemia. For
+in Vienna there was rapidly growing up all the miseries of a city
+proletariate. The protectionist tariff made dear the articles of
+food, while the absolute suppression of public discussion, and the
+obstacles thrown in the way of any voluntary organization, prevented
+even the benevolent men among the wealthier classes from understanding
+anything of the wants of the poor.
+
+So far were the Government from interfering to correct this evil that,
+when, in 1816, the citizens of Salzburg petitioned for a reduction of
+taxes, on the ground that people were dying of hunger in the streets,
+Francis rebuked the citizens for the arrogance of this appeal, and
+marked Salzburg out for special disfavour in consequence. But the
+crushing out of genuine education was so complete that the poorer
+classes in Vienna were for a long time unable to see how their misery
+was increased by the arrangements of the Government. They saw that no
+leader in the well-to-do classes seemed to concern himself in their
+affairs. For while healthy political and intellectual life was
+repressed in Vienna, that town was not, after all, an unpleasant abode
+for those who gave themselves up to mere self-indulgence. Menz's
+precedent of the Roman circus was followed here also; and Vienna
+became known as the "Capua der Geister." Thus, deprived alike of
+sympathy and power of self-help, the poor could only show their
+bitterness in occasional bread-riots, the reports of which were
+carefully excluded from the papers of the Government. One result of
+this utter depression was that the Viennese eagerly caught at any
+signs of moderation, or the most superficial tendency to Liberalism,
+in any of their rulers; and, being at the centre of affairs, they were
+naturally able to get hints of differences among the official people
+which were unknown to the citizens of other towns. Thus they knew
+that the Government, which to outsiders seemed wholly concentrated
+in Metternich, was, at least nominally, divided between three
+persons--Metternich, the Archduke Louis, and a Bohemian nobleman named
+Kolowrat. The third of this trio was credited with the desire for
+a certain amount of liberty; and it was supposed to be by his
+encouragement that the National Bohemian Museum was founded in Prague
+and became a centre of Slavonic culture. Kolowrat's Liberal sympathies
+would not have counted for much in any other place or time. But the
+fact that he was an opponent of Metternich was enough to gain him some
+sympathy from the Viennese; and when, after the death of Francis,
+Metternich tried to get rid of Kolowrat, he only increased the general
+sympathy for one who was thus marked as his opponent.
+
+The death of Francis, an event hardly felt in the rest of Europe, was
+of considerable importance to Vienna; not so much from any actual
+changes which it produced as from the new hope which it aroused. A
+dull flame of a sort of loyalty to the House of Hapsburg still
+lingered in the breasts of the Viennese; and the sole consolation
+which reconciled them to their abject condition was the belief that
+they were at least carrying out the wishes of the Head of that House.
+Such a consideration, if, from one point of view, it may be described
+as a consolation, yet increased the sense of despair of any redress of
+grievances. But the accession of the Emperor Ferdinand changed this
+feeling. He at least was credited with the desire for a milder policy;
+while the fact that he had suffered for years from epileptic fits made
+it easier to believe that he was not responsible for the failure to
+carry out his own plans; and thus a heavier burden of hatred was
+thrown upon Metternich. It was not, indeed, confined to his political
+opponents. The Archduchess Sophia, the wife of the Heir Apparent, had
+reasons of her own for disliking him; and his own arrogance, backed by
+the arrogance of his wife, roused against him the opposition of that
+aristocratic part of the community which was inclined to favour his
+general policy. On the other hand, the admission of the Archduke
+Francis Charles, the heir to the throne, to the Council of the
+Emperor, tended to increase the belief in the Liberal tendencies of
+Ferdinand. But the concession in 1842 of the permission to establish a
+Reading and Debating Society was considered by the Viennese the
+greatest triumph of Liberal principles.
+
+The formation of this Society was sanctioned by Ferdinand, while
+Metternich was temporarily absent on a journey for his health.
+Ferdinand was induced to consent to it, by his respect for his former
+tutor Sommaruga, who had taken a part in its formation. This Society
+speedily became a centre of all kinds of discussion; and Sedlnitzky,
+the head of the police, soon began to suspect and hamper it, and
+thereby to point out to the rising reformers their natural leaders.
+Professor Hye, a man, as it afterwards appeared, of no very great
+strength of purpose, praised this Society as a power in the State
+which had been gained by the spirit of Association. A police spy at
+once hastened to the Court; the Council was called together; and a
+proposal was made to deprive Hye of his professorship. Archduke Louis
+had the good sense to oppose this proposal; but the fact that it had
+been made speedily got wind, and attracted a certain amount of
+sympathy to Hye. Newspapers and pamphlets, too, somehow gained ground
+under the new _regime_; and three writers especially acquired an
+influence in stirring up public feeling not unlike that which had been
+exercised by Balbo, Gioberti, and others in Italy.
+
+A writer named Andrian took up the question of reform from the
+aristocratic side, stirred up the Landtag in Bohemia to assert the
+Constitutional rights of which they had never been entirely deprived,
+and also influenced the Estates of Lower Austria to strengthen their
+body by admitting a more complete representation of the citizens.
+Schuselka, on the other hand, called upon the Emperor to turn from the
+nobles as untrustworthy, and rely for his help on the citizens. But the
+man who seems to have drawn most support and attention to his opinions
+was Ignatz Kuranda. He did not venture to propound his ideas in
+Austria, but started a paper in Leipzig called the _Grenz Boten_. To
+this all Austrians who desired reform, whether from the aristocratic or
+democratic point of view, hastened to contribute. And the Government
+soon became so much alarmed at these writings that they demanded that
+both Kuranda and Schuselka should be expelled from all the States of
+Germany. It was a sign, perhaps, that Metternich's power was beginning,
+even at that time, to wane, that he was unable to obtain this
+concession; and then the paid writers of the Government set themselves
+to answer the reformers. This attempt, of course, only produced new
+writers on the side of Kuranda; and so the movement gathered additional
+force.
+
+But however excellent the awakening of intellectual freedom might be,
+no steady movement of reform could be inaugurated at this period which
+did not sooner or later gather round the national principle. Neither
+Vienna nor the Archduchy had any traditions of national life; while
+the Austrian Empire, which, in its separate form, was not half a
+century old, was the very negation of the national principle. While,
+therefore, the Viennese looked for lessons in Constitutional freedom
+to the neighbouring State of Hungary, their only hope of sharing in a
+national life seemed to rest on their chance of absorption in Germany.
+Hence arose a movement in many ways hopeless and illogical, and the
+cause of much injustice to other races; but which, nevertheless,
+supplied a strength and vigour to the reformers of Vienna which they
+would otherwise have lacked. They have been denounced for wishing to
+sacrifice the position of their city as the capital of a great Empire
+by consenting to its absorption in another nation, in which it would
+play, at best, only a secondary part. Yet the desire to take a share
+in the common struggles, common traditions, and common hopes of men of
+the same language and race is surely a nobler aspiration than the
+ambition to be the centre of a large number of jarring races, held
+together by military force or diplomatic intrigue. Circumstances and
+History had made the desire of the Viennese impossible of execution;
+but this desire had none the less an element of nobility in it, which
+should not be disregarded. The first to give prominent utterance to
+the new aspiration was the Archduke John, who, at a banquet in
+Cologne, proposed a toast which he afterwards to some extent tried to
+explain away, but which was long remembered by the Germans. "No
+Prussia! No Austria! One great united Germany, firm as its hills!" At
+that period, the most satisfactory bond between Austria and Germany
+would have been found in the Zollverein which had been established by
+Prussia. A German named List came to Vienna in 1844 for the purpose of
+encouraging this union; and a banquet was held in the Hoher Markt at
+Vienna at which List gave the toast of "German Unity," which was
+welcomed with loud cheers, while the health of Metternich, proposed by
+the American Consul, was received in dead silence.
+
+In the meantime, the discussions on public affairs were growing more
+and more keen; and, as the news arrived of the various rebuffs to
+Metternich mentioned in the last chapter, the reformers gained heart.
+Yet it still seemed doubtful whether they could enlist the sympathy of
+the poorer classes on the side of Constitutional liberty. The Estates
+of Lower Austria, however willing to make certain concessions to
+popular feeling, showed none of that care for the improvement of the
+condition of the poor which had been prominent in the Hungarian Diet,
+and also in the Lombard petition. The horrible contrast between wealth
+and poverty, during the distress of 1846 and 1847, is illustrated by
+the following facts:--In the year 1846 a widow in Vienna killed one of
+her children and set it before the others for food. About the same
+time, a Viennese banker gave a dinner at which strawberries were
+produced costing in our money about a pound a-piece!
+
+This awful contrast would naturally prevent the poor from feeling any
+keen sympathy for reform movements inaugurated by the wealthier
+classes; yet, in this very year 1846, some of the poorest citizens of
+Vienna began, for the first time, to show a strong desire for the
+removal of Metternich from office. The ground of this new outburst
+of feeling was the belief that Metternich's championship of the
+Sonderbund arose from his strong sympathy with the Jesuits. It is
+difficult to discern the exact ground of the bitter feeling of the
+poor of Vienna against this Order. The Emperor Francis had disliked
+and discouraged the Jesuits as much as their bitterest opponents could
+wish; nor had Ferdinand been able to secure them any prominent
+position in the State; while Metternich's real feeling towards them
+was, as before remarked, by no means so friendly as the Liberals
+supposed. The citizens of Vienna could therefore hardly believe that
+these men were the pampered favourites of fortune; and the only
+explanation of the universal hatred towards them must be that their
+air of mystery and power made them natural objects of suspicion to men
+who had been driven desperate by poverty, and who were not able to
+discover the causes of their misery. Whatever the reason may be, there
+is little doubt that Metternich's supposed sympathy with the Jesuits
+on this occasion roused bitterness against him in the hearts of many
+whose poverty had hitherto made them callous about questions of
+government.
+
+But a more reasonable bond between the poorer classes and the
+reforming leaders was soon to be established. The discussions of the
+Viennese Reading and Debating Club had been concerned during these
+terrible years with the condition of the poor; and, on April 10, 1847,
+the leaders of the Club held a meeting to prepare for the organization
+of a soup-kitchen. They soon formed a Committee, under the leadership
+of the future Minister Bach, and issued an appeal for help. For
+issuing this appeal without the previous sanction of the censorship
+the Committee received a stern rebuke from Sedlnitzky; and though,
+after some discussion, the police allowed the appeal to appear, the
+officials complained continually of the independent action of this
+Committee, and tried to hamper it in every way.
+
+It was not merely, however, as the centre of efforts for the relief of
+the poor that the Debating Club and those who supported it attracted
+the sympathy of the reformers. Both there and in the University there
+were ever-growing signs of political life. Professor Hye had fiercely
+denounced the annexation of Cracow, and had encouraged his pupils to
+debate the subject of the freedom of the Press; and Professor Kudler
+had promoted the study of political economy. The books of both these
+professors were prohibited by the Government, and, in consequence,
+were widely read. More prominent still, as champions of University
+Reform, were the leaders of the medical profession. The Court
+physicians had succeeded, for a time, in bringing the Medical Faculty
+under the complete supervision of the Government; but in 1844 the
+students undertook to draw up new rules which should emancipate their
+course of study from this subservient position; and, after three
+years' struggle, in September, 1847, they won the day, and established
+a government for their Faculty which was independent of Metternich.
+This new institution attracted the sympathies of the freest spirits
+of Vienna, and the growth of clubs was favoured by the leading medical
+professors.
+
+It was obvious that the great movements which were stirring in Italy
+would affect the feeling of the Viennese; but the result was perhaps
+less in Vienna than in other parts of Europe, because of the dislike
+felt for the Germans by the Italians. And, in spite of the growing
+desire for a German national life, the Viennese could not throw off
+the coarse Imperialism which naturally connected itself with the
+position of their city; nor could they get rid entirely of the old
+theory of Joseph II., that enlightenment and culture must necessarily
+come to all races from the Germans. But the desire to reconcile the
+love of liberty with the instinct of domination showed itself
+curiously enough in a pamphlet which appeared in 1848 called "Die
+Sibyllinische Buecher," by Karl Moering, an officer in the army. Moering,
+like Schuselka, called on the Emperor to become a citizen king, and to
+break down all monopolies and oligarchical distinctions. But, while
+this writer wished to let the Italians go as being unnaturally
+connected with the Empire, he desired to compensate the Emperor for
+this loss by the annexation of the Balkan provinces; and he uttered
+the warning that, unless freedom were granted, the Austrian Empire
+would break up, and Magyars and Czechs on the East and West would
+found separate kingdoms. "The Empire," says Moering, "can reckon
+thirty-eight million subjects, but not one political citizen; not one
+man who, on moral and political grounds, can be proved to be an
+Austrian.... The Austrian has no Fatherland."
+
+This pamphlet produced a great effect, for it appealed at once to the
+two great rival aspirations of the Austrian Liberals; and perhaps it
+attracted all the more attention from the fact that the writer was a
+captain in the army. Metternich, however, steadily refused to believe
+in the extent of the discontent, and rebuked Sedlnitzky for the
+warnings that he brought. It was evident that Metternich was determined
+to fight to the last, and, if possible, to ignore to the last the
+dangers that were surrounding him. Kolowrat, after a fierce struggle,
+succeeded in securing a new College of Censorship, which he thought
+would be more favourable to literature; but no sooner was it
+established than Sedlnitzky succeeded in turning it into a new engine
+of oppression, and so heavy a one that the booksellers feared that
+their trade would be entirely crushed out.
+
+And, while Metternich and his followers were prepared to deal in this
+manner with the people of Vienna, he at least was equally determined
+to crush those other opponents whom he considered the most troublesome
+at the moment. On January 12, 1848, the Austrian Government had,
+in concert with France and the German Confederation, threatened
+Switzerland with a commercial blockade, to be followed by armed
+intervention, if the Swiss attempted to make any change in their
+Constitution without the consent of the three Great Powers; and
+Metternich was preparing for a conference to devise means for carrying
+out this threat. With his Lombard subjects he was prepared to deal
+still more summarily; and, on February 22, the following Edict was
+issued for that province. In case of riot, sentence of death was to be
+given in fifteen days by a Commission, without appeal to the Emperor.
+Everyone who wore certain distinctive badges, sung or recited certain
+songs, wore or exhibited certain colours, applauded or hissed certain
+passages in a drama or concert, joined in a crowd at a given place of
+meeting, whether for the purpose of raising subscriptions or of
+dissuading from acting with certain persons, might be imprisoned,
+banished, or fined to the extent of 10,000 lire. Such were the
+measures by which Metternich was hoping to crush out the growing
+freedom of Europe, when the shock of the French Revolution once more
+disturbed his calculations.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[8] I do not know what relation he was to the more celebrated Santa
+Rosa of 1821.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF DESPOTISM. MARCH, 1848.
+
+     Character of the French Revolution of 1848.--Its unlikeness to the
+     revolutions in the rest of Europe.--Position of South German
+     States.--Wuertemberg.--Bavaria.--Baden.--Struve and Hecker.--The
+     Offenburg Meeting.--Bassermann's Motion.--The procession to
+     Carlsruhe.--The risings in Wuertemberg--in Bavaria--in the small
+     States--in Saxony.--Effect of French and German risings in
+     Vienna.--Kossuth's speech of March 3.--Its importance.--Its effect
+     on Vienna.--Dr. Loehner's Motion.--The "Eleven Points."--Effect of
+     the reform movement on the rulers of Austria.--The Meeting at
+     Heidelberg.--Heinrich von Gagern.--Division between Students and
+     Professors in Vienna.--The deputation of March 12.--The meeting of
+     March 13.--The "first free word."--The "Estates."--The
+     insurrection.--The workmen's movement.--Pollet.--The fall of
+     Metternich.--Intrigues of Windischgraetz and the Camarilla.--Kossuth
+     in Vienna.--Austria "on the path of progress."--The insurrection in
+     Berlin.--Its character and success.--Bohemia in the sixteenth and
+     seventeenth centuries.--Policy of Ferdinand II. and III.--of Maria
+     Theresa--of Joseph II.--The language question.--The March movement
+     in Prague.--Gabler.--Peter Faster.--The language revives.--The
+     first meeting at the Wenzel's-bad.--The two petitions.--The mission
+     to Vienna.--Contrast of Metternich's treatment of Lombardy with
+     that of other parts of the Empire.--The secret proclamations.--The
+     final concessions.--Augusto Anfossi.--His programme.--The rising of
+     the 18th of March.--The appeal to O'Donnell.--The "Five
+     Days."--Flight of Radetzky.--Difference of Venetian movement from
+     the other movements.--Manin's imprisonment and its effects.--His
+     release.--The Civic Guard.--Death of Marinovich.--Magyars and
+     Croats.--Venice free.--Palffy's treachery.--General summary of the
+     March risings.
+
+
+The reign of Louis Philippe had indirectly produced stirrings of
+thought in France which were at a later period to have their influence
+on Europe; and which, indeed, may be said to be affecting us at this
+moment. But the time for this influence had not yet arrived; and the
+immediate result of that reign had been in some measure to confirm
+France in the secondary position in European affairs to which the fall
+of Napoleon had naturally brought her. The foreign aggression, which
+had been favoured by the Ministers of Charles X., had given place to
+intrigues like those relating to the Spanish marriages; the despotic
+policy which had forced on the revolution of July, 1830, had made way
+for manipulation and corruption; and aristocratic pretensions for the
+arrogance of bourgeois wealth. Attempts at reform were defeated rather
+by fraud than by force; and, though the immediate cause of the
+revolution was an act of violence, it was to the cry "A bas les
+corrompus" that the revolutionists rushed into the parliament of Louis
+Philippe. The questions, therefore, with which France had to deal,
+vitally important as they were, were not those which were agitating
+Europe at that period. And, if the subjects in which France was
+interested were not yet ripe for handling by the other nations of
+Europe, still less could the watchwords of the European revolution be
+inscribed on the banner of France. The principle of nationality, the
+development, that is, of a freer life by the voluntary union of men of
+the same race and language, was not one which could interest the
+French. The first movement for distinctly national independence in
+Europe had been the rising of Spain against the French in 1808; the
+second, the rising of Germany in 1813; and, though there might be in
+France sentimental sympathies with Greeks and Poles, these were due
+rather to special classical feeling in the one case, and traditions of
+common wars in the other, than to any real sympathy with national
+independence. France, at the end of the previous century, had offered
+to secure to Europe the Rights of Man, and had presented them instead
+with the tyranny of Napoleon; the rights of nations had been asserted
+against her, and the national movement would be continued irrespective
+of her.
+
+It may sound a paradox, but is none the less true, that this absence
+of French initiative in the European revolution of 1848 is most
+strikingly illustrated in those countries which seemed most directly
+to catch the revolutionary spark from France, viz., Wuertemberg,
+Bavaria, and Baden. The States of South Germany had, ever since 1815,
+been a continual thorn in the side of Metternich. A desire for
+independence of Austria had combined with an antagonism to Prussia to
+keep alive in those States a spirit with which Metternich found it
+very hard to deal. Wuertemberg had been the first to hamper his
+progress towards despotic rule; while the size of Bavaria and its
+importance in the German Confederation had enabled its rulers to
+maintain a tone of independence which Metternich could not rebuke with
+the same freedom which he used towards the princes of less important
+States. But it was in the smallest and apparently weakest of the three
+States of Southern Germany that the movement was being matured which
+was eventually to be so dangerous to the power both of Austria and
+France. The Grand Duchy of Baden had had, since 1815, a very peculiar
+history of its own. The Grand Duke had been one of those who had
+granted a Constitution to his people not long after the Congress of
+Vienna. A reaction had, however, soon set in; no doubt, to some
+extent, under the influence of Metternich. But it was not till 1825
+that the opposition of the people of Baden seemed to be crushed and a
+servile Parliament secured. Again a Grand Duke of Liberal opinions
+came to the throne in 1830; but he, in his turn, was forced to bend to
+Metternich's power, and to submit to the Frankfort Decrees in 1832;
+and in 1839 Metternich succeeded in getting a Minister appointed who
+was entirely under his control. But these public submissions on the
+part of the official leaders made it easier for a few private citizens
+to keep alive the spirit of opposition in Baden.
+
+In 1845 Gustav Struve had come forward, not merely to demand reform in
+Baden, but also to prophesy the fall of Metternich. For this offence
+he was imprisoned; but he continued to keep alive an element of
+opposition in Mannheim, where he founded gymnastic unions, and edited
+a journal in which he denounced the Baden Ministry. But, though Struve
+seems to have been one of the first to give expression to the
+aspirations of the Baden people, the man whom they specially delighted
+to honour was a leader in the Chamber of Deputies named Hecker, a
+lawyer of Mannheim, who had gained much popular sympathy by pleading
+gratuitously in the law courts. He was elected to the Chamber of
+Deputies in 1847; and he soon began to distinguish himself by his
+championship of German movements, and, more particularly, by his
+sympathy with the reform movement in the German Catholic Church and
+with the German aspirations of the people of Schleswig-Holstein. By an
+accidental circumstance, he and another Baden representative named
+Izstein attracted a large amount of attention to themselves; for,
+happening to stop at Berlin in the course of a journey, they were
+suddenly, and without any apparent reason, ordered to leave the town.
+This was believed to be the first occasion on which a representative
+of the people had been treated in this contemptuous manner; and thus
+the names of Hecker and Izstein became more widely known in Germany
+than those of the other leaders of the Baden movement.
+
+The struggle in Switzerland naturally had its effect in Baden; and the
+Grand Duke began once more to assert those Constitutional principles
+which he had held when first he came to the throne. He did not,
+however, keep pace with the desires of the reformers; and so, on
+September 12, 1847, the Baden Liberals had met at Offenburg, and
+demanded freedom of the Press, trial by jury, and other reforms,
+amongst which should be mentioned, as a sign of Struve's opinions, the
+settlement of the differences between labour and capital. It was for
+their action at this meeting that the reformers had been threatened
+with the prosecution which never took place.
+
+But, in the meantime, the rush of German feeling was adding a new
+element to the reform movement in Baden. Amand Goegg had been trying
+to revive the demand for a German National Assembly. The religious
+reforms of Ronge, which had excited so much interest in Saxony, also
+attracted sympathy in Baden. Struve's gymnastic unions kept alive
+the traditions of Jahn; and song, as usual, came to the help of
+patriotism. These causes so hastened the movement for German unity
+that, on February 12, 1848, Bassermann moved, in the Baden Chamber,
+that the Grand Duke should be petitioned to take steps for promoting
+common legislation for Germany. This motion, coming from a man who was
+never reckoned an advanced Liberal, naturally hastened the awakening
+of German feeling; and on February 27 the Baden Liberals met at
+Mannheim, and decided to summon a meeting at Carlsruhe, at which they
+intended to put forward the demand for a really representative German
+Parliament. Thus it was on ground already prepared that there now fell
+the news of the French Revolution; and when, on March 1, the leaders
+of the procession from Mannheim entered Carlsruhe, wearing the black,
+red, and gold of United Germany, the Ministry were ready to make
+concessions; and, on March 2, the Second Chamber of Baden demanded the
+repeal of the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, of the Frankfort Decrees of
+1832, and of the Vienna Decrees of 1834; and they further required
+that the Government should take means to secure representation of the
+German people in the Bundestag.
+
+While Baden was striking the keynote of German unity, the other small
+States of Germany were preparing to take it up. In Wuertemberg the
+Ministers had grown, in latter days, somewhat tyrannical; and, when
+the citizens gathered in Stuttgart to demand freedom of the Press and
+a German Parliament, the President of the Council advised the King to
+summon troops to his aid. But the King was more Liberal than his
+Ministers; he consented to call to office a Liberal Ministry; and the
+Chamber which was now formed speedily decreed the abolition of feudal
+dues. In Bavaria the power exercised by Lola Montez over the King had
+long been distasteful to the sterner reformers. She had attempted,
+indeed, to pay court to the Liberals; but she had given such offence
+to some of the students of Munich as to provoke a riot which led to
+the closing of the University. The nobles and Jesuits would now have
+gladly sacrificed the King's favourite to the people; but the Baden
+rising had fired the Bavarian Liberals with a desire for much greater
+reforms. Their hatred of the Jesuits quickened their zeal; for that
+body was supposed to divide with Lola Montez the conscience of the
+King. Animated by these various causes of indignation, the Bavarian
+Liberals were ready enough for action; and on the news of the Baden
+movement they broke into the arsenal at Munich, provided themselves
+with arms, and demanded a German Parliament. The King consented to
+summon, at any rate, a Bavarian Parliament for the present; but,
+unable to fall in readily with the popular movement, and resenting the
+opposition to his favourite, he abdicated a few weeks later in favour
+of his son. The spark, once lighted in the South, spread among the
+smaller States of Germany. In Hesse Cassel the Elector tried to offer
+some opposition; but the citizens of Hanau marched upon Cassel and
+compelled the Elector to yield. In Hesse Darmstadt the Grand Duke
+yielded more readily, under the influence of his Minister, Heinrich
+von Gagern. In Nassau the movement received additional interest from
+the seizure by the victorious people of the Johannisberg, which
+belonged to Metternich.
+
+But the most interesting of the struggles was that in Saxony. Robert
+Blum was present at a ball in Leipzig when the news arrived of the
+French Revolution. He at once hastened to consult his friends; and
+they agreed to act through the Town Council of Leipzig, and sketched
+out the demands which they desired should be laid before the King.
+These were: "A reorganization of the Constitution of the German Bund
+in the spirit and in accordance with the needs of the times, for which
+the way is to be prepared by the unfettering of the Press, and the
+summoning of representatives of all German peoples to the Assembly of
+the Bund." The Town Council adopted this address on March 1, and sent
+a deputation with it to Dresden; and, on the 3rd, the people gathered
+to meet the deputation on their return. The following is the account
+given by the son of Robert Blum:--
+
+"By anonymous placards on the wall, the population of Leipzig was
+summoned, on the evening of March 3, to meet at the railway-station
+the deputation returning from Dresden. Since the space was too narrow
+in this place, the innumerable mass marched to the market-place,
+which, as well as the neighbouring streets, they completely filled. In
+perfect silence the thousands awaited here the arrival of the
+deputation, which, at last, towards nine o'clock, arrived, and was
+greeted with unceasing applause. Town Councillor Seeburg spoke first
+of the deep emotion of the King; after him spoke Biedermann. But the
+crowd uproariously demanded Robert Blum. At last Blum appeared on the
+balcony of the Town Council House. His voice alone controlled the
+whole market-place, and was even heard in the neighbouring streets.
+He, too, sought, by trying to quiet them, to turn them away from the
+subject of the address and of the King's answer. But the people broke
+in uproariously even into his speech with the demand, 'The answer! The
+answer!' It could no longer be concealed that the petitions of the
+town had received harsh rejection. Then came a loud and passionate
+murmur. The masses had firmly hoped that the deputation would bring
+with them from Dresden the news of the dismissal of the hated
+Ministers. But Blum continued his speech, and they renewed their
+attention to him. 'In Constitutional countries,' said he, 'it is not
+the King, but the Ministers who are responsible. They, too, bear the
+responsibility of the rejection of the Leipzig proposals. The people
+must press for their removal.' He added that he would bring forward in
+the next meeting of the Town Representatives the proposal that the
+King should dismiss the Ministry, 'which does not possess the
+confidence of the people.' Amidst tremendous shouts of exultation and
+applause, the appeased assembly dispersed."
+
+[Illustration: ROBERT BLUM.]
+
+Blum was as successful with his colleagues as with the crowd; and
+the Town Council now demanded from the King the dismissal of his
+Ministers, the meeting of the Assembly, and freedom of the Press. The
+King tried to resist the last of these three proposals, pleading his
+duty to the Bund. But even the Bundestag had felt the spirit of the
+times; and, on March 1, had passed a resolution giving leave to every
+Government to abolish the censorship of the Press. The King seemed
+to yield, and promised to fulfil all that was wished; but the
+reactionary party in Dresden had become alarmed at the action of the
+men of Leipzig; and so, on March 11, when the men of Leipzig supposed
+that all was granted, General von Carlowitz entered their city at the
+head of a strong force, and demanded that the Town Council should
+abstain from exciting speeches; that the Elocution Union should give
+up all political discussion; that the processions of people should
+cease; and, above all, that the march from Leipzig to Dresden, which
+was believed to be then intended, should be given up. These demands
+were met by Blum with an indignant protest. "Five men," said he, "who
+manage the army cannot understand that, though their bullets may kill
+men, they cannot make a single hole in the idea that rules the world."
+The Town Councillors of Leipzig were equally firm. Carlowitz abandoned
+his attempt as hopeless; and on March 13 the King summoned a Liberal
+Ministry, who abolished the censorship of the Press, granted publicity
+of legal proceedings, trial by jury, and a wider basis for the Saxon
+parliament, and promised to assist in the reform of the Bund.
+
+In the meantime the success of the French Revolution had awakened new
+hopes in Vienna. Soon after the arrival of the news, a placard
+appeared on one of the city gates bearing the words, "In a month
+Prince Metternich will be overthrown! Long live Constitutional
+Austria!" Metternich himself was greatly alarmed, and began to listen
+to proposals for extending the power of the Lower Austrian Estates.
+Yet he still hoped by talking over and discussing these matters to
+delay the executions of reforms till a more favourable turn in
+affairs should render them either harmless or unnecessary.
+
+But great as was the alarm caused by the South German risings, and
+great as were the hopes which they kindled in the Viennese, the word
+which was to give definiteness and importance to the impulses which
+were stirring in Vienna could not come from Bavaria or Saxony. Much as
+they might wish to connect themselves with a German movement, the
+Viennese could not get rid of the fact that they were, for the
+present, bound up with a different political system. Nor was it wholly
+clear that the German movement was as yet completely successful. The
+King of Prussia seemed to be meditating a reactionary policy, and had
+even threatened to despatch troops to put down the Saxon Liberals; and
+the King of Hanover also was disposed to resist the movement for a
+German parliament. It was from a country more closely bound up with
+the Viennese Government, and yet enjoying traditions of more deeply
+rooted liberty, that the utterance was to come which was eventually to
+rouse the Viennese to action.
+
+The readiness of the nobles to accept the purely verbal concession
+offered by Metternich in the matter of the "Administrators" had shown
+Kossuth that there could be no further peace. But he still knew how
+and when to strike the blow; and it was not by armed insurrection so
+much as by the declaration of a policy that he shook the rule of
+Metternich. On March 3 a Conservative member of the Presburg Assembly
+brought forward a motion for inquiry into the Austrian bank-notes.
+Kossuth answered that the confusion in the affairs of Austrian
+commerce produced an evil effect on Hungarian finances; and he showed
+the need of an independent finance ministry for Hungary. Then he went
+on to point out that this same confusion extended to other parts of
+the monarchy. "The actual cause of the breaking up of peace in the
+monarchy, and of all the evils which may possibly follow from it, lies
+in the system of Government." He admitted that it was hard for
+those who had been brought up under this system to consent to its
+destruction. "But," he went on, "the People lasts for ever, and we
+wish also that the Country of the People should last for ever. For
+ever too should last the splendour of that Dynasty whom we reckon as
+our rulers. In a few days the men of the past will descend into their
+graves; but for that scion of the House of Hapsburg who excites such
+great hopes, for the Archduke Francis Joseph, who at his first coming
+forward earned the love of the nation,--for him there waits the
+inheritance of a splendid throne which derives its strength from
+freedom. Towards a Dynasty which bases itself on the freedoms of its
+Peoples enthusiasm will always be roused; for it is only the freeman
+who can be faithful from his heart; for a bureaucracy there can be no
+enthusiasm." He then urged that the future of the Dynasty depended on
+the hearty union between the nations which lived under it. "This
+union," he said, "can only be brought about by respecting the
+nationalities, and by that bond of Constitutionalism which can produce
+a kindred feeling. The bureau and the bayonet are miserable bonds." He
+then went on to apologize for not examining the difficulties between
+Hungary and Croatia. The solution of the difficulties of the Empire
+would, he held, solve the Croatian question too. If it did not, he
+promised to consider that question with sympathy, and examine it in
+all its details. He concluded by proposing an address to the Emperor
+which should point out that it was the want of Constitutional life in
+the whole Empire which hindered the progress of Hungary; and that,
+while an independent Government and a separate responsible Ministry
+were absolutely essential to Hungary, it was also necessary that the
+Emperor should surround his throne, in all matters of Government, with
+such Constitutional arrangements as were indispensably demanded by the
+needs of the time.
+
+This utterance has been called the Baptismal speech of the Revolution.
+Coming as it did directly after the news of the French Revolution, it
+gave a definiteness to the growing demands for freedom; but it did more
+than this. Metternich had cherished a growing hope that the demand for
+Constitutional Government in Vienna might be gradually used to crush
+out the independent position of Hungary, by absorbing the Hungarians in
+a common Austrian parliament; and he had looked upon the Croatian
+question as a means for still further weakening the power of the
+Hungarian Diet. Kossuth's speech struck a blow at these hopes by
+declaring that freedom for any part of the Empire could only be
+obtained by working for the freedom of the whole; he swept aside for
+the moment those national and provincial jealousies which were the
+great strength of the Austrian despotism, and appealed to all the
+Liberals of the Empire to unite against the system which was oppressing
+them all. Had Kossuth remained true to the faith which he proclaimed
+in this speech, it is within the limits of probability that the whole
+Revolution of 1848-9 might have had a different result.
+
+The Hungarian Chancellor, Mailath, was so alarmed at Kossuth's speech
+that he hindered the setting out of the deputation which was to have
+presented the address to the Emperor. But he could not prevent the
+speech from producing its effect. Although Presburg was only six
+hours' journey from Vienna, the route had been made so difficult that
+the news of anything done in the Hungarian Diet had hitherto reached
+Vienna in a very roundabout manner, and had sometimes been a week on
+its way. The news of this speech, however, arrived on the very next
+day; and Kossuth's friend Pulszky immediately translated it into
+German, and circulated it among the Viennese. A rumour of its contents
+had spread before the actual speech. It was said that Kossuth had
+declared war against the system of Government, and that he had said
+State bankruptcy was inevitable. But, as the news became more
+definite, the minds of the Viennese fixed upon two points: the
+denunciation of the men of the past, and the demand for a Constitution
+for Austria. So alarmed did the Government become at the effect of
+this speech, that they undertook to answer it in an official paper.
+The writer of this answer called attention to the terrible scenes
+which he said were being enacted in Paris, which proved, according to
+him, that the only safety for the governed was in rallying round the
+Government. This utterance naturally excited only contempt and
+disgust; and the ever-arriving news of new Constitutions granted in
+Germany swelled the enthusiasm which had been roused by Kossuth's
+speech.
+
+The movement still centred in the professors of the University. On
+March 1 Dr. Loehner had proposed, at one of the meetings of the Reading
+and Debating Society, that negotiations should be opened with the
+Estates; and that they should be urged to declare their Assembly
+permanent, the country in danger, and Metternich a public enemy. This
+proposal marked a definite step in Constitutional progress. The Estates
+of Lower Austria, which met in Vienna, had, indeed, from time to time,
+expressed their opinions on certain public grievances; but these
+opinions had been generally disregarded by Francis and Metternich; and,
+though the latter had of late talked of enlarging the powers of the
+Estates, he had evidently intended such words partly as mere talk, in
+order to delay any efficient action, and partly as a bid against the
+concessions which had been made by the King of Prussia. That the
+leaders of a popular movement should suggest an appeal to the Estates
+of Lower Austria was, therefore, an unexpected sign of a desire to find
+any legal centre for action, however weak in power, and however
+aristocratic in composition, that centre might be.
+
+Dr. Loehner's proposal, however, does not seem to have been generally
+adopted; and, instead of the suggested appeal to the Estates, a
+programme of eleven points was circulated by the Debating Society.
+When we consider that the Revolution broke out in less than a
+fortnight after this petition, we cannot but be struck with the
+extreme moderation of the demands now made. Most of the eleven points
+were concerned with proposals for the removal either of forms of
+corruption, or of restraints on personal liberty, and they were
+chiefly directed against those interferences with the life and
+teaching of the Universities which were causing so much bitterness in
+Vienna. Such demands for Constitutional reforms as were contained in
+this programme were certainly not of an alarming character. The
+petitioners asked that the right of election to the Assembly of
+Estates should be extended to citizens and peasants; that the
+deliberative powers of the Estates should be enlarged; and that the
+whole Empire should be represented in an Assembly, for which, however,
+the petitioners only asked a consultative power. Perhaps the three
+demands in this petition which would have excited the widest sympathy
+were those in favour of the universal arming of the people, the
+universal right of petition, and the abolition of the censorship. The
+expression of desire for reform now became much more general, and even
+some members of the Estates prepared an appeal to their colleagues
+against the bureaucratic system. But the character and tone of the
+utterances of these new reformers somewhat weakened the effect which
+had been produced by the bolder complaints of the earlier leaders of
+the movement; for, while the students of the University and some of
+their professors still showed a desire for bold and independent
+action, the merchants caught eagerly at the sympathy of the Archduke
+Francis Charles, while the booksellers addressed to the Emperor a
+petition in which servility passes into blasphemy.
+
+These signs of weakness were no doubt observed by the Government; and
+it was not wonderful that, under these circumstances, Metternich and
+Kolowrat should have been able to persuade themselves that they could
+still play with the Viennese, and put them off with promises which
+need never be performed. Archduke Louis alone seems to have foreseen
+the coming storm, but was unable to persuade his colleagues to make
+military preparations to meet it. In the meantime the movement among
+the students was assuming more decided proportions; and their demands
+related as usual to the great questions of freedom of speech, freedom
+of the Press, and freedom of teaching; and to these were now added the
+demand for popular representation, the justifications for which they
+drew from Kossuth's speech of March 3.
+
+But, while Hungary supplied the model of Constitutional Government,
+the hope for a wider national life connected itself more and more with
+the idea of a united Germany. Two days after the delivery of Kossuth's
+speech an impulse had been given to this latter feeling by the meeting
+at Heidelberg of the leading supporters of German unity; and they had
+elected a committee of seven to prepare the way for a Constituent
+Assembly at Frankfort. Of these seven, two came from Baden, one from
+Wuertemberg, one from Hesse Darmstadt, one from Prussia, one from
+Bavaria, and one from Frankfort. Thus it will be seen that South
+Germany still kept the lead in the movement for German unity; and the
+President of the Committee was that Izstein, of Baden, who had been
+chiefly known to Germany by his ill-timed expulsion from Berlin. But,
+though this distribution of power augured ill for the relations
+between the leaders of the German movement and the King of Prussia,
+yet the meeting at Heidelberg was not prepared to adopt the complete
+programme of the Baden leaders, nor to commit itself definitely to
+that Republican movement which would probably have repelled the North
+German Liberals.
+
+The chief leader of the more moderate party in the meeting was
+Heinrich von Gagern, the representative of Hesse Darmstadt. Gagern was
+the son of a former Minister of the Grand Duke of Nassau, who had left
+that State to take service in Austria, and who had acted with the
+Archduke John in planning a popular rising in the Tyrol in 1813.
+Heinrich had been trained at a military school in Munich. He had
+steadily opposed the policy of Metternich, had done his best to
+induce the Universities to co-operate in a common German movement,
+and had tried to secure internal liberties for Hesse Darmstadt,
+while he had urged his countrymen to look for the model of a free
+Constitution rather to England and Hungary than to France. During the
+Constitutional movement of 1848 he had become Prime Minister of Hesse
+Darmstadt; and he seems to have had considerable power of winning
+popular confidence. Although he was not able to commit the meeting to
+a definitely monarchical policy, he had influence enough to counteract
+the attempts of Struve and Hecker to carry a proposal for the
+proclamation of a Republic; and his influence steadily increased
+during the later phases of the movement.
+
+It was obvious that, in the then state of Viennese feeling, a movement
+in favour of German unity, at once so determined and so moderate in
+its character, would give new impulse to the hopes for freedom already
+excited by Kossuth's speech; and the action of the reformers now
+became more vigorous because the students rather than the professors
+were guiding the movement. Some of the latter, and particularly
+Professor Hye, were beginning to be alarmed, and were attempting to
+hold their pupils in check. This roused the distrust and suspicion of
+the students; and it was with great difficulty that Professors Hye and
+Endlicher could prevail on the younger leaders of the movement to
+abstain from action until the professors had laid before the Emperor
+the desire of the University for the removal of Metternich. This
+deputation waited on the Emperor on March 12; but it proved of little
+avail; and when the professors returned with the answer that the
+Emperor would consider the matter, the students received them with
+loud laughter and resolved to take the matter into their own hands.
+The next day was to be the opening of the Assembly of the Estates of
+Lower Austria; and the students of Vienna resolved to march in
+procession from the University to the Landhaus.
+
+In the great hall of the University, now hidden away in an obscure
+part of Vienna, but still retaining traces of the paintings which then
+decorated it, the students gathered in large numbers on the 13th of
+March. Various rumours of a discouraging kind had been circulated;
+this and that leading citizen was mentioned as having been arrested;
+nay, it was even said that members of the Estates had themselves been
+seized, and that the sitting of the Assembly would not be allowed
+to take place. To these rumours were added the warnings of the
+professors. Fuester, who had recently preached on the duty of devotion
+to the cause of the country, now endeavoured, by praises of the
+Emperor, to check the desire of the students for immediate action; but
+he was scraped down. Hye then appealed to them to wait a few days, in
+hopes of a further answer from the Emperor. They answered with a
+shout that they would not wait an hour; and then they raised the cry
+of "Landhaus!" Breaking loose from all further restraint, they set out
+on their march, and, as they went, numbers gathered round them. The
+people of Vienna had already been appealed to, by a placard on St.
+Stephen's Church, to free the good Emperor Ferdinand from his enemies;
+and the placard further declared that he who wished for the rise of
+Austria must wish for the fall of the present Ministers of State. The
+appeal produced its effect; and the crowd grew denser as the students
+marched into the narrow Herren Gasse. They passed under the archway
+which led into the courtyard of the Landhaus; there, in front of the
+very building where the Assembly was sitting, they came to a dead
+halt; and, with the strange hesitation which sometimes comes over
+crowds, no man seemed to know what was next to be done. Suddenly, in
+the pause which followed, the words "Meine Herren" were heard from a
+corner of the crowd. It was evident that someone was trying to address
+them; and the students nearest to the speaker hoisted him on to their
+shoulders. Then the crowd saw a quiet-looking man, with a round,
+strong head, short-cropped hair, and a thick beard. Each man eagerly
+asked his neighbour who this could be; and, as the speech proceeded,
+the news went round that this was Dr. Fischhof, a man who had been
+very little known beyond medical circles, and hitherto looked upon as
+quite outside political movements. Such was the speaker who now
+uttered what is still remembered as the "first free word" in Vienna.
+
+He began by dwelling on the importance of the day and on the need of
+"encouraging the men who sit there," pointing to the Landhaus, "by our
+appeal to them, of strengthening them by our adherence, and leading
+them to the desired end by our co-operation in action. He," exclaimed
+Fischhof, "who has no courage on such a day as this is only fit for
+the nursery." He then proceeded to dwell at some length on the need
+for freedom of the Press and trial by jury. Then, catching, as it
+were, the note of Kossuth's speech of the 3rd of March, he went on
+to speak of the greatness which Austria might attain by combining
+together "the idealist Germans, the steady, industrious, and
+persevering Slavs, the knightly and enthusiastic Magyars, the clever
+and sharp-sighted Italians." Finally, he called upon them to demand
+freedom of the Press, freedom of religion, freedom of teaching and
+learning, a responsible Ministry, representation of the people, arming
+of the people, and connection with Germany.[9]
+
+In the meantime the Estates were sitting within. They had gathered in
+unusually large numbers, being persuaded by their president that they
+were bound to resist the stream of opinion. Representatives as they
+were of the privileged classes, they had little sympathy with the
+movement which was going on in Vienna. Nor does it appear that
+there was anyone among them who was disposed to play the part of a
+Confalonieri or Szechenyi, much less of a Mirabeau or a Lafayette. Many
+of them had heard rumours of the coming deputation; but Montecuccoli,
+their president, refused to begin the proceedings before the regular
+hour. While they were still debating this point they heard the rush of
+the crowd outside; then the sudden silence, and then Fischhof's voice.
+Several members were seized with a panic and desired to adjourn. Again
+Montecuccoli refused to yield, and one of their few Liberal members
+urged them to take courage from the fact of this deputation, and to
+make stronger demands on the Government.
+
+But before the Assembly could decide how to act the crowd outside had
+taken sterner measures. The speakers who immediately followed Fischhof
+had made little impression; then another doctor, named Goldmark,
+sprang up and urged the people to break into the Landhaus. So, before
+the leaders of the Estates had decided what action to take, the doors
+were suddenly burst open, and Fischhof entered at the head of the
+crowd. He announced that he had come to encourage the Estates in their
+deliberations, and to ask them to sanction the demands embodied in the
+petition of the people. Montecuccoli assured the deputation that the
+Emperor had already promised to summon the provincial Assemblies to
+Vienna, and that, for their part, the Estates of Lower Austria were in
+favour of progress. "But," he added, "they must have room and
+opportunity to deliberate." Fischhof assented to this suggestion, and
+persuaded his followers to withdraw to the courtyard. But those who
+had remained behind had been seized with a fear of treachery, and a
+cry arose that Fischhof had been arrested. Thereupon Fischhof showed
+himself, with Montecuccoli, on the balcony; and the president promised
+that the Estates would send a deputation of their own to the Emperor
+to express to him the wishes of the people. He therefore invited the
+crowd to choose twelve men, to be present at the deliberations of the
+Estates during the drawing up of the petition. While the election of
+these twelve was still going on, a Hungarian student appeared with the
+German translation of Kossuth's speech. The Hungarian's voice being
+too weak to make itself heard, he handed the speech to a Tyrolese
+student, who read it to the crowd. The allusion to the need of a
+Constitution was received with loud applause, and so also was the
+expression of the hopes for good from the Archduke Francis Joseph.
+
+But, however much the reading of the speech had encouraged the hopes
+of the crowd, it had also given time for the Estates to decide on a
+course, without waiting for the twelve representatives of the people;
+and, before the crowd had heard the end of Kossuth's speech, the
+reading was interrupted by a message from the Estates announcing the
+contents of their proposed petition. The petition had shrunk to the
+meagre demand that a report on the condition of the State bank should
+be laid before the Estates; and that a committee should be chosen from
+provincial Assemblies to consider timely reforms, and to take a share
+in legislation. The feeble character of the proposed compromise roused
+a storm of scorn and rage; and a Moravian student tore the message of
+the Estates into pieces. The conclusion of Kossuth's speech roused the
+people to still further excitement; and, with cries for a free
+Constitution, for union with Germany, and against alliance with
+Russia, the crowd once more broke into the Assembly. One of the
+leading students then demanded of Montecuccoli whether this was
+the whole of the petition they intended to send to the Emperor?
+Montecuccoli answered that the Estates had been so disturbed in
+their deliberations that they had not been able to come to a final
+decision. But he declared that they desired to lay before the Emperor
+all the wishes of the people. Again the leaders of the crowd repeated,
+in slightly altered form, the demands originally formulated by
+Fischhof. At last, after considerable discussion, Montecuccoli was
+preparing to start for the Castle at the head of the Estates when a
+regiment of soldiers arrived. They were, however, unable to make their
+way through the crowd, and were even pressed back out of the Herren
+Gasse.
+
+The desire now arose for better protection for the people; and a
+deputation tried to persuade the Burgomaster of Vienna to call out the
+City Guard. Czapka, the Burgomaster, was, however, a mere tool
+of the Government; and he declared that the Archduke Albert, as
+Commander-in-Chief of the army, had alone the power of calling out the
+Guard. The Archduke Albert was, perhaps next to Louis, the most
+unpopular of the Royal House; he indignantly refused to listen to any
+demands of the people, and, hastening to the spot, rallied the
+soldiers and led them to the open space at the corner of the Herren
+Gasse, which is known as the Freyung. The inner circle of Vienna was
+at this time surrounded with walls, outside of which were the large
+suburbs in which the workmen chiefly lived. The students seem already
+to have gained some sympathy with the workmen; and, for the previous
+two years, the discontent caused by the sufferings of the poorer
+classes had been taking a more directly political turn. Several of the
+workmen had pressed in with the students, in the morning, into the
+inner town; and some big men, with rough darned coats and dirty caps
+over their eyes, were seen clenching their fists for the fight. The
+news quickly spread to the suburbs that the soldiers were about to
+attack the people. Seizing long poles and any iron tools which came to
+hand, the workmen rushed forward to the gates of the inner town. In
+one district they found the town gates closed against them, and cannon
+placed on the bastion near; but in others the authorities were
+unprepared; and the workmen burst into the inner town, tearing down
+stones and plaster to throw at the soldiers.
+
+In the meantime the representatives of the Estates had reached the
+Castle, and were trying to persuade the authorities to yield to the
+demands of the people. Metternich persisted in believing that the
+whole affair was got up by foreign influence, and particularly by
+Italians and Swiss; and he desired that the soldiers should gather in
+the Castle, and that Prince Windischgraetz should be appointed
+commandant of the city. Alfred Windischgraetz was a Bohemian nobleman
+who had previously been chiefly known for his strong aristocratic
+feeling, which he was said to have embodied in the expression "Human
+beings begin at Barons." But he had been marked out by Metternich
+as a man of vigour and decision who might be trusted to act in an
+emergency. Latour, who had been the previous commandant of the Castle
+in Vienna, showed signs of hesitation at this crisis; and this
+gave Metternich the excuse for dismissing Latour and appointing
+Windischgraetz in his place. To this arrangement all the ruling Council
+consented; but, when Archduke Louis and Metternich proposed to make
+Windischgraetz military dictator of the city, and to allow him to bring
+out cannon for firing on the people, great opposition arose. The
+Archduke John was perhaps one of the few Councillors who really
+sympathized with Liberal ideas; but several of the Archdukes, and
+particularly Francis Charles, heartily desired the fall of Metternich;
+and Kolowrat shared their wish. This combined opposition of sincere
+reformers and jealous courtiers hindered Metternich's policy; and it
+was decided that the City Guard should first be called out, and that
+the dictatorship of Windischgraetz should be kept in the background as
+a last resource.
+
+In the meantime the struggle in the streets was raging fiercely.
+Archduke Albert had found, to his cost, that the insurrection was not,
+as he had supposed, the work of a few discontented men. The students
+fought gallantly; but a still fiercer element was contributed to the
+insurrection by the workmen who had come in from the suburbs. One
+workman was wounded in his head, his arm, and his foot; but he
+continued to encourage his friends, and cried out that he cared
+nothing for life; either he would die that day, or else "the high
+gentlemen should be overthrown." Another, who had had no food since
+the morning, entreated for a little refreshment, that he might be able
+to fight the better; and he quickly returned to the struggle. In those
+suburbs from which the workmen had not been able to break into the
+inner town, the insurrection threatened to assume the form of an
+attack on the employers. Machines were destroyed, and the houses of
+those employers who had lowered wages were set on fire. It was this
+aspect of the insurrection which encouraged the nobles to believe
+that, by calling out the Guard, they would induce the richer citizens
+to take arms against the workmen; and this policy was carried still
+further when, on the application of the Rector of the University, the
+students also were allowed the privilege of bearing arms. But the ruse
+entirely failed; the people recognized the City Guard as their
+friends, and refused to attack them; and the rumour soon spread that
+the police had fired on the City Guard. It was now evident that the
+citizen soldiers were on the side of the people; and the richer
+citizens sent a deputation to entreat that Metternich should be
+dismissed.
+
+But the Archduke Maximilian was resolved that, as the first expedient
+proposed by the Council had failed, he would now apply some of those
+more violent remedies which had been postponed at first. He therefore
+ordered that the cannon should be brought down from the castle to the
+Michaelerplatz. From this point the cannon would have commanded, on the
+one side the Herren Gasse, where the crowd had gathered in the morning,
+and in front the Kohlmarkt, which led to the wide street of Am
+Graben. Had the cannon been fired then and there, the course of the
+insurrection must, in one way or other, have been changed. That change
+might have been, as Maximilian hoped, the complete collapse of the
+insurrection; or, as Latour held, the cannon might have swept away the
+last vestige of loyalty to the Emperor, and the Republic might have
+been instantly proclaimed. But, in any case, the result must have been
+most disastrous to the cause both of order and liberty; for the
+passions which had already been roused, especially among the workmen,
+could hardly have failed to produce one of those savage struggles
+which may overthrow one tyranny, but which generally end in the
+establishment of another. Fortunately, however, the Archduke Maximilian
+seems to have had no official authority in this matter; and, when he
+gave the order to fire, the master gunner, a Bohemian named Pollet,
+declared that he would not obey the order, unless it was given by the
+commander of the forces or the commander of the town. The Archduke then
+appealed to the subordinates to fire, in spite of this opposition; but
+Pollet placed himself in front of the cannon, and exclaimed, "The
+cannon are under my command; until there comes an order from my
+commander, and until necessity obliges it, let no one fire on friendly,
+unarmed citizens. Only over my body shall you fire." The Archduke
+retired in despair.
+
+In the meantime the deputation of citizens had reached the castle. At
+first the officials were disposed to treat them angrily, and even
+tried to detain them by force; but the news of the concession of arms
+to the students, the urgent pressure of Archduke John, and the
+continued accounts of the growing fury of the people, finally decided
+Metternich to yield; and, advancing into the room where the civic
+deputation was assembled, he declared that, as they had said his
+resignation would bring peace to Austria, he now resigned his office,
+and wished good luck to the new Government. Many of the royal family,
+and of the other members of the Council, flattered themselves that
+they had got rid of a formidable enemy, without making any definite
+concession to the people. Windischgraetz alone protested against the
+abandonment of Metternich by the rulers of Austria. Metternich had
+hoped to retire quietly to his own villa; but it had been already
+burned in the insurrection; and he soon found that it was safer to
+fly from Vienna and eventually to take refuge in England. He had,
+however, one consolation in all his misfortunes. In the memoir written
+four years later he expressed his certainty that he at least had done
+no wrong, and that "if he had to begin his career again, he would have
+followed again the course which he took before, and would not have
+deviated from it for an instant."
+
+When, at half-past eight in the evening of March 13, men went through
+the streets of Vienna, crying out "Metternich is fallen!" it seemed as
+if the march of the students and the petition of Fischhof had produced
+in one day all the results desired. But neither the suspicions of the
+people, nor the violent intentions of the Princes, were at an end. The
+Archdukes still talked of making Windischgraetz dictator of Vienna. The
+workmen still raged in the suburbs; and the students refused to leave
+the University, for fear an attack should be made upon it. But, in
+spite of the violence of the workmen, the leaders of the richer
+citizens were more and more determined to make common cause with the
+reformers. Indeed, both they and the students hoped to check the
+violence of the riots, while they prevented any reactionary movement.
+The Emperor also was on the side of concession. He refused to let the
+people be fired on, and announced, on the 14th, the liberties of the
+Press. But unfortunately he was seized with one of his epileptic fits;
+and the intriguers, who were already consolidating themselves into
+the secret Council known as the Camarilla, published the news of
+Windischgraetz's dictatorship, and resolved to place Vienna under a
+state of siege while the Emperor was incapable of giving directions.
+The news of Windischgraetz's accession to power so alarmed the people
+that they at once decided to march upon the castle; but one of the
+leading citizens, named Arthaber, persuaded them to abandon their
+intention, and, instead, to send him and another friend to ask for a
+Constitution from the Emperor. A struggle was evidently going on
+between Ferdinand and his courtiers. Whenever he was strong and able
+to hold his own, he was ready to make concessions. Whenever he was
+either ill, or still suffering from the mental effects of his illness,
+the Government fell into the hands of Windischgraetz and the Archdukes,
+and violent measures were proposed.
+
+Thus, though Arthaber and his friends were received courteously, and
+assured of the Constitutional intentions of the Emperor, yet at eleven
+o'clock on the same night there appeared a public notice declaring
+Vienna in a state of siege. But even Windischgraetz seems to have been
+somewhat frightened by the undaunted attitude of the people; and when
+he found that his notice was torn down from the walls, and that a new
+insurrection was about to break out, he sent for Professor Hye and
+entreated him to preserve order. In the meantime the Emperor had, to
+some extent, recovered his senses; and he speedily issued a promise to
+summon the Estates of the German and Slavonic provinces and the
+Congregations of Lombardo-Venetia. But the people had had enough of
+sham Constitutions; and the Emperor's proclamation was torn down. This
+act, however, did not imply any personal hostility to Ferdinand; for
+the belief that the Austrian Ministers were thwarting the good
+intentions of their master was as deeply rooted, at this time, in the
+minds of the Viennese as was a similar belief with regard to Pius IX.
+and his Cardinals in the minds of the Romans; and when the Emperor
+drove out in public on the 15th of March, he was received with loud
+cheers.
+
+But, as Ferdinand listened to these cheers, he must have noticed that,
+louder than the "Es lebe der Kaiser" of his German subjects and the
+"Slawa" of the Bohemians, rose the sound of the Hungarian "Eljen." For
+mingling in the crowd with the ordinary inhabitants of Vienna were the
+Hungarian deputation who had at last been permitted by the Count
+Palatine to leave Presburg, and who had arrived in Vienna to demand
+both the freedoms which had been granted to the Germans and also a
+separate responsible Ministry for Hungary. They arrived in the full
+glory of recent successes in the Presburg Diet; for, strengthened by
+the news of the Viennese rising, Kossuth had carried in one day many
+of the reforms for which his party had so long been contending. The
+last remnants of the dependent condition of the peasantry had been
+swept away; taxation had been made universal; and freedom of the Press
+and universal military service had been promised. Szechenyi alone had
+ventured to raise a note of warning, and it had fallen unheeded. In
+Vienna Kossuth was welcomed almost as cordially as in Presburg; for
+the German movement in Vienna had tended to produce in its supporters
+a willingness to lose the eastern half of the Empire in order to
+obtain the union of the western half with Germany. So the notes of
+Arndt's Deutsches Vaterland were mingled with the cry of "Batthyanyi
+Lajos, Minister Praesident!" Before such a combination as this,
+Ferdinand had no desire, Windischgraetz no power, to maintain an
+obstinate resistance; and, on March 16, Sedlnitzky, the hated head of
+the police, was dismissed from office. On the 18th a responsible
+Ministry was appointed; and on the 22nd Windischgraetz himself
+announced that national affairs would now be guided on the path of
+progress.
+
+In the meantime that German movement from which the Viennese derived
+so much of their impulse had been gaining a new accession of force in
+the North of Germany. In Berlin the order of the Viennese movements
+had been to some extent reversed. There the artizans, instead of
+taking their tone from the students, had given the first impulse to
+reform. The King, indeed, had begun his concessions by granting
+freedom of the Press on the 7th of March; but it seemed very unlikely
+that this concession would be accompanied by any securities which
+would make it a reality. The King even refused to fulfil his promise
+of summoning the Assembly; and it was in consequence of this refusal
+that the artizans presented to the Town Council of Berlin a petition
+for the redress of their special grievances. The same kind of misery
+which prevailed in Vienna had shown itself, though in less degree, in
+Berlin; and committees had been formed for the relief of the poor. The
+Town Council refused to present the petition of the workmen; and, in
+order to take the movement out of their hands, presented a petition
+of their own in favour of freedom of the Press, trial by jury,
+representation of the German people in the Bundestag, and the
+summoning of all the provincial Assemblies of the Kingdom. This
+petition was rejected by the King; and thereupon, on March 13, the
+people gathered in large numbers in the streets. General Pfuel fired
+on them; but, instead of yielding, they threw up barricades, and a
+fierce struggle ensued.
+
+On the 14th the cry for complete freedom of the Press became louder and
+more prominent; and the insurgents were encouraged by the first news of
+the Vienna rising. The other parts of the Kingdom now joined in the
+movement. On the 14th came deputations from the Rhine Province, who
+demanded in a threatening manner the extension of popular liberties. On
+the 16th came the more important news that Posen and Silesia were in
+revolt. Mieroslawsky, who had been one of the leaders of the Polish
+movement of 1846, had gained much popularity in Berlin; and he seemed
+fully disposed to combine the movement for the independence of Posen
+with that for the freedom of Prussia, much in the same way as Kossuth
+had combined the cause of Hungarian liberty with the demand for an
+Austrian Constitution. In Silesia, no doubt, the terrible famine of the
+previous year, and the remains of feudal oppression, had sharpened the
+desire for liberty; and closely following on the news of these two
+revolts came clearer accounts of the Viennese rising and the happy
+tidings of the fall of Metternich.
+
+The King of Prussia promised, on the arrival of this news, to summon
+the Assembly for April 2; and two days later he appeared on the
+balcony of his palace and declared his desire to change Germany from
+an Alliance of States into a Federal State. But the suspicions of the
+people had now been thoroughly aroused; and on March 18, the very day
+on which the King made this declaration, fresh deputations came to
+demand liberties from him; and when he appealed to them to go home his
+request was not complied with. The threatening attitude of the
+soldiers, and the recollection of their violence on the preceding
+days, had convinced the people that until part at least of the
+military force was removed they could have no security for liberty.
+The events of the day justified their belief; for, while someone was
+reading aloud to the people the account of the concessions recently
+made by the King, the soldiers suddenly fired upon them, and the crowd
+fled in every direction. They fled, however, soon to rally again;
+barricades were once more thrown up; the Poles of Posen flocked in to
+help their friends, and the black, red, and gold flag of Germany was
+displayed. Women joined the fight at the barricades; and, on the 19th,
+some of the riflemen whom the King had brought from Neufchatel refused
+to fire upon the people. Then the King suddenly yielded, dismissed his
+Ministers, and promised to withdraw the troops and allow the arming of
+the people. The victory of the popular cause seemed now complete; but
+the bitterness which still remained in the hearts of the citizens was
+shown by a public funeral procession through Berlin in honour of those
+who had fallen in the struggle. The King stood bare-headed on the
+balcony as the procession passed the palace; and on March 21 he came
+forward in public, waving the black, red, and gold flag of Germany.
+
+But while the movements for German freedom and unity were
+strengthening the cause of the Viennese and destroying the hopes of
+Metternich, two other movements for freedom, which might have helped
+to produce a newer and freer life in Europe, were preparing the way,
+against the wishes of their leaders, for that collision of interests
+between the different races of Europe which was to be the chief cause
+of the failure of the Revolution of 1848. Of these movements the one
+least known and understood in England is that which took place in
+Bohemia. In order to understand it we must recall some of the events
+of earlier Bohemian history.
+
+Bohemia, like Hungary, had, in the sixteenth century, freely elected
+Ferdinand I. of Austria as her King. Nor had the Bohemians, at that
+time, the slightest desire for closer union with any of those other
+Kingdoms which happened to be under the rule of the same Prince; nay,
+they would have avoided such union, even in matters where common
+action seemed the natural result of common interests. Ferdinand I.,
+indeed, and some of his successors, did undoubtedly desire a closer
+bond between the different territories subject to the House of
+Austria; but, during the sixteenth century, their efforts in this
+direction were, in the main, defeated. The continual wars against the
+Turks, indeed, did necessitate common military action; and, to that
+extent, they paved the way for a closer union; but, in spite of this
+ground for fellow feeling, no public recognition of any common bond
+between Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary could be obtained at that period
+from the Estates of Bohemia.
+
+The seventeenth century, however, had produced a great change in the
+relations between Bohemia and the House of Austria. The ill-fated and
+ill-organized struggle for liberty and Protestantism, which was
+crushed out in 1620 at the Battle of the White Hill, was followed by a
+change in the objects aimed at by the House of Austria in their
+government of Bohemia. Considering his military successes, it
+must be admitted that Ferdinand II. was even generous in his action
+towards Bohemia, so far as the forms of Constitutional Government
+were concerned. For in 1623 he restored its old Constitution,
+re-established its independent law-courts, and declared that he had
+"no intention of destroying or diminishing the rights of our faithful
+subjects of this Kingdom."
+
+But, alongside of the restoration of Constitutional forms, there went
+on an organized system of oppression by which Ferdinand II. was
+endeavouring to crush out the Protestant faith and the Bohemian
+language. While, on the one hand, the old Bohemian nobles were
+banished or executed, the German Dominicans and members of other Roman
+Catholic orders were at the same time destroying all the Bohemian
+literature on which they could lay their hands; and some Bohemians
+tried to save these relics of the past by carrying them to Stockholm,
+where, it is said, the remains of their early literature can still be
+found. Without any direct change in the law, German officials were
+gradually introduced into the chief offices of State in Bohemia; and
+German became the language of ordinary business relations. Thus, by a
+natural process, the Bohemian language underwent the same change of
+position which the English language experienced in the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries; that is, it ceased to be a literary language,
+and became merely a popular dialect of peasants and workmen.
+
+But Ferdinand II. soon found that he could not carry out completely
+his purpose of Romanizing and Germanizing Bohemia without departing
+from that Constitutional line which he had attempted to follow in
+1623. He could not trust a Bohemian Assembly to carry out his plans;
+and in 1627 he issued an ordinance which remained in force till 1848.
+By this edict the King claimed the right to add to, alter, or improve
+the Government of the country at his own pleasure. Yet even this he
+claimed to do in virtue of a previously existing royal right; the
+judges took advantage of this admission to interpret the new ordinance
+in the light of Ferdinand's previous promises to respect the Bohemian
+Constitution; and this interpretation was justified by the fact that
+Ferdinand, in the very same year in which he issued the ordinance,
+reiterated the Constitutional promises which he had made in 1623. The
+explanation of this apparent contradiction is that Ferdinand II. cared
+more for the unity of the Roman Catholic Church than for centralizing
+the Government of the Austrian dominions; and the same might be said
+of his successor, Ferdinand III. Nevertheless, from motives of
+convenience, both these Princes resided very little in Prague and much
+in Vienna; and thus those court officials who give the tone in these
+matters to the Government gradually gathered together, rather in the
+Archduchy of Austria than in the Kingdom of Bohemia; while the process
+of centralization was still further encouraged by that denationalizing
+movement which dated from the Battle of the White Hill.
+
+With the growth of an alien aristocracy there naturally grew up that
+union of class bitterness with race bitterness which intensifies both;
+and the difference of faith between the conquerors and conquered added
+another element of division. An attempt of the peasants to shake off
+the yoke of their conquerors led to the destruction of privileges which
+they had hitherto possessed; and thus the Estates of Bohemia became
+even more aristocratic than those of the neighbouring countries. Under
+such circumstances the gradual absorption of the Government of Bohemia
+in that of the other lands of the House of Austria seemed the natural
+consequence of the Austrian policy in the seventeenth century; and
+Maria Theresa propounded a plan for a Central Assembly in which
+Bohemia, Hungary, and Galicia were to share a common representation
+with the Archduchy of Austria. These schemes, like all measures for
+moderate unification in the Austrian dominions, received a fatal shock
+from the impetuous policy of Joseph II. The claim to Germanize Bohemia
+by force awoke in that country, as it had done in Hungary, a desire for
+new national life and a zeal for the old national literature. The
+opposition to Joseph did not, indeed, take so fierce a form in Bohemia
+as it assumed in Hungary and the Netherlands; but it was strong enough
+to induce Joseph's successor, Leopold II., to restore the old
+Constitution of Bohemia.
+
+In Bohemia, as in Hungary, the spirit of national independence had now
+embodied itself in the desire to preserve and revive the national
+language; and in 1809 a new impulse was given to this desire by the
+discovery of a parchment which had been wrapped round the pillars of a
+hall, and which was found to contain some old Bohemian poems. These
+poems were believed to belong to the thirteenth or fourteenth century;
+and the Bohemians held them to be superior to anything which had been
+produced by the Germans at that period. As a matter of course, German
+scholars at once came forward to try to disprove the authenticity of
+these poems; and the fight raged hotly. The expulsion of the Bohemian
+language from its literary position seemed to many to have deprived
+this struggle of any living interest. But writers were arising who
+were determined to show that that language could still be made a
+vehicle of literary expression; and they even hoped to make it the
+centre of a Slavonic movement. For the Bohemian language had a kind of
+offshoot in the North of Hungary among the race of the Slovaks; and the
+interest which the poet Kollar and the philologer Szaffarik were
+stirring up in the Slovak dialect was adding new force to the Bohemian
+movement. The historian Palacky increased the effect which was produced
+by these writers; and, what is more remarkable, men whose names showed
+an evidently German origin became fascinated by this new movement.
+Count Leo Thun entered into a controversy with Pulszky about the worth
+of the Slavonic languages; and one may still see in Prague the statue
+of Joseph Jungmann, who was one of the first founders of unions for
+reviving the national language. A struggle of the Bohemian Estates in
+1837 to maintain their control over taxation was sufficient, though
+unsuccessful, to increase considerably the interest felt by their
+nation in their political life. And thus it came to pass that, when, in
+March, 1848, the news of the French Revolution came to Prague, it found
+the Bohemians ready for the emergency.
+
+A young man named Gabler, who had been in Paris in 1846, was requested
+by some friends who were gathered in a cafe to read the account of the
+French rising and explain its details. On the following day more
+people came to the cafe to hear the news; discussion began, and
+suggestions were made as to the best way of adapting the French
+movement to the needs of Bohemia. German was still the language of
+intercourse between educated people in Prague; and the discussions
+were at first carried on in that language. But among those who came to
+the meetings was a publican named Peter Faster; and, while the
+discussion on various questions of reform was going on, Faster broke
+out suddenly into a speech in Bohemian. Instantly, the whole assembly
+joined in the national cry of "Slawa." Other speeches followed in the
+same language; the fashion quickly spread; and soon all adherents of
+the new movement began speaking the national language. A committee was
+now formed for the preparation of a petition; and a unanimous summons
+was circulated, calling on the Bohemians to meet at the Wenzel's-bad
+on March 11.
+
+This bath-house stands in a garden at some little distance from the
+main streets of Prague, and it was overlooked by barracks. One picquet
+of cavalry was seen in the streets, the rest remained in the barracks.
+Slowly the streets near the bath-house filled; at about half-past
+seven the doors opened; and half an hour later appeared Peter Faster,
+a lawyer named Trojan, and others. They announced that they had called
+the meeting for the purpose of proposing a petition to the Emperor.
+The petition[10] was adopted with little trouble, and a committee of
+twenty-five was appointed to present it. The petition was as follows:
+"A great event in the West of Europe is shedding its light, like a
+threatening meteor, over to us. It has scarcely begun; but this great
+movement which we guessed afar off is carrying away Germany's allied
+States with it. There is much excitement near the frontiers of
+Austria; but Your Majesty and the allied Princes have controlled the
+movement, while you have magnanimously placed yourselves at the head
+of it, to warn it from a dangerous abyss and from bad ways. The time
+has become new and different; it has brought the people nearer the
+Princes, and lays on the people the duty of rallying round their
+Princes, offering confidence and entreating for confidence in the days
+of danger.
+
+"Prague's faithful people, touched by the universal movement, ruled by
+the impulse to go before the monarchy in loyalty and truth, lays at
+the feet of Your Majesty its most heartfelt thanks for being allowed
+to speak from their full heart to their beloved King and Master. May
+their words find echo and just appreciation. Our confidence in God and
+our conscience leads us to hope that it will.
+
+"New and unwonted is the benevolence of this high permission; if we
+are less choice in our words and expressions, if we seem immodest in
+the extent of our petitions, our King's fatherly consideration will
+graciously put a right construction on our acts. Two different
+national elements inhabit this happy Kingdom, this pearl in your
+Majesty's illustrious imperial crown. One of them, the original one,
+which has the nearest right to its land and King, has hitherto
+been hindered in its progress towards culture and equal rights by
+institutions, which, without being hostile or denationalizing, yet
+naturally involve a partial wiping out of original national feeling as
+the condition of obtaining recognition as citizens.
+
+"The free development of both nations, the German and Bohemian,
+which are united by fate, and both of which inhabit Bohemia, and a
+similar striving after the objects of a higher culture, will, by
+strengthening, reconciling, and uniting them in brotherhood, lay the
+foundation of the welfare of both nations.
+
+"Bohemia has not yet reached that high position which it ought to have
+attained, in order to meet forcibly the serious events which are
+developing themselves; and this failure arises from the superiority
+which has hitherto been granted to the German element in legal and
+administrative arrangements. It is not mere toleration, it is the
+equalizing of the two nationalities by legal guarantees which can and
+will bind both nations to the throne.
+
+"But the guarantees for this excellent and sacred result, so much to
+be desired by every patriot, whether German or Bohemian, do not
+consist in the cultivation of language only. It consists in the
+essential alterations of the institutions, which have hitherto
+existed, in the removal of the barriers which hinder intercourse
+between Prince and People, and at the same time in universal,
+benevolently guarded, popular instruction by school and writing."
+
+After more to the same effect, and after dwelling at some length on
+the need of publicity in national affairs, the petitioners formulate
+their demands in eleven points. The first and second of these
+are concerned with the equalization of the races and with the
+Constitutional development hinted at in the previous petition; but
+they also include a proposal for the restoration of the union between
+Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, to be effected by an annual meeting in
+common of the Estates of the three provinces. The third is concerned
+with communal freedom and the condition of the peasantry. The fourth,
+fifth, sixth, and seventh relate to those ordinary securities for
+civil and religious freedom which were being demanded at this time by
+all the nations of Europe. The eighth clause of the petition demands
+"the appointment to offices of men who know completely and equally
+both the languages of the country." The ninth is concerned with
+the popularization of the military service. The tenth with the
+redistribution of taxation, especially the abolition of taxes
+on articles of consumption; while the eleventh deals with the
+equalization of education between German and Bohemian, and the freedom
+of teaching at the universities.
+
+The gathering at this first meeting was rather small; but the news of
+the movement rapidly spread. On the 12th a meeting of the Town
+Councillors was held in the Rath Haus; and, on the 15th, the students
+met to draw up a petition of their own. They had soon caught the
+excitement of the time; and had been stirred up by a German-Bohemian
+named Uffo Horn to take separate action. Guided and restrained by
+Gabler, they consented to help in preserving order, and embodied their
+petition in eight clauses. In these they not only demanded the
+ordinary liberties of teaching for which other universities were
+contending, but also pleaded for the right to full instruction both in
+Bohemian and German; for the power to visit foreign universities; for
+the development of physical education, and for the right to form
+unions among the students, after the fashion of those recently
+sanctioned by a statute of the Munich University. It is worth noting
+that they also demanded that the test of fitness for State service
+should be made severer.
+
+The news of the rising in Vienna came to encourage and strengthen the
+Bohemian movement; and on March 18 the students of Prague sent a
+letter of exulting congratulation to the students of Vienna on their
+services to the cause of freedom. But the Bohemian movement was not
+yet to be turned out of that quiet course which distinguished it among
+the Revolutions of the period; and on Sunday, March 19, the deputation
+that was to bear the wishes of the Bohemians to the Emperor met in the
+streets of Prague to hear a silent mass before starting for Vienna.
+Prague, like Vienna, has been so much altered in recent years that it
+is difficult to realize the exact scene of this event. At the top of
+the long avenue which now ornaments the Wenzelsplatz there was, in
+1848, a large gate called the Rossthor; and this was closed on March
+19 so that no traffic should disturb the service. Within the gates
+stood a statue of St. Wenzel; and round this the deputation gathered,
+wearing scarves of the Bohemian colours, white and red, edged with the
+Austrian black and yellow, to show their zeal for the unity of the
+Empire. Outside the group formed by the members of the deputation
+stood the newly-formed students' legion and some others of the
+National Guard. The Archbishop took the leading part in the mass; but,
+after it was over, the Bishop of Prague gave out a Bohemian hymn,
+which was heartily joined in by the people. To impress the citizens
+still further with the solemnity of the occasion, Faster and Trojan
+had issued an address, declaring that the deputation left their
+families and property under the protection of the citizens of Prague;
+and, on the other hand, a committee chosen by the citizens appealed to
+the deputation to impress upon the Emperor the danger of delays and
+unfulfilled promises, and expressed a desire for a closer union
+between the Peoples of the Austrian Empire.
+
+When the ceremonies were over, the deputation started, led by Faster
+and Trojan. Faster took charge of the petition from the citizens of
+Prague; Trojan carried the petitions from the provincial towns of
+Bohemia; while a chosen band of the students were to present the
+University petition. The people who were gathered at the station
+joined in Bohemian songs; and the ladies showered flowers and ribbons
+as the train moved off. After the departure of the deputation, the
+citizens' committee set themselves to check any violent movement among
+the workmen, by making special arrangement for providing work for the
+resident workmen in Prague. Soon came the news that the deputation had
+been warmly welcomed in Vienna. A great part of the National Guard had
+turned out to greet them; the Emperor had addressed them in Bohemian;
+and Count Kolowrat had said that, though he was seventy-one years old,
+and had served the State for fifty years, yet his last days were the
+happiest, because he could now advise according to his heart.
+
+In striking contrast to this, the most peaceable of all the March
+risings, was the movement which was going on at the same time in
+Lombardy. It seemed, indeed, as if the Austrian Government were
+determined to drive the Lombards into violent action. In Vienna
+Metternich was at least talking about extending the power of
+the Estates; in Hungary Kossuth was able to speak freely in the
+Presburg Diet; in Bohemia the Government seemed to drop into the
+hands of the people almost without an effort; but in Lombardy the
+savage proclamation of February had been followed on March 2 by an
+announcement from Spaur that the people must abandon all hope of any
+reform in the organic institutions of Lombardy which could imply a
+relaxation of the union with other parts of the Monarchy; and so
+rigorously were the repressive laws carried out that on March 11 there
+were 700 political prisoners in Milan.
+
+Yet, in spite of this tremendous rigour, there were still signs of the
+irrepressible aspirations of the Lombards. On March 10, a feast was
+held in Brescia in honour of the proclamation of the French Republic;
+and the Italian soldiers quartered in that town showed sympathy
+with this demonstration. Even during the actual rising at Vienna,
+Metternich still showed his determination to hold down Lombardy by
+force; he suddenly recalled Spaur and Ficquelmont from Milan, and sent
+Count O'Donnell, a man of fiercer type, to take the place of Spaur.
+Even Metternich's idea of Lombard reform was not changed by the rising
+in Vienna; for on March 16 there appeared in Milan a proclamation
+which must either have been prepared by Metternich just before his
+fall, or adopted by the Camarilla directly after it; and in this the
+Lombards were offered exactly the same programme of reform which had
+been proposed to them in January.
+
+But in the meantime the people were not idle. The Italians in Vienna
+managed to keep up a secret correspondence with their countrymen in
+Lombardy, and to warn them that new troops might be sent against them;
+while the Milanese managed to circulate secret proclamations which
+stirred the hopes of their fellow Lombards. On the 16th or 17th of
+March one of these proclamations appeared, containing a final protest
+against all the tyrannies exercised by Austria in Lombardy since 1815,
+down to the massacres of 1848. The composers of the proclamation
+concluded by finally declaring their resolution "to feel as Italians,
+to think as Italians, to will once for all to be Italians; to resolve
+to break once and for all the infamous treaty that has sold our
+liberties without our consent; to exercise our rights as men, our
+revenge as Italians." Thus, by some mysterious freemasonry, the
+champions of liberty in Milan had gradually been drawn together and
+prepared for action; and when on the 17th of March the news arrived
+that the Viennese insurrection had succeeded, that liberty of the Press
+had been granted, and that the Congregations of Lombardy as well as the
+estates of the other parts of the Empire were to be called together,
+the news gave the signal for insurrection. The Congregations which, up
+to the time of Nazari's speech, had been so silent and helpless, and
+whose uselessness had been further proved by the failure of that very
+protest, could not be accepted as the representatives of national life;
+and the suggestion of freedom of the Press while Radetzky remained in
+Milan could only supply a subject for a caricature.
+
+The leading spirit in the Milanese movement, so far as it is possible
+to single out any individual, was Augusto Anfossi. He had been born
+in Nice and educated by the Jesuits. That education, in this as in so
+many other cases, had produced the most violent reaction; and
+Anfossi's first claim to distinction was a bitter attack on his former
+teachers. In consequence of this, he had been compelled to fly to
+France; and he had served for a time in the French Army; but his hopes
+had been raised by the accession of Charles Albert; and he had
+returned to Piedmont to experience the disappointment shared by the
+other Liberals of that period. The punishments which followed the
+risings of 1831 had driven him again into exile; and he had then
+joined in the rising of the Egyptians against the Turks. But the
+movements of 1848 once more called his attention to Piedmont; and he
+now hastened to Milan and drew up a proclamation which was adopted and
+issued by the leaders of the insurrection. How little these leaders
+could have foreseen the actual result of the struggle may be gathered
+from the contents of the proclamation; for, eloquent and enthusiastic
+as are its opening words, its demands fall far short of the claim for
+that complete independence which the Lombards were for a time to
+achieve; while so little did the Milanese recognize the determined
+savagery of their opponents that the seventh demand made in this
+proclamation was that "neutral relations should be established with
+the Austrian troops, while we guarantee to them respect and the
+means of subsistence." But the only really important point in the
+proclamation was its final summons to the people to meet at three p.m.
+the next day in the Corsia dei Servi; and this appeal roused not
+merely the hopes, but the impatience of the people.
+
+Three hours before the time appointed, while Casati and the Municipal
+Council were deliberating in the Broletto, or town-hall, they heard
+loud shouts in the streets of "Death to the Germans!" and "Long live
+Italy!" Then a crowd bearing sticks covered with the Italian colours
+entered the Broletto, and required that Casati and the leading
+Councillors should come with them at once to O'Donnell, to demand the
+establishment of a Civic Guard, and the placing of the police under
+the municipal authorities. Cesare Correnti, one of the Council, urged
+the leaders of the movement to trust to the municipality; but Enrico
+Cernuschi, one of the organizers of the movement, refused to yield to
+this suggestion; and a man named Beretta seized Casati by the arm to
+lead him to the Governor. O'Donnell was startled at this sudden
+demonstration: and Casati, on his part, was equally astonished at the
+position into which he had been forced. He shook hands with O'Donnell
+and encouraged him to look on him as a friend; and it was, perhaps, in
+reliance on this help that O'Donnell ventured at first to refuse the
+proposals to subject the police to the Municipal Council and to
+surrender their arms to the Civic Guard. Cernuschi, however, insisted
+that O'Donnell should not only yield these points, but that he should
+sign his name to his concessions. O'Donnell, in terror, consented; and
+then Casati desired to send a messenger to Torresani, the head of the
+police, to secure his approval of the concessions. But the movement
+had gone far beyond Casati's control; and, while his messenger was
+hastening to put the matter before Torresani in proper diplomatic
+form, Cernuschi and his friends had rushed to an armourer's shop to
+avail themselves of their new privilege.
+
+But, as they still wished to place the Municipal Council, as far as
+possible, at the head of their movement, they carried their arms to the
+Broletto, where they demanded to be enrolled in the new Civic Guard. In
+the meantime, Torresani had refused to act without Radetzky's
+authority, and Radetzky was furious at the news of O'Donnell's
+concessions. Hearing that one of his officers, who was ill in bed, had
+offered to give his sanction to these concessions, the savage General
+threatened to have him dragged from his bed and shot, if he did not at
+once recall the order; and troops were despatched to the Broletto to
+suppress the movement. Casati, indeed, had fled from the scene of
+action, and taken refuge in a private house; but the people, who had
+brought the arms to the Broletto, closed the gates against Radetzky's
+force; and, though they had only fifty guns with them, they prepared to
+defy the Austrian cannon, backed by more than 2,000 soldiers. The
+proposal to capitulate was rejected with scorn; and, from seven to nine
+p.m., this little band, many of them boys, defended the Municipal
+Council Hall. But it was impossible to conquer against such odds; and
+at last the Austrian soldiers broke in, attacked all whom they found
+there, whether armed or unarmed; hurled down into the streets some boys
+whom they found on the roofs, hung one little child, and marched off
+the rest of their prisoners to the castle, to be tortured by Radetzky.
+
+But, as they were actually on their way to the castle, the victorious
+soldiers met some of their comrades who were flying before the
+citizens. Augusto Anfossi had been, in the meantime, reducing into
+order the gallant, but undisciplined defenders of their country; and,
+before the morning of the 19th, stones and wood had been put together
+and fastened with iron; and thus secure barricades had risen in many
+of the streets. Amongst other interesting materials for the barricades
+may be mentioned O'Donnell's carriage, which had been seized for this
+purpose. Radetzky, startled at the vigour of the opposition, wrote to
+Ficquelmont that "the nature of this people is changed as if by magic;
+fanaticism has infected every age, every class, and both sexes." In
+his alarm he offered to grant the demand which had been made in the
+morning, that the police should be placed under the command of the
+Municipal Council. Casati would, even then, have accepted this as a
+settlement of the struggle; but he was now quite powerless. For, while
+he was signing decrees, and appointing as head of the police a man who
+was still prisoner to the Austrians, the bells throughout Milan were
+ringing for a storm.
+
+At no stage of the struggle were there greater efforts of heroism than
+on this 19th of March. At the bridge of San Damiano two men held at
+bay a whole corps of Austrians; not far from the Porta Romana another
+champion carried off some youthful scholars, one after another, on his
+shoulders, in the face of a body of Croats. Guns were often wanting,
+but the insurgents used swords and sticks instead. The Tyrolese fired
+from the tower of the cathedral upon the people, and the cannons from
+the Piazza Mercante played upon them; but three cannoneers were
+killed, and at last the cannon were captured by the Milanese. The 19th
+of March was a Sunday; and, as the congregation came out from mass in
+the church of San Simpliciano, they were attacked by the Austrians and
+driven back into the church. Food was brought them from neighbouring
+houses; and they retained their position till four o'clock in the
+afternoon, when they succeeded in making their escape. Nor were there
+wanting touches of the Milanese humour to relieve the terrors of the
+fight; boys sometimes exhibiting a cat, sometimes a broomstick with a
+cap on it, as a mark for the Austrians to fire at. But the fiercest
+fight raged at the Porta Nuova, on the south side of the town, where
+Augusto Anfossi commanded in person. There a band of Austrian
+grenadiers brought their cannon to bear on the defenders of the city;
+and Anfossi had a long and fierce struggle before he could drive them
+back. At last, however, he made his way to the gate; and, lifting on
+high the Italian flag, he kissed it, and planted it on the arch of the
+gateway.
+
+On the 20th the Austrians began to show signs of giving way. The
+Tyrolese fled down the giddy staircases of the Cathedral tower and
+escaped through secret passages; and the family of Torresani fell into
+the hands of the insurgents. But the Milanese, though they had seen
+their children spitted on the bayonets of the soldiers, their women
+insulted, and the prisoners tortured by Radetzky, were ready to take
+charge of the family of one of their worst tyrants, and to protect
+them from violence. Even the brutal Bolza, when he became a prisoner
+in their hands, was carefully guarded from ill-treatment; and he is
+said to have been so much impressed by this unexpected magnanimity
+that he died penitent. Again offers of compromise were made by the
+Austrians, and a truce of fifteen days was proposed till the officers
+could hear from Vienna. Again Casati hesitated; but again his
+hesitation had no effect on the struggle.
+
+On the 21st the Genio Militare, one of the chief barracks of the city,
+was attacked by the insurgents. The struggle was continued for some
+time with great fierceness on either side; but at last a cripple,
+named Pasquale Sottocorni, came halting up on his crutch and set fire
+to the gate; then the defenders, unable to hold out any longer,
+surrendered to the people. This day was also memorable for the capture
+of Radetzky's palace, and in it of the wonderful sword with which he
+had threatened to exterminate the Milanese.
+
+In the meantime the other towns of Lombardy had been hastening to send
+help to their capital. At Como, immediately on the arrival of the news
+of the Viennese success, bands had collected with lighted torches,
+crying, "Long live Italy! Long live independence!" The guards were
+redoubled, but refused to act. The people surrounded the Town Council
+House, demanding a Civic Guard, which was quickly granted; in a short
+time Como was free, and the soldiers of Como were on their march to
+Milan. It was on March 18 that the news of the Milanese rising reached
+Bergamo; and the people at once rose, crying, "Long live Milan!" and
+"Death to the Germans!" The Archduke Sigismund, who was in the town,
+was compelled by the people to hold back his troops, while a Capuchin
+monk led the citizens to Milan. In Brescia the rising seems to have
+been almost simultaneous with that of Milan. The first attack was made
+on the Jesuits; but religious hostility was quickly merged in a desire
+for national independence, and the cry soon rose for a civic guard.
+Prince Schwarzenberg, who was in command of the terrible fortress
+which frowns upon Brescia, hoped easily to overawe the city. But the
+people gathered in the Piazza Vecchia, and after a fierce struggle,
+drove back the soldiers. Schwarzenberg was compelled to yield to the
+demands of the people; the municipal authorities in vain endeavoured
+to hinder the movement; and in a short time many of the Brescians had
+united with the country folk of the neighbouring district and were
+marching to Milan. At Cremona about 4,000 soldiers had laid down their
+arms before the citizens had attacked them.
+
+In the meantime Augusto Anfossi had been dangerously wounded, and was
+obliged to abandon the defence; but his place was taken by Luciano
+Manara, a youth of twenty-four, who led the attack on the Porta Tosa,
+on the east side of Milan. Arms had now been freely distributed
+among the insurgents, and a professor of mathematics from Pavia
+superintended the fortifications and assisted Manara in the attack.
+For five hours the assault continued, Manara rushing forward at the
+head of his forces and effecting wonders with his own hand. Recruits
+from the country districts co-operated from outside the city with the
+Milanese insurgents within. At last the gate was set on fire, the
+position was captured, and the name of Porta Tosa was soon afterwards
+changed to that of Porta Vittoria. The Austrian soldiers had now
+become heartily tired of the struggle. Radetzky had arranged his
+troops in so careless a manner that he was unable to supply them
+properly with food, and sixty Croats surrendered from hunger. Radetzky
+was now convinced of the uselessness of continuing the struggle; and,
+though he had just before been threatening to bombard the city, he now
+decided to abandon it. So, on the evening of the 22nd of March, the
+glorious Five Days of Milan were brought to an end by the retreat of
+the Austrians from the city.
+
+This rising had for the time being freed the greater part of Lombardy;
+but there was yet another Italian city under the Austrian rule, which
+was achieving its own independence in a somewhat different way. The
+risings in Vienna, Berlin, Prague, and Milan, though they produced
+many acts of heroism, and some of wise forethought, did not call to
+the front any man of first-rate political capacity, nor could they be
+said to centre in any one commanding figure. In Venice, on the other
+hand, the movement centred from first to last in one man. The
+imprisonment of Daniel Manin had been the point of interest to
+Venetians, the typical instance of their grievances; and more than one
+circumstance tended to strengthen this feeling. Manin's sister had
+died from the shock of hearing of her brother's arrest; and his wife
+had organized a petition for his release which had been signed by the
+Podesta of Venice and ninety-nine other persons of well-known
+character. His own legal ability had enabled Manin to dwell more
+forcibly on the points of illegality in his arrest. But when he and
+his friends urged his claim to be either tried or set free, the
+authorities pleaded that they could not release him until they heard
+from Vienna. This answer must have tended still more to mark him out
+as a victim of that centralizing force which was endeavouring to crush
+out Italian feeling; while the fact of his descent from the last Doge
+of Venice added a touch of historic sentiment to the other points of
+interest in his case. Manin's arrest had been quickly followed by that
+of Tommaseo, and in any talk among the patriots of Venice the
+discussion of these arrests was sure to arise.
+
+In Venice, too, the same kinds of demonstrations of popular feeling
+took place during January and February which had shown themselves in
+Milan. Whenever German music was performed in public all the Italians
+left the place. Men went about in black gloves; women refused to
+appear in gala costume at public ceremonies; and even those who went
+to the theatre attended there not so much for the sake of the
+performance as to applaud passages about a betrayed country, or to get
+up cheers for the Neapolitan Constitution.
+
+Such was the state of feeling when, on March 16, a boat arrived from
+Trieste, bringing news from Vienna. The chief informant brought
+with him the fragments of a portrait of Metternich which had been
+torn to pieces as a symbol of his fall. Then the Venetians rose and
+demanded the release of Manin and Tommaseo. The Governor referred the
+petitioners to the criminal court; but the crowd resolved to take
+matters into their own hands, and broke into the prison to rescue the
+two leaders. Manin, however, refused to leave the prison until the
+president of the tribunal had signed the order for his release. The
+president readily complied with this request; and Manin and Tommaseo
+were carried home on the shoulders of the people. The Venetians then
+proceeded to attack the fortress; the Croat soldiers rushed out to
+repel them, and succeeded in driving them back. But the next day there
+was a new gathering in the streets. Palffy, the Military Governor of
+Venice, appealed to Manin to preserve order; but Manin replied that he
+could only do so if a civic guard were granted, and if the soldiers
+were recalled to their barracks. The head of the police remonstrated
+against the proposal for the Civic Guard, and asked that it should, at
+any rate, be placed under his authority. Thereupon Manin seized his gun
+and said that if the police interfered with the Civic Guard he would
+himself head a revolt. Palffy was a Hungarian, and so was Zichy, the
+Civil Governor of Venice; and neither of them were disposed to push
+matters to extremities. Although, therefore, Palffy was at first
+inclined to make difficulties, and to appeal to the Governor of
+Lombardy for orders, he yielded at last, and the municipal authorities
+began to organize the Civic Guard.
+
+But the fears of the Venetians were not yet over. Marinovich, the
+Governor of the Castle, was a hard man, who had irritated the workmen
+of the arsenal against him; and the authorities had persuaded him to
+resign his command and to leave Venice. But, on March 22, while Manin
+and his friends were deliberating on the next step to be taken, a
+messenger came to announce to them that Marinovich had suddenly
+returned to the arsenal, and had there been attacked and killed by the
+workmen. Thereupon Manin at once decided that the Civic Guard should
+be sent to seize the arsenal. The Admiral Martini tried to offer
+opposition; but Manin succeeded in entering with some of the guard,
+and then rang the workmen's bell and demanded arms for the workmen of
+the arsenal. It was well for the Venetians at this time that there was
+so great a hostility between Magyars and Croats. On a previous day,
+the Croats had desired to fire on the unarmed crowd; but a Hungarian
+officer, named Winckler, had thrown himself in their way, and had
+declared that they should fire first at him. When the news came of
+Marinovich's death, Zichy proposed that the Croats should act with
+the Civic Guard; but the Croat soldiers refused, desiring instead to
+bombard the town. This latter proposition, however, was defeated, not
+only by the Hungarian officers, but by many of the soldiers; for the
+garrison contained many Italians, who seized this opportunity for
+joining the cause of their countrymen. During the confusion that arose
+from this division of opinion, the head of the Civic Guard went to
+Palffy to demand that the defence of the town should be placed in the
+hands of the citizens. Palffy hesitated; but, in the meantime, Manin
+was proclaiming the Venetian Republic in the Piazza of San Marco.
+Palffy consented to resign his authority to Zichy, and by 6.30 p.m.
+Zichy had signed the evacuation of Venice by the Austrian troops.
+
+Palffy now desired to leave Venice as soon as possible. The chief of
+the Civic Guard tried to prevent his escape; but Manin trusted to
+Palffy's honour, and allowed him and some of his followers to depart
+in a steamer which was to stop at Pola with despatches, ordering the
+recall of the Venetian fleet which was stationed there. But no sooner
+was Palffy safely out of Venice than he compelled the captain to
+change his course, to sail to Trieste, and to surrender to the
+Austrian authorities. Of course, Manin had made a mistake in trusting
+so implicitly to the honour of an enemy. Perhaps we should thank God
+that there are people who are capable of those mistakes. Manin,
+at least, does not seem to have changed his line of conduct in
+consequence; for when, a few days later, a steamer full of Austrian
+private citizens came near Venice, and the Venetians wished to go out
+to attack them, Manin prevented them from doing so, saying, "Let us
+leave such conduct to Metternich."
+
+Thus, then, in this wonderful month of March, 1848, the whole system
+of Metternich had crumbled to the ground. The German national feeling,
+which he had hoped to crush out, was steadily ripening and embodying
+itself in a definite shape. The feeling for that "Geographical
+Expression" Italy had proved strong enough to drive Radetzky from
+Milan and Palffy from Venice. The rivalry between the Bohemians and
+Germans of the Austrian Empire seemed, for the moment, to have been
+merged in a common desire for liberty; and the Hungarian opposition,
+which Metternich had hoped to manipulate, had shaken him from power
+and from office, and had secured liberty to Vienna and practical
+independence to Hungary. Of the terrible divisions and rivalries which
+were to undermine the new fabric of liberty, the story will have to be
+told in the succeeding chapters. But the vigour, heroism, and
+self-sacrifice which had been brought to light in this early part of
+the movement will always make the March Risings of 1848 memorable in
+the history of Europe.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[9] The word "Anschluss" seems hardly to imply so complete a union as
+was afterwards aimed at by the German party in Vienna.
+
+[10] This petition must be given at length in order that students of
+the Revolution may realize the peculiar character of the Bohemian
+movement, since this is the only one of the March risings in which the
+claim of an oppressed people to live in peaceable equality beside
+their former oppressors was, for the time, successfully established.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE STRUGGLE OF THE RACES--APRIL TO JUNE, 1848.
+
+     Apparent unanimity between races of Austrian Empire in the March
+     risings.--Unreality of this appearance.--Local aspirations.--The
+     Serbs of Buda-Pesth.--The Magyar politics in Pesth.--The first
+     Hungarian Ministry.--Szemere's Press Law and its failure.--The
+     answer of the Ministry to the Serb petition.--Position and History
+     of the Serbs in Hungary.--Treatment by Magyars and Austrian
+     Kings.--Growth of Serb literature.--The deputations from Neusatz
+     and Carlowitz.--Velika-Kikinda.--Position and character of
+     Rajacic.--Of Stratimirovic.--The summoning of the Serb
+     Assembly.--Croatian movement revived.--The Croats and the "twelve
+     points."--Joseph Jellacic.--Pillersdorf and the Bohemian
+     deputation.--The meeting at the Sophien-Insel.--The second
+     petition.--The Germans of Bohemia and Moravia.--Opening of the
+     Vor-Parlament at Frankfort.--Blum's influence.--Struve's proposals
+     and their effect.--The Slavonic question at Frankfort.--The Polish
+     phase of it.--The Bohemian question evaded by the
+     Vor-Parlament.--The Committee of Fifty and Palacky.--The discussion
+     between the National Committees in Prague.--Schilling's
+     insults.--The appeal to the Austrian Government and its
+     failure.--The summons of the Slavonic Congress.--The difficulties
+     in Vienna.--The April Constitution.--The Galician movement.--The
+     rising of May 15 and the flight of the Emperor.--Effect of the May
+     movement on Bohemian feeling--on Hungarian feeling.--The Serb
+     meeting of May 13.--The Roumanian meeting of May 15.--The Saxon
+     opposition to the Union.--The alliance between the Magyars and the
+     Szekler.--The fall of Transylvanian independence.--The first
+     collision with the Roumanians.--Their position, and character of
+     their rising.--Alliance between Croats and Serbs.--The attack on
+     Carlowitz of June 11.--The Slavonic Congress at Prague.--The
+     difficulties in Prague.--Windischgraetz and the Town Council.--The
+     quarrel between the students of Prague and the students of
+     Vienna.--The Slavonic petition.--The rising of June 12.--The fall
+     of Prague and its consequences.
+
+
+Few points were more remarkable in the March Risings of 1848 than the
+apparent reconciliation between those champions of freedom who had
+been separated from each other by antagonism of race. Gaj and his
+friends had hastened to Vienna to join in the general congratulations
+to that city on its newly won freedom. The Slavonic students of Prague
+had been equally sympathetic; and members of the different races of
+Hungary had expressed their satisfaction in the successes of Kossuth.
+But this sudden union was necessarily short-lived; for it sprang from
+a hope which could not be realized; the hope, namely, that the Germans
+and Magyars would join in extending to each of the Slavonic races of
+the Empire those separate national freedoms which those two great
+ruling races had secured for themselves. Thus proposals soon began to
+be made for the formation of a district which was to be called
+Slovenia, after the Slovenes who inhabited the province of Krain, and
+other south-western provinces of the Austrian Empire. At the same
+time, the Slovaks of North Hungary desired to be formed into a
+separate province, in which they could freely use the Slovak language
+and profess the Lutheran creed, undisturbed by Magyar language or
+Magyar Calvinism. Lastly, on March 15, Ivan Kukuljevic, who, next to
+Gaj, was the most distinguished of the Croatian patriots, carried, in
+the Agram Assembly, an address to the Emperor, asking him to summon
+the old parliament of the three kingdoms of Croatia, Slavonia, and
+Dalmatia. But, though all these demands contained within them the
+seeds of future quarrels, the first actual outbreak was not to come
+either from Slovenes, Slovaks, or Croats. The first token of the "rift
+within the lute," which, if it could not "make the music" of Liberty
+"mute," would at least weaken its sound and introduce discord into its
+harmony, showed itself in connexion with a branch of the Slavonic race
+to which little allusion has yet been made.
+
+Those who have visited Buda-Pesth will remember how, when they had left
+the modern magnificence of Pesth and crossed the suspension-bridge which
+joins it with Buda, they have come to a pause at the foot of the steep
+rock which confronts them. Then, if, instead of ascending to the
+fortress of Buda, they turned southwards along the shores of the Danube,
+in a short time they would have found themselves in a district in
+complete contrast with the rest of the capital, where an air of poverty,
+hardly found elsewhere in the town, is combined with an originality and
+picturesqueness of decoration which is neither German nor Magyar. Little
+cottages, coloured yellow, blue, or white, are built up against the rock
+in all kinds of irregular ways; in some places the rooms are below the
+street, and the gay appearance is increased by signs outside the shops,
+showing what articles can be procured there. The bright handkerchiefs on
+the heads of the women, and the gay colours worn by both sexes, give a
+somewhat Eastern aspect to the streets and market-place. Such is the
+Raitzenstadt, the quarter of the Serbs, long looked down upon by their
+Magyar countrymen. There, on March 17, the representatives of about a
+hundred districts of the neighbourhood gathered to prepare a petition
+for leave to use their national language in national affairs. This
+roused the fierce opposition of the Magyar youth of Pesth; and the
+Committee of Safety which had just been formed found itself unable to
+protect the Serbs from violence. If, indeed, the spirit of Kossuth's
+speech of March 3 had been still triumphant, compromises might have been
+found which would have hindered the claims of the Serbs from provoking
+actual war. But the sudden outburst of statesmanlike feeling which
+produced that speech was not of long duration; and, even if Kossuth had
+desired to conciliate the subject-races of Hungary, there were those at
+his back who would never have consented to such tolerance.
+
+The fiery youth of Pesth supplied an element to the Magyar revolution
+very different from that which generally found expression in the Diet
+at Presburg; and this element had been so necessary to Kossuth's
+purposes that it was impossible to disregard its influence. Three days
+before the Serb meeting a great gathering had been held in a cafe at
+Pesth, which had been followed on the 15th by a march of the Hungarian
+students, headed by the poet Petoefy, to the Town Council, to demand
+the concession of twelve points. Some of these points were being
+secured on that very day by the deputation which had gone to Vienna;
+others were already conceded in principle by the Diet at Presburg; one
+of them, the proposal for the union of Transylvania with Hungary, was
+to be the seed of future mischief, but was, at present, acceptable to
+all parties of the Magyars. It was not so much, then, by political
+theories that the youth of Pesth were distinguished from the quieter
+spirits of Presburg; it was rather the fiery manner in which they made
+their demands, and the dogmatic intolerance with which they insisted
+on particular formulas.
+
+Moreover, the Presburg policy, if one may so call it, was weakened in
+its effect by that attempt to reconcile hopeless opposites which is
+the great difficulty of all moderate parties. Count Louis Batthyanyi,
+when he was appointed as the first responsible Minister of Hungary,
+thought himself bound to form his Ministry, so far as possible, by a
+combination of the different representatives of the rival parties; and
+he not only hoped to find a basis for common action between the
+growing Conservatism of Szechenyi and the growing Radicalism of
+Kossuth, but he even gave a place in his Ministry to Count Esterhazy,
+who sympathized to some extent with the Camarilla at Vienna. Baron
+Eoetvoes, who had been the champion of centralization when Kossuth was
+arguing for County Government, was also a member of this Ministry;
+while Meszaros, the War Minister, might be supposed to combine
+opposite principles in his own person; for, while he had contributed
+to Kossuth's paper, the "Pesti Hirlap," his last public action had
+been to serve under Radetzky in his attempt to suppress the liberties
+of Milan. Batthyanyi, indeed, hoped that, by introducing Deak into the
+Ministry, he should secure an influence which should reconcile these
+various incongruous elements; but such a task was beyond even Deak's
+powers. By his honourable abstention from the Diet of 1843, he had
+deprived himself of his former influence; and, though he accepted the
+place offered him by Batthyanyi, and honestly tried to work with his
+different colleagues, yet, as the movement became more and more
+revolutionary, he fell further into the background.
+
+The weakness of this Coalition Ministry was first brought into
+prominence by Bartholomaus Szemere, a cold, hard man, who had had
+little previous influence on politics. He was appointed to draw up the
+new regulations with regard to freedom of the Press; and produced a
+law which was of so reactionary a character that the students of the
+Pesth University burnt it publicly in front of the Town Hall, and sent
+a deputation to the Diet to entreat them to repeal the law and to
+change the seat of government to Pesth. Batthyanyi consented to the
+repeal of the law; but rejected, for a time, the other proposal of the
+students; and the Ministry remained at Presburg, weakened by the sense
+that the strongest element of Magyar feeling was centred in Kossuth
+and the Pesth party, and that this feeling would eventually overpower
+the more moderate patriots. Under these circumstances it was natural
+that the weak Ministry at Presburg should sacrifice to their fiery
+opponents the claims of those races with which neither party had any
+deep sympathy; and when, on March 24, the Serb petition came before
+the Ministry, they answered that the Hungarians would not endure that
+any nationality except the Hungarian should exist in Hungary.
+
+But the Serbs of the Raitzenstadt were but the feeble representatives
+of a much more powerful body, which was scattered over various parts
+of Hungary and found its chief centre in the province of Slavonia. It
+was during the sixteenth century that the great immigration of the
+Serbs into Hungary had taken place. All the important history of this
+race had been connected with their struggle against the Turks; and it
+was as fugitives from Turkish tyranny that they took refuge in
+Hungary. They arrived just about the time when Hungary had accepted
+the rule of the House of Austria, and, finding that Ferdinand I. was
+more zealous than his Magyar subjects in resistance to the Turks, and
+that some of the Magyars were even willing to call in the Turks to
+their assistance, the Serbs naturally became the champions of the
+House of Austria against the Magyars. As a reward for this loyalty,
+the Austrian rulers granted various privileges to their new subjects;
+and, in 1690, Leopold I. gave special invitation to the Serbs to come
+over from the Turkish provinces and to settle in the district assigned
+to them. To those who lived in that district was granted the right of
+choosing the Patriarch of their own Church, their own Voyvode, or
+military leader, and their own magistrates; while those living
+actually on the frontier were placed under a special military
+government which was administered from Vienna, and were rewarded for
+their military services by freedom from taxation. The Magyars, indeed,
+did not abandon the hope of drawing the Serbs to their side; and when,
+in the beginning of the eighteenth century, Rakoczi[11] attempted to
+set up an independent principality in Transylvania, he appealed to the
+Serbs to assist him in his attempt. But their gratitude to the House
+of Austria, strengthened in this instance by a dislike to the
+Calvinism of Rakoczi, kept them firm in their championship of the
+Austrian cause.
+
+The House of Austria, on the other hand, showed as little gratitude to
+the Serbs in the early part of the eighteenth century as they did to
+the Magyars in the nineteenth; and Joseph I. and Charles VI. steadily
+violated the promises which had been made by Leopold. The concession
+of religious liberty was found to be not inconsistent with a vigorous
+Jesuit propaganda for the crushing out of the Greek faith. A small
+emeute in a Serb town gave excuse for further interferences with
+liberty; and, as the Magyars gained in strength, Charles VI. resorted
+to the mean device of submitting to the Diet of Presburg the list of
+privileges which he had granted to the Serbs, and asking if the Diet
+would be pleased to approve them; and, on receiving the refusal which
+he had expected, he declared that he could not uphold these privileges
+against the wish of the Hungarian Diet. The Serbs in Hungary were, in
+many cases, reduced to the position of serfs; the districts of the
+Banat and Batschka, which had formed part of the Serb settlement, were
+given up to Hungary in 1741 by Maria Theresa; the Voyvodeschaft was
+abolished, and so, at a later period, was the Patriarchate also. Maria
+Theresa, indeed, would have desired to redress some of the grievances
+of the Serbs; but the need which she felt for the help of the Magyars,
+first in the War of Succession, and afterwards in the Seven Years'
+War, compelled her to disregard the interests of the subject-races
+when they clashed with those of her more powerful allies. In spite,
+therefore, of several insurrections and continual meetings of
+Congresses, the Serbs failed to recover their former privileges; and a
+few concessions which were made to them by Leopold II. were speedily
+withdrawn by Francis.
+
+During the latter part of the eighteenth century a new hope came to
+the Serbs in the growing development of their national literature. A
+school was founded at Carlowitz by the Patriarch of the Serbs;
+printing-presses were set up, and writers were gradually produced by
+this education, one of whom, named Obradovic, composed the first essay
+in the Serb dialect: while Karadzic, another writer, gathered up the
+old songs, proverbs, and stories of the country and tried to reduce
+the dialect into grammatical forms. The movement of Szaffarik and
+Kollar in North Hungary gave new hopes to the Serbs and other Slavs in
+the development of their literature; and it was whilst this feeling
+was growing that Gaj put forward his plan for the Illyrian language.
+Gaj's movement was, to some extent, an apple of discord among the Serb
+national party; for, while some of them were eager to join in any
+union of the Slavs, many of the more powerful of the clergy objected
+altogether to the abandonment of the old Cyrillic alphabet which had
+been introduced by the Bishops Cyril and Methodius, who converted the
+Slavs to Christianity. And while, as was mentioned in a former
+chapter, Gaj was suspected by the Roman Catholics of wishing to swamp
+them in a union with the members of the Greek Church, the Greek
+clergy among the Serbs, on the other hand, feared a movement which
+seemed likely to have its centre in the Roman Catholic province of
+Croatia. Thus there had grown up two centres of the Serb movement in
+two towns situated within a few miles of each other. Neusatz, or Novi
+Sad, the most important town of Slavonia, was the centre of the
+literary and trading part of the Serb community; and Carlowitz, or
+Karlovci, was the head-quarters of the Metropolitan, and the centre of
+the clerical section of the Serb national party.
+
+It was from Neusatz, then, that, on April 8, 1848, a deputation arrived
+at Presburg and declared that, while they were in sympathy with the
+March movement, and had no desire to separate from Hungary, they yet
+wished for protection for their national language and customs. They
+therefore demanded the re-establishment of the Patriarchal dignity and
+of the office of Voyvode; requesting, further, that the power of the
+latter officer should be extended over the territories which the Serbs
+had reconquered from the Turks. Kossuth answered that the Magyars would
+do their best to respect national feeling, and to give the Serbs a
+share in the freedom which the Magyars had won; but that only the
+Magyar language could bind the different nationalities together.
+Batthyanyi echoed the words of Kossuth in an even stronger form.
+"Then," the Serbs answered, "we must look for recognition elsewhere
+than at Presburg." "In that case," answered Kossuth, "the sword must
+decide." "The Serbs," retorted one of the deputation, "were never
+afraid of that." And so the glove was thrown down. A few days later
+came a deputation from Carlowitz with the same object; for the clergy,
+however little sympathy they might feel with Gaj's movement, feared,
+as heartily as the citizens of Neusatz could do, the interference
+of the Magyars with Serb independence. The Magyars seem to have
+learned already the tyrannical arts of Metternich; for they met the
+petition of the clergy with the threat that they would extend to the
+Roumanians the liberties granted to the Serbs; and they were, no doubt,
+proportionately disappointed when the deputation answered that they
+were perfectly ready to share their rights with the Roumanians.
+
+The quarrel thus begun soon led to an actual outbreak. In the town
+of Velika-Kikinda, in the Banat, there had arisen one of those
+disturbances which are the natural marks of a revolutionary period.
+The peasantry, excited by the changes in their position, had begun to
+expect still further advantages. A worthless adventurer had become a
+candidate for one of the village judgeships, and had promised that, if
+elected, he would recover for the peasantry, without compensation to
+the present possessors, all the lands that their lords had taken from
+them. He was elected, but was, of course, unable to carry out his
+promises; and the disappointed peasantry rose in indignation and made
+a riot. The soldiers were called out to suppress the movement, but
+were repelled and disarmed; the magistrates' houses were broken open,
+and two of them were killed. Thereupon the Magyars sent down a
+Commissioner to inquire into the riot; the people were ready to
+surrender the murderers to justice; but the Commissioners seized the
+opportunity to declare that all the Serb villages in the neighbourhood
+were concerned in a communistic rising; and, in consequence, they
+placed them under martial law.
+
+The Serbs now despaired of getting any justice from the Magyars, and
+determined to appeal from them to the Emperor. They desired, however,
+still to act legally; and they therefore resolved that the petition to
+the Emperor should be drawn up by an Assembly which had been convoked
+in a legal manner. The only official leader to whom they could appeal
+was their Metropolitan, Rajacic. He was an old man, and unwilling to
+bestir himself in politics. He hesitated, therefore, to comply
+with the request of his countrymen; but a man of more determined
+spirit was ready to take the lead among the Serbs. This was George
+Stratimirovic, one of those erratic characters who add picturesqueness
+to a revolutionary movement. He came from a Serb family which had
+settled in Albania; but he had been brought up in Vienna in a military
+school, and had entered the Austrian Army, which he had been compelled
+to leave on account of an elopement. Since that time he had started a
+popular journal, and had joined in the Serb deputation to the Hungarian
+Diet. His fiery and determined character had attracted the more
+vigorous politicians among the Serbs; and, though only twenty-six years
+of age, he was chosen President of the National Serb Committee
+which was now being formed. The impulse given to the movement by
+Stratimirovic was further quickened by the alarm which was roused among
+the Serbs by the appointment of a new Governor to the fortress of
+Peterwardein, which overlooked Neusatz. This decided the National
+Committee to act at once; and, gathering together the Serbs from those
+other provinces of Hungary which had once been under their rule, they
+organized in Neusatz a deputation which was to rouse Rajacic to a sense
+of his duty. Along the road to Carlowitz they marched with banners and
+flags, singing the old national airs, and telling of the exploits of
+Voyvodes and Patriarchs who had saved their country in former times.
+Rajacic was greatly impressed by this deputation; and, after notifying
+his decision to the Count Palatine, as the legal ruler of Hungary, he
+summoned the Assembly to meet on the 13th of May.
+
+In the meantime, the attitude of the Croatians was alarming the
+Hungarian Diet. As mentioned above, they had determined from the first
+to claim a separate Assembly for Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia, and
+also a separate national guard. Kossuth and some of his friends seemed
+more disposed, at this time, to make concessions to the Croats than to
+the Serbs. But the bitter struggles of 1843 to 1846 had destroyed the
+hope of smoothing over the breach with soft words; and, even while
+Kossuth was promising to sanction the use of the Croatian language in
+Croatian affairs and to protect their nationality, he was at the same
+time denouncing their separatist tendencies as shown in their desire
+for a separate Assembly. The Croatians, on their part, resented
+fiercely the visit of certain youths from Pesth, who came to demand
+their acceptance of the "twelve points." The growing sympathy between
+the different subject-races of Hungary had led the Croats to protest
+against the proposal to absorb Transylvania in Hungary. The question
+of the abolition of the forced labour of the peasants, and of the
+introduction of peasant proprietorship, was complicated in Croatia by
+the existence of village communities which managed the land on the old
+tribal system; and therefore the Croats maintained that it was
+impossible to pass the same land laws for Hungary and for Croatia.
+The question of religious equality was connected in the minds of
+the Croats with the fear of an invasion by Magyar Protestants to
+denationalize Croatia. But the great cause of the Croatian dislike to
+the "twelve points" lay not so much in their objection to any
+particular reform as in their resentment at the arrogant attempt to
+thrust upon them whole-sale formulas concocted at Buda-Pesth. On the
+other hand, the Magyars considered that they had a special grievance,
+both against the Croats and against the Emperor, in the sanction which
+Ferdinand had given on March 23, without waiting for Magyar approval,
+to the election of Joseph Jellacic as Ban of Croatia. Jellacic was
+colonel in one of the regiments stationed on that military frontier
+which was specially under the control of Vienna; and he was chiefly
+known for his share in a not very successful campaign in Bosnia; while
+rumour connected his appointment with the favour of the Archduchess
+Sophia. This appointment, therefore, was doubly distasteful to the
+Hungarian Diet, as being at once an exercise of court influence and an
+assertion of the independence of Croatia against the power of the
+Magyars.
+
+But while these various causes were working together to undo the
+harmony which had been established in the beginning of March, another
+race struggle was coming to a head, in a different part of the
+Austrian Empire, which was to have as vital an effect on the history
+of that Empire as any produced by the struggle between the Magyars and
+the subject-races of Hungary. We left the Bohemian deputation enjoying
+their welcome from Ferdinand and Kolowrat in Vienna, and sending
+happy messages to their fellow citizens in Prague; and on March 24
+Pillersdorf, who was now the most important Minister at Vienna,
+announced the concession by the Emperor of most of the demands of the
+people of Prague. There were, however, three exceptions on very vital
+points. The Emperor declared that the equalization of nationalities
+was already secured by a previous ordinance, and therefore needed no
+new legislation; that the special law court for Bohemia, which the
+petitioners wished to see established in Prague, must be left to the
+consideration of the Minister of Justice; and that the proposal to
+reunite Moravia and Silesia to Bohemia must be decided by the local
+Assemblies of the respective provinces.
+
+Some of the quieter citizens of Prague were willing to accept this
+answer; but the more determined patriots called upon their friends to
+attend a meeting on the Sophien-Insel, a green island which lies just
+below the Franzensbruecke in Prague, and which is used by the citizens
+as a great place for holiday gatherings. Here the more vigorous
+spirits of Prague uttered their complaints against the Emperor's
+answer. They pointed out that the local Estates, to which Ferdinand
+wished to refer some of the questions submitted to him, were mediaeval
+bodies, having no real representative character; and that only an
+assembly freely elected by the whole people would be competent to
+decide on these questions; that, as to the ordinance to which the
+Emperor referred for securing equality between Bohemians and Germans,
+that ordinance had ceased for two hundred years to have any effect;
+and that a law passed in a formal manner was therefore necessary as a
+guarantee for the desired equality; while with regard to the question
+of the union between Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, the claim for
+that union rested on the historical, national, and geographical
+connections between those lands. The petitioners, accompanied by the
+national guard, then marched to the house of the Governor of Bohemia,
+and induced him to sign their new petition. On April 8 Ferdinand
+answered this petition in a letter, promising complete equality
+between the German and Bohemian languages in all questions of State
+Administration and public instruction. He further promised that a
+Bohemian Assembly should be shortly elected on the broadest basis of
+electoral qualifications, and should have the power of deciding on all
+the internal affairs of Bohemia. Responsible central boards were to be
+set up; and the new Assembly was to consider the question of the
+establishment of independent district law courts, and the abolition of
+the old privileged tribunals; while the question of the union between
+Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia was to be decided by a general Assembly,
+in which all three provinces would be represented. Public offices and
+legal boards in Bohemia were to be filled exclusively by men who knew
+both the German and Bohemian languages; and the Minister of Public
+Instruction was to make provision for the thorough education of
+Bohemian and German teachers.
+
+There seemed to be nothing in these concessions which was likely to
+irritate either the German or the Bohemian party; but the work of
+Germanizing Bohemia, so ruthlessly inaugurated by Ferdinand II. after
+the Battle of the White Hill in 1620, could not be entirely undone by
+the March insurrection of 1848. Several towns in Bohemia had been
+completely Germanized, and they looked with the greatest suspicion on
+the movement for restoring the Bohemian language to its natural place
+as an educational and literary power; while they regarded, with hardly
+less suspicion, any attempt to weaken the hold of Vienna on Prague, or
+to restore in any degree a Bohemian national life. The towns of Saatz
+and Reichenberg, particularly, seem to have retained the German impress
+most thoroughly, and were extremely jealous of the claim of Prague to
+take the lead in a Bohemian movement. In Moravia the German party were
+able to appeal to some feeling of provincial independence against the
+absorption of that province in Bohemia; while the Germans who had been
+born in Bohemia, but who had subsequently settled in Vienna, naturally
+caught the infection of that intense German feeling which connected
+itself with the March movement in Lower Austria. It must not be
+supposed, however, that this division of feeling ran strictly parallel
+with the lines of hereditary descent. Men of undoubtedly German name
+and German origin had accepted heartily the language and traditions of
+the conquered people; while names that were as certainly Slavonic were
+found among the leaders of the German party. Another element of
+confusion of the party lines arose from the change which had come over
+the religious feelings of the two races respectively. In Prague at any
+rate, especially among the aristocracy, the championship of that cause
+of Bohemian independence which had been dear to the followers of John
+Huss, and to the subjects of the Winter King, was often connected in
+1848 with strong Roman Catholic sympathies. This irregularity in the
+division of parties might have been expected to soften the bitterness
+of the growing antagonisms; and, if the discussion of the question at
+issue had been confined to the Germans and Bohemians of the Austrian
+Empire, there seems some reason to hope that, under freer institutions,
+the bitterness of local and national divisions might have been
+weakened, and a satisfactory solution of the claims of the different
+races might have been arrived at.
+
+But a new element of discord was now to be introduced into the
+struggle; and the great movement for the unity and freedom of Germany
+became for a time a source of tyranny, and a new and more fatal cause
+of division between the races of the Western half of the Austrian
+Empire. This collision is the more to be regretted because, until its
+occurrence, the leaders of the German movement had exhibited the same
+dignity and moderation of temper which had been shown in the early
+phases of the Bohemian movement. On March 31, the very day of the
+meeting in the Sophien-Insel, the representatives of the German nation
+arrived in Frankfort, to open that Preparatory Parliament which was to
+be the first step towards German unity. One who saw this opening scene
+has thus described it:--"Under a wavy sea of German flags, through a
+crowd of green trees of freedom, covered with flowers and crowns,
+walked the members of the Preparatory Parliament. They were surrounded
+and accompanied by thousands of excited women, as they went from the
+Imperial Hall of the Roman Emperors to their work in that Church of
+St. Paul, which from thenceforth for nearly a year would contain the
+best men of Germany, the holiest hopes of the nation."
+
+Nor were their early efforts unworthy of the nation whom they
+represented; for it seemed likely that the wisest men would be able to
+get their due influence in the Assembly. And this was the more
+remarkable, because the ease with which they had accomplished the
+first steps of their work seems to have led many of the Assembly to
+fear that there was some deeper plot in the background; and both in
+the city and among the members of the Assembly a rumour spread that
+troops were on the march to put down their meeting. A panic seized the
+Deputies, and bitter reproaches were interchanged. Violence seemed
+likely to follow, when Robert Blum came forward to reconcile the
+opposing factions. "Gentlemen," said he, "from whence shall we get
+freedom, if we do not maintain it in our dealings with each other, in
+our most intimate circle?" He went on then to point out, that the
+immediate causes of quarrel were mere matters of form and not of
+principle; and that it was the duty of the Assembly to maintain the
+reputation of the German people for calm decision. For any tumults
+that were made in that Parliament would be settled out of doors not by
+shouts, but by fists, and perhaps by other weapons. "We will first,"
+he continued, "reverence the law which we ourselves have made, to
+which we voluntarily submit. If we do that, gentlemen, then not only
+will the hearts of our people beat in response to us, but other
+nations too will stretch out their arms in brotherly love to the
+hitherto scorned and despised Germans, and will greet in the first
+representative body, which has come here, the full-grown true men,
+who are as capable of obtaining freedom as they have shown themselves
+worthy of it." The influence of his clear voice, powerful figure, and
+determined manner added to the natural effect of his eloquence in
+bringing the Assembly to a wiser state of mind.[12] Another sign of
+the power which these men showed, of responding to appeals which were
+addressed to their higher instincts, was given in answer to one of
+the Baden representatives, who called on them to accept as their
+fundamental maxim that "Where the Lord does not build with us, there
+we build in vain." At these words all the Assembly rose to their feet.
+
+The same triumph of gentle and moderating influences was shown in
+their reception of a programme presented to them by Struve on
+behalf of the Committee of Seven. This programme contained fifteen
+propositions, in which the desire for liberty and national life which
+animated all sections of the Assembly was combined with Republican
+aspirations, so strong among the Baden leaders, and with those
+Socialistic proposals which were as yet entirely in the background of
+German politics. Thus, for instance, the list begins with a proposal
+for the amalgamation of the army with the Civic Guard, in order to
+give a really national character to the army; while another clause
+proposes equality of faiths, freedom of association, and the right of
+communities to choose their own clergy and their own burgomasters. On
+the other hand, the 12th clause aims at the settlement of the
+misunderstandings between labour and capital by a special Ministry of
+Labour, which should check usury, protect workmen, and secure them a
+share in the profits of their work; while the 15th clause proposes the
+abolition of hereditary monarchies, and the introduction into Germany
+of a Federal Republic on the model of the United States of America.
+This medley of various ideas which Hecker and Struve desired to force
+upon the Assembly was finally referred to a Committee, which in the
+end would sift out what was practicable and embody it in a law. Even
+in the burning question of the relations between the Frankfort
+Parliament and their antiquated rival the Bundestag, Blum's influence
+was used in moderating the violence of the disputes between those who
+wished to drive the older institution to extremities and those who
+wished to make for it a golden bridge by which it could pass naturally
+into greater harmony with modern ideas.
+
+So far, then, the German national movement had, on the whole, been
+guided wisely and moderately; but when the discussions began about the
+basis of the election of the future Assembly there quickly appeared
+that German national arrogance which was destined to inflame to so
+intolerable an extent the antagonism of feeling between the rival
+races in Bohemia. It was, indeed, unavoidable that the German movement
+in Austria should be met by some expression of friendliness and some
+attempt at common action on the part of the Frankfort Parliament; but
+the desire to welcome all Germans into the bosom of the newly-united
+Germany became at once complicated with the question of the best
+way of dealing with those districts where Slavs and Germans were
+so closely mixed together. This question, indeed, would in all
+probability have been summarily answered by the German Parliament in
+favour of absolute German supremacy and of the absorption of Bohemia
+in Germany; but the Slavonic question in the South could not be
+considered apart from that other phase of it, which was concerned with
+the mutual relation between Poles and Germans in the Polish districts
+of the Kingdom of Prussia. Even the most extreme champions of German
+supremacy were influenced in their decision of this _North_ Slavonic
+question by their desire to restore an independent Poland as a bulwark
+against Russian oppression; and they could not deny that the claims of
+the Poles to the possession of Posen, at any rate, were as justifiable
+morally and historically as their claims to that part of their country
+which had been absorbed by Russia. They were desirous, therefore, of
+making concessions to Slavonic feeling in Posen; and this desire was
+increased by the connection which Mieroslawsky had established between
+the struggle for Polish freedom in Posen and that for German freedom
+in other parts of Prussia. Under these circumstances they could not
+wholly disregard in Bohemia the feeling which they humoured in Posen;
+and thus it came to pass that the Preparatory Parliament, unwilling
+either to abandon German supremacy or to violate directly the
+principle of unity and autonomy of race, came to the conclusion so
+common to men under similar difficulties, to throw the burden of the
+decision on others. They therefore passed a vague resolution which
+might be differently interpreted by different readers, while they left
+the practical decision of the question to the Committee of Fifty
+which was to govern Germany from the dissolution of the Preparatory
+Parliament on April 4 till the meeting of the Constituent Assembly on
+May 8.
+
+It was this Committee, therefore, which undertook the decision of the
+relations to be established between Bohemia and the new free Germany.
+The new body proved bolder than the Preparatory Parliament; for it
+took a step which, though it may have been intended in a conciliatory
+spirit, yet involved the distinct assertion of the claim to treat
+Bohemia as part of Germany. They invited the Bohemian historian
+Palacky to join with them in their deliberations, and thus to sanction
+the proposal that Bohemia should send representatives to the German
+Parliament. Palacky answered by a courteous but firm refusal of the
+proposal, based partly on the grounds of previous history, partly on
+the needs of Bohemia, and partly on the necessity of an independent
+Austrian Empire to the safety and freedom of Europe. He pointed out
+that the supposed union between Bohemia and Germany had been merely an
+alliance of princes, never of peoples, and that even the Bohemian
+Estates had never recognized it. He urged that Bohemia had the same
+right to independence which was claimed by Germany; but that both
+would suffer if extraneous elements were introduced into Germany. He
+urged that an independent Austria was necessary as a barrier against
+Russia, but that Germany could be united only by a Republican
+Government; and, therefore, Austria, which must necessarily remain an
+Empire, could not consent to a close union with Germany without
+breaking to pieces.
+
+In spite, however, of this rebuff, the German leaders at Frankfort
+were so eager to secure their purpose in this matter that they sent
+down messengers to Prague to confer with the Bohemian National
+Committee. A long discussion ensued, turning partly on the independence
+of the Austrian State, partly on the nationality of Bohemia. The
+Bohemians urged that the Germans were endeavouring to force upon
+them traditions which they had rejected for themselves; that the
+Frankfort Parliament had repudiated the old Bund on account of its
+unrepresentative character; and yet they demanded that Bohemia should
+recognise a union which rested on the arrangements which had been
+destroyed, a union about which the Bohemians had never been consulted
+as a nation. The Germans, on their side, attempted to advance certain
+arguments of expediency in favour of a closer union between Bohemia and
+Germany. But a certain Dr. Schilling, who does not seem to have been
+one of the original messengers from Frankfort, declared, with brutal
+frankness, the real grounds of the German proposal. If Austria did not
+become German, he said, the Germans of Austria would not remain
+Austrian. The five million Germans in Austria would not stay to be
+oppressed by the twelve million Slavs. The freedom and culture of
+Bohemia was, he declared, entirely German. The idea of freedom could
+not be found among the Slavs; and it was therefore necessary, in the
+general interests of freedom, that Bohemia should be absorbed in
+Germany.
+
+Palacky bitterly thanked Schilling for the frankness of his speech;
+and expressed his regret at hearing that the Germans would not stay
+where they could not rule, and where they were obliged to be on an
+equality with others; while another of the Bohemians exclaimed that
+the Bohemians had shown their love of liberty by their resistance to
+the attempts to Germanize them. But Schilling seemed entirely unable
+to appreciate the feelings of his opponents; and, with a naive
+contempt for logic, he declared that, _because_ Nationality was just
+now the leading idea of the Peoples, _therefore_ all the Slavs who
+belonged to the German Bund must be absorbed in Germany! Kuranda, the
+former champion of Viennese liberty, tried to soften the effect of
+Schilling's insults. He abandoned any claim based on the old German
+Bund, and declared that the Assembly at Frankfort was not so much a
+German Parliament as a Congress of Peoples, a beginning of the union
+of humanity. But this ingenious change of front could not destroy the
+effect of Schilling's words; and perhaps the Bohemians could not
+understand why a Congress of the Peoples should find its centre at
+Frankfort any more than at Prague.
+
+But though the Bohemians had failed to convince the German Committee
+that Bohemia had as much right as Germany to a separate existence,
+they still hoped that the Austrian Government would protect them from
+an attack which seemed directed both against their national rights and
+against the integrity of the Austrian Empire. So they despatched to
+the Minister of the Interior a protest against the proposal to hold
+elections for the Frankfort Parliament in Bohemia. Such elections,
+they declared, would lead to a breach of the peace of the country, to
+Communistic and Republican agitations, and to attempts to break up the
+Austrian Empire. The Bohemian Assembly, they urged, would disavow the
+legal right of such representatives when they were elected; and thus
+any really satisfactory alliance between Austria and Germany would be
+hindered by this attempt. The Ministers in Vienna were, no doubt,
+troubled in their mind about this question of the relations between
+Germans and Bohemians. On the one hand, they desired to conciliate a
+people whose national interests led them to seek protection in a union
+with the rest of the Austrian Empire. But, on the other hand, they
+felt it difficult to disregard the intense German feeling which was
+growing in Vienna, and which was shared by important towns in Bohemia.
+Therefore, after, no doubt, considerable deliberation, the Ministry
+resolved to announce to the Bohemians that they might either vote for
+the representatives in the Frankfort Parliament or abstain from
+voting, as seemed best to them. This seems, of all conclusions, the
+most unreasonable which could have been arrived at. The union with
+Germany might or might not be defensible; but it was obviously a step
+which must be taken by the whole nation or by none. Of all possible
+political arrangements, none could be more intolerable than the
+permission to certain citizens of a country to retain their civil
+rights and residence in that country, and at the same time to be free
+to claim, _according to their own fancy_, the special protection
+secured by citizenship in another State.
+
+The National Committee of Prague, finding that the Government at
+Vienna were unable or unwilling to protect them, resolved on stronger
+measures of self protection; and on May 1 they issued an appeal to all
+the Slavs of Austria to meet on the 31st of the same month in Prague,
+to protest against the desire of the Frankfort Parliament to absorb
+Austria in Germany. This appeal was signed by Count Joseph Matthias
+Thun, whose relative, Count Leo Thun, had taken an active part in
+forming the National Committee; by Count Deym, who had headed the
+first deputation to Vienna; by Palacky and his son-in-law Dr. Rieger;
+by the philologer Szaffarik, and by less well known men. But at the
+same time the Bohemian leaders were most anxious to try to maintain
+the connection with Austria and to observe a strictly deferential
+attitude towards the Emperor. They therefore appealed again to the
+Emperor and his Ministers to withdraw the indirect sanction which they
+had given to the proposed Bohemian elections to the Frankfort
+Parliament. They pointed out that Austria had never belonged, in
+regard to most of her provinces, to the German Bund; and that the
+question of whether or no Bohemia should join herself to Germany was
+clearly one of those internal questions with reference to which she
+had been promised the right of decision. They further urged that the
+Emperor had acted on a different line with regard to the union between
+Moravia and Bohemia; and although the claim for this latter union
+rested on old treaties and laws, he had decided that it should only be
+restored by a vote of the respective provincial Assemblies, and the
+Bohemians had been perfectly willing to accept a compromise on the
+subject. How much more reasonable then was it that the Bohemians
+should claim the right of deciding on the question of an entirely new
+relation between their country and Germany? Again they warned him of
+the violence which might be the consequence of such elections; and
+they entreated him to consider also that any attempt on the part of
+the Frankfort Parliament to make a Constitution for all the lands of
+the Bund, would be a violation of the independence of the Emperor of
+Austria and of all his subjects. This last argument might, at an
+earlier stage, have produced an effect on some at least of the
+Ministers to whom it was addressed; for they had already announced
+that Austria could not be bound by the decisions of the Frankfort
+Parliament. But affairs in Vienna were at this time hastening towards
+a change, which was materially to affect the relations of that city
+with the other parts of the Empire.
+
+The Ministry, which had been formed after the fall of Metternich, was
+little likely to satisfy the hopes of the reformers. Kolowrat and
+Kuebeck, who had been supposed to be rather less illiberal than
+Metternich, but who had worked with him in most of his schemes,
+were prominent in this Ministry; and another member of it was
+that Ficquelmont who had hoped to pacify Milan by help of dancers
+and actresses. Only one member of the Ministry, the Freiherr von
+Pillersdorf, had any real reputation for Liberalism; and even he had
+been a colleague of Metternich, and had done little in that position to
+counteract Metternich's policy. Finding it impossible, therefore, to
+put any confidence in the official rulers of their country, the
+Viennese naturally turned their attention to the formation of some
+Government in which they could trust. On March 20 a special legion had
+been formed composed of the students of the University; and a Committee
+was soon after chosen from those professors and students who had played
+a leading part in the Revolution. This Committee, which was at once the
+outcome and the guide of the Students' Legion, became the centre of
+popular confidence and admiration. Thus then there arose, in the very
+first days of the Revolution, a marked division of interest and feeling
+between the real and nominal rulers of Vienna. Some such antagonism is
+perhaps the scarcely avoidable result of a revolution achieved by
+violence, especially when the change of persons and forms produced by
+that revolution is so incomplete as it was in Vienna. Those who, by
+mere official position, are allowed to retain the leadership of
+followers with whom they have no sympathy, are constantly expecting
+that reforms which were begun in violence must be necessarily continued
+by the same method; while the actual revolutionary leaders can hardly
+believe in their own success, and are constantly suspecting that those
+who have apparently accepted the new state of things, are really
+plotting a reaction.
+
+In Vienna these mutual suspicions had probably stronger justification
+than they have in most cases of this kind. The courtiers, who had
+plotted against Metternich, had as little desire for free government
+as the Jacobins who overthrew Robespierre; and Windischgraetz was
+gradually gathering round him a secret council, who were eventually to
+establish a system as despotic as that of Metternich. On the other
+hand, it cannot be denied that the gallant lads who had marched in
+procession to the Landhaus on March 13, and who had defied the guns of
+Archduke Albert, were unwisely disposed to prefer violent methods of
+enforcing their opinions. Thus, when, on March 31, a law regulating
+the freedom of the Press was issued, as distasteful to the Viennese as
+Szemere's had been to the Hungarians, the Viennese students at once
+proposed to follow the example of the students of Pesth, and burn the
+law publicly. Hye persuaded them to abandon this attempt; and he,
+with Fischhof, Kuranda, Schuselka and other trusted leaders, went on a
+deputation to Pillersdorf, to entreat him to withdraw the law.
+Pillersdorf assured them that this law was only a provisional one, and
+that amendments would soon be introduced into it; but, a few days
+later, Count Taaffe, another member of the Ministry, publicly
+contradicted Pillersdorf's statement, and spoke of the Press law as
+being a permanent one, though he promised that it should be mildly
+administered. Perhaps the students may be excused if they felt no
+great respect for such a Ministry. Nor were their feelings conciliated
+by what they considered a growing tendency on the part of the Ministry
+to make concessions of local liberties to the provinces.
+
+After the first enthusiasm for Kossuth had a little subsided, the
+Viennese began to reflect that the concession of a separate ministry
+to Hungary might be a dangerous source of weakness to the central
+Government; while the growing demands of the Bohemians seemed likely
+to injure both the position of Vienna, and the cause of German unity.
+But the Viennese were in many cases aiming at the two incompatible
+objects of maintaining the position of Vienna as the capital of the
+Austrian Empire, and gaining for it a new position as the second
+or third town of United Germany. But a more reasonable cause of
+discontent arose from the fact that, while parliaments were conceded
+to Hungary and Bohemia, the Constitution which had been promised in
+March to the Austrian Empire was as yet unrealized.
+
+Dr. Schuette, a Westphalian by birth, organized a demonstration in
+favour of a mass petition. Schuette was arrested by the police, and
+banished from Vienna as a foreign agitator; and, while this irritated
+the students still further, the Ministry on their side were alarmed at
+finding that they had failed to secure the one advantage which they
+had hoped to reap from the power of the students. The men who had
+succeeded in retaining office after the March Rising, had trusted that
+the intellectual youths, who had fought for freedom of the Press and
+freedom of teaching, would have discouraged the coarse socialistic
+agitations of the workmen, and have separated themselves altogether
+from their movements. But, though the extremer forms of Socialism
+found little favour among the leaders of the University, the sympathy
+between the students and the workmen grew ever closer. If the workmen
+complained of an employer, the students went to him and warned him to
+behave better; if any poor man needed money, the students organized
+the collection; if the cause of a workman was suffering by the undue
+length of a trial, the students called upon the judges to do their
+duty; if the workmen wished to state some special grievance in the
+form of a petition, the students composed the petition for them, or
+found a lawyer who would do it gratuitously. Reductions of the hours
+of labour and higher wages frequently resulted from these efforts.
+
+This combination naturally alarmed the authorities, and they showed
+their fears both by coercion and concession. On the one hand they
+arrested Schuette and other agitators; on the other hand they consented
+on April 25 to issue the long promised Constitution. The Constitution,
+however, at once disappointed the petitioners. The proposed Parliament
+was to consist of two Chambers; the Upper Chamber to be composed of
+Princes of the royal House, of nominees of the Emperor, and of 150
+landlords chosen by the landlords; and the assent of both Chambers and
+of the Emperor was to be necessary before the passing of a law. This
+Constitution was objected to both by the students and the workmen; the
+former condemning it on the ground of its aristocratic character, the
+latter becoming discontented when they found that the issue of this
+document did not free them from the payment of rent.
+
+The revolutionary enthusiasm of the students was further whetted by
+the events which were taking place in Galicia. That unfortunate
+province had been so hampered by the effects of the abortive movement
+of 1846, that it had not been able to join in the March insurrection
+of the rest of Southern Europe. But by the beginning of April even the
+Galicians had taken heart; and they sent a deputation to the Emperor
+asking for a State recognition of the Polish language, a separate army
+for Galicia, and the concession of the different liberties which were
+then being demanded throughout the Empire. Even the Preparatory
+Parliament of Frankfort had passed a resolution in favour of the
+reconstitution of Poland; and the students of Vienna were prepared to
+be far more generous in their recognition of Galicia's claim to a
+share in Polish independence, than the Frankfort Parliament had been
+in its attitude towards Posen. So alarming did the movement appear to
+the Austrian Governor of Galicia, that he forbade any emigrants to
+return to his province unless they could prove that they had been born
+there. The Galicians rose in indignation, and imprisoned the Governor;
+but he was set free, and, after a sharp struggle, the insurrection
+was suppressed.
+
+But, if their Polish sympathies tended to rouse the revolutionary
+fervour of the Viennese students, their anger, on the other hand, was
+kindled by the growing tendency of the rich merchants to abandon the
+position which they had taken up in March, to accept the April
+Constitution, and to fall into more peaceable methods of action. Even
+the Reading and Debating Club, which had been the first centre of the
+Liberal movement, was now the object of hostile demonstrations on the
+part of the students. The Students' Committee had been strengthened by
+the adhesion of many of the National Guard, and had received the name
+of the Central Committee; Hoyos, the commander of the National Guard,
+was alarmed at this sign of revolutionary feeling, and forbade his
+subordinates to take part in any political movement. The Central
+Committee entreated him to withdraw this prohibition, to which Hoyos
+answered that he would withdraw his prohibition if the Central
+Committee would dissolve itself. The Committee met to consider this
+proposal; but, while they were still sitting, a report arrived that
+the soldiers and the National Guard had been called out to put them
+down by force. The truth appeared to be, that the soldiers had been
+called out to suppress a supposed attack by the workmen; but that,
+finding that no such attack was intended, the military leaders seemed
+disposed to turn their hostility against the University. Thereupon the
+students at once rose and marched to the Castle. It seems that their
+exact object was at first uncertain; but on someone demanding of them
+their intentions, Dr. Giskra, one of their leaders, answered with, a
+shout, "Wir wollen eine Kammer" (we want a single Chamber.) The cry
+was taken up by the students; Pillersdorf advised the Emperor to
+yield, and on May 16 Ferdinand issued a proclamation granting a one
+Chamber Constitution. But whether the shock had been too much for his
+feeble health, and had struck him with a panic, or whether he yielded
+to the advice of his courtiers, Ferdinand suddenly resolved to leave
+Vienna, and on May 17 he fled secretly to Innspruck.
+
+These events produced a somewhat peculiar effect on opinion in various
+parts of the Empire. In Bohemia the extreme national feeling had been
+hitherto represented by the Swornost, a body corresponding almost
+exactly to the Students' Legion in Vienna; and they had been held
+somewhat in check by the noblemen and citizens, who had organized the
+March movement. But the Vienna rising of May 15, and the flight of the
+Emperor, roused the indignation of men like Count Thun and Count Deym;
+and they decided to take the important step of breaking loose
+altogether from the Viennese Ministry, summoning a special Bohemian
+assembly in June, and inviting the Emperor to take refuge in Prague.
+The Swornost, on their part, felt some reluctance to take any steps
+which seemed to condemn the abolition of the Upper Chamber by the
+Viennese; but the bitter hostility, which the Germans of Vienna had so
+repeatedly shown against the Bohemians during the months of April and
+May, prevented the possibility of any understanding between the
+Democrats of Prague and those of Vienna; and thus the students of
+Prague were ready to approve, not only the assertion of Bohemian
+independence, but even the proposed deputation to the Emperor.
+
+Kossuth, on his part, saw in these events an opportunity for
+increasing the growing friendliness between the Magyars and the
+Emperor; and he induced the Hungarian Ministry to invite Ferdinand to
+Pesth. This attitude of the Magyar leaders was due to one or two
+causes. In the first place the Viennese, as mentioned above, had been
+growing alarmed at the separate position granted to Hungary, and had
+feared that they would lose their hold over that kingdom altogether.
+This naturally produced an attitude of hostility on their part, which
+provoked a counter-feeling of antagonism in the Magyars; and thus the
+latter became more friendly to Ferdinand as the representative of the
+anti-democratic principle, and therefore the opponent of the ruling
+spirits of Vienna. There was also a second reason of a stranger kind,
+which placed the leaders of the Magyar movement in hostility to the
+Democratic party in Vienna. In spite of the strong German feeling
+which prevailed among the leading Democrats of Vienna, it was the
+opinion of some of those Hungarians who were best acquainted with that
+city, that the change from indirect to direct elections, which was one
+of the results of the May rising, would tend to increase the power of
+the large Slavonic population of Vienna.
+
+But the great cause of the growing sympathy between the Magyars and
+the Emperor was the attitude taken up by the latter in the questions
+at issue between Hungary and Croatia. Although the appointment of
+Jellacic, as Ban of Croatia, had been considered as an undue exertion
+of the power of the Court to the disadvantage of the Magyars, yet the
+independent tone which Jellacic had adopted since his appointment,
+seemed to alarm the Emperor as much as it did Batthyanyi or Kossuth.
+Immediately after his appointment, Jellacic announced that "the
+Revolution has changed our relations to our old ally, Hungary"; and
+that "we must take care that the new relation shall be consistent with
+independence and equality"; and he had then proceeded to summon the
+Assembly of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia to meet at Agram in June.
+This independent attitude had brought rebukes upon Jellacic from
+Ferdinand and the Hungarian Ministry alike; and the Croatian Council,
+while appealing to the Emperor to strengthen the hands of the Ban, had
+threatened that, if pressed too hard by the Magyars, they would take
+measures to defend themselves. It was not unnatural, therefore, that
+at this moment the Croats should be more disposed to sympathise with
+the Democrats of Vienna; and that Kossuth should try to draw closer
+the bond between the Emperor and the Magyars.
+
+It might indeed seem that the appeal of the Bohemians to the Emperor
+under these circumstances would have brought them out of sympathy with
+the Slavs of Croatia and Slavonia; but not only did the Emperor refuse
+to go to Prague, but the Tyrolese followed up that refusal by a sharp
+rebuke to the Bohemians for their proposal of a Slavonic Congress in
+Prague. Though, however, the Slavs of Hungary looked forward to the
+Slavonic Congress, and were willing to accept Prague as the centre of
+their political deliberations, it was in the Hungarian provinces
+themselves that the most vigorous action in defence of their rights
+was at present to be found. For while the Croatian Council were
+protesting against the Emperor's rebuke to Jellacic, the Serbs were
+gathering for their Conference of May 13 in Carlowitz, and resolving
+to send deputies to the Croatian Assembly, and to the Emperor himself,
+and also to choose representatives for the Prague Congress. Crnojevic,
+who had been sent by the Magyars to enforce martial law on the Serbs
+of the Banat and Bacska, after the riot at Kikinda, denounced the
+meeting, and called on Rajacic to prevent it. Rajacic would have
+hesitated about further action, but Stratimirovic and his more fiery
+friends answered the threat by burning Crnojevic's letter publicly;
+and the meeting took place in defiance of his warning.
+
+From every district where the Serb language was spoken, there came to
+Carlowitz representatives wearing the old national costume. Carlowitz
+is little more than a village; and it would have required a large city
+to provide for the crowds who arrived on this occasion. Hundreds,
+therefore, lay out by night in the streets, to wait for the meeting in
+the morning. In the garden which lies between the Archbishop's library
+and the small room where the archives of Carlowitz are kept, there met
+on May 13 the Assembly of the newly-roused Serb people. Rajacic
+appeared, accompanied by some of the clergy, and presented to the
+Assembly the old charters which had been granted by the Emperor in
+1690 and 1691, and on which the liberties of the Serbs were based.
+Physicians, lawyers, and young students denounced the abolition of
+their Voyvodeschaft, claimed back the provinces which Maria Theresa had
+abandoned to Hungary, and demanded the removal of all hindrances to
+the development of their life, language, and history. They then
+proceeded to revive the old dignity of Patriarch in the person of
+Rajacic and to choose as their Voyvode a man named Suplikac, who was
+then serving in the army in Italy. Finally they appointed a committee
+to prepare rules, and gave it the power to call the Assembly together
+when circumstances required it. Hrabowsky, the commander of the
+fortress of Peterwardein, had been uncertain what attitude he should
+assume towards this movement. Sometimes he seemed to be personally
+friendly to the Serbs; but, in his official position, he felt doubtful
+whether to support the extreme Magyar authority, or to wait for orders
+from Ferdinand; and this confusion of mind led him to give doubtful
+and contradictory answers to the Serb deputations which waited on him.
+Under these circumstances, the Serbs were compelled to rely, even more
+markedly than before, on the support of their own countrymen, and of
+those races whom a common oppression had driven into sympathy with
+them. It was not only to the Croatians and Bohemians that they now
+appealed; even the Germans of the Bacska were expected to look with
+friendly eyes on the Serb movement, and Stratimirovic believed that
+beyond the old Serb provinces there were races to whom they might look
+for alliance.
+
+For while the Serbs were still discussing their grievances and the
+remedies for them, the Roumanians were meeting in their village of
+Blasendorf to make their protest against Magyar rule. They, like the
+other Peoples of the Empire, had been disposed to sympathise with the
+March movement; but when it became known that the Magyars at Pesth had
+put forward as one of their twelve points the union of Transylvania
+with Hungary, the Roumanians became alarmed. Had the Transylvanian
+Diet met under the extended suffrage now granted in Hungary, the
+Roumanians would have had a majority in the Diet; and the influence of
+this majority would have been far more important under the new
+parliamentary system than in the old days of centralised officialism.
+If, on the other hand, they were to be absorbed in Hungary, they
+naturally feared that the fanaticism of the Magyars in enforcing the
+use of the Magyar language, would be directed with even greater vigour
+against the despised Roumanians, than it had been against Serbs and
+Croats; and that the Greek Church to which the Roumanians belonged,
+and which had always been at a disadvantage in Transylvania, would be
+crushed, or, at any rate, discouraged. The tradition of their Roman
+descent recorded in the Libellus Wallachorum, had given some of them
+hopes for leadership in Transylvania, and had strengthened, even in
+the less ambitious, the desire for a dignified equality. Animated by
+these motives, they met on May 15 at Blasendorf.
+
+This little capital of the Roumanian race lies in one of the large
+open plains of Transylvania. It is still little more than a straggling
+village of low huts; but it is apparently as important to the
+Roumanians as Carlowitz is to the Serbs and Hermannstadt to the
+Saxons. Crowds of the strange figures, whom one may still see in the
+villages of Transylvania, flocked in to this meeting, covered with
+their rough sheep-skins and dark, flowing hair, and showing in their
+handsome faces at once the consciousness of the new life that was
+awakening, and their pride in those dim traditions of the past, which
+were supposed to unite them with the glories of ancient Rome. Even
+here, too, there were found some of the ruling race, who were
+prepared to make common cause with this, the most despised and
+oppressed of the races of Hungary; for a Magyar noble named Nopcsa was
+prominent in the meeting. But now, as ever, the chief hope for the
+Roumanians was in their clergy, and specially in their bishops; and
+Lemenyi, the bishop of the United Greeks,[13] appeared side by side
+with the more popular and influential Schaguna. Speaker after speaker
+dwelt on the great traditions of the Roumanian nation, and their
+determination to obtain an equality with the Magyar, Szekler, and
+Saxon. They avowed their loyalty to Ferdinand, and declared that they
+had no desire to oppress any other nation; but that they would not
+suffer any other nation to oppress them; that they would work for the
+emancipation of industry and trade, for the removal of the feudal
+burdens, for the securing of legal justice, and for the welfare of
+humanity, of the Roumanian nation, and of the common fatherland. They
+then proceeded to ask for a separate national organization, for
+the use of the Roumanian language in all national affairs, and for
+representation in the Assembly in proportion to their numbers. They
+further demanded a Roumanian national guard to be commanded by
+Roumanian officers. They claimed to be called by the name of Roumanian,
+instead of the less dignified epithet of Wallach. They also asked for
+an independent position for their Church; for the foundation of a
+Roumanian University; for equality with the other races of Hungary in
+the endowment of their clergy and schools. These were the chief points
+of their petition; but along with these came the demands for the
+ordinary freedoms of the time, and for the redress of special local
+grievances. At the close of the petition, came the prayer which
+specially explained the urgency of their meeting at that time. They
+entreated that the Diet of Transylvania should not discuss the question
+of the proposed union with Hungary until the Roumanians were fully
+represented in the Diet. This petition Schaguna carried to Vienna on
+behalf of the meeting.
+
+In the meantime the Saxons were preparing to express their opposition
+to the proposed union with Hungary in a separate protest of their own.
+The peculiar organization which the Saxons had enjoyed had become very
+dear to them; and they had hoped to retain their old institutions
+under the new Government. But when they appealed to the Hungarian
+Ministry, Deak told them that they had no right to make conditions;
+and it soon became evident that, in the larger matter of the union of
+Transylvania with Hungary, they would have as little chance of a fair
+hearing as in the smaller question of their own race organization.
+Count Teleki, the Governor of Transylvania, had announced, on May 2,
+that the union was practically settled already; and that only
+questions of detail had now to be arranged. This direct attack on the
+legal power of the Transylvanian Diet naturally alarmed the Saxons,
+and Count Salmen, the Comes der Sachsen or Chief Magistrate of the
+Saxon colony, organized the opposition to the proposed union. Hitherto
+the Saxons, with the exception of a few generous-minded men like Roth,
+had been as bitterly scornful of the Roumanians as any Magyar or
+Szekler could be; but now the sense of a common danger drew these
+races together; and the Saxons offered to allow the Roumanians to hold
+office in the Saxon towns and villages, and to be admitted to
+apprenticeships by the tradesmen of those towns. The opposition of the
+Saxons to the Magyars was, no doubt, strengthened by the sympathy
+of the former with that German feeling which would lead to the
+strengthening of the influence of Vienna; and they declared that they
+would rather send representatives to a Viennese Assembly than to a
+Diet at Presburg.
+
+And while, on the one hand, common danger to their liberties was
+drawing together the Saxons and the Roumanians, the sympathies of race
+and a common antipathy to aliens was drawing together the Magyar and
+the Szekler. As early as May 10 Wesselenyi issued an appeal to the
+Szekler to arm themselves as guardians of the frontiers, and to be
+prepared to suppress any rising of the Roumanians; and on May 19
+Batthyanyi appealed to them to march to Szegedin. But it was not to the
+Szekler alone that the Magyars trusted to enforce their will on the
+Transylvanian Diet. The fiery young students of Pesth hastened down, on
+May 30, to Klausenburg, where the deputies were gathering for the final
+meeting of the Diet. A Roumanian deputation, coming to entreat
+the Parliament not to decide till the Roumanians were adequately
+represented in it, were contemptuously refused a hearing, and one of
+their leaders was roughly pushed back. Banners were displayed bearing
+the words, "Union or Death!" and the young lawyers from Pesth filled
+the galleries of the Assembly, and even crowded into the Hall. The
+Saxon representatives, more used to quiet discussion, or to commercial
+transactions, than to the fiery quarrels in which the Magyar and
+Szekler delighted, tremblingly entered the Hall; and, unable to gain
+courage for their duties, they gave way to the storm, and voted for the
+union. Thus ended the local independence of Transylvania, which was to
+be revived twelve years later by the Germanizing Liberalism of
+Schmerling, and then to be finally swept away in the successful
+movement for Hungarian Independence.
+
+The bitterness roused by the passing of the Act of Union was not long
+in leading to actual bloodshed. The immediate quarrel, however, arose
+out of a matter connected, not with the race contest, but with the new
+land laws of the country. The Hungarian Diet had decided that the
+peasant should not only be freed from his dependence on the landlord,
+but should be also considered by his previous payment of dues to have
+earned the land on which he had worked. Naturally, disputes arose as
+to the extent of the land so acquired; and in more than one case the
+peasants were found to be claiming more than their own share. It was
+to redress a blunder of this kind that, on June 2, a party of National
+Guards, composed partly of Szeklers and partly of Magyars, entered the
+Roumanian village of Mihalzi (Magyar, Mihacsfalva). The exact
+circumstances of such a collision as that which followed will always
+be told differently by the most honest narrators; but it seems
+probable that the Roumanians, in some confused way, connected this
+visit with the recent struggle about the Union; and it is certain that
+the race-hatred between the Szekler and the Roumanians soon became
+inflamed. The National Guard fired, and several of the Roumanians
+fell. The others fled; but their previous resistance soon produced a
+rumour of a general Roumanian insurrection. The Magyars were seized
+with a panic; the Roumanian National Committee was dissolved, and
+several of their clergy and other leaders were imprisoned. Had the
+Roumanians been now organized by Austrian officers it is possible that
+less might have been heard of the savagery of the new warfare. Had
+some of their own leaders, who afterwards tried to control them, been
+ready at this time to take the lead, many of the actual cruelties
+might never have taken place. But just at this time the Emperor
+answered the deputation of May 15 by referring the Roumanians to the
+Magyar Ministry for the redress of their grievances, and declaring
+that equality could only be carried out by enforcing the Act of Union.
+This rebuff was accompanied by a letter from Schaguna written somewhat
+in the same sense; and thus, finding that some of their leaders had
+deserted them; that others were imprisoned; that the Emperor was
+discouraging their complaints; that the Magyars were denouncing them
+as rebels, and the Szekler making raids on their territory, the
+Roumanians began to defend themselves by a warfare which rapidly
+became exceptionally barbarous and savage.
+
+In the meantime the other subject races of Hungary were preparing in
+their own way for resistance to the Magyars. The Croatian Assembly at
+Agram, finding themselves discouraged by the Emperor, were disposed to
+strengthen their union with the Serbs of Slavonia; and, on June 6, Gaj
+and Jellacic both supported proposals at Agram for uniting the Serbs
+and Croats under one rule. Rajacic, who happened to be passing through
+Agram, heartily responded to these proposals; and it was resolved that
+the relations between the Ban of Croatia and the Voyvode of the Serbs
+should be left to be settled at a later period. But the Serbs, though
+heartily desiring sympathy with the Croats, were not disposed to trust
+to alliances, however welcome, or to Constitutional arrangements,
+however ingenious, for the settlement of their grievances against
+the Magyars; for they, too, had been forced to abandon peaceable
+discussions for actual warfare. Crnojevic, not having been found
+sufficiently stern in the Magyar service, was being driven into more
+violent courses by the addition of a fiercer subordinate; and the
+cruelties inflicted on the Serbs of the Bacska had so roused their
+kinsmen in other parts of Hungary that an old officer of the military
+frontier had crossed the Danube at the head of his followers and
+seized the town of Titel.
+
+At the same time the Serbs sent a deputation to Hrabowsky, the
+Governor of Peterwardein, to complain of the cruelties of the Magyar
+bands. Hitherto Hrabowsky had seemed to hesitate between the two
+parties; but he now grew angry in the conference with the Serb
+deputation, and disputed the right of the Serbs to stay in Hungary.
+The Serbs, alarmed at these threats, began once more to gather
+at Carlowitz; and they now tried to draw recruits from friendly
+neighbours. Stratimirovic had succeeded in persuading some of the
+regiments from the frontier to take up the Serb cause; but he perhaps
+relied still more on the help of those Serbs from the principality of
+Servia, who were now flocking in across the border to defend their
+kinsmen against the Magyars. Of the leaders of these new allies the
+most important was General Knicsanin, who helped to organize the
+forces in Carlowitz. The Serbs of Carlowitz had, however, not yet
+entered upon actual hostilities, when, on June 11, during one of the
+meetings of their Assembly, Hrabowsky suddenly marched out of Neusatz,
+dispersed a congregation who were coming out of a chapel half way on
+the road between Neusatz and Carlowitz, and reached the latter town
+before the Serbs were aware of his intention. The Serbs, though taken
+by surprise, rushed out to defend their town, with a Montenegrin
+leader at their head. The contest continued for several hours; but at
+last Hrabowsky and his soldiers were driven back into Neusatz. Two
+days later ten thousand men were in arms in Carlowitz to defend their
+town and their race.
+
+But while the Slavs in Hungary were girding themselves for this fierce
+war, they had not forgotten the more peaceable union proposed to them
+by the Bohemians; and on May 30 representatives from the different
+Slavonic races of the Empire had been welcomed in Prague by Peter
+Faster and other Bohemian leaders. On June 1 the National Committee of
+Prague, while deliberating on the future Constitution of Bohemia, were
+joined by several of their Slavonic visitors; and out of this
+combination the Congress was formed. It was speedily divided into three
+sections: one representing Poles and Ruthenians, one the Southern Slavs
+(that is not only the Serbs and Croats, but also the Slovenes of Krain
+and the adjoining provinces), and the third the Bohemians, Moravians,
+Silesians, and the Slovaks of North Hungary. Many of the members of the
+Congress appeared in old Bohemian costumes, and from the windows of
+the town waved the flags of all the different Slavonic races. At 8 a.m.
+on June 2 the members of the Congress went in solemn procession through
+the great square called the Grosser Ring, so soon to be the scene of a
+bloody conflict, to the Teynkirche, the church in which Huss preached,
+and where his pulpit still stands. In front of the procession went the
+Students' Legion, singing patriotic songs; two young men followed, one
+in the Polish dress, the other bearing a white, blue, and red flag,
+which was supposed to symbolize the union of the Slavonic peoples. A
+division of the Swornost corps followed these; then came the
+Provisional Committee, and then the representatives of the three
+sections of the Congress. The Poles were led by Libelt, a leader in the
+recent rising in Posen, and the Bohemians by the philologist Szaffarik.
+At the altar, which was sacred to the bishops Cyril and Methodius, the
+presiding priest offered thanks to God for having put unity and
+brotherly love into the hearts of the Slavs; and he prayed that the
+Lord of Hosts would bless the work to the salvation of the nation, as
+well as of the whole fatherland. From the church they proceeded to the
+hall in the Sophien-Insel. That hall had been decked with the arms of
+the different Slavonic races. At the upper end of it was a table
+covered with red and white, the Bohemian colours; and the choir began
+the proceedings with an old national song. The Vice-President, after
+formally opening the Assembly, resigned his seat to Palacky, who had
+been chosen President.
+
+Palacky then rose and addressed the meeting. He spoke of the gathering
+as the realisation of the dreams of their youth, which a month ago
+they could hardly have hoped for. "The Slavs had gathered from all
+sides to declare their eternal love and brotherhood to each other.
+Freedom," he continued, "which we now desire, is no gift of the
+foreigner, but of native growth, the inheritance of our fathers. The
+Slavs of old time were all equal before the law, and never aimed at
+the conquest of other nations. They understood freedom much better
+than some of our neighbours, who cannot comprehend the idea of aiming
+at freedom without also aiming at lordship. Let them learn from us the
+idea of equality between nations. The chief duty of our future is to
+carry out the principle of 'What thou wouldst not that men should do
+unto thee, that do not thou to another.' Our great nation would never
+have lost its freedom if it had not been broken up, and if each part
+had not gone its own separate way, and followed its own policy. The
+feeling of brotherly love and freedom could secure freedom to us. It
+is this feeling and Ferdinand that we thank for our freedom." For
+himself, Palacky continued, he could say, "Lord now lettest Thou thy
+servant depart in peace, for mine eyes have seen the salvation which
+Thou hast prepared for us before the face of the whole world. A light
+for the enlightenment of the peoples, and the glory of the Slavonic
+race." Then, addressing the Assembly, he concluded with these words:
+"Gentlemen, in virtue of the office entrusted to me by you, I announce
+and declare that this Slavonic Assembly is open; and I insist on its
+right and duty to deliberate about the welfare of the fatherland, and
+the nation, in the spirit of freedom, in the spirit of unity and
+peace; in the name of our old, renowned Prague, which protects us in
+its bosom; in the name of the Czech nation, which follows our
+proceedings with hearty sympathy; in the name of the great Slavonic
+race, which expects from our deliberations its strengthening and
+eternal regeneration. So help us God." Other speeches followed from
+representatives of the different Slavonic races; and petitions to the
+Emperor were prepared in favour of the demands made by the Serbs at
+Carlowitz, and of the rights of the Poles and Ruthenians; while plans
+were drawn up for the equalization of the rival languages in the
+schools.
+
+But while these peaceable discussions were proceeding in the Slavonic
+Congress, more fiery elements were at work in other parts of the city.
+During the months of April and May there had been signs of various
+kinds of discontent among different sections of the population.
+Workmen's demonstrations about wages had attracted some attention;
+while one public gathering, approaching to a riot, had secured the
+release of an editor, supposed to have been unjustly arrested, and had
+hastened the resignation of Strobach, the Mayor of Prague. But the
+most fiery agitations were those which had been stirred up among the
+students by a man named Sladkowsky, with the object of weakening as
+far as possible the German element in Prague. So alarming did these
+demonstrations become that Count Deym resigned his seat on the
+National Committee; and Count Leo Thun, the Governor of Prague,
+threatened to dissolve the Swornost in order to hinder further
+disorder; but the opposition to this proposal was so strong that he
+was obliged to abandon it.
+
+The great cause of the students alarm was the appointment of
+Windischgraetz to take the command of the forces in Bohemia. His
+proceedings during the March movement in Vienna were well known; and
+the fear caused by his arrival was still further increased by the
+threatening position that he had taken up; for he had mounted his
+cannon on two sides of the city; namely, on the commanding fortress of
+the Wissehrad, on the South, from which he could have swept a poor
+and crowded part of Prague; and in the Joseph's barrack, on the
+North-East. The members of the Town Council tried to check the
+demonstrations of the students, and to persuade them to appeal to
+Windischgraetz in a more orderly manner. In order to give dignity to
+the proceedings, the Burgomaster consented to accompany the students
+on the proposed deputation. Windischgraetz, however, answered that he
+was responsible to the King, and not to the Council; though, when
+Count Leo Thun appealed to him, he consented to withdraw the cannon
+from the Joseph's barrack, declaring that there was no need for its
+presence there; but that he had been determined not to yield to the
+students.
+
+While the students succeeded in further irritating against them a man
+whose haughty and overbearing spirit was naturally disposed to
+opposition, they were still more rash and unfortunate in their
+relations with some whom they had had greater hopes of conciliating.
+The aristocratic leaders of the Bohemians, while asserting the
+independence of Bohemia, and the need for protecting Slavonic
+liberties, were most anxious to make as many concessions to German
+feeling as could be made consistently with these objects. One of the
+noblemen, who had been fiercest in his denunciations of the rising of
+May 15th, even thought it well to send to Vienna a long explanation
+and modification of his protest; while Palacky and other leading
+nationalists inaugurated a feast of reconciliation in which many of
+the German Bohemians took part. So successful had this policy appeared
+to be that the town of Saatz, which had been the first to express
+alarm at the Bohemian attitude towards the Germans, declared on May 20
+its sympathy with the Prague address to the Emperor, and its desire
+for union between the German and Bohemian elements in Bohemia. But the
+students seemed doomed to weaken the effect produced by their more
+moderate countrymen. They combined a strong Czech feeling with a great
+desire for democratic government; and while they thought they could
+enlist the sympathies of the Vienna students by the latter part of
+their creed, they seemed to be unaware that Germanism was to the
+students of Vienna what Czechism was to them. On June 5th, the very
+same day on which the Slavonic Congress was deciding to send its
+petition to the Emperor, more than a hundred students of Prague
+started on a deputation to their comrades in Vienna. But on their way,
+they thought it necessary to attack and insult the German flag,
+wherever it was displayed. They arrived in Vienna to find the Viennese
+students suspicious even towards those who had been their champions,
+and still smarting from the recollection of a struggle between their
+Legion, and the National Guard, who had attempted to suppress them. It
+was while they were in this state of irritation, that the Czech
+students appeared in the Hall of the University; and, unfortunately,
+at the same time, there arrived from Prague the representatives of two
+German Bohemian Clubs. Schuselka, Goldmark, and other Viennese
+leaders, urged a reconciliation between the two races; but the news of
+the insults to the German flag so infuriated the Viennese students,
+that they drove the Czechs from the Hall, and ordered them to leave
+Vienna within twenty-four hours.
+
+The unfortunate deputation returned to Prague to find that the
+Slavonic Congress was approaching its final acts, and was preparing
+two appeals, one to the Emperor, and one to the Peoples of Europe. The
+latter appeal was based on a general complaint of the oppressions from
+which the Slavs suffered. It demanded the restoration of Poland, and
+called for a European Congress to settle international questions;
+"since free Peoples will understand each other better than paid
+diplomatists." In the appeal to the Emperor, the Congress went into
+greater detail, as to the special demands of the different Slavonic
+races of Austria. The Bohemians, indeed, mainly expressed their thanks
+for the independence which now seemed legally secured. The Moravians
+suggested an arrangement which would combine the common action of
+Moravia and Bohemia with a provision for Moravian local independence.
+The Galicians pointed out how much they had been left behind by the
+other Austrian provinces in the struggle for freedom, and proposed an
+arrangement for securing equality between the Polish and Ruthenian
+languages in Galicia, and for granting to Galicia the same provincial
+freedom that had already been secured to Bohemia. The Slovaks of North
+Hungary demanded protection for their language against the Magyar
+attempt to crush it out; equal representation in the Hungarian
+Assembly; official equality between the Slovak, Ruthenian, and Magyar
+languages; and freedom for those Slovaks who had recently been arrested
+and imprisoned by the Magyars, for defence of their national rights.
+The Serbs, of course, demanded the acceptance of the programme put
+forward at Carlowitz; and the Croats the recognition of the legality of
+the acts of Jellacic, and of the municipal independence of the Assembly
+of Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. Lastly, the Slovenes desired that
+the provinces of Steiermark, Krain, Carinthia, and some neighbouring
+districts, should be formed into a separate kingdom, in which the
+Slovenian language should be the official one. All the Slavs combined
+in the desire that Austria should be a federal State, and in the
+protest against that absorption in Germany, the fear of which had led
+to the calling of the Congress.
+
+But sober and rational as was the tone of the Slavonic Congress, as a
+whole, there were turbulent spirits in Prague, who were determined
+that the matter should not end peaceably. The extremer representatives
+of Polish feeling desired the separation of Poland, and disliked any
+plan which would reconcile Galicia to remaining part of Austria. On
+the other hand, there had appeared in Prague at this period an
+adventurer named Turansky, who while professing to be a champion of
+the Slovaks of North Hungary, seems undoubtedly to have acted as an
+"agent provocateur." Such men as these were easily able to act upon
+the excited feelings of the students; and were further aided in
+stirring up violent feeling by a strike among the cotton workers which
+was just then going on.
+
+Finally, the outburst came on June 12. The Slavonic Congress at
+Prague, already preparing to break up, met on that day to celebrate a
+last solemn mass. Once more they all gathered in front of the statue
+of S. Wenzel; but now the numbers were so great that they spread down
+the whole length of the Wenzels Platz. In spite of the peaceable
+intentions of the majority, a number of the workmen had come bearing
+arms. The mass went off quietly enough; but several of those who had
+attended it, had had their national feelings excited to the utmost;
+and, as they left the Wenzels Platz, they marched back singing
+Bohemian songs, and howling against Windischgraetz. As they passed
+under the Pulverthurm into the narrow and busy Zeltnergasse, which
+leads to the Grosser Ring, some soldiers, as ill luck would have it,
+came out of the neighbouring barrack. The house of Windischgraetz was
+in the street, and the crowd were hooting against him. Under these
+circumstances a collision was unavoidable. The crowd were dispersed by
+the soldiers; some of the students attempted to rally them, and were
+arrested; the workmen then tried to rescue the students; the soldiers
+charged, and drove them back under the Pulverthurm, and round into the
+wider street of Am Graben, and right up to the National Museum, which
+was the head-quarters of the Swornost. After a fierce struggle the
+soldiers stormed the Museum, and captured many of the students; but
+the panic had now spread to other parts of the town. Sladkowsky, at
+the head of the workmen, broke into the depot of the Town Watch, and
+seized arms; while others rushed into the country districts round
+Prague, and spread the rumour that the soldiers were trying to take
+away all that the Emperor had granted, and to restore the feudal dues.
+
+In the meantime the leaders of the March movement were greatly
+startled at hearing of the outbreak. Some of them had already been
+alarmed at the growing tendency to disturbances in Prague; several of
+them hastened out to check the riots, and some of them even fought
+against the insurgents. Count Leo Thun, the Governor of Prague,
+hastened down to the Grosser Ring to try to still the disturbance; but
+the students seized him, and carried him off prisoner into the Jesuit
+College near the Carlsbruecke. They seem to have had very little
+intention of violence; but they thought to secure by this means his
+promise of help in a peaceful settlement of the contest. He refused,
+however, to promise anything while he was kept a prisoner. Some of the
+students went to the Countess to try to get her to persuade her
+husband to yield; but though she was so alarmed for his safety that
+her hair turned white from fear, she firmly refused to comply.
+Meanwhile, one of the more moderate men went to Windischgraetz to
+entreat him to give up the students who had been taken prisoners, on
+condition of the barricades being removed. But Windischgraetz demanded
+that Count Leo Thun should first be set free. While the discussion was
+going on, the fight was still raging in the Zeltner Gasse; and
+Princess Windischgraetz coming to the windows was struck by a shot
+which mortally wounded her. Windischgraetz hastened to the room where
+his wife was dying, while the soldiers guarded the house against
+further attacks. With all his hardness, Windischgraetz was entirely
+free from the blood-thirstiness of Radetzky and Haynau; and under
+this terrible provocation he seems to have exercised a wonderful
+self-restraint. While the Burgomaster and some members of the Town
+Council were exerting themselves to restore order, Windischgraetz
+sent an offer to make peace, if Count Leo Thun were released, if
+guarantees were given for the peace of the town, and if Count Leo Thun
+and he were allowed to consult together about the restoration of
+order; and he even promised to await the deliberations of the Town
+Council on this subject.
+
+But the fight was raging so hotly that the Town Council were unable,
+for some time, to deliberate. At last, however, temporary suspension
+of firing was secured, and the Burgomaster, with the assistance
+of Palacky, Szaffarik and others organized a new deputation to
+Windischgraetz. Windischgraetz insisted on his former terms; and at last
+Count Leo Thun was set free, giving a general promise to use his
+efforts for securing peace. The students, however, put forward the
+conditions, that Bohemia should be under a Bohemian commander who
+should be in most things independent of Vienna; that Bohemian soldiers,
+alone, should be used in the defence of Bohemia; that the officers and
+soldiers should take their oath to the Constitution, both of Bohemia
+and of Austria; that the gates of Prague should be defended by the
+citizens and students alone; and lastly that Windischgraetz should be
+declared the enemy of all the Peoples of Austria, and tried by a
+Bohemian tribunal. As Windischgraetz was, obviously, one of the people
+to whom these conditions would be referred, it was not very likely that
+the last of these requests would be complied with. He seems still,
+however, to have retained some desire for concession; and on June 15 he
+withdrew his soldiers from the other parts of the town to the North
+side of the river. But new acts of violence followed; and Windischgraetz
+began to cannonade the town. Again the Burgomaster appealed to him; and
+he consented to resign in favour of Count Mensdorff, on condition that
+the barricades should be instantly removed. On the 16th the town seemed
+to have become quiet; but the barricades were not yet removed; the
+soldiers indignantly demanded that Windischgraetz should be restored to
+his command, as the conditions of his resignation had not been
+fulfilled; and the first act of Windischgraetz, on reassuming power, was
+to threaten to bombard the town, if it did not surrender by six o'clock
+a.m. on the 17th.
+
+The wiser students saw the uselessness of further resistance, and
+began to remove the barricades; but some stray shots from the
+soldiers, whether by accident or intention, hit the mill near one of
+the bridges; some women in the mill raised the cry that they were
+being fired on; the mill hands returned the fire, and Windischgraetz
+began at once to bombard the town. The barricades were quickly thrown
+up again; for four hours the bombardment continued; and, while
+the students were fiercely defending the Carlsbruecke against the
+soldiers of Windischgraetz, the fire, which had been lighted by the
+bomb-shells, was spreading from the mill to other parts of the
+town. Of such a contest there could be but one result. In the course
+of the 17th several thousand people fled from Prague; and on the 18th
+Windischgraetz entered the town in triumph, and proclaimed martial law.
+
+The conspiracy had collapsed; but, except Peter Faster, who escaped
+from the town during the siege, none of the leaders of the March
+movement were at first suspected of any share in the Rising. Indeed,
+it was well known that many of them had exerted themselves to
+suppress it. But Turansky, the agitator above mentioned, suddenly gave
+himself up to the authorities, and offered to reveal a plot, in which
+he declared that Palacky, Rieger, and other Bohemian leaders were
+implicated. The evidence broke down; but it gave excuse for the
+continuance of the state of siege, for the arrest of many innocent
+men, and for the refusal to summon the Bohemian Assembly, which was to
+have met in that very month. This imaginary plot was used as the final
+pretext for the complete suppression of Bohemian liberty. Turansky was
+believed, rightly or wrongly, to have been sent by Kossuth to stir up
+the insurrection; that he had desired the failure of the movement
+which he stirred up was evident enough; and thus there arose an
+ineffaceable bitterness between the Bohemians and the Magyars. There
+also arose out of these events further cause for the bitterness
+between the Bohemians and the Germans. For, while Prague was still
+burning, and Windischgraetz was still enforcing martial law, a band of
+Vienna students arrived in Prague, to congratulate Windischgraetz on
+his victory over the liberties of Bohemia. The long-simmering hatred
+between the Germans and Bohemians seems to have found its climax in
+that congratulation; and from that time forth, whatever might be the
+political feeling of the leaders on either side, common action between
+Bohemians and Germans became less and less possible.
+
+As for the effect of the fall of Prague on the position of the
+Slavonic races in Austria, they were deprived by that event of their
+last help of a free centre of national life round which their race
+could gather. For Prague had supplied such a centre in a way in which
+none of the other Slavonic capitals ever could supply it. Its fame
+rested on a past, which was connected with struggles for freedom
+against German tyranny, and the leading facts of which were clear and
+undisputed; while its geographical position prevented it from coming
+into collision with the other Slavonic races. Agram and Carlowitz
+might at times look upon each other as rivals; but Prague had no
+interest in preferring one to the other, or in destroying the
+independence of either, while the connection in language between the
+Bohemians and the Slovaks of North Hungary ensured the sympathy of the
+former for any attempts at resistance to Magyar supremacy. Lastly,
+wedged in as Bohemia is between the Germans of the Archduchy of
+Austria, and that wider Germany with which so many of the Austrians
+desired to unite, it could never cherish those separatist aspirations
+which would have prevented Lemberg, for instance, from ever becoming
+the centre of an Austrian Slavonic federation. Thus the fall of
+Bohemian liberty prepared the way for a complete change in the
+character of the Slavonic movement. The idea of a federation of the
+different Slavonic races of the Empire might be still cherished by many
+of the Slavonic leaders; and, for a short time, the struggle of the
+Slavonic races against Magyar and German supremacy might retain its
+original character of a struggle for freedom. But it was unavoidable
+that this movement should now gradually drift into an acceptance of the
+leadership of those courtiers and soldiers, who hated the Germans and
+Magyars as the opponents, not of Slavonic freedom, but of Imperial
+despotism.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[11] Rakoczi is still to a great extent a national hero among the
+Magyars, as is shown by the name of the Rakoczi March, which is given
+to one of the national airs; for the Magyars, in the seventeenth and
+beginning of the eighteenth centuries, were willing to risk the
+separation of Transylvania from Hungary if thereby they could secure an
+independent background to their struggles for liberty against Austria,
+much as the Venetians in 1859 were thankful for the liberation of
+Lombardy from Austria, though it involved the loss to Venetia of
+fellow-sufferers under Austrian oppression.
+
+[12] English readers may be reminded by this scene of that fiery
+debate on the Grand Remonstrance, when the members of the House of
+Commons would "have sheathed their swords in each other's bowels, had
+not the sagacity and great calmness of Mr. Hampden, by a short speech,
+prevented it."
+
+[13] Out of the various efforts of the Roman Catholics to bring back
+the Greeks to the Roman Church, there had arisen a community called
+the United Greeks, which acknowledged the power of the Pope while
+maintaining the Greek ritual.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE REVOLUTION BREAKS INTO SEPARATE PARTS. APRIL TO OCTOBER, 1848.
+
+     Attitude of the other races to the Italian struggle.--Inconsistency
+     of Kossuth.--Attitude of the Provisional Government of
+     Lombardy.--Hesitation of Charles Albert.--His two declarations
+     about the Lombard war.--The war adopted by Leopold of Tuscany.--By
+     Ferdinand of Naples.--Confusions of the Pope.--General
+     Durando.--Radetzky at Mantua.--The first battle of Goito.--Mazzini
+     in Milan.--Casati, Charles Albert, and the Italian Volunteers.--The
+     Southern Tyrol.--Venice.--Manin's error.--Durando and
+     Manin.--Charles Albert's attitude towards Venetia.--The Pope's
+     difficulty.--The Encyclical of April 29.--Its effect.--The Mamiani
+     Ministry.--Effect of the Pope's attitude on Charles Albert's
+     position.--The fall of Udine, and its consequences.--Charles Albert
+     and Venetia.--Casati and Mazzini.--The question of the Fusion.--Its
+     effect on opinion.--The Neapolitan Coup d'Etat of May 15.--The
+     recall of the Neapolitan troops from Lombardy.--Pepe and
+     Manin.--Battle of Curtatone.--"The handful of boys."--Second battle
+     of Goito.--Capture of Peschiera.--The vote of fusion.--The emeute
+     of May 29 and its effects.--The struggle and fall of Vicenza.--The
+     Austrian conquest of Venetia.--The vote of fusion in Venice.--The
+     attack on Trieste.--German feeling in Frankfort.--The various
+     difficulties of the Frankfort Parliament.--Effect of Archduke
+     John's election.--Anti-Italian decisions.--The struggle in Italy
+     grows fiercer.--Charles Albert's new blunders.--Mazzini's advice to
+     the Lombard Government.--Charles Albert at Milan.--The final
+     treason.--The Austrian reconquest of Lombardy.--The 8th of August
+     in Bologna.--Repulse of Welden.--The struggle between Frankfort and
+     Berlin.--The question of Posen.--The Schleswig-Holstein war.--The
+     Assembly and the King.--The truce of Malmo.--The fatal vote.--The
+     riots at Frankfort.--The "state of siege."--The
+     Struve-Putsch.--The Vienna Parliament.--The race struggle.--Change
+     of feeling towards the Magyars.--Intrigues of Latour.--Character
+     and policy of Ferdinand.--Jellacic.--The conference at Vienna.--"We
+     meet on the Danube."--Stratimirovic and Rajacic.--Colonel
+     Mayerhoffer.--The Magyar deputation.--The mission and death of
+     Lamberg.--Latour and Pulszky.--Murder of Latour.--Jellacic and
+     Auersperg.--Blum and Bem.--The battle of Schwechat.--Fall of
+     Vienna.--Death of Blum.--General remarks.
+
+
+The struggle of races described in the last chapter had not been
+without its effect on the progress of affairs in Italy. Those
+Austrians, whose one desire was for the unity of the Empire, spoke of
+Radetzky's camp as the only place where Austria was truly represented;
+while, on the other hand, the leaders of the different race movements
+were divided in their feelings about the Italian war. The Germans, both
+at Frankfort and Vienna, saw with chagrin that Lombardy and Venetia
+were slipping away from German rule; but they felt, nevertheless,
+that they could not entirely condemn a struggle for freedom and
+independence. The Bohemians, especially in the first part of the
+struggle, would gladly have let the Italian provinces go, if they could
+thereby have facilitated the federal arrangement of the rest of the
+Austrian Empire. Among the Croats there seems to have been some
+division of feeling on the subject. Gaj and the purely national party
+had some sympathies with Italian liberty; but Jellacic, and that large
+body of his followers who mingled military feelings with the desire for
+Croatian independence, were eager to show their loyalty to the House of
+Austria by supporting the war in Italy; and they were, moreover, not
+unmindful of the rivalry between Slavs and Italians in Dalmatia and
+Istria. The Magyars, in the early days of the March movement, had been
+more disposed than any race in the Empire to show friendliness to
+Italy; and Kossuth's Italian sympathies had been specially well known.
+But circumstances changed the attitude of the Croats and Hungarians to
+Italy, as the struggle went on; for, while the former desired to recall
+the Croat forces from Italy to the defence of their home, the latter
+became more and more desirous of conciliating the sympathies of the
+Emperor. The wish to preserve a strictly legal position led some of the
+members of the Hungarian Ministry to dwell upon the claims due to the
+Austrian Government under the Pragmatic Sanction; and Kossuth, without
+sympathising with this feeling, was easily induced to give way to his
+colleagues, by his fear of the encouragement which the recall of
+Croatian regiments would give to the desire for Croatian independence;
+and therefore, in spite of his belief in the justice of the Italian
+cause, he strongly supported the use of Hungarian troops in crushing
+out the freedom of Italy.
+
+But, interesting as the Italian struggle was to all the different races
+of the Austrian Empire, it was yet working itself out in a way so
+distinct from either the Austrian or the German movements, that we are
+compelled to ignore the exact chronological order of European events in
+order to understand its full significance; and we must therefore now go
+back to the events which followed the March risings and the flight of
+Radetzky and Palffy. The centre of interest was still in Milan,
+where Casati and the Town Council had been changed by the force of
+circumstances into the Provisional Government of Lombardy. These men
+had shown, during the siege, a continual uncertainty of purpose and
+readiness to compromise; and, when Radetzky had been driven from
+Milan, they showed an equal unreadiness to follow up their advantages.
+In the people, however, there was no want of willingness to carry on
+the struggle; and at least one general rose to the occasion. Augusto
+Anfossi had died of his wounds during the siege; but Luciano Manara,
+the youth who had captured Porta Tosa, was following up the retreat of
+Radetzky, placing guards in the villages, and cutting roads. Manara
+found it very difficult to carry out his plans; partly owing to the
+distrust shown to him by the General whom the Provisional Government
+had placed over him, partly to the insubordination of Torres, one of
+the leaders of the Genoese Volunteers, who was nominally acting under
+him, and whose defiance of Manara seems to have been at least tolerated
+by the Provisional Government.
+
+For Casati and his friends put their trust not so much in any Lombards
+as in the help derived from Charles Albert. That Prince, indeed, had
+hesitated as usual till the last moment. When the news of the Milanese
+rising had reached Genoa, the Genoese had risen and sent volunteers to
+assist the insurgents; but Charles Albert had not only forbidden their
+march, but had sent troops to drive them back from the frontier. So
+indignant were the students of Turin at this action that they rose
+against Charles Albert, and would not submit until they were allowed
+to volunteer. Several officers even threatened to leave the Army if
+war was not declared on Austria; Parma and Modena were rising at the
+same time against the Austrian forces, and demanding annexation to
+Piedmont; while Mazzini and his friends were issuing appeals from
+Paris to urge their followers to support Charles Albert, if he would
+venture on war with Austria. At last Pareto, the most democratic of
+Charles Albert's Ministers, assured him that, if he did not act, a
+rebellion would break out in Piedmont; and so, on March 23, having
+demanded of the Austrians the evacuation of Parma and Modena, and
+having been refused, Charles Albert ordered the Austrian Ambassador to
+leave Turin, and straightway declared war. Yet even now he left
+doubtful the exact object of the war; for, while he declared to the
+Provisional Government that he came "to lend to the Peoples of
+Lombardy and Venetia that assistance which brother may expect
+from brother, and friend from friend," he announced to the other
+Governments of Europe that he had only intervened to prevent a
+Republican rising. He then despatched General Passalacqua to Milan,
+announcing that he himself would not arrive there until he had won a
+victory over the Austrians.
+
+But, however ungraciously Charles Albert had done his part, he had
+succeeded in quickening the enthusiasm of the Italians for a war
+against Austria. Leopold of Tuscany had announced, two days before,
+that the hour of the resurrection of Italy had struck, and that his
+troops should march to the frontier of Tuscany; and, on April 5, he
+frankly declared the purpose of this march, and ordered his troops to
+help their Lombard brothers. Riots broke out both in Naples and Rome,
+and the Austrian arms were torn down. Guglielmo Pepe hastened back to
+Naples, after twenty seven years of exile, and demanded the immediate
+departure of the troops for Lombardy. Ferdinand yielded to the popular
+cry, and consented to make Pepe general of the expedition. Pius IX. was
+less easy to move. He had become thoroughly scared at the progress of
+events; and though he had consented to grant a Constitution, much
+like that of other Princes, he could not reconcile in his mind the
+contradictions between his position as Head of the Catholic Church and
+as a Constitutional Italian Prince. The former position seemed to
+require of him a claim to absolute authority in home affairs, and a
+perfectly impartial attitude towards the various members of the
+Catholic Church, whatever might be their differences of race or
+government. The latter position seemed, on the contrary, to demand that
+he should adapt himself to the freer life which was growing up in the
+different Italian States, and that he should become the champion of
+Italian unity and liberty against the Emperor of Austria. His own
+inclinations and sympathies would have led him to sacrifice the new
+office to the old one. He was, as already explained, much more a priest
+than a prince, much more a Conservative than a Reformer. His priestly
+training combined with his weak health to make new ideas distasteful to
+him; and his sense of his duties as Head of the Catholic Church worked
+in with that very kindliness of disposition which had betrayed him into
+the position of a reformer, to make him oppose a fierce and dangerous
+war. Under these circumstances, he looked with alarm on the new impulse
+which Charles Albert had given to the anti-Austrian feeling throughout
+Italy.
+
+But he was, for the moment, in the hands of stronger men, who were
+determined on driving him forward. Massimo d'Azeglio was in Rome
+seconding the efforts of Ciceruacchio for the war; and Giovanni
+Durando (a brother of the Giacomo Durando who had written on Italian
+Nationality) was appointed general of the forces which were to march
+to Lombardy. Even now the Pope refused to recognize the object of
+their expedition; and as the troops filed past him, on March 24, he
+blessed them, but only as the defenders of the Roman territories
+against assailants; and when a young man cried from the ranks, "Holy
+Father, we are going to fight for Italy and for you," he answered,
+"Not for me; I wish for peace, not war." Durando, however, issued a
+proclamation to his troops in which he declared that, since Pius IX.'s
+approval of the war, "Radetzky must be considered as fighting against
+the Cross of Christ." Pius IX. angrily repudiated this speech in the
+Government Gazette, declaring that he would soon utter his own
+opinions, and that he did not require to express them through the
+mouth of a subordinate. But nobody took any notice of this protest,
+and the troops marched to Lombardy.
+
+In the meantime Charles Albert was beginning the war in an unfortunate
+manner. Eager to distinguish himself by an engagement with Radetzky,
+he was resolved to march after him to Lodi instead of seizing on the
+important fortress of Mantua. Mantua had attempted to shake off the
+Austrian yoke at the time when other cities of Lombardy were rising;
+but a desire to act through the Municipal Council led the citizens to
+hesitate in their movement. The want of communication with other towns
+prevented them from being aware of the position of the Austrian
+troops; and, on the evening of March 22, Benedek, one of the Austrian
+generals, was able to crush out the incipient rising. But the news of
+the Piedmontese advance once more stirred the Mantuans to action; on
+the 29th they rose again, threw up barricades, organized a Civic
+Guard, and eagerly hoped that Charles Albert would come to support
+them. When Radetzky found that Charles Albert did not seize on this
+important fortress, he availed himself of the blunder to march at once
+to Mantua; and, on March 31, that city fell again into the hands of
+the Austrians. This victory at once alarmed the Piedmontese, who,
+under the command of General Bava, set out, on April 8, to Goito, a
+village a few miles from Mantua. The Austrians occupied the little
+bridge across the Mincio at the entrance to the village, and the
+Tyrolese sharpshooters sheltered themselves behind an inn which stands
+near the bridge on the Mantuan side. The Piedmontese, mistaking the
+stone ornaments on the inn for sentinels, fired at them; shots were
+returned by the Austrians, and a fierce encounter followed, during
+which several of the troops from the Italian Tyrol deserted the
+Austrian ranks and joined the Piedmontese. The Austrians, finding
+themselves beaten, attempted to blow up the bridge; but had only
+succeeded in destroying one arch before they were driven back. By this
+victory the Piedmontese obtained the command of the whole line of the
+Mincio from Mantua to Peschiera, and cut off all communication between
+the two wings of the Austrian army, one of which was in Mantua and one
+in Verona.
+
+The battle of Goito roused the greatest enthusiasm for Charles Albert;
+and it unfortunately strengthened the Provisional Government of Milan
+in their determination to rely rather on him than on their own people.
+How much popular force they might at this time have gained was shown
+by an event which took place on the very day after the battle of
+Goito. On that day, April 9, Mazzini arrived in Milan. About eight
+o'clock in the evening he appeared on the balcony of the Albergo della
+Venezia, which stands directly opposite the place occupied by the
+Provisional Government. He addressed a few words to the people, waving
+the tricolour banner. He spoke in terms of warm approval of the
+Provisional Government, and praised them for rejecting a truce which
+Radetzky had proposed, and for endeavouring to secure a complete
+representation of the Lombard provinces in the Assembly which met at
+Milan; and when Casati appeared he greeted him warmly. But Mazzini
+soon found that, neither in the camp of Charles Albert, nor in Milan,
+were the leaders disposed to welcome the help of the Republican
+forces. When Mazzini applied to the Provisional Government to grant
+employment to those who had already had experience in revolutionary
+wars, he was told that no one knew where they were; and when he
+answered this objection by producing the men, their services were
+refused. The Swiss, who flocked in from the Canton Ticino, were in the
+same way repelled; and even a more illustrious volunteer than any of
+these found cold reception in Charles Albert's camp; for it was at
+this period of the war that Garibaldi arrived in Lombardy in the full
+splendour of the reputation he had won as a champion of liberty in
+Monte Video. But, when he offered his services to Charles Albert, he
+was told that he might go to Turin, to see _if_ and _how_ he could be
+employed.
+
+One of the great points of difference between the policy of the
+Republicans and that of Charles Albert was that the former desired to
+press forward to the Alps and excite an insurrection against Austria
+amongst the population of the Southern Tyrol. That population, in
+spite of its Italian blood and language, had been loyal to Francis of
+Austria in the time of Andrew Hofer; but the ungrateful policy of the
+Austrian Emperor had gradually alienated the sympathies of the Italian
+Tyrolese; and, while even in Frankfort the representatives of the
+Southern Tyrol were asking for local self-government in their own
+country, the population were ready to rise on behalf of Garibaldi and
+Manara. But the dislike of many of the Piedmontese officers to the
+war, and the hesitation of Charles Albert between war, diplomacy, and
+complete abandonment of the cause, led the official leaders of the
+Lombard movement to repel any proposal for so extending the area of
+the war as to drive the Austrians to extremities, and to make them
+unwilling to accept a diplomatic settlement of the contest.
+
+Many of those who were repelled by Casati and Charles Albert went to
+find a more generous welcome at Venice. The extremely democratic
+character of the Venetian insurrection had impressed all observers;
+and it was specially noted that an artizan, named Toffoli, had been
+admitted into the Provisional Government of Venice. But, hearty as
+Manin was in his desire to enlist the sympathies of all classes, he
+could not help being a Venetian, and not a Milanese. However narrow
+and aristocratic Casati and his friends might be in their personal
+feelings, they were the official representatives of a city whose
+glories were connected with the memories of a time when it was the
+head of a league of free cities;[14] while Venice, even in its long
+struggle against the Turks or in its resistance to the papacy in the
+seventeenth century, could never be taken as the champion of free
+civic government. Manin and Casati seem alike to have been influenced
+by these traditions; and while the future Council of Lombardy had been
+fully constituted by April 13th, it was not till the 14th of that
+month that the Provisional Government of Venice consented to allow the
+towns of Venetia to choose representatives, who should take a real
+share in the government of the province. The consequences of this
+hesitation were most unfortunate. Treviso, Padua, Rovigo, Vicenza, and
+Udine had formed Provisional Governments even before they knew that
+Venice was free; and they would then readily have joined the Venetian
+Republic; but observing some hesitation on the part of Venice to
+answer to their appeal, Vicenza offered herself to Charles Albert.
+This decision excited some indignation in Venice; for Manin had hoped
+that the old towns of Venetia would be willing, under whatever form of
+government, to act with the chief city; and whatever errors Manin may
+have committed in the delay, he was more zealous than either the
+Milanese or Piedmontese Governments for the protection of the Venetian
+towns from the Austrian forces.
+
+Nor, indeed, was it wholly the result of the above-named hesitation
+that Manin was not able to secure that co-operation which he desired
+between Venice and the other Venetian cities. There seems to have been
+a tendency in the civic governments, and still more in those officers
+who came to help the Lombards and Venetians, to look rather for
+orders to Casati and Charles Albert than to the rulers of Venice; and
+this tendency was still further increased by the anomalous position of
+the officers of the Papal troops. Durando, the chief of these
+officers, was vividly conscious that he had come to Lombardy in an
+independent manner, and in spite of the discouragement of the Pope;
+and, though he was willing to fight for Venice, he wished to do so in
+his own manner, and refused to listen to Manin's directions about the
+plan of operations. He felt no doubt that it was safer to take orders
+from an established sovereign, like Charles Albert, than from the head
+of an un-"recognised" revolutionary Government; and while he wished to
+march to the aid of Padua, he desired to do so as an officer of
+Charles Albert. But the same motives which led Charles Albert to
+abandon the Southern Tyrol were making him hesitate, at any rate,
+about extending his campaign to Venetia. So he forbad Durando to enter
+Venetia, and sent him instead to protect the Duchies of Modena and
+Parma.
+
+While these conflicting interests were weakening the efforts of the
+defenders of Lombardy and Venetia, another apple of discord was thrown
+into the camp by an Encyclical from the Pope. As already mentioned,
+Pius had discouraged the march to Lombardy, and had promised to state
+his own opinions instead of accepting those of Durando. His Ministers,
+feeling the uncertainty of the position in which the Papal troops were
+placed, urged him to come to a more definite decision on this point.
+At no time was such strong pressure brought to bear from opposite
+sides on the feeble mind of Pius IX. On the one hand, disturbances
+were breaking out in the provinces; and the indignation at the Pope's
+hesitation was stirred to greater bitterness by the want both of food
+and of work which was being felt in Rome. On the other hand, two
+powerful influences were being exerted to induce Pius to abandon the
+Italian cause. In Germany great bitterness had arisen against the
+Italian war; and the German Catholics were threatening to break loose
+from the Papal authority. At the same time, Ferdinand of Naples, who
+had never heartily sympathised with the struggle for Italian freedom,
+was trying to inspire the Pope with jealousy of the designs of Charles
+Albert. To say the truth, Ferdinand was not without excuse in this
+matter; for, while he was being driven to declare war on Austria, the
+Sicilian Assembly were deposing him from the throne of Sicily, and
+discussing a proposal to offer their island to a son of Charles
+Albert. Therefore the Neapolitan Ambassador was directed to use his
+influence with Pius IX. for the promotion of a league between Rome,
+Naples, and Tuscany, which was to counteract the power of Piedmont.
+Thus, then, those rival instincts, of the Head of the Church and the
+Italian Prince, were both appealed to, to secure the opposition of the
+Pope to the war; and however much he may have been terrified by the
+disturbances in the provinces, those disturbances did not tend to
+increase his sympathy with the popular movement. Such was his state of
+feeling, when on April 28th, his Ministers, headed by Cardinal
+Antonelli, entreated him to give his open sanction to the war. The
+result of this petition was directly contrary to the desire expressed
+by the signers of it; for, on April 29th there appeared a Papal
+Encyclical absolutely repudiating the Italian war.
+
+In this document, the Pope complained of the desire of the agitators
+to draw away from him the sympathy of the Catholics of Germany; and he
+proceeded to justify and explain the course that he had hitherto
+followed. He alluded to the demand for reform which had been made in
+the time of Pius VII., and to the encouragement which that demand had
+received from the programme presented to Gregory XVI. by the Great
+Powers. That programme had included a Central Council, improvement in
+the Municipal Councils, and above all the admission of the laity to
+all offices, whether administrative or judicial. Gregory had not been
+able to carry out these ideas completely; and therefore Pius had been
+compelled to develope them further. In this he had been guided, not by
+the advice of others, but by charitable feeling towards his subjects.
+But his concessions had not produced the result which he had hoped;
+and he had been compelled to warn the people against riots. These
+warnings had been in vain; and he had been forced to send troops to
+guard his frontier, and to "protect the integrity and security of the
+Papal State." He protested against the suspicion that he sympathised
+with those "who wished the Roman Pontiff to preside over some new kind
+of Republic to be constituted out of all the Peoples of Italy." He
+exhorted the Italians to abandon all such theories, and to obey the
+Princes of whose benevolence they had had experience; and he, for his
+part, did not desire any further extension of his temporal power, but
+would use all his efforts for the restoration of peace.
+
+The greatest indignation was aroused by this Encyclical; but it was
+still possible for the Pope to find protection in that superstition
+which Ciceruacchio had so industriously encouraged. The cry was again
+raised that the Cardinals were misleading the Pope, and special
+charges of treason were made against Antonelli. Some of the more
+zealous patriots even talked of carrying off the Pope to Milan, that
+he might see for himself the real condition of the war. At the same
+time appeals were made to the humanity of Pius; it was pointed out to
+him that, if he disowned his soldiers, they would be liable to be
+treated as brigands; and instances were quoted of the cruelty of
+Austrian soldiers to those whom they had captured. Partly moved by
+humanity, and partly by fear, the Pope at last yielded; and on May 3
+he summoned to office Terenzio Mamiani, so lately under suspicion as a
+half-amnestied rebel; and Mamiani speedily avowed his zeal for the
+war, declaring it a holy cause.
+
+But, in spite of this change of front, the Encyclical produced a
+dangerous effect on the Lombard war; and its first result was to
+strengthen the power of Charles Albert, by compelling Durando to place
+himself more definitely than before under his orders, and by leading
+the Italians in general to look to the King of Sardinia as their only
+trustworthy leader. Fortunately, this accession of strength came to
+Charles Albert at a moment when he was rousing himself from that
+state of hesitation which had followed the victory at Goito. That
+hesitation, however, had given time for Radetzky to fortify Mantua
+more strongly; while Nugent, at the head of another Austrian force,
+had marched into Venetia. The Venetians, ill-supported, were little
+able to stand against the invader; and the important town of Udine
+fell into the hands of the Austrians. This startled both Charles
+Albert and Casati; and, while the Provisional Government of Lombardy
+turned to Mazzini for advice, Charles Albert at last consented to
+allow Durando to advance into Venetia. Durando sent his subordinate
+officer Ferrari before him; and on May 8, Ferrari encountered the
+Austrians at Cornuta, and drove them back. He then continued the
+struggle in hopes of new reinforcements from Durando; but, when
+Durando had not arrived at four o'clock in the afternoon, the soldiers
+were compelled to retreat. Then they were seized by a sudden panic,
+and they cried out that either Ferrari or Durando had betrayed
+them. The consciousness of the illegal position in which the Papal
+Encyclical had placed them, still further increased the panic of the
+soldiers; Ferrari was forced to retreat to Mestre, and Durando to
+Vicenza. In Vicenza, indeed, the latter defended himself gallantly
+enough; and the people seconded his efforts. Women, old men, and
+children, rushed to put out the lighted balls which the enemy threw
+into the city; and, after a struggle of about twelve hours, the
+Austrian forces were compelled to retreat.
+
+But by this time Charles Albert had again repented of his invasion of
+Venetia; and, refusing to come to the help of Durando, he turned his
+attention to the fortress of Peschiera. The zeal of the Milanese
+Government had been even more short-lived than that of Charles Albert.
+Mazzini had proposed the formation of a Council of War, to be composed
+of three men, and to be accompanied by a levee en masse of what were
+called "the five classes." The Government consented to summon only the
+first three classes, alleging as their excuse, the distrust which they
+felt for many of the peasantry. Mazzini also proposed to issue an
+appeal for volunteers, and to place his own name first on the list.
+The Government consented; but, before the appeal had been prepared,
+they had changed their mind and withdrawn their approval from the
+proposal. The Council of War was changed into a Committee of Defence
+for Venetia, then into a Committee of aid for Venetia, and finally
+disappeared altogether. Charles Albert's secretary announced that the
+King did not choose to have an army of enemies in his rear, and
+inscriptions on the walls of Milan threatened Mazzini with death. The
+leaders of the volunteers, who had been pressing forward to the Alps,
+were discouraged; and General Allemandi, their commander, was so ill
+supported that he resigned his office.
+
+The war seemed to be rapidly changing its character; and the desires
+of Charles Albert appeared to be more exclusively concentrated on the
+aggrandisement of his own Kingdom. When he had first entered Lombardy,
+both he and the Milanese leaders had announced that the form of
+Government would be left undecided till the victory was won; but they
+now changed their tone, and prepared for a union between Piedmont and
+Lombardy. On May 12, the Milanese Government issued a decree that the
+population of Lombardy should decide by a plebiscite the question
+whether Lombardy should be immediately incorporated with Piedmont
+under the rule of Charles Albert. The Republicans, held in check to a
+great extent by Mazzini, had hitherto refrained from giving prominence
+to their political opinions. But Mazzini now felt it necessary to
+protest against this proposal; and all the more strongly because
+Charles Albert's secretary had hoped, by the offer of the premiership
+in the future Kingdom of North Italy, to induce him to assist in
+promoting the fusion between Lombardy and Piedmont. He therefore now
+issued a protest against the taking of any political vote of this kind
+while the war was going on; both because it was absurd and unnatural in
+itself; because it was a violation of the promises of the Government;
+and because it gave a pretext for foreign intervention, by changing the
+war of liberation into one of conquest. The champions of Charles Albert
+were infuriated at this opposition; Mazzini's protest was publicly
+burnt in Genoa; and the Provisional Government of Lombardy resolved to
+go on with the Plebiscite. This decision tended undoubtedly to bring
+great confusion into Lombardy. It weakened the sympathies of those
+Germans, Austrians, and Hungarians who had been well disposed towards
+the Italian struggle for independence; while it gave an excuse for the
+opposition of that larger body of politicians, who had hesitated
+between Liberal principles and national prejudice, and who were now
+eager to declare that the war had ceased to be a struggle for Italian
+liberty, and was merely designed for the aggrandisement of Charles
+Albert.
+
+But, however much Charles Albert's interests might suffer from his
+changeable policy, he always was helped out of his difficulties by the
+contrast between his questionable acts, and the unquestionable badness
+of some other prince. As the Papal Encyclical had come at the right
+moment to redeem the credit which he had lost by his slackness after
+the Battle of Goito, so the treachery of the King of Naples served, at
+this crisis, to throw, by force of contrast, a more favourable light
+on the ambitious proposals for the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont.
+Ferdinand of Naples had reluctantly consented to join in the Italian
+war. The hearty dislike of Liberty, which he shared with the majority
+of the Bourbon family, combined with his special jealousy of Charles
+Albert to increase his desire to abandon this expedition. He feared
+that a Kingdom of North Italy would be the natural result of the war,
+even if the popular enthusiasm did not carry Charles Albert into
+schemes of greater aggrandizement; and he had a not unreasonable
+grievance against the King of Sardinia in the recent choice by the
+Sicilians of the Duke of Genoa as their King. The priests in Naples,
+unlike those in Lombardy and Venetia, were intriguing on behalf of
+Austria, and had circulated the rumour that St. Januarius was a friend
+to the Austrian Emperor. In spite of these intrigues, a Liberal
+majority had been returned to the Neapolitan Parliament; and the King,
+therefore, resolved to put still further limits on the power of that
+Parliament, by demanding of the members an oath which would have
+admitted Ferdinand's right to suppress the Sicilian movement, would
+have enforced the complete acceptance of the Roman Catholic faith,
+and would have prohibited any attempt to enlarge or reform the
+Constitution.
+
+This oath the deputies refused; but in spite of the advice of his
+Ministers, the King resolved to insist upon it. Tumults arose in the
+city, and barricades were thrown up; but the deputies, while thanking
+the people for their zeal, urged them to remain quiet, and to pull
+down the barricades. Some of those who had taken part in the rising
+withdrew from the streets in consequence of this appeal; but others
+demanded that the royal troops, drawn up in the piazza of the palace,
+and near the church of San Francesco, should be withdrawn at the same
+time. The deputies went to wait upon the King; but whilst they were in
+conversation with him, they heard the first shots fired by the
+soldiers upon the crowd. Ferdinand then scornfully told the deputation
+to go home and consider themselves; "for the Day of Judgment is not
+far from you." He had one great advantage on his side. That degraded
+class, the Lazzaroni of Naples, had always been fanatical supporters
+of the King and St. Januarius; and it is even said, that, while the
+troops were firing on the people, Ferdinand was exclaiming to the
+Lazzaroni, "Go forward!" "Naples is yours!" While massacre and outrage
+were raging in the streets, the deputies sent a message to the French
+admiral, whose fleet was anchored in the Bay of Naples, to entreat him
+to intervene in the name of France. But he answered that he had been
+ordered not to interfere in the affairs of another people.
+
+The deputies then passed a resolution, declaring that they would not
+suspend their sittings, unless compelled by brute force. An officer
+soon after came to disperse them; and, after a written protest, they
+yielded to this violence. Every liberty was shortly after crushed out;
+and, though, for about a month longer, a kind of spasmodic struggle
+went on and though, after a time, the Sicilians consented to send some
+help to the insurgents, the movements were too ill-organized to have
+any permanent strength; and the Government were able to suppress them
+by repeated massacres.
+
+Ferdinand's _coup d'etat_ had taken place on May 15. In the meantime,
+the Neapolitan forces under Pepe had been slowly advancing through
+the Papal territory collecting volunteers as they went. The slowness
+of their march had been due in part to the suspicious attitude of the
+Pope, who feared that the King of Naples might seize on those
+territories, which had always been a bone of contention between Naples
+and Rome. Pepe therefore had not yet left the Papal territory, when he
+received orders to abandon the war, and to return to Naples. At the
+same time he was told that, if he did not wish to return, he might
+resign his command to General Statella. Pepe was resolved to advance;
+but it seemed doubtful how far his authority would outweigh that of
+the King, and of the subordinate officers who were on the King's side.
+The Bolognese, who had risen in March to drive out those Austrian
+troops which had lingered in Ferrara, and to expel the Duke from
+Modena, now rose to insist that Pepe should lead on his forces to
+Lombardy. Statella was compelled to fly from the city; and those
+soldiers who returned to Naples were followed by the curses of the
+Romagnoli. Several of the officers were willing to act with Pepe; and
+he passed the Po with two battalions of volunteers, one company of the
+regular forces, and some Lombards and Bolognese. But many of these
+deserted him even after he had crossed the Po; and by the time he
+reached Venice, there remained with him only one battalion of
+riflemen, whose officer had served under him in 1815. But, however
+poorly attended, Pepe was heartily welcomed by Manin, and was soon
+after made Commander-in-Chief of all the land forces of Venice. These
+were composed not only of Venetians and Neapolitans, but also of
+Lombards, Romans, and even Swiss. The Neapolitan admiral, too, at
+first refused to obey the orders of the King, and continued for a time
+to defend Venice on his own authority.
+
+In the meantime, while the resources of the Lombard towns were being
+drained to support the designs of Charles Albert, he was devoting his
+energies to the siege of Peschiera. Radetzky, seeing that the weakest
+part of the Italian army was stationed near Mantua, resolved to march
+from Verona, which was the headquarters of the Austrians, attack the
+right wing of the Italian army near Mantua, drive it across the
+Mincio, and so march to the relief of Peschiera. At a comparatively
+short distance from Mantua he reached the small collection of
+scattered houses which formed the village of Curtatone. A band of
+6,000 Tuscans, chiefly composed of University students, and commanded
+by their professors, were marching along the road which lies between
+Curtatone and Montanara, on their way to join the Piedmontese army at
+Goito. There were, at that time, open fields on both sides of the road
+stretching along in an unbroken plain; and no defences had been made;
+for when Radetzky, at the head of 20,000 men, came upon the Tuscan
+band, the latter were far from expecting any attack. General de
+Laugier, who was in command of the Tuscans, resolved to resist; and
+for six hours this gallant little troop held its own against the
+overwhelming forces of the Austrians. But superiority in numbers and
+training at last prevailed; and, fighting inch by inch, the Tuscans
+were driven back to Montanara, and were either killed or captured. The
+same "fanaticism" which Radetzky had observed in Milan, seemed to show
+itself here also; and as his officers marched the young prisoners
+before him after the battle, he exclaimed in scorn, "Did you take six
+hours to beat a handful of boys?"
+
+But the "handful of boys" had done their work; for, when Radetzky once
+more marched across the bridge at Goito, with his prisoners, he found
+Charles Albert at the head of his forces ready to receive him. The
+fight was fierce; the King and his eldest son, Victor Emmanuel, were
+both wounded; but at the close of the day, a new battalion dashed
+forward and compelled the Austrians to retreat. The day before this
+battle, while the Tuscans were still fighting between Curtatone and
+Montanara, the fortress of Peschiera had surrendered to Charles
+Albert; and while he was still exulting over his triumph, there had
+come to him the news that the Lombard plebiscite had been decided in
+favour of the fusion with Piedmont.
+
+But it was not without much bitterness that it had been so decided.
+Mazzini's protest against the proposal of the fusion had been
+temperate and reasonable; but it had been sufficient to attract the
+attention of the enemies of Italy; and, while Gioberti had come to
+Milan to arouse sympathy with the movement for the fusion, a Jew named
+Urbino (who was unknown to the Republican leaders in Milan) was taking
+advantage of the differences of opinion to stir up riots against the
+Provisional Government. On May 28 (the day before the actual closing
+of the poll) an anonymous placard appeared, calling on the National
+Guard and the people to meet in the Piazza San Fedele, in front of the
+office of the Provisional Government. A deputation of the National
+Guard was about to demand the deposition of its captain; and the
+crowd which gathered in the Piazza San Fedele mixed itself up
+with the deputation. One of the agitators named Romani, demanded the
+convocation of a Constituent Assembly and denounced the proposed vote
+of fusion. Many even in the crowd opposed Romani; and the President,
+by promises of further security for personal freedom, was able to
+disperse them. The next day, however, they gathered again, with cries
+against the Piedmontese, and broke into the civic palace. The students
+heard of the disturbance, and rushed to the rescue of the Provisional
+Government. Casati had at first been panic struck; but he now gathered
+courage, and tried to address the people. Urbino attempted to drown
+his voice by shouting that the Government had resigned; and he
+exhibited a list of a new Government, composed of some of the leading
+Republicans in Milan. Casati snatched the list from his hand, and tore
+it in pieces. Many voices in the crowd denounced Urbino, and the
+rioters were speedily arrested or dispersed.
+
+The unreality of this demonstration, as an exhibition of any popular
+feeling, was clear from every circumstance connected with it. The
+innocence of the Republican leaders might be gathered from a stern
+protest against the proceedings issued by Mazzini directly after; and
+the real source of the agitation might not unfairly be inferred from
+the cries of "Viva Radetzky," which broke out from some of the less
+cautious agitators. But the Provisional Government either was, or
+seemed to be, alarmed about the possible consequences of the riot
+of May 29; and Cernuschi, who had been the first to propose the
+deputation to O'Donnell which had preceded the struggle of the Five
+Days, and who had fought gallantly during that struggle, was arrested
+at midnight on the very night of the riot, and sent to prison. He was
+soon after set free, from want of any evidence against him; but the
+bitterness which his arrest had caused against the Provisional
+Government did not so soon come to an end.
+
+This quarrel between the two sections of the national party in
+Milan tended to strengthen the power of Charles Albert. Casati had
+originally felt little sympathy for the Piedmontese aristocracy; but
+his growing distrust of Milanese feeling strengthened the effect
+produced by the victory at Goito, and the capture of Peschiera, and
+induced him to rest his hopes for the success of the struggle against
+Austria solely on Charles Albert, and the Sardinian army. And while
+the divisions in Milan strengthened Charles Albert's power in
+Lombardy, the weakness of the cities of Venetia, though due to a large
+extent to the previous vacillation of Charles Albert, was yet
+compelling them more and more to appeal to him as the recognised
+leader of the most important Italian force in the North of Italy. This
+tendency had been resisted by Daniel Manin, who was strongly opposed
+to the fusion of Venetia with Piedmont; and when he found that Charles
+Albert was unwilling to help the Venetians on any other terms, he had
+been disposed to turn for help rather to France than to Piedmont. But
+the prestige of Charles Albert's victories in Lombardy were attracting
+Vicenza and Padua to the scheme of fusion; and nothing but the proof
+that Venice could save Vicenza could counteract this tendency. Manin
+and Tommaseo felt so much the importance of this point, that they even
+left Venice for a few days to go to the help of Vicenza; and the
+coldness of Charles Albert towards the defence might, if Vicenza had
+held out, have worked in favour of Manin's views. But Radetzky also
+saw the importance of this siege, and resolved to lead the attack in
+person. He appeared before the city on June 9, and on the following
+day succeeded, after a fierce struggle, in occupying the heights which
+surrounded it. The defence speedily became hopeless; and, though
+Durando was afterwards blamed for the surrender, and even suspected of
+treason, there seems little reason to suppose that the town could have
+obtained better terms than those which were now granted it, if it had
+attempted a longer resistance. The garrison was allowed to go out with
+arms and baggage; the lives and property of the inhabitants were to be
+safe; and a full amnesty was to be granted for the past; the garrison
+only binding themselves not to bear arms for three months. The fall of
+Vicenza seemed to mark the crisis of the struggle in Venetia. Padua,
+Treviso, and Palmanuova rapidly fell into the hands of the Austrians;
+and the citizens of Venice now began to believe that, so far from
+being able to defend the freedom of their countrymen, they could only
+hope to secure their own freedom by surrendering themselves to Charles
+Albert.
+
+It was while this feeling was at its height, that the Venetian Assembly
+met on the 3rd of July. Manin recapitulated the circumstances of the
+war. He had failed to obtain even recognition for his Government from
+the French Republic. He admitted the growth of the feeling in favour of
+the fusion; and he advised his Republican friends to suppress for a
+time the assertion of their special political creed, and to accept the
+fusion as their only hope of safety. Tommaseo, indeed, protested
+against the proposal; but Manin's influence, assisted by the growing
+sense of weakness, prevailed; and on July 4, the representatives of
+Venetia by 127 votes against six declared their province united to
+Piedmont. Manin, however, resigned his office, as being unable to act
+as Minister under a Monarchical Government.
+
+But while Charles Albert seemed to be gaining partizans in Lombardy
+and Venetia by the growing necessities of those provinces, he was
+exciting against him the opposition of those who might at one time
+have been favourable to the Italian cause. On June 16, the Sardinian
+and Venetian fleets had attacked Trieste. As a military incident in
+the Italian war, this attack was probably of little importance; but
+its effect on the relations between the German and Italian movements
+for freedom and unity was of far greater importance than could be
+estimated by merely military results. For, in Germany more than in
+almost any other country of Europe, the movement for national freedom
+and unity was necessitating an amount of self-assertion on the part of
+the body which represented those ideas, which unavoidably brought it
+into collision with many whom it ought to have hailed as allies. Both
+the necessity and desire for this German self-assertion had been
+evident from the first opening of the Frankfort Constituent Assembly on
+the 18th of May. Even a small but picturesque incident which took place
+on the first day of its meeting indicated the strength of the exclusive
+and defiant German feeling. An old man of seventy-nine had attempted,
+during the first stormy sitting, to address the Parliament, but his
+voice had been drowned in the general hubbub. On the following day,
+the member for Cologne called the attention of the Parliament to the
+fact that the deputy so unceremoniously treated was the poet Arndt; and
+thereupon the whole Assembly rose, and expressed to him their thanks
+for his song on the German Fatherland.
+
+This desire to assert its position as the representative of German
+feeling had been quickened in the Parliament by two signs of resistance
+to its authority. The fiery Republicans of Baden had returned in
+indignation to their State, when they found that the Preparatory
+Parliament would neither establish a Republic, nor declare itself
+permanent; and, provoked by the arrest of one of their members, they
+had rushed into open insurrection, which only the influence of Robert
+Blum had prevented from spreading to the Rhine Province. And, while
+they were preparing to suppress the Republican opposition, the
+Frankfort Parliament were startled to hear that an Assembly had met in
+Berlin, which claimed, like them, to be a National Constituent
+Assembly; and this rivalry was made the more alarming by the assistance
+which Prussian soldiers were at that time giving to the Grand Duke of
+Hesse-Darmstadt in suppressing a popular movement in Mainz. The
+Frankfort Parliament indignantly resolved that, "This Assembly of the
+Empire has alone the power, as the one legal organ of the will of the
+German people, to settle the Constitution of Germany, and to decide
+about the future position of the Princes in the State." And they
+further resolved that every Prince who would not submit to their
+decisions "should be deprived, with his family, of the princely rank,
+and should descend into the class of citizens, and that his crown and
+family property should become the property of the State." While they
+thus boldly claimed to rule the internal affairs of Germany, they were
+equally zealous in asserting her rights against those who desired to
+infringe them. They had resented the resistance of the Bohemians to the
+proposed absorption of Bohemia in Germany; and, while they were
+disposed to make some concessions to the Poles of Posen, they made them
+in a somewhat grudging spirit, and were eager to retain in Germany all
+of that province which they could prove, to their own satisfaction, to
+be Germanized.
+
+It was obvious that, while such was their state of mind, the Frankfort
+Parliament would watch with jealous eyes the movement for Italian
+liberty. They could not, indeed, deny that the Italians had some claim
+to freedom; or that the authority exercised by Austria in Lombardy
+was, both in its origin and character, exactly of the kind most
+opposed to the ideas embodied in the Frankfort Parliament. But the
+extreme desire to claim Austria as a part of united Germany naturally
+led the Frankfort Parliament to look at least with tolerance on the
+special prejudices of the Viennese. While they were thus divided in
+their minds between principle and prejudice, the news of the attack on
+Trieste came like a God-send to those who were looking for an excuse
+to sacrifice their Liberal principles to the desire for German
+aggrandizement. The Parliament, therefore, resolved unanimously that
+any attack on the German haven of Trieste was a declaration of war
+against Germany. A resolution of this kind naturally prepared the way
+for more decided hostility to the Italian cause; and another decision
+at which they soon after arrived gave new force to the anti-Italian
+feeling. Even if some Viennese Democrats might desire, or at all
+events approve, the separation of Lombardy and Venetia from the
+Empire, there could be no doubt that this feeling was not shared by
+the members of the House of Hapsburg. When, therefore, on June 29,
+Archduke John was chosen Administrator of the German Empire, the
+Frankfort Parliament almost unavoidably identified itself with the
+domineering policy of the Austrian Germans. While, then, they claimed
+security for German freedom, the Parliament triumphed savagely over
+the fall of the liberties of Bohemia, refused even provincial
+independence to the Southern Tyrol, and demanded that Northern Italy
+should be retained in the Austrian Empire.
+
+How far the support of the German Parliament gave any encouragement to
+Radetzky it may be difficult to say; but it is certain that, during
+the month of July, his efforts to recover his ground in Italy became
+more daring in character. No longer confining himself to Lombardy and
+Venetia, he now marched his troops into Modena, and attempted to
+restore the Austrian authority in that Duchy. Charles Albert was
+roused in his turn by this new invasion. His chief general, Bava,
+rallied his forces, and drove the Austrians first across the Po and
+then across the Mincio. Charles Albert's whole feeling seems to have
+been suddenly changed by these successes; abandoning the hesitating
+policy which he had pursued in the beginning of the war, he now became
+desperate even to rashness; and, rejecting the advice of General Bava,
+he tried to push forward to Mantua. Radetzky, during Charles Albert's
+delays and hesitations, had had time to reinforce his strength, to
+revive the discipline and vigour of the army, which had been utterly
+broken during the retreat from Milan, and to choose the best positions
+for defence and attack. Therefore, on July 24, he was more than ready
+for Charles Albert's rash attack; and at the battle of Somma Campagna
+he speedily routed the Piedmontese, and drove them back across the
+Mincio. But Charles Albert's zeal for action was not yet exhausted,
+and he marched against Valleggio, in the hope of cutting off Radetzky
+from Verona. In this march the King seems again to have acted contrary
+to the advice of his generals; and part of the march was conducted in
+such tremendously hot weather, and with such bad arrangements for the
+provision of food, that many of the soldiers died on the road from
+heat and hunger. A victory gained by General Bava, near Custozza,
+strengthened the delusions of Charles Albert; but Radetzky soon
+recovered his ground; the hasty march and the want of food weakened
+the forces at Custozza, and the Piedmontese were shortly after
+defeated on the very ground on which they had just been victorious.
+Charles Albert's assumption of military authority and his defiance of
+his generals, led to continual confusions and misunderstandings. The
+result of one of these confusions was that General Sonnaz suddenly
+left an important fortified position, under orders for which both
+Charles Albert and General Bava denied their responsibility. On
+discovering his mistake he hastened back to his position, to find that
+it had been in the meantime occupied by the Austrians; and when he
+then attempted to recover it he received one of the most severe
+defeats of the campaign.
+
+In the meantime the Provisional Government of Lombardy were exciting
+the greatest irritation by their want of vigour in the conduct of the
+war, and by the discouragement which they gave to the volunteers. As
+an extreme instance of this latter fault, may be mentioned their
+treatment of Francesco Anfossi. He was a brother of Augusta, the
+leader of the Five Days' Rising, and had served with distinction at
+Brescia; yet, on his arrival at Milan, he was suddenly arrested
+without any reason being given. When the news of Charles Albert's
+defeat arrived in Milan, the Provisional Government once more became
+alarmed, and again called Mazzini to their help. He had had much
+difficulty in preventing some of his more fiery followers from
+imitating the example of Urbino, and organizing an insurrection
+against the Provisional Government. Therefore Casati and his friends
+knew that they could depend upon his help whenever they should ask for
+it. His former proposal for a Council of War was now accepted, and he
+was asked to name the citizens of which it should be composed. Of the
+three whom he named, there was only one who had been a steady
+Republican; while one of them had laboured to promote that fusion of
+Venetia with Piedmont to which Mazzini had been opposed. The duties of
+this Committee were to fortify the town, and to provision the army.
+They proclaimed a _levee en masse_, and prepared to fortify the lines
+of the Adda. They also made special requisitions for corn and rice,
+and arranged for the bringing in of considerable provisions from the
+country; though some of these were lost by the refusal of the
+Piedmontese officers to provide guards for the protection of the
+convoy. They then despatched Garibaldi to raise volunteers; and in
+three days he had under arms 3,000 men, and was marching to Brescia.
+
+In the midst of these arrangements, the Committee suddenly heard that
+the Austrians had crossed the Adda, and that Charles Albert was
+retreating before them. They sent messengers to the Piedmontese camp
+to learn the intentions of the King; and were dismayed at receiving
+the answer that he intended to come himself to defend Milan. They then
+sent messengers to recall Zucchi and Garibaldi from the line of the
+Adda to the actual defence of Milan. But the management of the defence
+was now taken out of their hands; and on August 2 the Committee were
+obliged to resign their authority to the Piedmontese General Olivieri.
+Olivieri, while urging the Committee of Defence to remain in office,
+refused their proposal to summon the people to the barricades. But
+when Charles Albert was attacked by the Austrians under the walls of
+Milan, the barricades were thrown up in spite of Olivieri. It was,
+however, then too late to save the Piedmontese from defeat, and, on
+August 4, the King sent for the Municipal Council, to tell them that
+he had resolved to come to terms with Radetzky. Restelli, one of the
+Committee of Defence, denied the failure of food and money which
+Charles Albert had pleaded as one of his grounds of surrender; and
+when the Town Council assented to the proposal, Maestri, another of
+the Committee, denied their claim to speak on behalf of the citizens.
+The news that the King was intending to desert them, roused the
+Milanese to fury; and on August 5 Charles Albert promised in writing
+to stay to defend the city; and General Olivieri even promised to go
+to Radetzky to obtain good terms. But he did not go; and Charles
+Albert, after a secret agreement with Radetzky to put the Porta Romana
+into his hands, fled secretly from Milan on August 6. Many of the
+Piedmontese officers were so indignant at this desertion, that they
+offered to remain in the city and share in its defence; and the cry
+was raised of "Long live Piedmont!" and "Shame to Charles Albert!" But
+resistance was in vain; and on August 7 Radetzky entered Milan.
+Garibaldi, who was already on his march to Milan, attempted, with the
+help of General Medici, to carry on the struggle on the banks of the
+Lago Maggiore; and Mazzini joined this little band, encouraged them to
+persevere in their defence, and attempted, though in vain, to form a
+connection with the defenders of Venice. But the struggle was
+hopeless. The Lombard cities rapidly fell into the hands of Radetzky;
+and on August 11, Venice, left alone in her defence, disowned her
+connection with Charles Albert, and recalled Manin to power.
+
+After this defeat thousands of Lombards left their country; and
+the following extracts from a litany composed at this period
+express, better than any mere description, their feelings about this
+catastrophe:--"All Italy is our country; and we are not exiles, because
+we remain on Italian soil. Yet we are pilgrims, because a vow binds us
+to go on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, that is to say to Lombardy when
+it is freed. For the heart of our country is the house of our fathers,
+the place where we were born, where we have learned to pray, and where
+love was revealed to us, where we have left our dead at rest, our
+mothers, our sons, and our brothers in tears. Kyrie Eleison," &c....
+They then call on Christ, the Virgin, and the Saints to deliver
+Lombardy from the Austrians, and invoke them to their aid, by the
+memory of the special sufferers in the cause of Liberty, among whom
+they particularly specify the Brothers Bandiera, and the defenders of
+Milan and Pavia; and they end with a prayer that they may not die until
+they have saluted Italy "one, redeemed, free, and independent."
+
+Radetzky, however, had another enemy to punish besides the Lombards
+and the Piedmontese. The action of the Pope, however uncertain, and
+one may even say unwilling, had given a force to the anti-Austrian
+movement which no other Prince could have given; and, as long as the
+Liberals ruled in the Papal States, Radetzky considered his work
+unfinished. About three weeks, therefore, before the surrender of
+Milan, a body of 6,500 Austrians had crossed the Po, and had once more
+entered Ferrara. The Bolognese, always the most politically energetic
+of any of the subjects of the Pope, desired at once to march to
+Ferrara; but the Pro-Legate, who ruled in Bologna, tried to check the
+popular movement; and refused to take any more energetic step than the
+issue of proclamations. He even appealed to the Bolognese to remember
+the fate of Vicenza as a warning against useless defences. But the
+people would not listen to him; and a declaration of the Pope that he
+would defend the frontiers of his State, increased their desire for
+action. Encouraged by the peaceable action of the Pro-Legate, and by
+no means alarmed at his proclamations, General Welden entered the
+Porta Maggiore of Bologna at the head of his forces on the 7th of
+August. Near that gate a path leads up to a raised piece of ground
+called the Montagnola, which is covered with grass and trees. To this
+the Austrian forces made their way; but, in spite of the warnings of
+the Pro-Legate, Welden's demand for hostages was flatly refused. The
+people rang their bells, and rushed to the barricades; an old cannon
+was brought out and carried up to the Montagnola, and by six o'clock
+in the evening of the 8th of August, barricades had been thrown up
+near every gate of the city. The Austrians were driven out; and
+Monsignore Opizzoni, who was in a country house outside the town, was
+rescued by the citizens, and brought into Bologna.
+
+The dreamy, old-world city at once became full of new life; neighbours
+flocked in from the surrounding districts; and soldiers who had left
+the city, in the belief that it was indefensible, now returned to its
+help. The Pro-Legate issued an encouraging address to the citizens;
+and Welden complained that the rulers of Bologna were unable to
+control the excited spirits of the city. The Ambassadors of England,
+France, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, and even Naples, who were resident
+at Florence, protested against the renewal of the Austrian attack;
+the enthusiasm for the Bolognese spread to Venice, where a large
+subscription was raised for the families of those who had fallen on
+August 8; and finally on August 15 a meeting took place between Welden
+and the representatives of the Pope, which resulted in an order to the
+Austrian forces to recross the Po.
+
+In the meantime, whatever help the Austrian generals might have
+received from the approval of the Frankfort Parliament, that assistance
+must have lost its value, as the position of the Parliament became
+weaker and weaker. One great difficulty, as already mentioned, was the
+growing rivalry of Berlin; and this became the more dangerous to German
+liberty, as the supporters of the original struggle for freedom
+continued to lose their influence in the Prussian Court. Camphausen,
+the new Prime Minister, repudiated the March Revolution as decidedly as
+Schmaltz had repudiated the popular element in the struggles of 1813.
+Prince William of Prussia, the brother of the King, who was considered
+the leader of the reactionary party, had returned to Berlin; and,
+though he now professed to accept the Constitution, he was believed to
+mean mischief. The actual liberties, indeed, of the citizens of Berlin
+had not yet been attacked; but a warning of their future fate was given
+by the treatment inflicted on Posen. Mieroslawski, the leader of the
+Polish movement in Posen, had been received with enthusiasm in Berlin
+during the March rising; and the King had then given permission to the
+different provinces of Prussia to decide whether or not they should be
+absorbed in the new Germany. The Posen Assembly had decided by
+twenty-six votes to seventeen against the proposed absorption; and as a
+means of carrying out this decision, they had removed certain Prussian
+officials from office in their province. The King of Prussia had at
+first seemed to approve this change, and had despatched General von
+Willisen to secure the Poles in their national rights. But when the
+German party in Posen offered resistance to this policy, the King
+yielded to them, withdrew General von Willisen, and sent in his stead
+General von Pfuel, who placed Posen in a state of siege, and punished
+all who had taken part in the Polish movement.
+
+But, however alarming these signs might be to the more Liberal members
+of the Frankfort Parliament, the attitude of the majority of that
+Parliament towards the Poles had not been so generous as to justify
+them in passing severe condemnation on the Prussian Ministry. It was
+in another part of Europe, and in a very different struggle, that the
+power of the Frankfort Parliament over the King of Prussia was to be
+finally tested. The March rising in Denmark had, unfortunately, like
+the risings in Pesth and Frankfort, been accompanied with a desire to
+strengthen their own country at the expense of its neighbours; and an
+Assembly in Copenhagen had, on March 11, denounced the claims of
+Schleswig to a separate Constitution as eagerly as the Liberals of
+Pesth had demanded the suppression of the Transylvanian Diet, and the
+Liberals of Frankfort the absorption of Bohemia in Germany. The
+Schleswig-Holstein Estates, however, thought that the time had come
+for a more definite demand for independence: and, on March 18, they
+put forward five proposals which they embodied in a petition to the
+King. These were to the effect that the members of the Estates of both
+Duchies should be united in one Assembly for the purpose of discussing
+an Assembly for Schleswig-Holstein; that measures should be taken
+to enable Schleswig to enter the German Confederation; that in
+consideration of dangers both from within and without, measures should
+be taken for a general arming of the people; that liberty of the Press
+and freedom of public meeting should be granted; and that the Prime
+Minister of Denmark should be dismissed. The arrival of the bearers of
+this petition in Copenhagen caused great indignation among the Danes;
+and, on March 20, a meeting was held to pass five counter-resolutions
+in favour of the claims of Denmark over Schleswig; and the temper of
+the meeting was sufficiently shown by the fact that, while the four
+resolutions which asserted the power of Denmark were easily carried, a
+resolution proposing a Provincial Assembly for Schleswig was rejected by
+an enormous majority. War was declared on the Duchies of Schleswig and
+Holstein; and, in order to prevent those Duchies from having due notice
+of the war, the members of the deputation were detained in Copenhagen
+until the expedition had actually sailed. On March 27 the Danish forces
+appeared before Hadersleben; and thereupon the Schleswig-Holstein
+Estates declared that the Duke of Schleswig-Holstein was no longer free,
+and formed a Provisional Government.
+
+The meeting of the Preparatory Parliament at Frankfort had naturally
+increased the hopes of the people of Schleswig-Holstein; and they
+elected seven representatives to take part in the deliberations of
+that Parliament. But the Schleswig-Holstein question seemed doomed to
+bring into prominence all the difficulties which hindered the
+establishment of the freedom and unity of Germany. The old Bundestag
+had, even before the meeting of the Frankfort Parliament, declared its
+sympathy with the Estates of Schleswig-Holstein; and, though it
+expressed its approval of the election of the Schleswig-Holstein
+representatives to the Frankfort Parliament, it claimed, as against
+that body, the sole right of directing the Federal forces of Germany.
+The King of Prussia was, no doubt, glad enough to pit the older body
+against the representatives of the newer Germany; and it was avowedly
+under the authority of the Bundestag that, in the month of April, he
+marched his forces into Schleswig-Holstein. But it soon became clear
+that neither the representatives of the old League of Princes, nor the
+Assembly which embodied the aspirations for German freedom and unity,
+would be able to control the King of Prussia. Early in June he showed
+an inclination to come to an understanding with the King of Denmark
+and to evacuate North Schleswig. The leaders of the Frankfort
+Parliament felt that, in order to control this dangerous rival to
+their authority, they must create some central Power which should be
+able entirely to supersede the Bundestag; and it was, to a large
+extent, under the influence of this feeling, that the Archduke John
+was chosen Administrator of the Empire.
+
+But, however much strength the Frankfort Parliament might gain in
+Germany by this election, it was hardly to be expected that the choice
+of an Austrian Prince would lead to more friendly relations between
+Frankfort and Berlin; and, in July, it began to be rumoured that a
+truce of a more permanent kind was about to be made between the King
+of Prussia and the King of Denmark, while the King of Hanover seemed
+disposed to second the former in his defiance of the Constituent
+Assembly at Frankfort. At last, in September, the crisis of the
+struggle came. It then became clearly known that a truce of seven
+months had been agreed to at Malmo between Prussia and Denmark. During
+that period both the Duchies were to be governed in the name of the
+King of Denmark as Duke of Schleswig-Holstein; and the man who was
+chosen to act in the King's name was Count Moltke, who had been
+previously protested against by the people of Schleswig-Holstein on
+account of his tyrannical acts. He was to exercise all power except
+that of legislation, which, indeed, was to cease altogether during the
+truce; and he was to be assisted by four Notables, two of them to be
+nominated by the King of Denmark and two by the King of Prussia.
+
+The Frankfort Parliament felt that this truce would sacrifice the
+whole object of the war; and, on the motion of Dahlmann, they
+resolved, on September 5, by 238 votes against 221, to stop the
+execution of the truce. The Ministry, who had been appointed by
+Archduke John, thereupon resigned, and Dahlmann was empowered by the
+Archduke to form a new Ministry. At the same time the Estates of
+Schleswig-Holstein met, and denied that any one had the power to
+dissolve them against their will, or to pass laws or lay on taxes
+without their consent. A public meeting of the Schleswig-Holstein
+citizens declared that they would not submit to the new Government;
+every one of the four Notables refused to act with Moltke; and, when
+he applied to the Provisional Government for protection, they sent him
+a passport to enable him to leave the country. But the Frankfort
+Parliament very soon began to shudder at its own audacity; and, when
+Robert Blum urged upon it the desirability of speedily putting in
+force its decree about Schleswig-Holstein, the Parliament decided that
+there was no urgency for this motion; and some of the more timid
+members began to plead the danger of a quarrel with Prussia. Arndt,
+who had voted for the condemnation of the truce, now changed sides,
+and urged that the Parliament should accept it, in order to convince
+the Danes "that they are a brother People;" while even those who still
+condemned the action of Prussia began to propose all sorts of
+compromises. At last, on September 16, the Assembly rescinded its
+former vote, declaring, by 257 against 236, that it was unadvisable to
+hinder the execution of the truce.
+
+The leaders of the German Left had felt that concession to the King of
+Prussia in this dispute implied the sacrifice of the whole object of
+the Parliament's existence; and Robert Blum had declared, shortly
+before the final vote, that it must now be decided whether Prussia was
+to be absorbed in Germany or Germany to become Prussian. But the
+decision of the Frankfort Parliament so roused the fierce Democratic
+feeling in the city that the movement of resistance to Prussia passed
+out of the control of Robert Blum, and fell under the leadership of
+far fiercer and more intolerant spirits. Several thousand Democrats
+belonging to the Frankfort clubs held a meeting, on September 18, at
+which they called upon the members of the Left to leave the Frankfort
+Parliament and form a separate Assembly. Zitz, a representative of
+Mainz, and nineteen other members, accepted this proposal; and, in the
+meantime, the Frankfort mob, headed by a man who bore the ominous name
+of Metternich, threw up barricades in the streets, and prepared for a
+regular insurrection. The Ministry, in great alarm, sent for troops;
+and Bavarian, Prussian, and Austrian generals alike responded to the
+appeal. Robert Blum and Simon, the member for Breslau, in vain tried
+to make peace; entreating the Ministry to withdraw the troops, and the
+insurgents to pull down the barricades. But the Ministry would not
+listen to any advice, and the insurgents threatened Blum and Simon
+with death. Auerswald and Lichnowsky, two members of the Right, were
+killed in the riot. Many fled from the city; and it is said that, when
+Archduke John wished, at last, to make a truce, no member of the
+Ministry could be found to countersign the order for the withdrawal of
+the troops. The struggle went on fiercely during the 19th; but there
+was no organization capable of offering permanent resistance to the
+soldiers; and, by ten o'clock at night, all the barricades had been
+swept away; and the Ministry soon after declared Frankfort in a state
+of siege.
+
+These events gave a shock to the hopes for combining German freedom
+with German unity which they never after recovered; and the alternative
+which Blum had propounded, whether Prussia should be absorbed in
+Germany or Germany in Prussia, was, from that day, to be exchanged for
+the question whether Austria or Prussia should absorb Germany. There
+were some, however, who did not at once give up their hope for a
+solution more favourable to freedom than either of those alternatives.
+In several parts of Germany Republican feeling seemed to have been
+growing for some time past, and the fiercest and most daring of the
+Republican leaders were still to be found in Baden. The rising which
+had followed the dissolution of the Preparatory Parliament had, indeed,
+discredited Hecker and his friends with many of the more moderate
+Democrats; and this feeling, by alienating the party of Hecker from
+Robert Blum, had deprived that able and temperate statesman of the
+power which he might have gained as the head of a united Democratic
+party. That rising had also, unfortunately, brought about a collision
+between Baden and Bavaria, and, at least, a feeling of suspicion
+between Baden and Wuertemberg. But, though the Democratic party, as a
+whole, had been weakened by the Baden rising, and though even the
+special South German movement, which had seemed, in March, to have
+gained so strong an influence, had been disunited, yet, on the other
+hand, a certain form of popular enthusiasm had undoubtedly been roused
+by Hecker, of a kind which the wiser Democrats had failed to excite;
+and the attempt of the members of the Right in the Frankfort Parliament
+to annul Hecker's election, on account of his insurrection, had marked
+him out as a martyr for liberty.
+
+But when the Baden Republicans gathered for action after the Frankfort
+riots, it was, for some unknown reason, to Struve, rather than to
+Hecker, that they offered the leadership of the movement. Struve seems
+to have had fewer gifts for the work of a leader of insurrection than
+his colleague had possessed. He had been, as was proved by his
+programme in the Preparatory Parliament, interested rather in the
+redress of material grievances than in the assertion of Constitutional
+Liberties; and, though he now proclaimed the Republic from the Town
+Council House in Loerrach, he rested his appeal to the people mainly on
+the ground of the burdens still pressing on the cultivators of the
+land; and he did not allude to the Schleswig-Holstein question, nor
+did he allege any Constitutional reason for proclaiming the Republic.
+Blum had seen that Republicanism was not popular in Germany; and,
+though he looked forward to a Republic as the ultimate goal of his
+political aspirations, he felt, during the sitting of the Frankfort
+Parliament, as Mazzini had felt during the war in Lombardy, that any
+violent attempt to enforce Republican opinions would be dangerous to
+liberty. Indeed, it was clear that the only possibility for even a
+temporary success in an insurrection at that time would have lain in
+an appeal to the national feeling about the Schleswig-Holstein war.
+The movement, therefore, failed, and failed ignominiously. The Federal
+troops were sent against the insurgents; at the first collision the
+latter were easily defeated; and the insurrection was only remembered
+as the Struve-Putsch.
+
+Since, then, the Frankfort Parliament no more embodied the hopes of the
+Liberals; since Republican risings seemed hopeless; and since it was
+hardly to be expected from human nature that those who had desired to
+establish German unity at Frankfort should consent at once to rally
+round that Prussian Parliament which had helped to defeat their
+efforts; the eyes of all who would not give up the cause for lost
+turned instinctively to Vienna. There, ever since July 10, a Parliament
+had been sitting, which seemed to enjoy securer freedom than could be
+found in other parts of Germany. This security was partly due to the
+influence of the same prince who had so much increased the dignity of
+the Frankfort Parliament; for the Archduke John was the one member
+of the Royal House who had a genuine respect for liberty. He had
+consented, not only to open the Viennese Assembly, but, a little later,
+to get Pillersdorf dismissed from office, on the ground of his having
+lost the confidence of the people; and, in August, Ferdinand himself
+was induced to return to Vienna, and thus to give a still further
+sense of security to the supporters of parliamentary government. Nor
+was this Parliament without more solid results; for it abolished in
+Austria that system of feudalism which had already been swept away in
+Hungary.
+
+But, in spite of this apparent success, the seeds of division and
+bitterness were too deeply sown to allow of lasting liberty in Vienna.
+The workmen's movements, so often leading to riot, had been one cause
+of weakness; but the most lasting and fatal cause was that terrible
+race hatred, which, more than anything else, ruined the Austrian
+movement for freedom in 1848. The opposition of the Bohemians to the
+May rising in Vienna had intensified against them the indignation
+which had already been roused by their attitude towards the Frankfort
+Parliament; and the June insurrection in Prague had been exaggerated
+by German panic-mongers into an anti-German "St. Bartholomew." When
+Dr. Rieger, Palacky's son-in-law, pleaded for delay in the election of
+the President of the Assembly, on the ground that the Bohemian members
+had not had time to arrive, he was hooted in the streets, and only
+saved from actual violence by the intervention of Dr. Goldmark; and,
+when Rieger protested against the illegal arrest and secret trial of
+one of the Bohemian leaders in Prague, Bach, who had now become the
+most popular of the Ministers with the German party, evaded the
+appeal. Indeed the utterances of the German party in Vienna were
+marked by a combination of a somewhat arrogant assertion of popular
+authority, as represented by the Assembly, with contempt for the
+aspirations of other countries. This combination of feeling was
+perhaps best illustrated by the meeting of July 29, when a majority of
+the Assembly, in calling upon the Emperor to return to Vienna,
+indignantly rejected the word "bitten" (entreat) from the address, and
+substituted the word "fordern" (demand). On the day of this important
+assertion of popular rights, the news of Radetzky's victories in Italy
+was received with loud applause in the Chamber, and a solemn Te Deum
+was shortly afterwards decreed in honour of these victories.[15]
+
+But, offensive as this contrast between the more vulgar side of
+democratic feeling, and the indifference to the liberties of Italy and
+Bohemia must seem to the student of this period, there was one
+direction in which the more generous instincts of the Viennese
+Democrats were shown; although, even in this matter, the generosity of
+principle was to be sadly clouded by the savagery of act. The
+political question which called out this better feeling was the
+relation of Vienna to Hungary. It will be remembered that the
+enthusiasm for Hungary, which had been awakened by Kossuth's speech of
+the 3rd of March, had been considerably damped by the attitude which
+the Magyar leaders had taken up towards the May rising in Vienna; and
+the more democratic tone of Jellacic on that occasion had led the
+Viennese, for a time, to turn for sympathy to Agram rather than to
+Buda-Pesth. But no concessions to monarchical feeling which Kossuth
+might be disposed to make, could reconcile the most influential of
+Ferdinand's advisers to the independent position which the Magyar
+Ministers had obtained. The courtiers, indeed, who helped to form the
+Camarilla, might shrink at first from any sympathy with the daring and
+independent attitude of the Serbs and Croats. But the party in Vienna
+which was opposed to Hungarian liberty had been swelled, since March,
+by the accession of men who were not theoretic opponents of rebellion,
+but who simply desired that the new free Government should be as
+thoroughly centred in Vienna as the old system of Metternich had been.
+
+The most important representative of this phase of opinion was the War
+Minister Latour. Ever since he had taken office, in the latter part of
+April, he had been trying to make use of the discontented races in
+Hungary to weaken the power of the Magyars and to strengthen the
+authority in Vienna. Although he could not at once bring round his
+colleagues in the Ministry to these intrigues, nor persuade the
+courtiers to sympathize with the national leaders at Agram and
+Carlowitz, yet there were points in the position of affairs of which
+Latour was able to make skilful use for the accomplishment of his
+ends. Of these circumstances one of the most striking was the
+character of the Emperor. Ferdinand had shown himself, ever since his
+accession, most desirous of doing justice between the rival races of
+his Empire. The great difficulty of balancing the claims of German and
+Bohemian, Magyar, Croat, and Serb, might well have perplexed a
+stronger brain and weakened a steadier will than that of Ferdinand the
+Good-natured (der Guetige); and when the painful disease, with which he
+was always afflicted, is taken into account, it will seem more
+wonderful that he ever maintained a steady political purpose for
+however short a period, than that he was constantly hesitating and
+changing his course, as new aspects of the question pressed themselves
+on his attention.
+
+This confusion and its natural results are well illustrated by a story
+which, though obviously incapable of proof, yet, none the less, may be
+supposed to embody the popular feeling about this weak but well-meaning
+monarch. The story is, that during one of his conferences with a Serb
+deputation, Ferdinand had listened with tears to the descriptions of
+the cruelties inflicted by the Magyars; but that, just when he seemed
+about to give them a favourable answer, he happened to glance at a note
+from Metternich which was lying beside him on the table, and, taking it
+up, he read these words: "Die Serben sind und bleiben Rebellen" (the
+Serbs are and remain rebels). This sentence checked Ferdinand's
+sympathy, and he at once dismissed the deputation with vague words.
+
+Upon this desire to do justice to both sides, and this weakness under
+the pressure of a stronger will, Latour found it easy to act. A
+Conference at Vienna between representatives of the rival races was
+obviously an expedient, which it was easy to recommend to Ferdinand,
+while it gave admirable opportunities for secret intrigues. Moreover,
+whatever objections might be entertained by the courtiers to other
+leaders of the Slavonic races, there was one, at least, who stood on a
+somewhat different footing. Jellacic was a personal favourite of the
+Archduchess Sophia, the wife of Archduke Francis Charles, the next
+heir to the throne. He had been a colonel in the Austrian army, and
+his appointment had been looked on at Buda-Pesth as quite as much an
+assertion of Imperial authority, as of Croatian independence. On the
+other hand, the fact that he had been entrusted by the Croatian
+Assembly, on June 29, with almost dictatorial powers, only ten days
+after he had been declared a traitor by the Emperor, made him a
+trustworthy representative of the independent nationalists of Croatia;
+and while, therefore, Latour saw in him a fit tool for his purpose,
+Ferdinand naturally hoped that a meeting between Jellacic and
+Batthyanyi in Vienna might lead to a satisfactory settlement of the
+quarrels between Hungary and Croatia.
+
+In this hope the Emperor was encouraged by Archduke John, who
+offered himself as a mediator between the contending parties. But,
+unfortunately, the double responsibility which Archduke John had taken
+upon himself interfered with the execution of his good intentions; for
+while he was urging compromises on Magyars and Croats, the burden of
+his duties as Administrator of the German Empire compelled him to
+hasten away to Frankfort. And thus Batthyanyi and Jellacic were left
+face to face in a city where there were few who desired to reconcile
+them, and where the most influential people desired to aggravate their
+divisions. It must be said, however, in justice to Jellacic, that some
+of the points on which he insisted in the controversy have been
+somewhat misunderstood in respect of their spirit and intention. It
+has been urged, for instance, that in demanding the centralization at
+Vienna of financial and military administration, he was contending
+solely for the interests of the Court, and not at all for Croatian
+independence. This, however, is scarcely just; for Jellacic had good
+reason to believe that Slavonic liberty needed protection from the
+Magyar Ministers of Finance and War, since, in July, Kossuth, as
+Minister of Finance, had refused supplies for the Croatian army; and
+even the Serbs, who were still in partially hostile relations with the
+Court, had discussed the question of placing themselves under the
+Ministry at Vienna, as a protection against the Magyars. There were,
+however, other proposals made by Jellacic, which could scarcely be
+covered by this explanation, such as the demand that Hungary should
+take over a share of the Viennese debt, and that more troops should be
+sent to Italy; and it was natural, therefore, that Batthyanyi should
+construe the proposal about the War and Finance Ministry, rather as a
+blow at the liberties of the Magyars, than as an assertion of Croatian
+independence. It was obvious that for purposes of conciliation the
+Conference was a hopeless failure; and Batthyanyi, after in vain
+urging Jellacic to abandon these proposals, rose in indignation
+exclaiming, "Then we meet on the Drave."[16] "No," said Jellacic, "on
+the Danube." And so they parted with the consciousness that war was no
+longer avoidable.
+
+But though the Conference had failed, so far as regarded its apparent
+purpose, it had served to complete the change in the policy of the
+Court, and in the position of Jellacic. From this time forward he
+ceased to be the complete champion of Croatian liberty, and became the
+soldier of the Emperor; and from this time forward, therefore, the
+German Democrats of Vienna resumed their old faith in Kossuth, and
+considered his enemies as their enemies. The policy of Latour had been
+accepted at Court, and Ferdinand was whirled away in the vortex of
+aristocratic opinion, and official intrigue. On August 4 Ferdinand
+officially declared his confidence in Jellacic; about September 1, the
+Viennese Ministry announced to the Hungarians that the March laws
+which had secured a responsible Ministry to Hungary were null and
+void, as having been passed without the sanction of Ministers at
+Vienna; and Ferdinand endorsed this opinion.
+
+In the meantime, even the Serb movement which the Viennese courtiers
+had looked upon with special suspicion, was passing into hands more
+favourable to the authority of the Emperor. In the latter part of
+July, Stratimirovic had gained great successes in the Banat; and his
+alliance with Knicsanin, the Servian General, had led him to hope that
+he might be able to throw off the authority both of Vienna and of
+Buda-Pesth. But the Patriarch Rajacic, who had entered with such
+hesitation into the insurrection, saw his only possibility of safety
+in placing the movement under the authority of the Emperor. He
+therefore set himself against the influence of Stratimirovic; and on
+his return from Agram to Carlowitz, he was able to use his authority
+as Patriarch, backed by the influence of Jellacic, to recover the
+reins of government, and to limit the authority of Stratimirovic to
+military affairs. At the time of the return of Rajacic, the war
+had begun to languish; but in the middle of August the Magyars
+renewed their attacks, and besieged the Serb town of Szent-Tomas.
+Stratimirovic marched to the defence, and gained such successes that
+some of the Magyars raised the cry of treason against their Generals.
+General Kiss was therefore sent down to take the place of those who
+had forfeited the public confidence. At first the result of the war
+was doubtful; for victories were alternately gained by the Serbs and
+the Magyars; but at last Kiss, by a dexterous movement, succeeded in
+preventing Stratimirovic from joining his forces with those of
+Knicsanin, and thus turned the whole tide of the war against the
+Serbs. This change of affairs naturally favoured the designs of
+Rajacic; Stratimirovic, finding that much of the popular feeling was
+turning against him, resigned his authority, and Colonel Mayerhoffer,
+an Austrian officer, was sent down to take his place. Some of the
+soldiers of Stratimirovic were, indeed, indignant at this change; and
+Rajacic was obliged to make some advances to reconciliation; but
+Suplikac, the Voyvode, backed Rajacic in his general plans; and by the
+help of their joint influence, Latour was able to turn the Serb cause
+into a new prop for the rule of the Emperor.
+
+It is pathetic to see how, in spite of irresistible evidence,
+Ferdinand still clung to the hope that he might succeed in reconciling
+the leaders of the different races in his Empire, and yet more strange
+to see how he still believed that Latour would co-operate with him for
+this object. He now chose as his mediator, a Hungarian named Lamberg,
+to whom he gave a commission to settle matters between the contending
+parties, and to restore order in Hungary. Lamberg was known to
+Batthyanyi, and seems, to some extent, to have enjoyed his confidence;
+for Batthyanyi declared that he would himself have counter-signed
+Lamberg's commission, if Latour would only have submitted it to him in
+time. But Latour, whose object was very different from that of his
+good-natured master, despatched Lamberg to Buda-Pesth without that
+sanction which could alone secure him legal authority in the eyes of
+the Hungarian Ministers.
+
+Some days before the arrival of Lamberg in Pesth, a striking proof had
+been given of the growing sympathy between the German Democrats of
+Vienna and the Magyars, and also of that fierce race-hatred between
+Germans and Bohemians which had been stirred up by the circumstances of
+the June rising in Prague. The Magyars had despatched a deputation to
+the Viennese Parliament, in the hopes of reviving the old alliance
+between Buda-Pesth and Vienna. The more generous side of the Democratic
+spirit had been reawakened in the Germans of Vienna by many of the
+recent events. Even those who had sympathized with the reconquest of
+Lombardy had been alarmed at the kind of government which the Austrian
+generals were trying to introduce into that province; and one of the
+members of the Assembly asked what should they think if the army which
+was now in Italy were to stand before the gates of Vienna? This feeling
+of alarm at the growth of a military power independent of Parliament
+had naturally been increased by the suspicions of Latour's intrigues
+with the Serbs and the Croats. When, then, on September 19, the Magyar
+deputation, among whom were Eoetvoes and Wesselenyi, asked for an
+audience from the Assembly, that they might explain their position, the
+leading German Democrats urged their admission, but the Bohemian
+leaders protested against it, denouncing the Magyars both for
+separating from Austria and for oppressing the Slavs. Schuselka
+attempted to mediate between the two parties, maintaining that though
+the Magyars had done many indefensible things, yet, as a matter of
+justice, the Parliament ought to hear their petition; but the
+Ministerialists, combined with the Bohemians, were too strong for
+opposition; and, by a majority of eighty, it was decided not to admit
+the deputation.
+
+This refusal of the Viennese Parliament brought to an end the last hope
+of a peaceable settlement of the Hungarian difficulties. On September
+27, Lamberg entered Buda-Pesth, to which the Hungarian Diet had now
+been transferred. It must be remembered that the Magyars had just been
+irritated at Ferdinand's denunciations of the March laws of Hungary,
+and alarmed at his expression of confidence in Jellacic, who had just
+crossed the Drave and invaded Hungary. When, then, Lamberg arrived in
+Pesth, with a commission unsigned by any Hungarian Minister, his
+arrival was naturally looked upon as a further indication of an attempt
+of the Austrian Ministry to crush out the liberties of Hungary. A
+slight thing was sufficient to cause these suspicions to swell into a
+panic; and the news that Lamberg had at once crossed the Danube, to
+visit the fortress of Buda, seemed, to the excited Magyars, a
+sufficient proof of his dangerous intentions. The cry was raised that
+the fortress was going to be seized and military law established. The
+fiery students of Pesth hastened out into the streets; and as Lamberg
+returned across the suspension bridge into Pesth, he was attacked and
+murdered. Batthyanyi, terrified at this act, resigned his premiership
+and fled to Vienna; and the Diet of Hungary passed a resolution
+condemning the murder. Ferdinand was now more easily urged to violent
+action. On October 3 he declared the Hungarian Diet dissolved,
+proclaimed Jellacic Dictator of Hungary, and appointed Recsey Prime
+Minister in place of Batthyanyi. Jellacic, however, did not find it
+easy to assert the authority which was now given him. He had hoped
+that, in the confusion which followed the death of Lamberg, he would be
+able to carry Pesth by storm; but he was driven back, and before the
+end of October the Croats had been expelled from Hungary.
+
+In the meantime the suspicions of the Viennese had been increasing, and
+on the 29th of September Dr. Loehner, one of the original leaders of the
+March movement, publicly denounced Latour for his intrigues with
+Jellacic. These intrigues had now been placed beyond a doubt by certain
+letters which had fallen into the hands of the Hungarian Ministry.
+Pulszky, who was at this time in Vienna, took the opportunity to
+publish these letters in the form of a placard, while he complained to
+Latour of the permission given to Jellacic to raise recruits in Vienna,
+and threatened, if these proceedings continued, to excite a revolution
+in which the Viennese Ministers would be hung from lamp-posts. There
+were, indeed, revolutionary elements enough in Vienna at this time. The
+friendship between the workmen and the students had led to the
+formation of a special workman's Sub-Committee under the Committee of
+Safety. This body actually undertook to find employment for all who
+were out of work, and even to pay them wages while they were out of
+work. This offer naturally caused a rush of workmen to Vienna, from all
+parts of the Empire. The attempt to sift and regulate the claims for
+employment led to new bitterness; and demands for impossibly high wages
+provoked rebuffs, which were answered by threats of violence. The
+Ministry tried to induce the workmen to leave the city, by urging them
+to join the army in Italy; but the students defeated this attempt by
+reminding the workmen that the war in Italy was a war against liberty.
+The suspicions of the Ministers were now excited, not only against the
+workmen, but against the students; and, after a riot in the latter part
+of August, the Committee of Safety had been dissolved, and the
+lecture-rooms of the University closed. But this repression, far from
+weakening the bitterness in Vienna, only drew closer the links between
+the poorer students and the workmen; for, while the richer students
+left the city, the poorer ones, finding it difficult to support
+themselves after the closing of the lecture-rooms, were subscribed for
+by the workmen. Thus then the suspicions roused by the intrigues of
+Latour were strengthened considerably by the general condition of
+Vienna at this period.
+
+Latour, however, was resolved not to yield. The defeats which Jellacic
+was experiencing in Hungary only made it the more necessary that those
+who sympathized with him should send him help; and on the 5th of
+October the news spread through Vienna that an Austrian regiment was
+about to march to Hungary to the assistance of Jellacic. The students
+went to the head-quarters of one of the grenadier regiments, and urged
+them not to join in the march. An officer, who arrested one of the
+students, was attacked and wounded; and when one of the grenadiers,
+who had been wounded in a quarrel, was sent to his barrack, his
+comrades seemed to consider it as a kind of arrest, and demanded his
+surrender. The National Guard joined in this demand; and thus a state
+of confusion arose which made it easy for the students and the workmen
+to hinder the march of the regiments which were starting for Hungary.
+An Italian battalion refused to proceed further, and the march was
+hindered for that day. But General Auersperg, who commanded the forces
+in Vienna, was resolved to continue the attempt; and so, on the
+following day, the soldiers were despatched to the station which lies
+beyond the Tabor bridge. But, when they arrived on the bridge, they
+found that the students and the National Guard were before them, and
+that the barriers had been closed against them. Auersperg was alarmed
+at this resistance, and recalled the troops; but collisions had by
+this time taken place between the soldiers and the people in other
+parts of the town; and a fierce fight was raging in the Stephansplatz,
+and even in the church itself.
+
+Then suddenly there rose the cry "Latour is sending us the murderers
+of the 13th of March;" and a rush was made towards the office of the
+Ministry of War. Fears had already been entertained by several members
+of the Assembly, that a personal attack would be made on Latour;
+and Borrosch, one of the German Bohemian members, Smolka, the
+Vice-President of the Assembly, Dr. Goldmark, and others, hastened to
+protect Latour from the vengeance of the crowd. Borrosch, with the
+same humane ingenuity which Lafayette had shown on a similar occasion,
+promised that Latour should have a formal trial, if the crowd would
+spare him. The crowd cheered Borrosch and his friends; and many of
+them promised that they would protect Latour's life. Borrosch rode
+off, supposing Latour to be safe; but Dr. Fischhof, feeling that
+matters were not yet secure, persuaded several members of the National
+Guard to act as special protectors to Latour; and as the best means of
+effecting this object, some thirty or forty of them undertook to
+arrest him. But the excitement of the crowd had been roused anew, and
+they burst into the War Office. Smolka then entreated Latour to
+resign. The Minister consented; but the passions of the crowd would
+not be appeased. The unfortunate man attempted to hide from their
+pursuit: but they dragged him from his hiding-place, and thrust aside
+his defenders. Fischhof warded off the first blow that was aimed at
+him. A student, named Rauch, attempted also to protect him; but all
+was in vain; and he was dragged down the staircase and into the square
+in front of the War Office. With his white hair floating about him, he
+was lifted on to the lamp-post which then stood in the square. He
+struggled against his enemies, and compelled them to drop him once;
+but again he was lifted on to the post, and this time the hanging was
+completed, the crowd tearing his clothes from his body and dipping
+their handkerchiefs in his blood. This outburst of savagery, instead
+of satisfying the fury of the people, had quickened their thirst for
+blood; and their desire for vengeance was now turned against the
+Bohemian Deputies. Strobach, who had been chosen President of the
+Assembly, had objected to hold a sitting at all on that day, declaring
+that executive rather than legislative functions were needed just
+then. For this refusal some of the members wished to prosecute him;
+and armed men appeared in the gallery of the Assembly threatening
+violence to the Bohemian deputies. Those deputies, finding that they
+could no longer deliberate freely, soon after fled from the city, and
+issued from Prague a protest against the Reign of Terror, which they
+declared to be dominating Vienna. In the meantime Ferdinand, having
+consented, on the day of Latour's death, to the formation of a
+Democratic Ministry, fled, on the next day, from Vienna to Schoenbrunn,
+and shortly afterwards to Innspruck; and he soon notified his feelings
+to the Viennese by a proclamation in which he too denounced the reign
+of violence in Vienna.
+
+Hardly had the Viennese recovered from the surprise caused by the
+flight of their Emperor, than they heard that Jellacic, having
+abandoned his hope of conquering Hungary, was marching against Vienna.
+General Auersperg, who had withdrawn his troops to the Belvedere after
+the collision between the soldiers and the people, was still assumed
+by the Viennese to be in some degree favourable to their cause; and
+they entreated him to repel the attack of Jellacic, and to call for
+help from the Hungarians. Auersperg, however, rejected this proposal,
+withdrew his troops secretly from the city, and, on October 11, openly
+joined Jellacic.
+
+The Assembly were now anxious to appeal to the Frankfort Parliament
+for help, and entreated them to send representatives to Vienna. Robert
+Blum, who had grown weary of the state of affairs in Frankfort, and
+who believed that the only remaining hope for Germany was in Vienna,
+consented, in company with four others, to accept this embassy. The
+Parliament in Vienna still imagined that they could keep within legal
+forms; but this desire irritated those fiery politicians who felt that
+the struggle was now on a revolutionary footing; and they therefore
+desired to overthrow the Assembly, and to establish a more determined
+body in its place. But Blum, who had been accustomed to hold in check
+the violent members of his own party in Frankfort, supposed that, in
+Vienna also, he was bound to resist revolutionary methods; and, though
+he was ready to encourage the Viennese in the defence of their city,
+he objected to the proposal for the violent dissolution of the
+Assembly, on the ground that such a proceeding would give an excuse to
+the tyrants for a dissolution of the Frankfort Parliament.
+
+A man of much more importance in such a siege than Robert Blum could
+be, arrived about the same time in Vienna. This was Joseph Bem, a
+Galician of about fifty-three years of age, who had served in
+Napoleon's expedition to Russia, and had greatly distinguished himself
+as colonel of the Polish artillery at the battle of Ostrolenka. He had
+also commanded the Polish artillery in the insurrection of 1830, and
+had attempted to organize a Polish legion, for the help of the
+Portuguese, during their struggle against the Absolutist party. He had
+been wounded in one of these wars, was obliged to use a staff in
+walking, and was small and delicate in his appearance. He had gained
+both friends and enemies in Poland, and was known for his strong
+democratic sympathies. Although he was not appointed to the official
+headship of the National Guard, he soon became the centre and life of
+the defence. But he found that the men with whom he had to act did not
+understand the position in which they were placed; for, when he
+attempted to urge the National Guard to march out against the army of
+Jellacic, they twice refused to follow him, on the ground that they
+were only intended for the defence of the city.
+
+And, if the rulers of Vienna were feeble in their attitude towards
+their enemies, they were not less feeble in their treatment of the
+one people, from whom they might have expected help in this emergency.
+The advance of Jellacic against Vienna had naturally increased the
+sympathy of the Magyars for the Viennese, and Pulszky urged the latter
+to summon the Hungarian army to their rescue. This formal invitation
+was the more necessary because the Hungarian officers were in many
+cases confused in their minds as to their strict legal duty in
+this war. Archduke Stephen, the Count Palatine of Hungary, after
+professedly assuming the command of the army, had suddenly fled from
+the country, and thus weakened the legal position, both of his
+subordinate officers, and of the Hungarian Diet, of which he was the
+nominal head. Ferdinand had repeated his former dissolution of the
+Diet in a proclamation of the 20th October; Prince Windischgraetz,
+professing to act in the name of the Emperor, issued a declaration
+from Prague forbidding the Hungarian officers to fight against
+Jellacic; and soon after, followed up this proclamation by marching
+against Vienna. General Moga, the Commander-in-Chief of the Hungarian
+forces, hesitated to resist the Imperial orders; but, whilst the
+generals were debating among themselves, Kossuth arrived in the
+Hungarian camp to urge them to advance. After some delay his influence
+prevailed; and on October 28 began the march of the Hungarian army for
+the relief of Vienna.
+
+In the meantime, all those in Vienna, who really cared to save it,
+were trying to rouse their fellow-townsmen to action. Robert Blum made
+an address to the students in favour of making "no half-revolution,
+but a complete change of the system;" and on the 25th October, three
+days before the Hungarians had begun their march, Bem had succeeded
+in persuading the National Guard to make their sortie. But confusion
+followed this attempt; some of the Guard fled; others were mistaken in
+the darkness for enemies, and fired on by their comrades. Bem's horse
+was killed under him, and he was compelled to retreat. Windischgraetz,
+who had now been appointed to the complete command of the besieging
+force, demanded the surrender of "the Polish emissary Bem, who in a
+quite uncalled-for manner, had mixed himself up in the affairs of
+Vienna." This recognition of the independence of the Polish provinces
+of the Austrian Empire was not accepted by the Viennese; nor did they
+consent to surrender any of the other people who were demanded by
+Windischgraetz. Bem roused the soldiers again to the defence, and drove
+them to their work with abuse. The Students' Legion distinguished
+itself by its courage; and some of the workmen seconded them bravely.
+But Messenhauser, the official leader of the National Guard, declared
+that the struggle was hopeless, and urged the people to yield.
+
+Many were now disposed to abandon the defence; when suddenly, on
+October 30, there arose a cry that the Hungarians were approaching.
+Messengers went up the high tower of St. Stephen's Church, and looked
+out towards the plain of Schwechat, where the Hungarians and Austrians
+had at last joined battle. The Viennese had been advised by their
+Hungarian friends to tear up the railway lines; but they neglected
+this precaution; and thus Windischgraetz had been able to send more
+troops to Schwechat. But the great weakness of the Hungarians was due
+to the hesitation of General Moga, and to the want of confidence felt
+in him by his subordinate officers. Troops were ordered to advance,
+and then suddenly to halt, without any apparent reason; several of the
+new recruits ran away; and at last a general panic seized the army,
+and they fled before the Austrians, continuing to retreat, even after
+the enemy had ceased to pursue them.
+
+The rumours of Hungarian help had encouraged some of the Viennese to
+oppose the surrender of their city; and this opposition was continued
+even after the defeat of the Hungarians had been officially announced.
+This division of opinion between the leaders and a great part of the
+people, led to riots in various parts of the town. Under these
+circumstances, Windischgraetz refused to accept the peaceable surrender
+offered by the leaders, and, instead, bombarded the town, and then
+entered it, while it was still on fire. Bem managed to escape; and so
+did three of the representatives of the Frankfort Parliament; but Blum
+and Froebel were arrested. The latter was discovered to have written a
+pamphlet, which implied a desire to maintain the unity of the Austrian
+Empire; and, on this ground, he was set free. But Blum was proved to
+have acted as a captain of one of the corps of the National Guard,
+during the defence; his speech to the students, about the complete
+change of system, was supposed to imply a desire for a Republican
+movement; and so on the 8th November he was condemned to death, and on
+the 9th he was shot.
+
+Great indignation was excited in Germany by this execution; and the
+unpopularity which the Frankfort Parliament had incurred by their
+assent to the truce of Malmo, was increased by their having refused to
+interfere to protect Blum from arrest. Yet it seems as if the
+remarks, made above in the case of Confalonieri, may be applied again
+to Blum. That Blum should die, and Windischgraetz triumph, was no doubt
+sad; but Blum's execution was rather the result of a system of
+Government, than a specially illegal or tyrannical act. Blum had
+staked his life on the issue of the struggle, by coming to Vienna
+during the siege. If there were any alternative to his death, it was
+the one proposed by Socrates to his judges; and in the case of Blum,
+as in that of Socrates, the actual result was the best for his honour.
+
+But, as for the capture of Vienna itself, it is difficult to
+over-estimate its importance in the history of the Revolution. As the
+fall of Milan had broken the connection of the Italian struggle with
+the European Revolution, so the fall of Vienna destroyed the link which
+bound all the other parts of the Revolution together. Race hatred, and
+a narrow perception of their own interests, might hinder the Viennese
+from understanding their true position; but the March rising in Vienna
+had given to the various Revolutions a European importance, which they
+would scarcely have attained without it; and the attention of each of
+the struggling races in turn had been riveted on the city which
+Metternich had made the centre of the European system. In a still more
+evident manner was the link broken between Germany and the rest of
+Europe, and apparently between the most vigorous champions of liberty
+in the different parts of Germany.
+
+This last aspect of the fall of Vienna has been embodied, by a poet
+named Schauffer, in verses, which appeared a year after the event, and
+which contain also a worthy tribute to those fiery youths whose
+determination and enthusiasm were to so large an extent the cause of
+all that was best in the Vienna insurrections; though their national
+prejudices, and their want of self-control, contributed largely to the
+ruin of the movement which they had inaugurated.[17]
+
+    THE VIENNA LEGION.
+
+    Their hearts beat high and hopeful,
+      In the bright October days;
+    Not March's glorious breezes
+      Could bolder daring raise.
+    No more with idle drum beats,
+      But with cannons' thundering tone,
+    Marched forth to guard the ramparts,
+      Vienna's Legion.
+
+    Once more they come to guard it,--
+      The freedom won by fight;
+    Once more 'tis force must conquer,
+      When blood is shed for right.
+    A steely forest threatens,
+      Ere yet the day be won;
+    But the Fatherland, they'll save it,
+      Vienna's Legion.
+
+    And, as the Spartans hurled them
+      On the Persian's mighty horde,
+    They burst on the barbarian,
+      To smite with German sword.
+    Their lives into the balance
+      In careless scorn they've thrown;
+    And victory crowns their daring,
+      Vienna's Legion.
+
+    Thus did they struggle boldly,
+      For many a day and night;
+    Thus were they crushed, o'er wearied
+      By the tyrant's conquering might;
+    Grey warriors wept in anguish
+      O'er many a gallant son;
+    E'en in defeat 'twas victor,
+      Vienna's Legion.
+
+    Their deeds will well be honoured
+      In the victor's glorious lay;
+    Our youth lay dead in battle,
+      But they would not yield the day.
+    Let others crouch and tremble!
+      No pardon will they own;
+    They dare not live in bondage,--
+      Vienna's Legion.
+
+    In the days of bright October
+      They shouted in their pride;
+    Their blows fell thick and boldly,
+      They struck their strokes--and died.
+    The gallant lads have fallen;
+      In blood the Legion lie;
+    But in the grave that hides them
+      Is buried--Germany.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[14] To avoid needless controversy, I may add that I am perfectly
+aware of the tyranny exercised by Milan over Lodi and other small
+towns; but the fact remains that the real force of the Lombard League,
+in its struggle against Barbarossa, lay in the _equal_ union of the
+greater towns of Lombardy.
+
+[15] It must be admitted that a protest was made by some of the
+members against Radetzky's restoration of the Duke of Modena; but then
+the Duke of Modena was not subject to the Viennese Parliament, and
+Radetzky, in restoring him, had acted without their authority.
+
+[16] The boundary river between Croatia and Hungary.
+
+[17] It is also worth noting that the first production of the freed
+Press of Vienna in March, 1848, was a poem by L. A. von Frankl, in
+praise of the services of the students to the cause of liberty; but,
+though this poem gained some celebrity at the time, it does not as
+easily lend itself to translation as the one translated above.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE LAST EFFORTS OF CONSTITUTIONALISM. JUNE, 1848-MARCH, 1849.
+
+     Difference of the Prussian movement from the other March
+     movements.--The Silesian question.--The Rhine Province.--The Berlin
+     workmen.--The grievances of the other Prussian Liberals.--Hansemann
+     and his concessions.--The proposal of a Workmen's Parliament.--The
+     "German" movement in Prussia.--The fall of Hansemann.--The reaction
+     in Berlin.--The deputation to Potsdam.--"Das Unglueck der
+     Koenige."--"Brandenburg in the Chamber, or the Chamber in
+     Brandenburg."--The struggle between the Parliament and the
+     King.--The refusal to pay taxes.--The final dissolution.--Value of
+     the resistance of the Prussian Liberals.--The offer of the Crown of
+     Germany to Frederick William.--Consequences of his
+     refusal.--Abdication of Ferdinand of Austria.--The Parliament at
+     Kremsier.--Its character.--Its dissolution.--Difficulties of Pius
+     IX. and of his Ministers.--Rossi as Prime Minister.--The
+     contradictions in his position.--His opposition to Italian
+     ideas.--His murder.--The rising in Rome.--The democratic
+     Ministry.--The flight to Gaeta.--Mamiani's theories.--The Forli
+     petition.--The summons to the Roman Assembly.--Leopold of Tuscany
+     and Guerrazzi.--Flight of the Grand Duke.--Guerrazzi and
+     Mazzini.--Difficulties of Gioberti.--His schemes for restoring the
+     Pope and the Grand Duke.--Their failure.--Radetzky's breaches of
+     faith in Lombardy.--The appeal of the Lombards.--The declaration of
+     war by Charles Albert.--Attitude of the Roman Assembly.--Mazzini's
+     appeal and its effect.--The blunders of Charles Albert and his
+     officers.--Tito Speri at Brescia.--"Defeat more glorious than
+     victory."--The "Tiger of Brescia."--Novara.--Abdication of Charles
+     Albert.--End of the "Constitutional" efforts for freedom.
+
+
+While the Frankfort Parliament had been discussing personal liberties,
+Constitutional arrangements, and the relation of the different races
+to each other; while in Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia the questions of
+national independence and race equality had thrown every other into
+the background; while in Vienna the republican aspirations of the
+students, the contest between German and Bohemian, and the discontent
+of the workmen, had all merged into one common element of confusion,
+so as at last to make government impossible; in Prussia the condition
+of the workmen had assumed a position of such paramount importance,
+during the period from April to August, as to obscure even the most
+pressing Constitutional questions. The workmen's petition had been the
+first step in the March movement in Berlin; and the miseries of the
+Silesian famine had quickened the desire for the improvement of the
+condition of the poor. This Silesian question, indeed, may perhaps be
+reckoned as the chief cause of the difference between the Prussian
+movement, and those which were taking place in the other countries of
+Europe. In that unfortunate province, the aristocracy seem to have
+tried to combine the maintenance of their old feudal power with such
+advantages as they could gain from modern commercial ideas. Thus the
+millers, who carried on the chief industry of Silesia, still paid
+enormous dues to the landlords for the use of their mills, while, at
+the same time, the landlords would start mills of their own in
+competition with the millers, who were paying dues to them; and, as
+the landlord was free from those imposts, he was often able to ruin
+those who were at once his rivals and dependents. Other dues of a
+peculiar kind were paid for protection supposed to be given by
+the landlord; others, again, were exacted under the pretext of
+supplying education to the children; while at the same time excessive
+preservation of game was hindering the natural development of
+agriculture. At the same time on the Western side of Prussia, in the
+Rhine Province, the French influence was colouring the feelings of the
+population; and the socialistic June risings in Paris excited the
+sympathies of the citizens of Cologne.
+
+All these causes, combined with those new hopes for a change of
+condition which had been roused by the Revolution, tended to excite
+the workmen of Berlin to action of a more definitely socialistic kind
+than was possible even in Vienna; and on May 21 the workmen's union of
+Berlin called upon all the unions of workmen throughout the Kingdom to
+send representatives to the capital. This naturally tended to fix the
+attention of the Prussian politicians on the questions specially
+affecting the working classes; and Hansemann, a moderate Conservative,
+promised to bring forward measures for curing the distresses of the
+workmen. In Berlin, as elsewhere, the suffering classes found that
+these things were more easily promised than fulfilled; and the
+disappointment of their hopes produced a continual tendency to riot
+and disorder.
+
+But the discontent roused by these causes was considerably
+strengthened by other grievances of a different kind. The aristocratic
+character of the Prussian Constitution which was proclaimed in April,
+had excited indignation in members of the Prussian Liberal party, who
+had little sympathy with socialistic agitations. The return of the
+Prince of Prussia to Berlin was reckoned as a sign of still further
+reactionary intentions on the part of the Government; while a more
+justifiable ground of complaint than either of these was found in the
+cruelties with which General Pfuel was stamping out in Posen a
+movement originally sanctioned by the Prussian King and Parliament. He
+had stirred up riots and encouraged the Germans to insult the Poles,
+some of whom were branded and had their heads shaved; their priests had
+been murdered, and images desecrated. These cruelties and insults
+provoked not only anger, but fear; for some of the Prussian Liberals
+believed that the troops then used against the Poles might end in
+trampling out the liberties of Berlin. If we add to these causes of
+discontent that tyrannical conduct of the Prussian soldiers in Mainz,
+which had so provoked the Frankfort Liberals; the apparent defiance to
+the French Republic, by the massing of troops in the Rhine Province,
+combined with the neglect to guard the North-eastern frontier of
+Prussia against the Russian troops which were fast gathering there; and
+last, but not least, the sluggishness and hesitation shown in the
+Schleswig-Holstein war, we shall see how naturally the bitter
+disappointment of the workmen chimed in with the feelings of suspicion
+felt by other classes of Liberals. The Berlin students, indeed,
+endeavoured to prevent the workmen from continually betaking themselves
+to violence; but they were unable to accomplish much in this direction.
+The workmen had despaired of peaceable remedies; and on June 8 they
+broke into the Assembly, attacked the Ministers, and were with
+difficulty restored to order.
+
+This state of things naturally produced a general feeling of suspicion
+and bitterness among all classes; and while, on the one side, a
+movement began in Berlin, and some of the other Prussian towns, in
+favour of a more Conservative Ministry, and the extreme champions of
+reaction even talked of removing the Parliament to Potsdam, the
+miseries of Silesia and Posen so roused the feelings of the Prussian
+Democrats that every step in the Conservative direction, however
+apparently innocent, gave cause for new outbreaks. Thus when new gates
+were put up to bar the entrance to the royal castle at Berlin, they
+were seized and carried off by the crowd; and when a deputation of
+thirty starving workmen, bearing the German flag, with the red flag by
+its side, were repulsed by the Ministers, there arose a cry for the
+general arming of the people; and when this was refused, the workmen
+stormed the armoury and carried off about 3,000 weapons.
+
+The Ministry now became alarmed for the peace of Berlin; and, in spite
+of a decision of the Assembly to the contrary, they sent for three new
+battalions of militia, and prosecuted the men who had taken part in
+the attack on the armoury. The time, however, had not yet come for a
+complete reaction; and it was therefore unavoidable that concessions
+should be made to so strong a popular movement. So on June 23
+Camphausen fell; Hansemann, who had promised relief to the workmen,
+formed a Ministry; and on the same day a scheme was brought forward in
+the Prussian Parliament, for abolishing the feudal dues. Hansemann
+further promised to develope municipal government; and he repudiated
+the attacks which Camphausen had made on the March movement. Then
+proposals were brought forward, with the approval of the Minister of
+Trade, for a Commission of Enquiry into the condition of the Silesian
+workmen. But the workmen were determined, to a great extent, to keep
+matters in their own hands; and the proposal for a conference of their
+unions had now grown into a demand for a Workmen's Parliament which
+was to meet in August, and to carry out a great many points of the
+modern socialistic programme; such as the guarantee of work for all;
+the care by the State for those who were helpless or out of work; the
+regulation of hours of labour; and the support by the State of
+workmen's associations. And if the programme of Hansemann did not
+prevent workmen from insisting on their extremer demands, neither did
+it suppress the riotous methods by which they asserted their claims.
+Many members of the Assembly were still alarmed by hearing of attacks
+on machinery in Breslau, and by seeing demonstrations of workmen in
+Berlin; and the provision of special work on the railways produced
+just as much, and just as little satisfaction, as such temporary
+expedients usually do.
+
+In the meantime the growing collision between the power of Prussia and
+the power of the Assembly at Frankfort was exciting new divisions in
+Berlin. During the months of June and July the democratic feeling in
+Prussia had been strongly in favour of Frankfort as against Berlin;
+while, on the other hand, the military party desired more and more to
+assert the independence of the King of Prussia against any central
+Parliament, and more particularly against one which had given its
+highest post to an Austrian prince. The workmen's movement thus, by a
+natural process, began to be coloured by the desire of the more
+cultivated Liberals for a united Germany; and the special demands of
+the workmen began to fall into the background as the larger questions
+of the freedom and unity of the whole country came more prominently to
+the front. The fears of the Ministry were naturally increased by this
+alliance; and early in August several members of the Prussian Left
+were suddenly arrested; and amongst them Rodbertus, one of the more
+moderate members who had helped to place Hansemann in power. The new
+quarrel threatened to be as bitter as the old one; collisions took
+place in various parts of the kingdom between the Prussian soldiers
+and the champions of German unity; and when the members of the Left
+began to demand the dismissal from the army of reactionary officers,
+and to make demonstrations against the Ministry, the Ministers met
+them by passing a law for the suppression of public meetings, while
+the fiercer reactionists circulated a petition in favour of making the
+Prince of Prussia the Commander-in-Chief of the forces.
+
+The truce of Malmo brought the crisis to a head; and the members
+of the Left resolved that if the Ministry would not remove the
+reactionary officers, the Liberal members would leave the Assembly.
+Thus the Schleswig-Holstein crisis consolidated completely the
+different elements of opposition; and on September 16 a vote of want
+of confidence in the Hansemann Ministry was carried in the Assembly.
+The greatest enthusiasm was roused by this vote; the members who voted
+for it were carried on the shoulders of the people, and it seemed, for
+a moment, as if a constitutional solution had been found for the
+difficulties of Prussia. But the riots at Frankfort, and the triumph
+which they secured to the reactionary party in Parliament, gave new
+courage to the King of Prussia in resisting the opposition; and he
+entrusted the formation of a Ministry to General Brandenburg, a man of
+more fiercely despotic principles than any who had recently held
+office. New prosecutions were begun; and, for the first time since
+the March insurrection, a newspaper was seized and confiscated.
+The Liberals, however, were not disposed to yield; and, as if to
+strengthen their alliance with the champions of provincial and class
+liberties, they carried by a small majority a motion in favour of
+securing special rights to the province of Posen, and adopted
+unanimously a report for finding work for the spinners and weavers in
+certain parts of the kingdom; while demonstrations were made in favour
+of sending help to Vienna in its struggle against Windischgraetz.
+
+The fall of Vienna, however, enabled the King of Prussia to take
+another step towards absolutism, and General Brandenburg was appointed
+Minister in spite of the opposition of the Liberals. The King himself
+had withdrawn to Potsdam: and the Assembly resolved almost unanimously
+to send a deputation to the King, to entreat him to dismiss this
+Ministry. The deputation had to wait for a long time in a dark
+gallery, the King refusing at first to receive them otherwise than
+through the Ministers; but a Ministerial despatch arrived, calling
+attention to this deputation; and thus the King's scruple was removed,
+and he consented to hear them. When the address was completed he took
+it up, folded it, and prepared to withdraw; but Johann Jacoby
+exclaimed, "We are not come here merely to present the address, but
+to explain to Your Majesty the true condition of the country. Will you
+not grant us a gracious hearing?" The King refused, upon which Jacoby
+uttered the memorable words: "It is the misfortune of Kings that they
+will not hear the truth." Then Frederick William withdrew in great
+anger, and refused to have any further communication with the
+deputies. On November 6 he announced that, if the Assembly did not
+accept the Ministry, they would be dissolved by force; and two days
+later he declared unconditionally that he should remove the Assembly
+by force to the town of Brandenburg; or, as he epigrammatically put
+it, the choice was between "Brandenburg in the Chamber, or the Chamber
+in Brandenburg."
+
+Von Unruh, the President of the Chamber, read this announcement to his
+colleagues, but declared that he would not carry it out without the
+sanction of the Assembly; and, when General Brandenburg tried to speak,
+in order to command the closing of the Assembly, the President
+informed him that he was out of order, and, if he desired to make an
+explanation, he must ask leave to speak. Brandenburg then declared that
+the further sitting of the Parliament was illegal; and, accompanied by
+seventy members, he left the House. The Assembly then, by 250 votes
+against 30, decided to continue their sitting. They further resolved
+that "the Assembly finds at present no reason for changing their place
+of deliberation; that it cannot grant to the Crown the right to remove,
+to adjourn, or to dissolve the Assembly against its will; that the
+Assembly does not consider those officials who have advised the Crown
+to take this step capable of presiding over the Government of this
+country; and that those officials have become guilty of grave
+violations of their duty to the Assembly, the country, and the Crown."
+They further resolved that, although they were obliged to adjourn, the
+President and Secretaries should remain all night at their post, as
+a sign of the permanence of the Assembly. On November 9 General
+Brandenburg answered this defiance by a letter, in which he declared
+that these resolutions were illegal, and that he held Von Unruh and
+others responsible for the consequences. In the meantime Brandenburg
+had appealed to the Civic Guard to prevent the Members from attending
+the meetings; but the commandant of the Civic Guard denied the right of
+the Ministers to send him this order, and further protested against the
+proposal to remove the Assembly to the town of Brandenburg. The Town
+Council tried to reconcile the Parliament to the King; but Von Unruh,
+while declaring his desire to avoid bloodshed, denied that the Assembly
+could yield on any point, and the Members issued an appeal to the
+country in which they denounced the illegal conduct of the King and his
+Ministers, but urged the people to maintain a strictly legal position
+in the defence of their liberties. The address concluded with these
+words: "The calm and determined attitude of a People that is ripe for
+freedom will, with God's help, secure the victory of freedom."
+
+The situation had become terribly dangerous; for General Wrangel, soon
+after his return from Schleswig-Holstein, marched his troops into the
+market place, in front of the building in which the Parliament was
+sitting, and on November 11, Von Unruh and the other Members, coming
+to hold their meetings, found the doors locked, and the soldiers
+guarding the place. They then adjourned to the Hotel de Russie, where
+they declared Brandenburg guilty of High Treason, and called on the
+people to refuse to pay taxes. Deputations came in from Magdeburg,
+Breslau and Frankfort, declaring their sympathy with the Assembly; and
+the Civic Guard refused to give up their arms to Wrangel. Wrangel now
+declared all public meetings prohibited, announced that the Civic
+Guard was dissolved; and declared Berlin in a state of siege. But the
+addresses of sympathy came in more freely than ever; and it was
+rumoured that Silesia was actually in a state of insurrection. Even
+several citizens of Brandenburg itself sent an address to the
+Assembly, declaring that they would resist the transfer of the
+Parliament to their town. The opposition between the bourgeoisie and
+the workmen, which had been caused by the riots of June, July
+and August, had now entirely disappeared in a common zeal for
+Constitutional freedom; and the Town Council permitted the Assembly to
+meet in their Hall. But even there Wrangel would not leave them in
+peace, and soon after they were driven from this refuge also. Even the
+ex-Minister Hansemann became an object of denunciation to the Court
+party; and on November 15 the Assembly put into a formal vote the
+proposal which they had already hinted at, that no further taxes
+should be paid. This vote was carried just after they had been driven
+from the Town Council House to another meeting place. The next day
+soldiers were called out, who threatened the Civic Guard with
+violence, but finally marched off without firing; and some soldiers
+and officers were dismissed for not consenting to act against the
+people. Taxes were beginning to be refused in various parts of
+Prussia; several arrests were made in Cologne; and Duesseldorf was
+declared in a state of siege. The soldiers were forbidden to read the
+National Zeitung; while on the other hand printers and publishers
+offered to print the decrees of the Assembly without any compensation
+for loss of time. Attempts to enforce the payment of taxes led to
+riots in Bonn and Breslau; and in Coblenz the people attacked officers
+for speaking evil of the National Assembly. The Government tried, in
+some cases, to cut off the payment of deputies; but the people
+insisted on making the payment, in spite of this prohibition; and even
+a Government official in Duesseldorf declared his belief that if the
+Brandenburg Ministry lasted three or four days more, none of the
+official boards would consent to act. One of the Roman Catholic
+bishops of Silesia appealed to his flock not to refuse taxes, as
+otherwise they would be damned for "refusing to give to Caesar the
+things that were Caesar's." To this appeal several Roman Catholics of
+Silesia retorted by an address in which they expressed their fear for
+the spiritual condition of the clergy, since they had never paid taxes
+at all.
+
+On November 27, the Government resolved on a new act of violence.
+While the deputies were met at the Hotel Mylius, Major von Blumenthal
+entered at the head of a band of soldiers, and ordered the deputies to
+leave the Hall.[18] Jacoby asked him what he wanted. The Major
+answered, "I come in the name of the law." Jacoby: "Of what law?"
+Major: "In the name of the highest law." Jacoby: "Of what law do you
+speak?" Major: "I speak in the name of the Constitutional law."
+Jacoby: "There is no law that forbids us to meet in an hotel in
+the day-time." Elsner: "Even Wrangel's proclamations contain no
+prohibition of this kind; we are no club."[19] Major: "That does not
+concern me. I act under the authority of my board." Jacoby: "What is
+your name?" Major: "I am the Major Count Blumenthal." Jacoby: "Who has
+given you this authority?" Major: "The board set over me." Several
+voices: "Name the board." Major (after a pause): "Gentlemen, do not
+embarrass me." Jacoby: "Well, then, I declare to you that you are not
+acting in the name of law, but of force; and it is a sad thing that
+the soldiers are misemployed for such acts of violence." The Major
+then ordered them once more to leave the Hall, and seized on the
+parliamentary papers. Jacoby denounced this seizure as robbery, and
+attempted to make a copy of the documents. The Major snatched the
+papers from Jacoby's hands; upon which the latter exclaimed, "Go on
+with your robberies, and scorn all laws; some day you will be brought
+to account for this." Then the deputies, still refusing to leave the
+Hall, were driven out by the soldiers.
+
+In the meantime, the members of the Right had been meeting at
+Brandenburg; and at last von Unruh and many of his friends joined them
+there; but demanded, at the same time, that the Assembly should accept
+all the resolutions passed in Berlin between the 4th and the 15th
+of November. But, on December 5, the King finally dissolved the
+Parliament, announcing that it should meet on February 26 in Berlin,
+and that he would then issue a new Constitution. The Liberal members
+all flocked to Brandenburg to protest against this dissolution; and
+the King found it necessary to suppress meetings even in Brandenburg,
+as dangerous to his authority.
+
+It was impossible in the then state of Germany that any organized
+insurrection could produce a satisfactory result. On the one hand the
+Republican leaders had weakened their cause by spasmodic and useless
+appeals to insurrection, at times when Constitutional action would
+have been perfectly possible; while in Prussia itself, the differences
+between the workmen and the bourgeoisie made the permanent coherence
+of a Constitutional party almost impossible. On the other hand, the
+Parliament at Frankfort, abandoned by many members of the Left, had
+been growing ever more and more timid, and had not only passed a
+resolution condemning the resistance of the Prussian Parliament, but
+had even sent Bassermann, one of the Frankfort Ministers, to Berlin,
+to persuade the Parliament to yield. Under these circumstances,
+the passive resistance of Von Unruh and his friends was, in all
+probability, the wisest and most dignified course which was open to
+the champions of liberty; and when the Assembly actually met again in
+February, the leaders of the Left were received with enthusiasm by the
+people, as men who had deserved well of their country. If the King of
+Prussia had heartily accepted the new condition of affairs, he might
+even now have done something to secure a better future for Germany
+than any that it has since achieved; for the Frankfort Parliament had
+come to the conclusion that the only hope for the unity of Germany
+lay in its acceptance of the King of Prussia as its head. They had
+repudiated the connection of Germany with Austria; Archduke John had
+resigned his post as Administrator of the Empire; and on March 28,
+1849, they finally resolved to offer the crown of Germany to the King
+of Prussia. But the flavour of freedom and independence which still
+lingered, even in these later months, about the Frankfort Parliament,
+made this offer distasteful to a King whose liberalism, always
+superficial, had now quite evaporated. The Frankfort Parliament had
+been the result of a popular movement; and it had elaborated a free
+Constitution, which it desired to treat as a necessary part of the
+proposed monarchy. Under these circumstances, therefore, Frederick
+William IV. refused to accept the crown of Germany, unless it were
+offered to him by the Princes of Germany; and by this refusal he put
+an end to the hope that the German question might be settled in a
+peaceable and Constitutional manner.
+
+In the meantime, experience was showing that it was almost as
+difficult in Austria as in Prussia to reduce parliamentary government
+to a mere tool of despotism. The members of the Bohemian party in the
+Viennese Parliament had withdrawn from its sittings after the murder
+of Latour; and had attempted to find a free place for deliberation in
+Olmuetz. About the same time Ferdinand, grown weary of the struggles of
+parties and races, unsatisfied as to the contending claims of Kossuth
+and Jellacic, and unable to reconcile himself to the proceedings
+either of Windischgraetz, or of the Viennese Democrats, listened to the
+advice which the clique around him were pressing upon him, and
+consented to resign his throne, not to his brother and lawful heir,
+but to his nephew, Francis Joseph, who, being a mere boy at the time,
+would fall easily under the power of the Camarilla, who were governing
+Austria. The advisers of Francis Joseph, however, still thought that
+they could keep up an appearance of parliamentary government; and
+they, therefore, summoned a parliament to meet at Kremsier in Moravia
+early in December.
+
+It soon became apparent, however, that the men who met in the Kremsier
+Parliament were by no means less zealous for freedom, hardly even less
+democratic than those who met at Vienna. Those Bohemian members, who
+had objected to the rule of terror in the Viennese Assembly, had
+appealed, even from Olmuetz, to the Emperor not to deal too harshly
+with Vienna; and they now showed themselves as zealous for freedom as
+any German could be. Men, too, like Borrosch, Loehner, Schuselka and
+Fischhof, who had not acted with the Bohemians at Vienna, were ready
+to take part in the Kremsier Parliament. On the motion of Schuselka,
+that Parliament, early in January 1849, abolished all privileges of
+rank; the right of summary arrest was also taken away, and trial by
+jury secured; while the freest criticisms were passed on the action of
+the Austrian Government in Vienna, Hungary and Italy; and Rieger
+specially denounced the desire of the Ministry to crush out all
+feeling for the special nationalities. The Parliament began to attract
+the attention of many who were at first disposed to speak of it with
+scorn; and even those courtiers who had hoped to use it as a weapon
+against the Magyars, became alarmed at its evident democratic
+leanings. Acting under their advice, Francis Joseph, on March 7,
+announced that this Parliament, from which he had hoped so much, had
+driven off still further "the restoration of peace and law, and of
+public confidence," and had raised the hopes of "the not wholly
+conquered party of disorder." He therefore dissolved the Parliament,
+and announced, as the King of Prussia had done, that he would settle
+the Constitution without their help. The Bohemian leaders united with
+the Germans to protest against this final act of violence; and so
+ended for about ten years all hopes of Constitutional Government in
+Austria.
+
+In the meantime affairs in Italy had been also hastening in the
+direction of a more violent solution of difficulties than had been
+wished for in the early days of the movement. In spite of his apparent
+abandonment of the policy embodied in the encyclical of April 9, in
+spite even of his acceptance of Mamiani as Minister, Pius was still
+hesitating between two different policies. He was disposed to rely
+continually on Cardinals who were out of sympathy with his Ministers;
+and he was particularly anxious to assert that, in introducing a
+Parliament, he had not surrendered his absolute authority as Pope.
+This conflict of feelings in Pius IX. led to a curious exhibition at
+the opening of the Roman Parliament of June 4, 1848. On this occasion
+the Pope entrusted Cardinal Altieri with a discourse which had not had
+the approval of Mamiani. Mamiani, on the other hand, as Prime
+Minister, read to the Chamber a discourse in which he declared that
+the Pope abandoned to the wisdom of the deputies the care of providing
+for temporal affairs, and spoke of entrusting the papal volunteers in
+Lombardy to the leadership of Charles Albert. In spite of the action
+of Altieri, Mamiani declared that his speech had been approved by the
+Pope; but the Papal Nuncio in Vienna repudiated the language of the
+Papal Prime Minister. This continual jar between the Pope and his
+Ministers naturally excited distrust in the Assembly; and when the
+Austrians crossed the Po and occupied Ferrara, the cry for war rose,
+not only in the Assembly, but also in popular meetings out of doors;
+and the feebleness of the papal protest against this second occupation
+of Ferrara, increased the distrust of the Pope which was now growing
+in Rome. At last, in August, Mamiani, finding his position impossible,
+resigned; and, for a time, an old man named Fabbri was accepted as
+Minister by the Pope, as a kind of stop-gap. But he, too, speedily
+found the position impossible, and resigned his post.
+
+It was under these circumstances that Pius IX. called to his counsels
+the man whom he had previously desired to employ, the former ambassador
+of Guizot, Pellegrino Rossi. Rossi was known for his previous services
+to the cause of liberty, in the early part of the century; for
+his careful study of Roman law, and for his attempt to devise a
+Constitution for Switzerland. He was a personal friend of Pius IX., and
+had desired even a wider Constitution than that which the Pope had
+granted. He was further known to have gained respect from some of the
+Italian exiles in Paris. On all these grounds he naturally seemed to
+Pius a fit person to be trusted with his confidence. But though a man
+of sterling honesty, he was the worst possible Papal Minister at this
+juncture. His friends expected him to be welcomed as a former sufferer
+in the cause of Italian liberty. He was, on the contrary, hated as a
+friend of Guizot, and as the former representative of Louis Philippe.
+Sterbini, one of the fiercest democrats in Rome, declared that,
+if Guizot's friend appeared in the Assembly, he would be stoned.
+And, while he was hated by the Jesuits for his desire for secular
+Government, and for his Protestant wife, an outcry was at once raised
+against his Ministry by the Liberals, when it was found that it
+contained two Cardinals. While, too, in his own way, he wished for the
+freedom and independence of Italy, his way was exactly opposite to that
+which was then desired by the people.
+
+Professor Montanelli, who had been taken prisoner by the Austrians at
+Curtatone, but who had since been allowed to return to Tuscany, was
+propounding there his scheme for a Constituent Assembly, which was to
+embrace all Italy. And this proposal, welcomed eagerly in Tuscany, and
+accepted by the Grand Duke, was being advocated in Rome, especially by
+Charles Buonaparte, the Prince of Canino. On this plan Rossi threw
+cold water, desiring to substitute for it a League of Princes, to be
+begun by a Congress of Ambassadors at Rome. This idea, unwelcome and
+unpopular in itself, was made more unpopular still by Rossi's eager
+advances to Ferdinand of Naples, to whom he actually consented to
+surrender fugitives who had escaped from his tyranny. While, too, he
+made this alarming concession to the Prince, who was most deservedly
+hated throughout Italy, he allowed General Zucchi, whom he had sent to
+Bologna, to refuse Garibaldi entrance into that city on his return
+from Lombardy; and when Gavazzi, one of the most popular preachers of
+the Italian war, protested against this act, Rossi ordered him to be
+arrested. And as if the Clericals, the Republicans, and those who
+placed Italian unity above any special political creed, were not
+enemies enough for one man, Rossi proceeded, by special signs of
+suspicion towards Charles Albert, to irritate against him the powerful
+party of the Albertisti, who looked to the King of Sardinia as the
+necessary leader of a movement for Italian liberty.
+
+All this was done in the most open and scornful manner. Rossi
+ridiculed the proposed Constituent Assembly as a Council of Drunkards,
+and scornfully told Sterbini that every one knows "that there are
+praises which injure and blame which honours." Rumours were spread of
+his intention to bombard Rome; and the students mobbed him in the
+streets. On one occasion when they were following him, he crossed a
+bridge; and as he passed he handed to the toll-man a much larger sum
+than was his due, saying, with a wave of his hand towards the
+students, "Take for them too." Rumours came to him of plots against
+his life, but he refused to pay any attention to them. At last, on
+November 15, as he was going down to Parliament, a priest came to him,
+and told him that he would die if he went. He answered, "The cause of
+the Pope is the cause of God. God will help me." As he passed through
+the square, the crowd hooted at him. He warded them off with his
+stick, and ascended the stair. Suddenly an umbrella struck him; he
+turned his head, so that his neck became exposed; and, in the same
+instant, a dagger pierced him, and he fell mortally wounded. So died
+Pellegrino Rossi, a man who undoubtedly deserved a better fate; but
+who was thrust upon a position and a time which required a man of
+genius and humanity; while he had nothing to give but cut-and-dried
+maxims, enforced with a courage which was too nearly allied to
+insolence.
+
+That the guilt of Rossi's death should be laid to the account of
+different parties by different people, with equal confidence, was
+natural enough, considering the variety of enemies which his policy
+and character had stirred up against him; but it is a strange fact
+that actual eye-witnesses dispute as to whether it was received with
+joy or indignation by the people of Rome. It is tolerably evident,
+however, that all feelings about the actual event were quickly merged
+in the panic about its consequences. A general demand was made for a
+popular Ministry; and Galletti, who had been Minister of Police under
+Fabbri, went to the Pope to ask leave to form a Ministry. The Pope
+refused, and the people who had followed Galletti soon came to blows
+with the Swiss Guard. The Guard were driven back, and the crowd
+succeeded in getting cannon into their hands; but Federico Torre
+thrust himself in front of the cannon, exclaiming, "Shame to point
+cannon at the men who gave us the amnesty." Pius had hoped that some
+of the inhabitants of the Trastevere would have risen on his behalf;
+but, finding no support from them, he yielded to the demand for a
+Liberal Ministry, and appointed as his Prime Minister Rosmini, a
+champion of Charles Albert, and suspected of heresy by the Cardinals.
+Mamiani, who was at the time absent from Rome, was made Minister of
+Foreign Affairs, and Sterbini Minister of Commerce and Public Works.
+On the refusal of Rosmini, the Premiership was given to Muzzarelli.
+But these appointments, like Ferdinand's acceptance of a Democratic
+Ministry under similar circumstances, did not express the real
+feeling of the Pope. He was completely panic-struck by the events
+which had taken place; and, urged by Cardinals and Ambassadors, he
+fled secretly from Rome on the night of the 24th of November disguised
+as a footman, and took refuge at Gaeta, under the protection of the
+King of Naples.
+
+Mamiani had reluctantly accepted the office of Foreign Minister; but
+he still believed that it was desirable to uphold the authority of the
+Pope, because, as he expressed it, "the only choice for Rome lay
+between Pius IX. and Cola di Rienzi." Nor was he shaken in his
+determination, even when a letter came from the Pope at Gaeta,
+denouncing the acts of the people, repudiating his Ministers, and
+appointing as Commissioners of State men of the most violently
+reactionary character.
+
+But, in the meantime, a strong force of public opinion was growing in
+the Roman provinces, in favour of the election of a Constituent
+Assembly; and at last Aurelio Saffi, who had been so prominent as a
+champion of reform in the time of Gregory XVI., succeeded in gathering
+together, at Forli, representatives of different local Societies, and
+preparing an Address to the Ministry, which set forth in a concise
+form those feelings which were floating in the provinces at that time.
+This address expressed great regret at the flight of the Pope, whose
+name the petitioners declared they had been wont to reverence as "the
+symbol of a magnanimous idea." They went on to say, however, that, as
+Pius IX. had thrown himself into the arms of the worst enemies of
+Italy, it had become necessary to take steps to prevent civil war
+and anarchy. As Constitutional Monarchy had been cut short by
+the departure of the Pope, and as it was impossible to accept
+Commissioners whom the Pope had appointed since his flight to Gaeta,
+it was necessary for the Council of Deputies to nominate a Provisional
+Government which should issue writs for the election of an Assembly by
+universal suffrage, and should settle definitely the political
+arrangements of the State, "saving only the rights of the nation
+united in an Italian Constituent Assembly, such as has been proclaimed
+by the Tuscan Parliament." This Address produced a great effect in
+Rome; and Armellini urged his colleagues to accept the proposals of
+the petitioners. Mamiani, seeing that the Constitutional compromise
+which he desired had become impossible, refused to remain a Minister
+of State. A Provisional Government of eight members was then formed,
+in which Sterbini, Galletti, and Armellini took part; and the new
+Government on December 29 issued an Address to the Roman people,
+calling upon them to elect an Assembly for the Roman State, which was
+to meet in Rome on February 5.
+
+In the meantime, the flight of the Pope had startled the other Princes
+of Italy. Leopold of Tuscany had seemed more ready than most of his
+brother Princes to accept Constitutional Government, and even to look
+forward to arrangements for the unity of Italy. Guerrazzi, from what
+motives it may be difficult to guess, had discouraged Montanelli's
+plan of an Italian Constituent Assembly, and had warned the Grand Duke
+that his own position would be destroyed by such an institution. But,
+when the Pope fled from Rome, Guerrazzi had conceived the idea that
+Leopold might be chosen President of the new Assembly, and that the
+combination of Tuscany with the Roman States might prove a check on
+the ambition of Charles Albert. Leopold, however, seems to have been
+actuated by very different motives from those to which Guerrazzi
+appealed. So far from being strongly moved by personal ambition, or by
+a sense of official dignity, he was particularly inclined to accept
+the lead of other Princes. He had imitated Ferdinand of Naples in
+proclaiming Constitutional Government; he had followed Charles Albert
+in proclaiming war on Austria; and he had accepted first the Italian
+League, and afterwards the plan of an Italian Constituent Assembly,
+without a sign, as far as is apparent, of any other motive than the
+desire to promote the unity of Italy. But this very willingness to act
+with other Princes made Leopold averse from the idea of standing alone
+in his policy. It was therefore that flight of the Pope which seemed
+to Guerrazzi to open a new chance for Tuscany, which awoke in Leopold
+scruples and hesitations; and when Pius issued from Gaeta his
+denunciation of the proposals of the Roman Council, Leopold lost
+heart, and secretly fled from Florence to Siena, leaving a written
+statement to the effect that the Pope's opposition to the Italian
+Constituent Assembly compelled him to revoke the decree by which he
+had just sanctioned that Assembly.
+
+On February 8 the news of the Grand Duke's flight was received in
+Florence, and it was immediately followed by a rising, in which the
+insurgents demanded the appointment of a Provisional Government
+composed of Guerrazzi, Montanelli, and a man named Mazzoni. Just about
+the same time Mazzini arrived in Leghorn. Guerrazzi, who still wished
+to act in the name of the Grand Duke, tried to forbid Mazzini's
+entrance; but the Livornese went out to meet him with banners bearing
+his motto, "Dio e il Popolo." He exhorted them to preserve order, and
+then went to Florence to urge the Tuscan Ministry to join their
+country to the Roman State. But Guerrazzi succeeded in preventing the
+acceptance of this proposal, and Mazzini went on to Rome.
+
+Gioberti, on his part, had been much exercised in his mind by the new
+aspect of affairs. His great desire that the Pope should unite Italy
+seemed utterly frustrated by the flight of Pius from Rome, and still
+more by his placing himself under foreign protection. For, though it
+was to the King of Naples that the Pope first appealed, Gaeta soon
+became the gathering place of the ambassadors of the extreme Roman
+Catholic Powers; and, when Gioberti sent messengers to Gaeta, they
+found the Pope surrounded by men who had no sympathy with the ideas of
+the Primato. When the Piedmontese envoys offered him a refuge at Nice,
+and promised that their King would join with other Italian Princes in
+restoring him to Rome, the Pope answered that he had appealed to the
+European Powers, and must await their decision; and he further
+reproached Charles Albert with the sanction which he had given to the
+idea of an Italian Constituent Assembly, accusing him of intriguing
+with those who were opposed to the rights of the Church. Though
+discouraged by this rebuff, Gioberti hoped to find a new mission in
+the restoration of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had now followed the
+Pope to Gaeta. But in this plan he found himself opposed at once by
+Guerrazzi, and by the Austrians; while his own colleagues were so
+indignant at the proposal, that he was compelled to leave the Ministry
+which he had only just joined.
+
+In the meantime, the Austrian conquerors of Lombardy had been
+supplying justifications for a new Italian war. The capitulation of
+Vicenza had been violated almost as soon as it had been made, by the
+infliction of new vexations on those to whom a free pardon had been
+granted; and the more important capitulation of Milan had been
+followed by similar breaches of faith. Special burdens had been laid
+on those who had taken an active part in the struggle against Austria;
+while some of the regulations of General Welden in Pavia had been so
+cruel as to excite a protest even from the Viennese Assembly. He had
+ordered that anyone who went about with arms was to be shot within
+twenty-four hours, and that his patrols should fire on any group of
+men more than three in number who were found in the streets at night.
+The Council of Lombardy had, therefore, appealed to Charles Albert to
+secure them justice, because Radetzky had acted "in defiance of his
+own word, in defiance of the orders of his Sovereign, in defiance of
+the military conventions, in defiance of the mediation of England and
+France." The stronger Liberals of Piedmont soon began to cry out for
+war; but, for a long time, Charles Albert and his Ministers hoped to
+stave off action, and to secure a settlement of these differences by
+diplomacy. But the rebuffs which Gioberti had received gradually
+convinced them that no further help was to be found in appeals to
+foreign Powers; and, urged on by a strong popular feeling, Charles
+Albert for the last time declared war upon Austria.
+
+It might be reasonably doubted how far such a war would excite the
+sympathies of the Romans. The Piedmontese Ministry had recently
+attempted to suppress the liberties of Rome; and although that
+Ministry had fallen, Charles Albert was himself known to be strongly
+Monarchical in his feelings about the government of Rome. The Roman
+Assembly, which met on February 5, had, on the 9th, declared the Pope
+deposed, and had proclaimed the Republic; a step which they might
+naturally expect to widen the breach between them and the Piedmontese.
+Some were even disposed to think that Charles Albert had given another
+sign of hostility in ignoring the former league with Rome, and
+declaring an Italian war without any consultation with, or notice to
+the Roman Ministry. But any doubts or hesitations as to the right
+attitude of Rome towards Piedmont at this crisis were put an end to by
+Mazzini. He had been chosen by Leghorn as their representative in the
+Roman Assembly, and had taken his seat on March 6, the whole Assembly
+rising to greet him. When, then, the news came that Charles Albert had
+declared war once more on Austria, Mazzini appealed to the Romans to
+join in the struggle. "There must," he said, "be only two kinds of
+Italians in Italy: the friends and the enemies of Austria. Republican
+Rome will make war by the side of Monarchical Piedmont." Mazzini
+never considered that ready or eloquent speech was a power that he
+possessed; and, what is more to the point, some of those who loved and
+admired him held the same opinion; but the intensity of his conviction
+seemed to take the place of readily-turned phrases or imagery; and, as
+he went on to speak of the sacrifices that the war demanded of all
+Romans, there fell upon the table beside him, in showers, the jewels
+which the ladies in the gallery had plucked off, as their offerings
+for the good of their country. The Assembly voted war, almost
+unanimously, and twelve battalions of the National Guard were
+despatched to Lombardy.
+
+The war was little worthy of their enthusiasm. The Piedmontese
+officers were so little trusted by Charles Albert that he chose a Pole
+named Chrzanowski as his Commander-in-Chief, while the second in
+command was that Ramorino who had betrayed Mazzini in the Expedition
+of 1833-4. The three or four days of the war were mere scenes of
+mutual distrust, mismanagement, and, possibly, treachery; and it is
+pleasant to turn for a moment from the Piedmontese battles to the one
+part of the struggle which redeemed this episode from utter contempt.
+On March 23, Brescia, from which a portion of the Austrian forces had,
+for a time, then withdrawn, sprang to arms, drove out the remaining
+troops, and raised the Italian flag. Tito Speri, a Mantuan, organized
+the poorer citizens, and led them against the forces of Nugent, which
+were advancing on the city. After a sharp struggle, the Brescians were
+driven back with some loss; but, two days later, Speri made another
+sortie, and, though attacked by the cavalry, succeeded in driving them
+back, and in occupying the hills which overlook Brescia. He now
+attempted to treat with the Austrians; but Nugent answered that he
+would enter Brescia, either by force or by love; to which Speri
+replied, "Perhaps by force, but never by love!" Rumours came of
+Charles Albert's defeat, but the Brescians refused to believe it; and
+Nugent was forced to retreat from Brescia, after having, apparently,
+concluded an armistice with the citizens. But, on March 30 or 31,
+Haynau appeared before the city; and, in answer to the appeal of the
+Brescians to the terms of the armistice, he declared that, if they
+did not yield in two hours, he would reduce the city to ashes. But the
+Brescians were resolved, as their own inscription tells us, to teach
+"that defeat may be more glorious and fruitful than victory;" and
+they, therefore, refused to yield. On April 1, Haynau bombarded the
+city; and, after a fierce struggle at Porta Torlunga, in which General
+Nugent was mortally wounded, Haynau forced his way into the city, and
+put men, women, and children to the sword--the cruelties of his
+proceedings gaining for him, among the Italians, the title of "the
+Tiger of Brescia."
+
+But, before Brescia had fallen, Charles Albert, betrayed by his
+officers, distrusted by his soldiers, and out of heart, had been
+defeated at Novara; and, in response to a demand which he had made to
+Radetzky for a truce, he had been asked terms which he considered too
+dishonourable to accept. His officers, however, told him that his army
+was in too disorganised a state to be depended on, and he then
+answered in these words: "For eighteen years I have always used every
+possible power for the advantage of my people. It is painful to me to
+find my hopes deceived; not so much for my sake, as for my country's.
+I have not been able to find on the field of battle the death that I
+so ardently desired. Perhaps my person is the only obstacle to the
+obtaining of just terms from the enemy. The continuation of the war
+having become impossible, I abdicate the Crown in favour of my son,
+Victor Emmanuel, in the hope that a new King may be able to obtain
+more honourable terms, and to secure for the country an advantageous
+peace." So ended the chequered career of Charles Albert, a man of
+many attractive qualities and noble aspirations, but who, by a fatal
+weakness of will made more evident by a painfully difficult situation,
+had been constantly dragged into acts of cruelty and treachery from
+which a man of stronger purpose would have been saved. With his fall
+ended the Constitutional struggles of this period; and, during the
+remaining months of the Revolution, the Peoples of Rome, Venice,
+Sicily, and Hungary had to depend, in their struggles for liberty, on
+the force of popular feeling, and on the guidance of those leaders
+whom they had themselves placed at the head of affairs.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[18] The following dialogue is taken from the "Neue Rheinische
+Zeitung."
+
+[19] This alludes to the dissolution of several clubs by Wrangel's
+orders.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE DEATH STRUGGLE OF FREEDOM.--OCTOBER 1848-AUGUST 1849.
+
+     Division of Feeling among the Magyar Leaders.--Arthur
+     Goergei.--Ground of his quarrels with Kossuth.--Bem.--The
+     Volunteers.--The Plan of Defence.--The Flight to Debreczin--The
+     Proclamation at Waitzen.--Effect of Hungarian Conscription Law in
+     Transylvania. Puchner and the Roumanians.--Puchner finally adopts
+     their Cause.--Avraham Jancu.--The Saxons and Roumanians.--Bem in
+     Transylvania.--His Character and Work.--The Appeal to General
+     Lueders.--The Russians in Transylvania.--The Capture of
+     Hermannstadt.--Bem and Csanyi.--The Reign of Terror.--The Death of
+     Roth.--Goergei and Dembinski.--Effect of Francis Joseph's coup
+     d'etat.--Why it did not produce greater results.--The Race
+     Feuds.--The Constitutional Difficulty.--The Declaration of
+     Independence.--Kossuth's Power and its Causes.--The Struggle in
+     Rome.--The Triumvirate and their Difficulties.--Order and
+     Liberty.--The Danger from France.--A Pacific Candidate.--The
+     Collapse of the Tuscan Movement.--The Final Struggle and Fall of
+     Sicily.--The French Expedition.--The Landing at Civita
+     Vecchia.--Oudinot and Manara.--The Occupation of Civita
+     Vecchia.--The March to Rome.--Guerra! Guerra!--The Repulse of the
+     French.--The Debates in France.--The Defence of Bologna.--Lesseps
+     in Rome.--Lesseps and Oudinot.--French Treachery.--Garibaldi and
+     Roselli.--Further Treachery.--The Fight by the Vascello.--Ledru
+     Rollin's Insurrection.--The Final Struggle for German Liberty and
+     its Failure.--The Final Struggle in Rome.--Mazzini's
+     Proposals.--Decision of the Assembly.--Garibaldi's last
+     Effort.--"Cardinal" Oudinot in Rome.--The Struggle in
+     Venice.--Manin and Kossuth.--Kossuth's Blunder.--Goergei's
+     Policy.--The Russian Invasion of Transylvania.--The Struggle at the
+     Temos Pass.--Bem and Kossuth.--Kossuth's Resignation.--The
+     Surrender at Vilagos.--The Cholera in Venice.--The Final
+     Surrender.--Manin's Stone.--General Estimate of the Struggle and
+     its Results.
+
+The battle of Schwechat had brought into prominence the great
+difficulties with which the Hungarian Government had now to contend.
+The flight of the Count Palatine, and the resignation of Batthyanyi,
+had thrown the government into the hands of the Committee of Defence,
+over which Kossuth's power was nearly supreme. But, however much this
+concentration of authority in the hands of the most popular leader may
+have given strength to the civil part of the Executive, yet the
+revolutionary character which it gave to the movement called out
+scruples in many military men, who had hitherto been willing to work
+with tolerable heartiness for the Hungarian cause. The flight of
+Archduke Stephen deprived the Government of that Constitutional
+sanction which would have been derived from the presence of an
+official directly representing the Emperor; while at the same time,
+Ferdinand's approval of Jellacic and the dissolution of the Hungarian
+Diet, placed the Emperor and the Magyars in that condition of direct
+opposition to each other, which most of the Magyar statesmen had
+desired to avoid. This change of position considerably affected the
+feelings of the officers, especially of those who had previously
+served in the Austrian Army, and in whom the military preference for
+Monarchical Government was strongly developed. This feeling had shown
+itself even during the struggle against Jellacic's invasion; and it
+was this which had led those Magyar officers, who were friendly to the
+Viennese cause, to ask for a direct summons from the Viennese
+Parliament before they would cross the frontier. Finally, it was this
+feeling which had led to those orders and counter orders, and to that
+general uncertainty of plan which had ruined the Hungarian cause at
+the Battle of Schwechat. Kossuth, and all who wished to carry on the
+war vigorously, felt that a change of generals was necessary, if the
+freedom of Hungary was not to be destroyed by the internal divisions
+of the country. General Moga had therefore to be removed; and
+the question was, who was to take his place? It was under these
+circumstances that Kossuth called to the front a man whose character
+and actions have ever since been the favourite debating ground of the
+students of the Hungarian war.[20]
+
+Arthur Goergei had been a lieutenant in the Austrian Army, and, by his
+own account, had lived away from Hungary until April, 1848, and was
+"nearly ignorant of his country's customs, and above all, wholly
+deficient in even a superficial and general acquaintance with civil
+administration." He had, however, been made a captain in the newly
+raised regiments of Honveds or Home troops of Hungary, in the summer
+of 1848. He very soon began to complain of the men who had been
+placed over his head; and specially at being superseded on one
+occasion by Moritz Perczel. To Perczel he soon began to show the same
+insubordinate demeanour which remained ever his characteristic
+attitude towards his superior officers; and he was only saved by the
+intercession of friends from being shot for disobeying orders. He had,
+however, gained credit with some of the fiercer patriots among the
+Magyars, by his summary execution of Count Eugene Zichy, who had been
+suspected of treason; and this act, though condemned by the more
+temperate champions of the cause, was considered to have committed
+Goergei so strongly to an anti-Austrian policy, that there could be no
+fear of his lack of zeal in the coming struggle. When then General
+Moga had shown that, either from military incapacity, or from want of
+sympathy with the cause, he was not to be trusted with the command of
+the army, Kossuth turned to Goergei, and offered him the post of which
+Moga had been deprived. Goergei accepted it; and then there almost
+immediately began that long series of differences and difficulties
+which was to ruin the cause of Hungarian liberty.
+
+The quarrel between Kossuth and Goergei will always be judged
+differently by military and non-military critics; for, setting aside
+those unfortunate peculiarities of character which marked both these
+leaders, the struggle was one between the ideas of a statesman and the
+ideas of a soldier. Kossuth had already had experience of the
+difficulties which arose from putting confidence in officers who are
+out of sympathy with the cause for which they are fighting; and he was
+therefore specially alive to any sign of this want of sympathy in the
+successor of General Moga. Goergei, on the other hand, had that
+belief, so common in men of his profession, that all political
+questions were mainly to be judged from the military point of view;
+and that his admitted ignorance in matters of civil administration did
+not disqualify him from laying down the law on the most important
+affairs of Government. Although he shared Kossuth's distrust for
+General Moga, he sympathised with Moga's preference for Monarchical
+Government; and although he had fought bravely against the forces of
+Windischgraetz at the battle of Schwechat, he had previously declared
+that he did not see the solidarity between the cause of Hungary and
+that of Vienna; and he held that the oath which the officers had taken
+to the March Constitution implied their duty to preserve that
+Constitution in the exact form in which it had been originally
+granted.
+
+But if Goergei went beyond his province in his interference with
+affairs of civil government, Kossuth no doubt, in turn, hampered
+Goergei in matters in which he was bound to trust him, so long as he
+retained him in his command. But in periods of revolution there always
+arise a large number of questions which, in ordinary times, would be
+decided on purely military grounds, but which, in that abnormal
+state of affairs, become necessarily complicated with political
+considerations. It is this peculiarity of circumstances, for which
+both statesmen and soldiers find it so hard to make allowance, and
+which makes it so difficult to judge justly in such a controversy as
+that which we are considering.
+
+The first point of difference between Kossuth and Goergei related to
+exactly one of those matters in which military and political feeling
+seem most necessarily and reasonably to come into collision. This was
+the choice of Bem as a general in the Hungarian army. Bem had
+succeeded in escaping secretly from Vienna and coming to Hungary. He
+had, indeed, offered his services to the Hungarians at an earlier
+period, but Pulszky had persuaded him that he could best serve the
+cause of Hungary in Vienna; and now that that city had fallen, he
+hastened back to Kossuth. Kossuth and Bem seem always to have
+recognized in each other that common faith in the people, and power of
+calling out popular enthusiasm, which, in different ways, was the
+great strength of both of them. Bem's conduct in the defence of Vienna
+had given sufficient pledge of his zeal against the power of Austria,
+a zeal which had produced such effect on the imagination of his
+enemies that it was said by the Vienna wits that Francis Joseph
+ordered the bells of Vienna to be muffled because they would ring out
+"Bem, Bem!" But Goergei disliked Bem for the very reason for which
+Kossuth approved of him. He considered him a knight errant who
+followed revolutionary methods of warfare which were quite unknown to
+correct military tacticians; and he soon found that his own estimates
+of the different officers under him were quite opposed to those formed
+by Bem. Kossuth therefore wisely decided that Goergei and Bem could
+not work together, and he despatched Bem to take the command in
+Transylvania.
+
+On the next question at issue the balance of opinion will probably be
+in favour of Goergei. The volunteers who had been raised by the
+national Government were naturally objects of special favour to them;
+but they had in some cases shown themselves disorderly; and this
+disorder was, no doubt, considerably increased by the return to their
+country of Hungarian soldiers who had been stationed in Galicia and
+other parts of the Empire. These soldiers had, in many cases, thrown
+off the authority of their officers, and asserted their national
+rights at the expense of military discipline. Goergei tried to make
+special arrangements for so redistributing these recruits as to
+utilize their services while preventing the growth of any such
+feelings of insubordination as might be likely to spring from their
+previous mutiny. In these methods of re-organization the Committee of
+Defence saw a tendency to discourage patriotic feeling; and Goergei
+found himself opposed in matters where he justly felt that he should
+have been allowed some freedom of action.
+
+But an even more important question of controversy was the general
+plan of the campaign. Kossuth and the Committee of Defence were
+extremely anxious to defend the Western frontier of Hungary, partly in
+order to weaken the fears produced by the battle of Schwechat; partly,
+as Goergei believed, to make it easier to draw the line between Hungary
+and Austria, and so break off political connection between them.
+Goergei, on the other hand, held that, since Hungary was now threatened
+on north, south, and west, and, since Windischgraetz's army was better
+disciplined than the Hungarian soldiers, a defence of the frontier was
+impossible, and that it would be better to retreat to Raab and defend
+the principal passes across the White Mountains, while removing the
+seat of Government beyond the Theiss. In this plan he was at first
+over-ruled. But his ideas received apparent justification in the
+defeats which he suffered from Windischgraetz; and, on December 19 he
+was actually compelled to retreat to Raab.
+
+Then followed an episode which has brought much discredit on Kossuth.
+He issued a sensational address, declaring that the Committee of
+Defence would be buried under the ruins of Buda rather than desert the
+capital. Goergei ridiculed the idea of the defensibility of Buda-Pesth;
+but the Committee of Defence insisted; and Goergei was preparing for
+battle, when, early in January, 1849, the news suddenly arrived in his
+camp that the Committee of Defence had left Pesth without waiting for
+the siege, and had retired to Debreczin. But, if Kossuth had been to
+blame in these earlier matters of controversy, Goergei now took a step
+which certainly seems to justify all Kossuth's subsequent suspicions.
+Goergei was, at this time, stationed at Waitzen, a little north of
+Pesth; and he there issued a declaration to the army condemning the
+policy of the Committee of Defence, and calling upon the officers to
+declare that the army was fighting for the maintenance of the
+Constitution of Hungary as sanctioned by King Ferdinand V.;[21]
+that it will oppose all those who may attempt to overthrow the
+Constitutional Monarchy by untimely Republican intrigues; and that it
+will only obey orders received from the responsible Minister of War,
+appointed by the King.
+
+A few weeks later Goergei was again defeated by Windischgraetz, who,
+after the battle, offered him an amnesty, and free life out of Austria.
+In answer to this offer, Goergei sent a copy of the proclamation drawn
+up at Waitzen, declaring that this was the ultimatum, both of his army
+and of himself. By this act it is evident that he called the attention
+of the General against whom he was nominally fighting to the internal
+party divisions of Hungary. However brilliant Goergei's military
+abilities might be, and however unfairly he had been interfered with by
+the Committee of Defence, it cannot be wondered at that, after this act
+of treachery, they looked upon him with distrust. In the following
+month Goergei was deprived of his command and superseded by the Polish
+General Dembinski.
+
+In the meantime a struggle of far greater moral importance, though
+possibly of less value to military science, was being carried on in
+Transylvania. The Roumanian movement had been undergoing the same
+change, which had already passed over the national movements of the
+Serbs and Croats. As early as June, 1848, the Croatian Assembly had
+expressed their sympathy with the struggle of the Roumanians; and even
+from the Italians some utterances of sympathy had been heard, in
+favour of their kinsmen in Transylvania. The rejection of their
+petition by the Emperor, and the consequent persecution by the Magyars
+had led the Roumanians to rely upon themselves; and had induced some
+of their leaders to look for help rather to the new State which was
+trying to struggle into existence in Wallachia and Moldavia, than to
+the Austrian Government. In September, however, a new element was
+introduced into the struggle by the passing of a Conscription law by
+the Hungarian Diet. While the Roumanians resented this, as an attempt
+to make them serve under the military leadership of their persecutors,
+they also saw that an attempt to enforce a law, passed without the
+sanction of the Emperor, was a direct defiance of his authority; and
+at a meeting in the town of Orlat, they protested against this
+conscription, and declared their preference for the Austrian army, as
+against the Hungarian. They now openly announced their separation from
+Hungary, and demanded to be formed into an independent nation.
+The Hungarians met this demand by authorizing their Commissioner
+Berczenczei to summon the Szekler to a public meeting, nominally to
+plan the defence of their country, but really as a counterblast to the
+demands of the Roumanians.
+
+But the Roumanians felt that it was necessary to strengthen themselves
+by an appeal to a recognized authority; and they saw that the
+desultory and barbarous warfare, which they had hitherto carried on,
+would never suffice to win them the rights which they had now resolved
+to claim; they therefore made advances to Field-Marshal Puchner, the
+General of the Austrian forces in Transylvania. Latour had for some
+time past been trying to stir up Puchner to action; but Puchner had
+hesitated to listen either to the Austrian Minister, or to the
+Roumanian leaders. He seems to have been a man of much higher type
+than most of the Austrian generals who were engaged in the struggles
+of this period; and he shrank alike from the underhand intrigues of
+Latour, and from the dreadful cruelties of Roumanian warfare. The
+latter feeling would have had special force with him at this period;
+because the most urgent appeals for his help came from Urban, a former
+officer in the Austrian army, who had been the most notorious for his
+brutalities of all the leaders of the Roumanians. But, while Puchner
+was unwilling to commit himself definitely to the Roumanian cause,
+he opposed himself to the reckless persecution which the Magyar
+Commissioner Vay had carried on against all who had helped in
+organizing the petition of the Roumanians; and Puchner had even gone
+to Karlsburg, and successfully petitioned for the release of some of
+the Roumanian prisoners. He had hoped, however, to combine this
+merciful and moderate policy with the recognition of Vay's authority,
+and even with a kind of co-operation with him. But the fiercely
+revolutionary character, which the Hungarian Diet began to assume
+after the death of Latour, compelled Puchner into more decided
+opposition to their proceedings.
+
+On the 8th of October, Kossuth issued an order to the towns of
+Hungary, in which he told them that anyone who did not hang out the
+Hungarian flag, and express in writing his devotion to the Hungarian
+cause, and his willingness to obey the committee appointed by the
+Government, should be shot as a traitor; and this savage proclamation
+was followed the next day by a command from Commissioner Vay, to the
+tax collectors of Transylvania, that they should no longer send the
+taxes to the central office at Hermannstadt, but to the office in
+Klausenburg, which had hitherto been considered subordinate. As
+Hermannstadt was at once the military head-quarters of the Austrian
+army and the chief town of the Saxon settlement in Transylvania, this
+was a direct attack both on the Imperial power, and on the influence
+of the Saxons. A few days later the Szekler, in the meeting which had
+recently been summoned, denounced Puchner for his attempt to hinder
+that meeting, and formally repudiated his authority.
+
+Puchner now felt that the time had come for action; and, on the
+18th of October, he issued from Hermannstadt an appeal to all the
+inhabitants of Transylvania, and especially to the official boards. In
+this he declared that, since the Count Palatine and his Ministers had
+resigned their offices, there had been no legal Government in Hungary.
+The Government of Kossuth, which wrongfully claimed to act for the
+Emperor, was substituting terror for equality, and had falsely spread
+the rumour that the Government desired to use the Roumanians to
+oppress the Magyar and Szekler. In order, then, to put an end to
+anarchy, and to protect the country from terrorism, he, Puchner, had
+resolved to take advantage of the Imperial Manifesto of October 3,
+which had placed Hungary under military Government; and he called upon
+all boards to act with him in restoring order, and upon the volunteers
+and national guards to place themselves under his command.
+
+Nor were the Roumanians content with this official appeal; for their
+own national committee issued about the same time, on their own
+responsibility, an address to the Szeklers and Magyars. In this
+address they declared that they, like the Szeklers and Magyars, had
+sympathized with the March movement in Hungary; but that a faction had
+now usurped the Government of the country, and was aiming, at once, at
+depriving the King of his crown, and the Hungarian Peoples of their
+nationality. They hoped that the better part of the Magyars and
+Szeklers would unite against this faction; but, if they would not,
+then the Roumanians must declare war on them. They promised, however,
+to carry on the war in a humane manner, and to spare women, old men,
+and prisoners. At the same time, they issued an appeal to their
+countrymen, urging them to abstain from cruelties in warfare, as such
+practices were unworthy of a free people. The Saxons had, at first,
+been somewhat unwilling to act with the Roumanians; but the new
+movement seemed to give an opening for better co-operation. Joint
+committees of the two races were formed, and Puchner undertook to
+organize the soldiers of both races.
+
+Of the Roumanian leaders who now came to the front, the most remarkable
+was Avraham Jancu.[22] He had been originally trained as a lawyer;
+but, after the meeting in September, he went off to organize the
+National Guard in his own mountains; and, when Puchner had issued his
+proclamation, Jancu received orders to give his assistance in disarming
+the Magyars. This process had been begun by the Roumanians, without
+waiting for orders; and it had, in consequence, been accompanied with
+many acts of cruelty. Jancu therefore sent down three tribunes with
+forces to protect the Magyar families from violence; and he also
+persuaded one or two of the towns to surrender to him, that he might
+then protect them from ill-treatment. Jancu also won several victories,
+and became so formidable to his opponents that he gained the name of
+the "Mountain King." But the humane exertions of Jancu and other
+tribunes, seconded with all his influence by Puchner, were not
+sufficient to keep in check the wildness of some of the Roumanian
+leaders. The cruelties which both the Magyars and Szeklers had
+committed in the struggle; the summary execution at Klausenburg of
+three leaders of the Roumanians, before the actual rising had taken
+place, and the reputed crucifixion of another at Maros Vasarhely,
+roused the fury of the Roumanians to its highest pitch.
+
+The fiercest hatred of the Roumanians was directed against the
+Szeklers who had been their most determined enemies; and General
+Gedeon marched against Maros Vasarhely. Its specially isolated
+position, and the bad roads in its neighbourhood made it an easy prey
+for a General who had some skill in guerilla warfare. The city fell
+into the hands of Gedeon, who revenged the wrongs of the Roumanians by
+inflicting every species of brutality on the Szekler inhabitants.
+Horrified as Puchner was at these cruelties, he did not wholly
+understand the character of the men with whom he was working; for, in
+one of the orders which he issued, he gave a distinct sanction to the
+practice of burning villages. He seems, indeed, to have intended this
+form of violence merely to be used as an extreme measure in case of
+retreat; but the Roumanians did not so understand it; and when, on one
+occasion, Puchner was sternly rebuking some of the Roumanian leaders
+for not better preventing the cruelties of their followers, one of
+them retorted by appealing to this order.
+
+Besides the difficulties arising from these cruelties, Puchner had
+to contend against the continual rivalry between the Saxons and
+Roumanians. The former were contemptuous towards their allies; and,
+according to the Roumanian theory, were disposed to take unfair
+advantage of the Roumanians in the election of the members of the
+Committee of Management. Nevertheless, the help of the Saxons probably
+enabled Puchner to secure a more orderly Government than he could
+have achieved without it; and, amongst others from whom he received
+this kind of help, was the Saxon clergyman, Stephan Ludwig Roth, who
+had already been known for his efforts to secure German emigrants to
+Transylvania. He was appointed by Puchner to govern the district of
+Mediasch, in the valley of Kokelburg, where he distinguished himself
+by his humanity to the Magyar families who came under his protection,
+and showed his large-hearted sympathy by adopting a Magyar child who
+had been deserted by its parents. Moreover, Bishop Schaguna, who,
+it will be remembered, had discouraged the first risings of the
+Roumanians, now joined in with Puchner's plans, and exerted himself to
+restrain the violence of his countrymen.
+
+But while Puchner, aided by men like Schaguna, Jancu and Roth, was
+endeavouring to check the cruelties which his new followers were too
+ready to inflict, there was needed on the other hand an equally strong
+influence to restrain the savagery of the Magyar and Szekler. This was
+the more necessary, because, whatever injustice these races had
+committed towards the weaker races of Hungary, in the state in which
+things then stood, the Magyar cause had become identified with the
+cause of European freedom. Only in the success of the armies which
+Kossuth was trying to organize, did there seem even the least remaining
+chance for the overthrow of that Government which was crushing out the
+life of Vienna, which had trampled on the freedom of Lombardy, and
+which threatened to be the complete inheritor of the old system of
+Metternich. But if the Magyar armies in North Hungary were to achieve
+either the military or moral success which such a cause required, it
+was necessary that, in Transylvania also, the same race should deserve
+and obtain a similar success. For that purpose, they would need a man
+who would be the equal of Puchner both in generalship and humanity. For
+under Puchner's leadership, the Saxons and Roumanians were gaining in
+military prowess, even more than in self-restraint, and Klausenburg had
+fallen into the hands of the Imperial forces.
+
+Such was the state of things, when, on December 15, it was announced
+that Bem had been appointed by Kossuth Commander-in-Chief of the
+Transylvanian Army. He at once assembled the officers of the Army
+which he was to command, and informed them that he required from them
+unconditional obedience. Those who did not obey, he said, would be
+shot. Those who did obey he would know how to reward. With these few
+stern words, he dismissed them. This address was evidently one which
+might either be delivered by a mere overweening tyrant, or by a man of
+real genius and strong will, who understood the work that was before
+him. A few months served to show in which class Bem was to be
+reckoned. Ignoring the Commissioner, who had been sent down, he armed
+and reclad his troops; punished disorder with a stern hand, but showed
+such personal sympathy with his followers, that he became known as
+"Father Bem;" while his enemies soon learned to distinguish him from
+the other leaders by his generosity and humanity to the conquered. He
+seems to have been one of those born leaders of men, who understand
+when to be stern, and when to be indulgent. On one occasion an officer
+doubted if he could hold a position. Bem told him that he must either
+hold it, or be shot; and it was held. On another occasion his troops,
+seized by the panic natural to undisciplined levies, fled before the
+enemy, leaving Bem in great danger. He announced afterwards that he
+might have had to shoot or flog many of them; but he would not do the
+first, because he thought they might still serve their country; nor
+the second, because he would not treat them as beasts; and, therefore,
+he must forgive them. With regard to his military capacity, although
+the conventional military critics were disposed to discredit it, yet
+it could not be denied that he taught an undisciplined mob to stand
+fire before a regular army, to obey discipline, and even to develope a
+courage and capacity which won special applause and honours for the
+Szekler nation; that he succeeded in about three months in completely
+turning the fortunes of the war in Transylvania; and at a later period
+in holding his own for another two months against the powerful armies
+of two nations. His personal daring was more like that of a knight
+errant than of a modern general. On one occasion, after a battle in
+which he had been worsted, he saw some Austrians carrying off one of
+his cannon. He darted forward alone, exclaiming, "That is my cannon";
+and so cowed his enemies, that they surrendered it at once. On another
+occasion he sent an aide-de-camp to call up the rear-guard of his
+Army, and found that they had all disappeared, and that he was
+continuing the struggle with hardly any followers.
+
+As if to mark the cause for which Bem was fighting as more distinctly
+than ever the cause of liberty, Puchner began, in January, 1849, those
+negotiations with the Russians which were finally to stamp the
+Austrian invasion of Transylvania with the anti-national character
+which other circumstances of the struggle might have made doubtful. In
+this matter, as in his original adoption of the Roumanian cause,
+Puchner seems not so much to have taken the lead as to have been
+driven into his position by unavoidable circumstances. Schaguna, whose
+prominence among the Roumanians had specially marked him out as an
+object of hostility to the Magyar Government, fled from Hermannstadt
+on the first news of Bem's arrival in Transylvania, and is believed to
+have made the first appeal for Russian help. The Roumanians, whose
+kinsmen of the Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia) were in some
+alarm about the intentions of Russia, do not seem to have sympathized
+warmly with this action of their bishop; but the Saxons were less
+scrupulous; and the towns of Kronstadt and Hermannstadt sent a formal
+address to General Lueders, the Russian Commander in Bucharest, asking
+him to come to their assistance. Lueders answered that the Czar
+sympathized with the brave defenders of the Austrian throne, and
+wished to respond to their appeal; but that he was unable to do so
+without a direct request from the Austrian Commander-in-Chief. Under
+these circumstances, Puchner felt himself bound to yield to the wishes
+of the Saxons; some of the Roumanian leaders joined in the appeal; and
+so, on February 1, formal application was made for Russian help. The
+Russians do not seem to have come in great numbers, nor with that
+formal announcement of war which accompanied their later invasion, in
+June. Bem, at any rate, did not lose courage. Although he had recently
+been repulsed by Puchner, he rallied his forces; and, on March 11, he
+defeated the Russians before Hermannstadt, and followed up his victory
+by the capture of the town. This signal victory secured, for a time,
+the reconquest of Transylvania by the Magyars; and, if Bem had
+remained in that province, it is possible that he would not only have
+retained the territory under Magyar rule, but that he might have made
+that rule acceptable to the Saxons, and, in time, even to the
+Roumanians.
+
+But behind Bem stood the dark figure of one who had already brought
+disgrace and injury on the Magyar cause, and who was still further to
+degrade it on this occasion. This was Ladislaus Csanyi, the intriguer
+who had introduced into the election of Zala County those elements
+of bribery and intimidation which had compelled Deak to refuse
+election. Csanyi now desired to put Hermannstadt to the sword; but Bem
+interfered, and the Saxons still honour his memory as that of the man
+who saved their countrymen from massacre and their chief city from
+destruction. Determined to counteract, so far as he could, the brutal
+policy of Csanyi, Bem issued a general amnesty to those who had opposed
+the Magyar Government; but, unfortunately, that Government believed
+that they needed Bem's military talents more than his civil wisdom; and
+they despatched him into the Banat, to clear that province also of the
+enemies of Magyar rule. So, while Bem was succeeding in battle in the
+Banat, Csanyi was undoing his work in Transylvania. With the approval,
+apparently, of Kossuth, Csanyi repudiated Bem's amnesty altogether, and
+established tribunals in Transylvania for the summary execution of his
+enemies and the confiscation of their goods.
+
+There was one victim of this reign of terror whose character and
+sufferings stand out in a manner which throws a halo over the Saxon
+cause. Stephan Ludwig Roth had, as above mentioned, distinguished
+himself by his humanity in the administration of the government of
+Mediasch under Puchner's rule; and the Magyar officials of the town of
+Elizabethstadt had sent him an address of thanks for his protection of
+their town from plunder. But he was hated by the strong partizans of
+Magyar rule, as the most illustrious embodiment of the feeling in
+favour of Saxon independence; and his attempts to promote the
+immigration of Germans into Transylvania had been remembered against
+him by those who wished to crush out, in Hungary, all national feeling
+except that of the Magyars. Bem had been so well aware of the hatred
+which Roth had excited, that he had thought it necessary to give him,
+in addition to the general amnesty, a special guarantee for his
+safety. In reliance on this security, Roth had retired to his parish
+of Meschen, and was living without any apparent fear, when he was
+suddenly arrested there by the soldiers of Csanyi, and brought, after
+some delay, to Klausenburg. There he was kept in prison, and, though
+at first leniently treated, he was, after a time, prevented from
+holding any communications with his friends. In the meantime, the
+tribunal which was to decide his fate was not allowed to come to a
+free decision. The Magyar mob of Klausenburg gathered round the court
+and demanded his death; and even those of the judges who were
+convinced of his innocence were terrified into voting for his
+condemnation. His friends appealed for mercy to Csanyi, but he
+indignantly rejected all petitions, declaring that Roth had deserved
+ten deaths.
+
+After his condemnation Roth sent the following letter to his
+children:--
+
+     "Dear Children,--I have just been condemned to death, and in three
+     hours more the sentence will be put into execution. If anything
+     gives me pain, it is the thought of you, who are without a mother,
+     and who now are losing your father. But there are good men who will
+     advise and help you for your father's sake. The Hungarian foundling
+     whom I adopted, I entreat you to continue to take care of; only if
+     its parents should wish for it, they have a nearer claim. Except
+     for this, I have nothing more in this world. The children of my
+     church at Meschen, and my Nimisch people I think of in love. May
+     God make these communities become rich in the fruits of godliness,
+     like fruit-trees whose loaded boughs hang down to the ground! In my
+     writing-table are the prospectuses of the school and church
+     newspaper which is to be published. The body of the nation is
+     broken to pieces. I do not believe in any binding together of its
+     limbs any more. So much the more do I desire the keeping alive of
+     the spirit which once lived in these forms. For that purpose I
+     entreat my brother clergy whom I leave behind to take care to carry
+     on this newspaper, in order to keep alive the character, pure
+     manners, and honesty of will of our people. But, if it is decreed
+     in the Counsels of History that it must perish, may it perish in a
+     manner that shall not bring shame on its ancestors! Time flies. I
+     know not if my sick body can honourably support my willing spirit.
+     All whom I have insulted I heartily entreat for pardon. For my
+     part, I leave the world without hate, and pray God to forgive my
+     enemies. So let the end come in God's name!
+
+                   "Klausenburg, 11th May, 1849.
+
+     "I must add that neither in life nor death have I been an enemy of
+     the Hungarian nation. May they believe this, on the word of a dying
+     man, in the moment when all hypocrisy falls away!"
+
+He was shortly after led out to execution. When his sentence was read
+out to him, in which he was accused of having taken the sword instead
+of the Bible, and of having led on the Saxon and Wallack hordes, he
+cried out indignantly, "It is not true. I never carried a sword." He
+refused to have his hands bound; and, with his face to the soldiers,
+he fell, after the third shot. The captain in command of the soldiers
+was so much impressed by the spectacle, that he exclaimed, "Soldiers,
+learn from this man how to die for one's people."
+
+But long before Csanyi's reign of terror had reached this climax, the
+aspect of affairs in other parts of Hungary had gone through important
+changes. The removal of Goergei and the appointment of Dembinski had
+caused great irritation among the friends of the former. This
+irritation might be somewhat excused by the fact that nearly a month
+had elapsed between the time when Goergei had sent his proclamation to
+Windischgraetz and his deposition from command; and the deposition even
+received an appearance of injustice and hardship from its announcement
+at the moment when Goergei had just obtained a victory. But the
+opposition to this change of command would have been almost as
+certain if the removal had taken place earlier, and under different
+circumstances. It was looked upon as a blow struck by the politicians
+of Buda-Pesth at the politicians of the army; and the appointment of a
+foreigner added an element of national prejudice to the outburst of
+professional irritation. Moreover, Dembinski seems to have been exactly
+the kind of officer whom Goergei most disliked. His reputation rested on
+certain brilliant feats of guerilla warfare in the Polish insurrection
+of 1830; and of course Goergei and his friends may have been right in
+thinking that such a man was ill fitted to carry on the more regular
+warfare which was needed for the defeat of Windischgraetz. But, whatever
+excuse they may have had for opposition to the appointment, they
+clearly put themselves in the wrong by their evident determination not
+to allow Dembinski a fair chance. Goergei, indeed, at first affected to
+discourage the protests against Dembinski's appointment; but the
+language in which he did so was so evidently defiant in intention as to
+call forth a censure from his personal friend, the War Minister
+Meszaros; nor was it long before Goergei threw off even this slender
+mask, and openly defied Dembinski's authority.
+
+Goergei's faction among the officers was so strong, and the dislike to
+Dembinski so general, that the commanders of divisions at last agreed
+to demand the deposition of their chief. Kossuth came down to the camp
+to inquire into the circumstances; and he found the feeling against
+Dembinski so violent that he consented to his removal. Goergei seems to
+have used this opportunity for once more discussing the political
+situation with Kossuth; and, strange to say, he made to him the very
+proposal which Batthyanyi had rejected when it was put forward by
+Jellacic; namely, that the War and Finance Ministries should be
+removed to Vienna. If this proposal had been unsatisfactory when
+Vienna was free, and Ferdinand on the throne, it could have sounded
+little short of treason to the cause of Hungary, when Vienna was
+under the absolute rule of Windischgraetz; and it is not wonderful,
+therefore, that, though Kossuth was willing to remove Dembinski, he
+preferred appointing General Vetter as Commander-in-Chief to trusting
+Goergei with the leadership.
+
+It was at this crisis that the event occurred which was mentioned in
+the last chapter, and which hastened on the final phase of the
+movement. Encouraged, as Goergei believed, by the victories of
+Windischgraetz, Francis Joseph and his advisers suddenly dismissed the
+Parliament at Kremsier, and proclaimed a Constitution "octroye" for
+the occasion. Hungarians of all parties condemned this act as a
+violation of their old laws and customs, and an assertion of the
+arbitrary will of the sovereign. For, indeed, the discontent now
+aroused was far from being confined to the Magyars; and it would have
+been strange had it been otherwise. The dissolution of the Kremsier
+Parliament was, even irrespective of all that followed it, the most
+barefaced act of despotism that had been committed since the March
+risings of the previous year. Even Ferdinand of Naples could plead
+that barricades had been thrown up in the streets before his _coup
+d'etat_ of May 15. The unfortunate June insurrection at Prague had
+given a plausible excuse for preventing the meeting of the Bohemian
+Parliament; the murder of Lamberg had, no doubt, seemed to Ferdinand
+of Austria to supply at least a palliation for his dissolution of the
+Hungarian Diet; the murder of Latour and the persecution of the
+Bohemian deputies supplied Windischgraetz with sufficient argument for
+depriving Vienna of its liberties; and even the violent dispersal of
+the deputies of Berlin could be defended by the King of Prussia by
+reference to the previous riots of August. But not a single excuse of
+this kind could, with the least show of plausibility, be urged in
+defence of the dissolution of the Kremsier Parliament. Indeed, Francis
+Joseph betrayed the weakness of his case by pleading in his defence
+the nature of the subjects that had been discussed in the Parliament;
+and he could not even pretend that it had either exceeded its powers
+or exercised them in a disorderly manner.
+
+Nor was the Constitution, which was offered as a sequel to this
+dissolution, any more acceptable than the dissolution itself; and a
+general protest went up from nearly every race in the Empire. However
+much the Viennese might, under other circumstances, have liked a
+Constitution which was centralised at Vienna, they none of them would
+welcome it when it was combined with the rule of Windischgraetz. The
+Bohemian leaders felt themselves doubly offended; first by the
+dissolution of a Parliament to which they had specially trusted
+for justice; and secondly by the refusal of any real provincial
+independence to Bohemia. The Croats indignantly denounced the
+restoration of the military rule on the frontier, and the consequent
+separation from Croatia of the Slavs who inhabited the frontier
+district. The Serbs, ever since January, had been complaining of the
+advance of military rule in the Serb districts, and the gradual
+diminution of the power of the Voyvode; and they now felt that all
+their local institutions were still further endangered by the
+centralisation of the new Constitution. Some of the bitterest protests
+came from the Roumanians. They had been treated from the first with
+the greatest contempt by most of the Imperialist officers; and
+directly after the capture of Hermannstadt by Bem, they found
+themselves suddenly deserted by the Austrian forces, which were
+withdrawn into Wallachia. While they were still smarting under this
+treachery, the news of the new Constitution reached them; and they
+found that they were as far off as ever from obtaining that separate
+national organization for which they had so long been pleading; while
+a part of the Banat, which they considered specially Roumanian, was to
+be placed, by the new arrangement, under the Serbs.
+
+In this state of general discontent, it might have seemed that Kossuth
+would have had a fair chance of rallying round him all the races of the
+Empire, in a common desire for local independence, and a common
+hostility to the rule of Francis Joseph. But the divisions and mutual
+suspicions between the various races of the Empire had gone too deep to
+allow of this change. As for co-operation between the Bohemians and
+Germans, even if such a combination had been possible after the various
+causes of bitterness mentioned in the preceding chapters, little good
+could be effected by it at this crisis, when both Prague and Vienna
+were at the mercy of the conqueror. The important question, therefore,
+was the attitude to be taken up towards the new Constitution, by the
+various races in the Kingdom of Hungary; and here it must be owned that
+it was not wholly the fault of Kossuth, that he did not succeed in
+combining them in this emergency.
+
+Many both of the Croats and Serbs expressed plainly their discontent
+with the treatment which they had received from the House of Austria,
+but both Croats and Serbs were paralysed by the leaders whom they had
+accepted. The Banal Council[23] of Croatia protested against the
+publication of the new Constitution; but Jellacic declared that he
+was bound to see that it was published, and that the Council were
+only to carry out his orders. In a similar manner, many of the
+leading Serbs remonstrated with Rajacic on his acceptance of the
+vague promises, which were the substitute in the new Constitution, for
+those ancient liberties which the Serbs claimed as their due. But
+Rajacic maintained his authority over his countrymen, and accepted a
+place of completer subordination to the Austrian General than that
+which he had hitherto held. On the other hand, Kossuth seems to have
+neglected the opportunity offered by the general feeling of discontent,
+which prevailed at this time among the Serbs and Croats; and it was not
+till months later, when driven to desperation, that he proposed to make
+those concessions, which had by that time lost all grace. Towards the
+Roumanians, indeed, Kossuth seemed disposed to make concessions, by
+which he hoped to draw them away from the Saxons; and he chose a
+negotiator, whom he thought well fitted for this purpose. But Jancu
+distrusted Kossuth's emissary, and perhaps also Kossuth himself; and so
+the negotiation broke down.
+
+And if Kossuth failed to draw round him, at this crisis, the different
+races who were discontented with the new Constitution, it was a much
+stranger fact that he was unable to maintain the union between the
+different parties in the Magyar nation itself. This was all the
+stranger, because just at this time both the personal and political
+grounds for difference between Kossuth and Goergei seemed to be
+suddenly removed. Deep as had been Goergei's irritation at the
+appointment of Vetter, it had naturally been brought to a close by the
+sudden illness which removed Vetter from the command, and which was
+followed on March 31 by the appointment of Goergei as provisional
+Commander-in-Chief; while, as to political opinions, Goergei and
+Kossuth were both agreed in denouncing the circumstances under which
+Francis Joseph had been thrust on to the throne of Hungary, and the
+character and origin of the Constitution which he had just issued.
+Under these circumstances, it seemed as if there could be no further
+ground for division between the military party who followed Goergei,
+and the larger body of Magyars, who accepted Kossuth as their leader.
+But it soon appeared that this was not the case.
+
+Kossuth and his friends naturally argued that as the only member of
+the House of Hapsburg who claimed the throne of Hungary was admittedly
+in an illegal position, the only logical course was to depose the
+House of Hapsburg from the throne of Hungary; and that as the only
+Constitution by which the rulers of Austria would consent to link
+themselves to Hungary was admittedly an illegal Constitution, the only
+logical course was to separate Hungary from Austria. Goergei and his
+friends, on the other hand, shrank with horror from the idea of
+fighting without the authority of a King. They had sworn to obey
+Ferdinand, and to accept the Constitution of March 1848; they
+therefore insisted on ignoring the abdication of Ferdinand, and the
+abolition of that Constitution, and continued to fight, in the name of
+a King who did not wish to reign, and on behalf of a Constitution
+which had ceased to exist. Kossuth and his friends, however, were
+resolved to assert their principles; and on April 14 they issued the
+celebrated "Declaration of Independence."
+
+The strongly legal and historical character which had marked the whole
+Hungarian movement since the time of the meeting of the Diet in 1825,
+still shows itself even in this semi-revolutionary document. The
+Declaration goes back to the first connection of the House of Hapsburg
+with the throne of Hungary, and declares that no House had ever had so
+good a chance of governing successfully, and had so misused it. After
+mentioning some of the tyrannies of the earlier Kings of this House,
+the Declaration dwells on the fact that while Hungary had often had to
+fight for its freedom, it had always been so moderate in its demands
+that it had laid down its arms as soon as the King gave a new oath to
+preserve its freedom; but these oaths had never been kept, and for
+three hundred years this policy had never been changed. The people,
+after each promise, had forgotten the wounds of past years, in
+exaggerated magnanimity; but now the time had come to break the union.
+The House of Hapsburg had united itself with the enemies of the
+people, and with robbers and agitators, in order to oppress the
+people. It had attacked those of its subjects who would not combine
+against the Constitution which it had sworn to protect, or against the
+independent life of the nation. It had attacked with violence the
+integrity of the country, though it had sworn to preserve it. It had
+used a foreign Power to murder its own subjects and suppress their
+lawful freedom. Any one of these crimes was sufficient reason for
+depriving the Dynasty of its throne. The Declaration then goes on to
+consider the excuses which the Dynasty offered for its conduct. As for
+the independence secured by Hungary in March, 1848, that was only the
+confirmation of an old tradition; for the Pragmatic Sanction showed
+that neither Hungary nor any of the provinces connected with it had
+ever been absorbed in Austria. Joseph II. alone had ignored this fact,
+and his name, therefore, never appeared in the list of the kings of
+Hungary. As for the laws which the Diet had passed in March, Ferdinand
+had sanctioned them; but he now wished to suppress them. Yet the
+Hungarians had taken no advantage of the disturbances in different
+parts of the Austrian Empire to secure greater independence for
+themselves, but had remained content with what had been granted in
+March. They had supported the monarchy; but Ferdinand had tried to
+break his oath as soon as it was made. The Government at Vienna had
+at first tried to act through the Count Palatine; but, as this
+combination had weakened their power, they had gradually withdrawn
+more and more power from him. They had tried to impose customs duties
+which would have cut off Hungary from the rest of the world; and when
+this method failed they tried to stir up the different nationalities
+against the Hungarian Ministry. The proclamation proceeds to say that
+dates and documents prove that the Archduke Louis, the Archduke
+Francis Charles, and the Archduchess Sophia had stirred up the
+movements in Croatia and Slavonia. They attribute Ferdinand's first
+denunciation of Jellacic as a traitor to the difficulties caused by
+the war in Italy; but they accuse him of having played a double
+part, both in Croatia and Slavonia, and of having helped the Croats
+and Serbs with money and ammunition at the very time when he was
+denouncing them as rebels. They charge the Serbs with having committed
+great cruelties in their rising. They denounce, as illegal, the
+scattering of Hungarian troops in different provinces of the Austrian
+Empire, and they declare that it was in consequence of this arrangement
+that they were unable to save Fiume from Jellacic. They complain of the
+order given to the soldiers and commanders of fortresses not to obey
+the Hungarian Ministry, and to take orders only from Vienna. They
+complain that the Emperor had made a general of the Slavonic priest who
+had headed the rising of the Slovaks in North Hungary. They complain of
+their desertion by the Archduke Stephen, after his promises of support,
+and of the intrigues of Latour with Jellacic and with other generals
+against the liberties of Hungary. Lastly, they complain of the
+abdication of Ferdinand in favour of Francis Joseph. Yet even Francis
+Joseph they would have accepted had he claimed his rights in a legal
+manner; but he had threatened to conquer Hungary by force, and had, for
+the conquest of Transylvania, called in those Russians who had crushed
+out the liberties of Roumania. They further stated that, although at
+first the Hungarians had been driven back, they had now recovered their
+ground in Transylvania, cleared North Hungary of foes, suppressed the
+Serb rising, and defeated the Austrians in five battles. Under these
+circumstances they now declared Hungary independent of the House of
+Hapsburg, and appointed Kossuth as their President.
+
+Kossuth's supremacy in Hungary had been an important fact for a
+considerable time past, and had been due, not only to his personal
+qualities, but to the gradual retirement from public life of most of
+the leading statesmen who had played a part in the earlier phases of
+the struggle against the ruling powers in Vienna. Batthyanyi had
+abandoned all direct initiative in Hungarian politics ever since his
+resignation of the Premiership, and had only attempted to mediate
+between the contending armies, a mediation which had been scornfully
+rejected by Windischgraetz. Deak had, from the first, announced that he
+was unfit for revolutionary propaganda; and, after devoting himself,
+in the early days of the March Ministry, to the compilation of a code
+of laws and the administrative work of his office, he had gradually
+assumed the same position of mediator which Batthyanyi had desired,
+and with equal want of success. Wesselenyi was now old and blind; and,
+though he had consented to go with Eoetvoes on that deputation to the
+Vienna Assembly which had been repulsed by the Bohemian Deputies,
+neither he nor Eoetvoes now took any regular part in public affairs.
+Szechenyi, horrified at the results which, as he considered, had
+flowed from his early encouragement of Magyar feeling, lost his
+reason, and was at this time under restraint. Thus, of the statesmen
+who had been prominent in Hungary during the struggle against
+Metternich, Kossuth was the only one who could still be said to be
+before the public.
+
+Kossuth's unrivalled eloquence, and his keen sympathy, both with the
+intensity and the narrowness of Magyar feeling, had given him a force
+which none of the other leaders of the movement had ever possessed;
+and his discovery of the military genius of Bem had secured him an
+influence in Transylvania which considerably increased the strength of
+his position. On the other hand, his intolerant attitude towards the
+subject races of Hungary had marked him out in a special manner as the
+object of their hatred; while his contempt for ordinary military
+arrangements, his growing distrust of Goergei, and last, but perhaps
+not least, the belief among many military men that he was deficient in
+physical courage, tended to strengthen against him a formidable party
+in the army which was eventually to prove too strong for him. But, if
+the divided state of Hungarian feeling threw formidable difficulties
+in the way of Kossuth, he could find compensations in the condition of
+the forces opposed to him. Windischgraetz does not seem to have been
+reckoned, by military critics, a considerable general. Stratimirovic,
+whatever military qualities he may have possessed, was continually
+held in check by the cautious policy of Rajacic. Puchner, who had
+succeeded in giving such force to the Roumanian rising, was becoming
+an object of suspicion to the more conventional Austrian generals, and
+was shortly to be removed from Transylvania; while a cause of
+weakness, which was perhaps still more important, was to be found
+in the withdrawal from the country of a large body of Austrian
+and Croatian soldiers, who were being despatched against the new
+Government of the Roman States.
+
+For in Italy, too, the champions of liberty were preparing for their
+final struggle, though under rather different auspices from those
+under which it was being fought out in Hungary. On the very day when
+the Declaration of Independence was published in Hungary, Mazzini,
+Saffi, and Armellini, who had been elected Triumvirs of the Roman
+Republic, after the failure of Charles Albert's final war, appeared in
+the Assembly for the first time in their new capacity. They had no
+light task before them. Apart from the enemies who were threatening
+the Republic from outside, there were dangers arising from the
+feelings of the different parties within the Roman State. The
+deposition of the Pope had undoubtedly given a shock to the feelings
+of many strong Liberals, of a much keener, and if one may say so, more
+intelligible kind, than the deposition of the House of Hapsburg could
+possibly give to any Hungarian leader. Even Castellani, the Ambassador
+of the Venetian Republic, hesitated to identify the cause of his city
+with that of the opponents of the Pope; while the feeling among the
+priests of the Roman States had been shown by a formidable conspiracy
+in Imola and Ascoli. General Zucchi, who had taken part in this
+conspiracy, had even attempted to force his way into the Neapolitan
+territory, in order to put himself under the authority of the Pope.
+Garibaldi had defeated this attempt, and Zucchi had been sent as a
+prisoner to Rome; but the conspiracy was not forgotten; and, when the
+Triumvirs came into power, they found that these outbursts of priestly
+opposition were provoking savage reprisals on the part of the
+Republicans.
+
+While Saffi had been only Minister of the Interior, and Mazzini only a
+private member of the Assembly, they had both warned the Government of
+the probability of this danger; and they now found that a Society had
+been formed at Ancona which threatened death to the enemies of
+Liberalism. The Triumvirs first sent down two officers, who tried to
+organize the local leaders into a committee for preserving public
+order; but, though their emissaries were satisfied with their own
+action, the Triumvirs were less easily contented. Felice Orsini was
+sent down with full powers to put down the insurrection; and, if
+necessary, to declare Ancona in a state of siege. He at once arrested
+twenty men, called out the National Guard, put down opposition by
+force, and carried off his prisoners to Rome, where they were shut up
+in the Castle of St. Angelo. From Ancona Orsini went on to Ascoli,
+where he condemned three of the most dangerous persons to be shot, and
+sequestrated the goods of a cardinal, who had stirred up the clerical
+insurrection. But the Austrian forces were now advancing into the
+Roman territory; and Orsini was compelled to retire to Rome.
+
+Even in the capital the Triumvirs had to use strong measures to check
+the fierce feeling against the priests. This feeling had just been
+roused to an unusual height by special discoveries of priestly
+cruelty. In sweeping away the various irregular tribunals, which had
+grown up under the papal tyranny, the Triumvirs had to deal with the
+question of the Inquisition. They appropriated the former offices of
+that celebrated institution, as dwellings for the poor; but, in making
+the buildings available for this purpose, they threw open the secret
+dungeons, and discovered prisoners who were slowly dying of their
+imprisonment. One bishop, who had remained there since the time of
+Leo XII., had absolutely lost the power of walking. The horrible
+instruments of torture, which were found in the same place, excited
+still further the indignation of the people; and that feeling found
+yet a new cause for its expression, when a book was discovered in the
+library of the Inquisition, containing the secrets of the principal
+families of Italy, which had been obtained through the revelations of
+confessors. Several of the fiercer spirits in Rome at once made an
+attack on the pulpits and confessionals, and burnt some of them in
+the Piazza del Popolo. These tumults were sternly checked by the
+Triumvirs; and they succeeded in protecting from the popular vengeance
+the convent in which the chief Inquisitor lived. But while they
+protected the persons and private property of the priests, they
+appropriated the greater part of the ecclesiastical lands to the
+support of the poor, arranging that every family of three persons
+should have as much land as could be managed by a pair of oxen. At the
+same time the jurisdiction of the clergy over the universities and
+schools was taken away.
+
+While the attention of the Government was thus devoted to the
+restoration of internal order, and the carrying out of necessary
+reforms, they did not neglect the vigorous measures which were needed
+for the resistance to foreign enemies. The forces which had been
+rather carelessly scattered in the outlying provinces of the Roman
+State, were concentrated by the Triumvirs near Bologna. That gallant
+little city had been in a state of alarm ever since the early part of
+February, when the Austrian forces had again attacked Ferrara; and the
+difficulties of communication between these two cities had increased
+the alarm of the Bolognese, though it had also strengthened their
+eagerness for resistance. But even before this Austrian invasion, the
+Roman Republicans had been alarmed at the threats issued by another
+Power. Three days after the flight of the Pope, General Cavaignac
+announced in the French Assembly that he had sent three frigates to
+Civita Vecchia to secure the safety of His Holiness. This expedition
+had excited much opposition in France; and, during the subsequent
+contest for the Presidency, the following letter was addressed by one
+of the candidates to the editor of a French newspaper:--
+
+     "MR. EDITOR,
+
+     "Knowing that my agreement to the vote for the Expedition to Civita
+     Vecchia has been remarked upon, I think myself bound to declare
+     that, whatever may have been decided about the arrangements
+     suitable for guaranteeing the liberty and authority of the chief
+     Pontiff, nevertheless I cannot approve by my vote a military
+     demonstration that appears dangerous both to the sacred interests
+     that they pretend to protect, and that has a tendency to compromise
+     European peace.
+
+           "Yours respectfully,
+               "LOUIS NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE.
+    "December 2, 1848."
+
+As this pacific candidate had been shortly after elected President of
+the French Republic, there seemed little fear that an expedition
+"tending to compromise European peace," would again be entered upon by
+France; and the Mountain of the French Assembly had lately sent
+greetings to the Roman Republic.
+
+Since then the immediate danger to Rome seemed to come rather from the
+North than from the West, the Triumvirs watched with much anxiety the
+hesitating attitude of Guerrazzi and the Tuscan Government. So eager
+had the leaders of the Roman Assembly been for a union between
+Tuscany and the Roman States that they had even offered to Montanelli
+and Guerrazzi places in the first Triumvirate, which had been formed
+before Mazzini and Saffi had been called to power. Guerrazzi, however,
+had refused to accept this offer; and, while declaring his desire for
+union with Rome, he professed his inability to find a means for
+effecting that union. Indeed, Guerrazzi held an almost impossible
+position. Though unable to make up his mind to accept a Republican
+Government, he was yet determined to resist any interference, either
+by Piedmontese or Austrians, in favour of the former Government of
+Tuscany. And while he still seemed to cherish Italian ideas, he felt
+that the defeat of Charles Albert had taken away the hopes for any
+satisfactory continuance of the War of Independence. Under these
+circumstances the champions of the restoration of the Grand Duke
+naturally gained ground in Tuscany. Guerrazzi, distrusted alike by
+Republicans and Royalists, was unable either to resist this movement,
+or to guide it according to his own theories; and on April 12 the
+Municipality of Florence took the matter out of the hands both of
+Guerrazzi and the Assembly, and decreed the recall of the Grand Duke.
+
+This catastrophe, though a subject of regret, could scarcely have
+caused much surprise to the leaders of the Roman Republic. A feeling
+of far deeper pain must have been roused by the final failure of the
+earliest of all the struggles for liberty of this period. The _coup
+d'etat_ at Naples of May 15, 1848, though it had shattered the hopes
+of the Neapolitans, had only intensified the zeal of the Sicilians in
+their struggle against Ferdinand. As they had just deposed him from
+the throne, and proclaimed the Duke of Genoa as their King, they
+thought themselves safe against the restoration of Neapolitan rule;
+and the Ambassadors of France and England tried to persuade the King
+of Naples not to send an expedition to Sicily. He refused, however, to
+listen to these remonstrances; the expedition sailed; and, by his
+bombardment of Palermo, Ferdinand won for himself throughout Sicily the
+title of Il Re Bombardatore, which was quickly shortened into Bomba.
+Ruggiero Settimo, who had taken part in the struggles of 1812 and 1821,
+was placed at the head of the Sicilian Government, and Garibaldi was
+invited to come to defend the island. Garibaldi, however, did not
+arrive; and the chief defence of the island was entrusted to the Polish
+General Mieroslawski, who, having failed to save Posen from the hands
+of the Prussians, had become a kind of knight errant of liberty in
+other parts of Europe. He brought, however, but little good to the
+causes which he defended. He quarrelled with the Italian General
+Antonini, and was so often defeated, that the Sicilians began to fear
+treachery, and at last compelled him to resign his command. The
+struggle had, in fact, now become hopeless; and on April 17, 1849, the
+Sicilian Parliament decided to meet no longer. Then Ruggiero Settimo
+called his friends together, and declared that he was ready to undergo
+all his troubles again, if they decided to continue the contest. But
+they believed that the case was now desperate, and voted for peace.
+Then Settimo consulted the National Guard, but also in vain; and
+finding that any further efforts were useless, he resigned his
+Presidency, and left the island. The separateness of the Sicilian
+movement lessened, no doubt, in some degree the importance of this
+defeat; but the gallantry of their struggle had excited much sympathy
+in Rome; and their fall set free the Neapolitan forces for action
+against the Roman Republic.
+
+This addition to the dangers which were harassing the Republic would
+not perhaps have been so formidable had not a new and more important
+enemy begun to show signs of hostility at the same period. The
+election of Louis Napoleon as President of the French Republic had
+been hailed with some satisfaction both in Venice and Rome; and, after
+the Roman Republic had been established, two envoys were sent to
+Paris, who reminded the President of the share he had taken in one of
+the insurrections against Gregory XVI. Louis Napoleon replied that the
+time of Gregory XVI. had gone by in Rome, and that his youth was also
+gone by. Both remarks were undoubtedly true, nor were they in
+themselves very alarming; but Ledru Rollin, one of the few Frenchmen
+who really sympathized with Italy, warned Mazzini that danger was
+coming; and the nature of the danger soon became apparent. On April 16
+Odillon Barrot moved in the French Assembly a proposal for a vote of
+twelve hundred thousand francs for an expedition to Italy; an
+expedition, he said, which was not to restore the Pope; but to protect
+liberty and humanity. On April 20 General Oudinot took the command of
+the expedition, and told his followers that his object was to maintain
+the old legitimate French influence, and to protect the destinies of
+Italy from the predominance of the stranger, and of a party who were
+really in a minority. So kindly was the tone of the French Ministry
+towards the Romans, that Colonel Frapolli, one of the envoys of the
+Roman Republic, obtained the leave of the French President to organize
+a French Legion, which was to fight for the defence of Rome, and to be
+commanded by Pierre Buonaparte. But Pierre Buonaparte suddenly resigned
+his command; the prefect was ordered to hinder the embarkation of the
+Legion; and a large supply of muskets, which had been bought by the
+Roman Republic, were confiscated by the French Government. In the
+meantime Oudinot had set sail, and on April 24 he appeared before
+Civita Vecchia.
+
+About the time when the French troops were landing, there arrived at
+the same place a very different force. The leader of this force was
+Luciano Manara, who had fought so gallantly in the "Five Days" of
+Milan, and who had afterwards been so hampered by Casati and Charles
+Albert in his attempt to rescue the Southern Tyrol from Austrian rule.
+He, like others, had been disappointed by the failure of Charles
+Albert's final war; but he had refused to join in the Genoese
+insurrection, which followed the defeat at Novara, and had preferred
+to set out with 8,000 men to help the Roman Republic. The difficulties
+thrown in the way of their march were, however, so great that only 600
+remained with Manara by the time that he reached Civita Vecchia.
+Oudinot, with extraordinary impudence, disputed the right of the
+Lombards to interfere on behalf of Rome; and he even tried to persuade
+them that the cause of Rome was so distinct from that of Lombardy,
+that the Lombards could consistently join their forces with the French
+against Rome. Manara indignantly repelled the suggestion; and then
+Oudinot in vain attempted to exact a promise that the Lombard forces
+should not act against him until the 4th of May. Manara, having
+refused this further demand, Oudinot was forced to allow the Lombards
+to pass; and Manara marched to Rome to tell the Romans how the French
+Republic was preparing to defend the cause of "liberty and humanity."
+
+In spite of this plain evidence of his intentions, Oudinot still
+attempted to play his double part; and, since his utterance about the
+government of a party in a minority had alarmed the inhabitants of
+Civita Vecchia, he authorised the Secretary of the Legation to declare
+the sympathy of the French for the Romans, and to assure the citizens
+of Civita Vecchia that the French Army had only come to defend them
+against the Austrians. Mannucci, the Governor of Civita Vecchia, had
+wished to oppose the first landing of the French; but he was overborne
+by the Chamber of Commerce and the Municipal Council, who were
+convinced that the French could not really intend to destroy the
+freedom which they so much professed to cherish. No sooner, however,
+had Oudinot effected a landing, than he announced that he would not
+protect the Anarchical Government of Rome, which had never been
+officially recognised. The Municipality became alarmed; and Oudinot
+again altered his tone, and declared that the French would respect the
+vote of the majority of the population, and did not desire to impose
+any special form of Government upon them. In spite of the warnings
+given by Oudinot's previous proclamation, the Municipal Council
+consented to admit him into the town; and, no sooner was he there,
+than he disarmed the battalion which was to have defended the town;
+and still further showed his zeal for the interests of "Liberty and
+humanity," by suppressing a printing office in Civita Vecchia,
+because it had recently printed an address in which the Papacy was
+condemned.
+
+In the meantime the news had spread to Rome; and the Assembly were
+debating how they should receive Oudinot. So deep was the conviction
+of the reality of the French zeal for freedom, that Armellini actually
+suggested that Oudinot should be received as a friend. But, while the
+Assembly were debating, Mazzini entered the hall, and announced that
+Colonel le Blanc had confessed that the expedition was sent to restore
+the Papacy. Thereupon the Assembly voted that the Triumvirs should
+have power to resist force with force. But another difficulty arose;
+the officers of the National Guard declared that they did not believe
+their soldiers would fight. Thereupon Mazzini ordered that the
+battalions of the Guards should defile next morning in front of the
+Quirinal, where the Assembly were meeting; and, as the Guards passed,
+he put to them the question whether they were for peace or war. A loud
+shout of "Guerra, guerra!" answered his appeal; and the defence was at
+once resolved on.
+
+In every district the heads of the people and the representatives of
+the Assembly were to organize the defence of every inch of the
+country. Barricades were thrown up; arms were to be given to all the
+people; while the municipality undertook to provide them with corn,
+meat, and other eatables. At the same time all foreigners, and
+particularly all Frenchmen living in Rome, were to be placed under the
+protection of the nation. Anyone who injured them was to be punished
+as having violated the honour of Rome. With regard to the actual
+soldiers to be used in the first defence of the city, they were
+arranged as follows:--the 1st brigade, commanded by Garibaldi,
+guarded the line outside the walls, which extends from the Porta
+Portese to the Porta San Pancrazio. The 2nd brigade, commanded by
+Colonel Masi, was drawn up before the Porta Cavalleggieri, the
+Vatican, and the Porta Angelica. The 3rd, under Colonel Savini, stood
+in reserve in the Piazza Navona. Colonel Galletti commanded the 4th,
+which was stationed in the Piazza Cesarini; while a reserve force
+under General Galletti, in which Manara and his Lombard volunteers
+were included, was held back for the present, to come up when needed.
+The whole of the forces were supervised by General Avezzana, who had
+organized the insurrection in Genoa after the defeat at Novara, and who
+now acted apparently both as Minister of War and Commander-in-Chief.
+
+On April 29 Avezzana took his staff up to Monte Mario, from which point
+he could see the French army advancing from Civita Vecchia. As they
+marched along the road, the French saw everywhere a singular inscription
+painted upon the walls and posts. It ran as follows:--"Article
+5 of the preamble of the French Constitution. The French Republic
+respects foreign nationalities as it intends to make its own respected.
+It does not undertake any war of conquest. It will never use its own
+forces against the liberty of any people." Whether as a kind of answer
+to this challenge, or in contempt of it, Oudinot announced to his troops
+that they came to liberate Rome from the factious party which had
+expelled the Pope, and which had answered his words of conciliation with
+ill-considered provocations.
+
+It was at 11.30 a.m. on April 30 that the French and Roman armies first
+came into collision. Garibaldi advanced from Porta San Pancrazio to
+meet the French, who were entering the grounds of the Villa Pamfili,
+and who, hearing the bells of the city ring for the attack, supposed
+that an insurrection had broken out in favour of the Pope, and that
+they would have an easy victory. Garibaldi, however, repelled them,
+after a sharp fight, and made 300 prisoners. But the main attack of the
+French was in the meantime directed against the Porta Angelica. There
+one of the French captains had hoped to lead a column into Rome by a
+secret way near the Vatican. But a fire was poured on the advancing
+column from the Papal gardens, while the troops from Monte Mario
+attacked them in the rear. The battle lasted for four hours. The French
+captain Picarde managed at first to drive back the University
+battalion; but as he advanced, Colonel Arcioni at the head of a
+regiment of the Lombard exiles attacked him on one flank, and Galletti
+at the head of the National Guard on the other; finally Garibaldi,
+having disposed of his original opponents at the Villa Pamfili, charged
+the French force, and compelled them to lay down their arms.
+
+Several acts of special valour marked this battle. One officer, named
+Montaldi, having been surrounded by the French, was beaten to his
+knees, and fought on with only a piece of his sword left. He had
+fought under Garibaldi at Monte Video, and was a Genoese by birth. Ugo
+Bassi[24] distinguished himself by riding about the field urging the
+Romans to battle. His horse was killed under him, and, as he was
+embracing it with tears, the French came up and took him prisoner.
+Garibaldi himself was wounded; but would not allow it to be known
+until the battle was over, when he sent privately for the doctor.
+
+On the following day the battle was renewed; the people flocking to
+the defence of the walls, and the French sharp-shooters being finally
+driven out from the Pamfili gardens. Garibaldi would now have been
+able to cut off the French retreat and destroy their army; but the
+Triumvirs, though they had no faith in Oudinot's promises, believed
+that, if the French were generously treated, the Republican feeling
+would awake again in France and overthrow the Government, or defeat
+their plans; but that, if they were driven to extremities, the French
+vanity would hinder even the most consistent Republicans from opposing
+the war. On these grounds, they allowed the French to retreat, granted
+them a short truce, and set free the prisoners who had been captured.
+
+But the hope of any change of feeling in the French was soon found to
+be utterly vain. A debate, indeed, had been begun in the French
+Assembly soon after the sailing of the expedition, and a Committee had
+been appointed to enquire into the object of the expedition; but Jules
+Favre, the chairman of that Committee, reported that the Government
+had no intention of making France a party to the overthrow of the
+Roman Republic; and that it only interfered in order that, under the
+French flag, humanity might be respected; and that a limit might be
+placed on the pretensions of Austria. In spite, therefore, of the
+opposition of Ledru Rollin, the money for the expedition had been
+voted by 325 against 283. But even Jules Favre could not be entirely
+blinded by such phrases as these, when considered in the light of
+Oudinot's actions; and on May 8 the National Assembly invited the
+Government to take, without delay, the necessary measures for
+preventing the expedition to Italy from being diverted from the scope
+assigned to it; and they therefore decided to send Ferdinand Lesseps
+to negotiate with the Triumvirs for terms of peace.
+
+In the meantime, the Roman Republic realized that it had to guard
+itself against two other enemies. On May 2, a Neapolitan army was
+found to be on its way to Rome. On the 4th, Garibaldi marched to
+Palestrina, and, with the help of Manara and his Lombard battalion,
+utterly defeated the Neapolitan forces. Just at the same time, the
+Bolognese became aware that the threatened attack of the Austrians was
+about to become a reality. Ferrara was occupied on May 7; but, even
+with the Austrian troops present in the city, the Municipal Council of
+Ferrara voted, by thirty-seven to three, in favour of the Roman
+Republic. Such a protest was undoubtedly of use in proving the
+earnestness of the Roman provinces on behalf of the new Government.
+But something more was expected, from a city so heroic in its
+traditions as Bologna. On May 6 it had been announced by the President
+of the Municipality that medals were about to be distributed in memory
+of August 8, 1848. On May 8 it was announced that the Austrians were
+advancing upon Bologna. In that city, as in Rome, the internal defence
+was organized in special districts under special leaders, while the
+National Guard and the University battalion were to fight side by side
+with the regular troops. By nine o'clock in the morning of the 8th the
+Austrians were at the gates of Bologna, and before eleven o'clock
+fierce struggles had taken place at the Porta Galliera, the Porta San
+Felice, and the Porta Saragozza. The people indignantly refused every
+proposal for capitulation, and at about four o'clock the Austrians
+began to bombard the city. Before the end of the day, the President
+had resigned his office, believing that resistance was useless; but
+the Municipality having in vain endeavoured to obtain the terms which
+they had hoped for, the assault was renewed, and the Austrians
+discharged rockets into the city from the bell-tower of the Franciscan
+convent. A special Commission was appointed to carry on the struggle,
+and the band of one of the regiments, standing under the tree of
+Liberty in the Piazza San Petronio, encouraged the combatants with
+music and songs. The struggle, however, was a desperate one, and, on
+May 10, it was again necessary to send a deputation to ask for a truce.
+But the combat was soon renewed, and the Bolognese troops were so eager
+in the attack that the general had to warn them against firing off
+their pieces needlessly. The pastry cooks were ordered to suspend the
+making of mere confectionary, in order that there might be more bread
+for the defenders of the city, and reinforcements were expected from
+the country districts of the Romagna. General Wimpffen, who was leading
+the Austrian troops, denounced the defence as "the stupid work of a
+blind faction;" but the Provisional Government answered that the
+proclamation signed by Marshal Wimpffen, and forwarded by him to the
+magistrates, having come without any accompanying evidence, could not
+be received by them. Weary of acting merely on the defensive, the
+Bolognese made a sortie from the Porta Maggiore, repelled an attack of
+the Austrians, and succeeded in joining a body of the Romagnoli, who
+were coming to the relief of the city. But the chances of uniting with
+the outside world became less and less; for the Austrian troops drew
+ever more closely round the city, and, on the 15th, the bombardment was
+renewed. Then a number of the citizens requested leave to go to Rome,
+to find out how things were going on there, in order that they might
+know what was still required of them at headquarters. But this proposal
+seems to have been a mere utterance of despair; for, on the 16th, it
+became necessary to abandon the defence and arrange for terms of
+surrender.
+
+While the Bolognese were engaged in this desperate struggle, Ferdinand
+Lesseps had arrived in Rome, and was rapidly becoming converted to the
+belief that the Republican Government was the free choice of the
+people, and that it was better able to maintain order than the Papacy
+had been; while a conversation with Mamiani had shown him that even
+the so-called Moderate Liberals were unwilling to act against the
+Republic. But, though Lesseps was honest enough to confess these
+facts, his vanity, both personal and national, prevented him from
+making the natural inference that neither he nor Oudinot were needed
+in Rome. He, therefore, proposed that the Roman States should request
+the paternal protection of the French Republic; that the Roman
+populations should pronounce freely on their form of government; that
+Rome should receive the French as their friends; and that Roman and
+French troops should act together in defence of the city. The Assembly
+rejected these proposals, on the ground that Rome had no need of
+protection, and that the name of the Roman Republic was not mentioned
+in the negotiation; and they further complained that, on May 19, while
+the truce was still in force, the French soldiers had crossed the
+Tiber. Then the Triumvirs proposed, in their turn, that the Roman
+Republic should acknowledge the help offered by the French nation
+against foreign intervention; that the Constitution which had been
+adopted by the General Assembly should be sanctioned by a popular
+vote; that Rome should welcome the French soldiers as brothers; but
+that they should stay outside the city till the Roman Republic called
+for them. These proposals were accepted, with some modifications, by
+Lesseps, within the time of the truce; and he left Rome, well
+satisfied with Mazzini, still better with himself.
+
+Great, however, was the indignation of this unfortunate diplomatist,
+when, on reaching the camp of Oudinot, he found that the general,
+without waiting for the expiration of the truce, had suddenly occupied
+Monte Mario! Lesseps was divided between his feelings as a man of
+honour and his unwillingness to oppose his countrymen. He threatened at
+first that if the order for assault were not withdrawn, he would
+himself go back to Rome and give the alarm; but when, on his return to
+the city, the Triumvirs questioned him about the breach of the truce,
+he assured them that Monte Mario had only been occupied in order to
+prevent its falling into the hands of the French reinforcements,
+which were on their way to Rome. The fact was that, from first to
+last, Lesseps had been the dupe of the unscrupulous men who were
+ruling France. While he had been entrusted with apparently peaceful
+negotiations, secret instructions had been sent to Oudinot to the
+following effect:--"Tell the Romans that we do not wish to join with
+the Neapolitans against them. Continue your negotiations in the sense
+of your declaration. We are sending you reinforcements. Wait for them.
+Manage to enter Rome by agreement with the inhabitants; and if you
+should be compelled to assault it, do it in the manner that shall
+be most likely to secure success." Oudinot fully understood his
+instructions. On May 31 he scornfully rejected the convention which had
+been accepted by Lesseps; and on the same day Lesseps received his
+recall to Paris, and Oudinot received orders to take Rome by force.
+
+In the meantime an unfortunate occurrence had called attention to
+another danger which was threatening the Roman Republic. General
+Roselli had now been appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Roman army;
+but he found it very difficult to control Garibaldi. After the defeat
+of the Neapolitan forces, Garibaldi had desired to push on to Velletri.
+Roselli forbad him to do so; but Garibaldi disobeyed the orders of his
+chief, and marched forward. Part of the troops who followed him had not
+learned to stand fire, and fled at the first attack. Garibaldi was in
+such danger that he was obliged to send to Roselli for fresh troops.
+With the help of these reinforcements, Garibaldi drove back the
+Neapolitans; but he then disobeyed Roselli's orders for the second
+time, marched forward to Velletri, and entered it on May 20. Fierce
+recriminations followed between the friends of Garibaldi and those of
+Roselli; Garibaldi and his friends maintaining that, but for Roselli's
+delay, the victory would have been more complete; the supporters of
+Roselli declaring that, if it had not been for Garibaldi's rashness,
+Ferdinand himself, and a great part of his army, would have fallen into
+the hands of the Romans. Roselli further demanded that Garibaldi should
+be summoned before a Court-Martial for his disobedience to orders. But
+the Triumvirs felt that there would be a certain incongruity in such a
+trial, which could only lead to mischief, and they persuaded Roselli to
+abandon his proposal. Garibaldi's influence, indeed, was strong, not
+only among his soldiers, but also among the members of the Assembly;
+and Sterbini, who seems generally to have suspected all existing
+Governments, demanded that Garibaldi should be made Dictator, and that
+Roselli's command should be taken from him. This proposal, however, the
+Assembly rejected, and, on June 3, declared itself in permanence.
+
+On that very day Oudinot gave another proof of his peculiar ideas of
+French honour. The day before, he had promised to defer the attack
+until June 4. The grounds of the Villa Pamfili lie at a short distance
+from the Porta San Pancrazio, and were then more thickly wooded than
+they are now. On the night of June 2 they were occupied by three
+companies of Bolognese. These soldiers, trusting to the honour of
+Oudinot, were sleeping peacefully, when suddenly two French divisions
+entered the wood. They surrounded and captured 200 of the soldiers;
+but the remaining 200 retreated fighting, before a body of 8,000
+French. Garibaldi hastened up with reinforcements, and the fight
+lasted from 2 a.m. till 6 p.m. on June 3. Four times were the houses
+in the grounds of the Villa Pamfili lost and won. The walls shook with
+the thunder of the French and Roman artillery; and the houses were
+filled with the dead and wounded of both armies. But the treachery of
+Oudinot had been successful in securing him so good a position, that
+the houses at last remained in the hands of the French, although they
+were so ruined that they afforded them very little protection.
+
+[Illustration: IL VASCELLO, ROME (_taken since the siege_).]
+
+This struggle seemed only to rouse the energies of the Romans to new
+efforts. Between the Villa Pamfili and the Porta San Pancrazio, stood
+an old house which, from its shape, was known as the Vascello or
+little ship; and it was by the walls of this house that, for nearly a
+month from this time, General Medici and Garibaldi held their own
+against the numbers, the training, and the treachery of the French.
+Nothing could exceed the enthusiasm of the Romans in the defence of
+their city. The walls were crowded with people during the fight;
+youths, not able yet to bear arms, rushed into the crash of battle.
+And girls went, while the cannon was still firing, to search for the
+dead, to encourage the combatants, and to heal the wounded. But
+treachery steadily gained ground upon valour. Enrico Dandolo, a young
+captain in Manara's regiment, was about to attack a company of
+Frenchmen, when the French captain cried out, "We are friends!"
+Dandolo ordered the attack to be suspended, and advanced to the
+Frenchman, holding out his hand. The French at once fired, and Dandolo
+and more than a third of his company fell dead. Oudinot, however,
+over-estimated the credulity of the Romans; for on June 12 he demanded
+to be admitted into Rome, on the ground that his intentions had been
+misunderstood, and that he wished to secure Roman liberty. When,
+however, he was reminded of his violation of Lesseps's agreement, he
+showed his zeal for Roman liberty by proceeding to bombard the city.
+
+But there were still some Frenchmen who held different views from
+Oudinot's on the subject of their country's honour. On the very day when
+the bombardment of Rome began, Ledru Rollin and his friends, having in
+vain tried to secure a condemnation of the Roman expedition from the
+French Assembly, took up arms for a final effort to vindicate the honour
+of France against its faithless rulers. But the revolutionary force of
+France had been wasted in the Socialist insurrection of the previous
+year; and, after a gallant struggle, the champions of French honour and
+liberty were suppressed by General Changarnier. The failure of this
+effort must, no doubt, have been terribly disappointing to those Romans
+who had hoped to the last that France would vindicate herself against
+those who were dishonouring her. And, as if to bring home to the Romans
+how isolated their position was becoming as defenders of liberty, there
+came to them, shortly after, the news of the final downfall of German
+liberty.
+
+Ever since April 24, when the King of Prussia refused the crown of
+Germany, he had been following a steady course of opposition to the
+Liberal movements in favour of German unity; and on May 24 he had
+recalled the Prussian Deputies from the Frankfort Assembly. This had
+encouraged the other Princes of Germany to dissolve their local
+parliaments and recall their subjects from the Frankfort Parliament;
+while the strengthening of the troops near Frankfort seemed to limit
+the freedom of debate among the few deputies who remained. At last, on
+June 6, the few remaining representatives of German unity decided to
+transfer their place of meeting from Frankfort to Stuttgart. The Baden
+Republicans had in the meantime taken the stronger course of appealing
+for the last time to insurrection; but both the constitutional and the
+revolutionary attempt to save the liberties of Germany proved
+hopeless. On June 18 the remnant of the German Parliament was
+dispersed by the Wuertemberg soldiers; the Baden rising failed, to a
+great extent from the quarrels between the Polish general Mieroslawski
+and the Baden general Sigel; and the Prussian soldiers trampled out
+the last remains of German liberty.
+
+In the meantime the Austrians were capturing city after city in the
+Roman provinces; and the French were pressing nearer to the city. But
+the enthusiasm of the Romans did not slacken. As Garibaldi went
+through the hospitals to visit the wounded, several of the sufferers
+sprang from their beds to embrace his knees, with cries of "Papa,
+papa"; and the women exerted themselves gallantly to relieve the
+sufferings of the wounded. The French did not even now seem absolutely
+certain of victory; for when a sortie, planned by Garibaldi on June
+22, had ended in a fiasco, a certain M. Corcelles attempted to reopen
+diplomatic negotiations. But Mazzini, warned by his experience of
+Lesseps, sternly repelled all proposals for negotiation; and the
+struggle was renewed. The state of the Roman Republic was, however,
+really desperate. On June 24 came the news that, after twenty-five
+days' struggle, Ancona had fallen into the hands of the Austrians, who
+had almost immediately violated the understanding on which it had been
+surrendered.
+
+In the meantime the French slowly advanced in the struggle by the
+Vascello, Medici continually driving them back. Many of the houses
+were battered down, but the inhabitants were provided by the Triumvirs
+with fresh lodgings in the deserted houses of the Cardinals. When the
+French knocked down part of the walls, the citizens picked up the
+stones to repair them. At last, however, on June 29, Oudinot resolved
+to make a final effort, and directed his forces against Garibaldi's
+house, which was known as the Villa Spada. Twice the invaders attacked
+this house, and twice they were repelled. Then they succeeded in
+capturing a barricade which had been raised in front of the house; but
+again the Romans recaptured it. Garibaldi fought in the midst of his
+followers, singing a war-song; and more than a hundred of his soldiers
+fell round him. Seven times the barricade was taken and retaken; the
+gallant Manara was killed; and at last, after twelve hours' fighting,
+it was discovered that the Porta San Pancrazio was no longer tenable.
+
+On June 30 the Roman Assembly met, and Mazzini propounded to them three
+alternatives. Either they should continue the defence, which now seemed
+impossible; or they should yield altogether; or, thirdly, they should
+cut their way out into the provinces, and continue the struggle there.
+Mazzini strongly urged the third course. While the debate was still
+proceeding, Garibaldi in his red shirt, covered with mud, sprang into
+the Assembly. He declared that further defence was impossible,
+unless they were prepared to abandon the Trastevere, and break down
+the bridges. Under these circumstances, he supported Mazzini's
+recommendation, that they should cut their way out into the provinces,
+and carry on the struggle there. Cernuschi, however, proposed the
+following resolution:--"The Roman Constituent Assembly abandons a
+defence which has become impossible, and remains at its post."
+This motion was carried; the Triumvirs resigned their post to the
+Municipality, and a new Triumvirate was elected to carry out the terms
+of peace.
+
+Then Garibaldi called round him his followers in the Piazza San
+Pietro, and addressed them as follows:--"I have nothing to give you
+but hunger, sufferings, and battles; the bare earth for your bed, and
+the burning sun for your refreshment. Yet let him who does not yet
+disbelieve in the fortune of Italy follow me." He then marched out
+from the Porta San Giovanni, followed by 4,000 men. They made their
+way to the northern part of the Roman States; but after much suffering
+and privation, they were forced to abandon the struggle. Ugo Bassi and
+others fell into the hands of the Austrians, and were shot. Garibaldi
+and a small remnant of his followers succeeded in escaping from the
+country.
+
+In the meantime the Roman Municipal Council attempted to make
+terms with Oudinot; but finding it impossible to secure honourable
+conditions, they declared that they yielded only to force. On July 3
+the French troops entered Rome; and while they marched through the city
+they found all the shops closed, and heard from every side the cries of
+"Death to Cardinal Oudinot! Death to the soldiers of the Pope! Death to
+the Croats of France!" On the same day the Roman Assembly proclaimed
+from the Capitol the Constitution of the Republic. On the next day a
+regiment of French infantry dissolved the Assembly by force; and soon
+after a Commission of three Cardinals was appointed to govern Rome.
+
+The hopes of Italy now centred in Venice, where, ever since the
+abandonment of Milan by Charles Albert in the previous August, the
+Republican Government had struggled alone against Austria. So fierce
+had been the feeling caused by Charles Albert's treatment of Venice,
+that it had required all Manin's influence to hinder a violent attack
+on the Sardinian Commissioner. The Sardinian Admiral, indeed,
+attempted at first to disregard the orders of Charles Albert, and to
+continue the defence of Venice, but he was compelled after a time to
+withdraw. Manin, however, was anxious to secure foreign allies for
+Venice; and, shortly after his abandonment by Charles Albert, he
+appealed to France for help. The French Government answered by those
+vague and cheap promises which meant nothing; while the English Consul
+at Venice tried to form an Austrian party in the city; and Lord
+Palmerston worried Manin with all sorts of useless proposals for
+diplomatic compromises. But if Manin found little help from foreign
+Governments, he received much encouragement from those Italians who had
+not yet despaired of their country. In September, 1848, 1,200 soldiers
+who had served under Durando arrived in Venice; and on October 3 a
+vessel brought 6,000 guns from Genoa. The Austrian blockade, indeed,
+pressed ever closer, and on October 10 it had become so close that food
+could not be brought into the town. But so little did Manin lose heart
+that on October 11 he declared to the Assembly that Venice was
+in a better state for defence than when the Dictatorship had been
+established in August; and the Assembly in turn voted that Manin and
+the two colleagues who had been appointed to assist him should be
+entrusted with all political negotiations, saving the ratification by
+the Assembly of the final treaty. So great was the mutual confidence
+between Manin and the poorer classes of Venice, that in January, 1849,
+two Gondoliers were chosen to assist him in the Government.
+
+The proclamation of the Republic in Rome had excited both the
+sympathies and the fears of Manin; for while he saw in it a step
+towards an Italian Republic, in which Venice might take a part, he
+also saw that it might hasten an Austrian intervention in the Roman
+States. The failure of Charles Albert's final effort in April, 1849,
+so alarmed the Venetians that Manin began to speculate on the
+desirability of accepting an Austrian Prince as Constitutional
+Sovereign of Lombardo-Venetia. But the Hungarian Declaration of
+Independence once more revived his hopes, and from that time his one
+aim in foreign policy was to secure and strengthen an alliance between
+Venice and Hungary. Yet the month of May, in which this alliance was
+concluded, seemed one of the most desperate periods in the fortunes of
+Venice. The fortress of Malghera, which lies on an island in the
+lagunes, about two hours' gondola journey west of Venice, was the
+scene of one of the fiercest struggles between the Austrians and
+Venetians. General Haynau had effected a landing on this island, and
+attempted to seize the fortress; but the Venetians on their side let
+loose the waters to swamp the Austrian trenches, sent boats under the
+fire of the Austrians to bring food to the defenders, and made
+expeditions to carry off oxen, even from the country already occupied
+by the Austrians. So desperate was the resistance that Radetzky
+treated Haynau's attempt as a failure, and sent General Thurn to take
+his place. But, partly by breaking a truce, partly by force of
+superior numbers, the Austrians succeeded in carrying the day; and on
+May 26, when the fortress had been reduced to ruins, the Venetians
+were compelled to abandon Malghera, and to retreat to some islands
+nearer the city. In the following month Manin again tried to enter
+into negotiations with Radetzky; but a letter from Kossuth encouraged
+him to stand firm; and he made such demands for independence that the
+Austrians scornfully rejected them.
+
+In spite, however, of the encouragement which he had sent to Manin,
+Kossuth's own position was one of increasing danger. The Declaration
+of Independence of April 14 had been followed by the resignation of
+several Hungarian officers; and Goergei, though unwillingly retaining
+his command, became more and more antagonistic in his attitude towards
+Kossuth. This mutual distrust was one of the main causes of a step not
+very creditable to either party, and which is reckoned by military
+critics one of the most unfortunate in the war. On April 26, Goergei
+and General Klapka had, by a desperate march, rescued the fortress of
+Komorn from the Austrians; and Klapka and others believed that, if
+Goergei had followed up this success by marching to Raab, he might have
+been able to reopen communications with Vienna. Kossuth, however, was
+anxious that Buda-Pesth should not be allowed to remain in the hands
+of the Austrians, and he therefore desired Goergei to turn his forces
+to the deliverance of the capital. Goergei, in common with all the
+military leaders, believed this proposal to be a mistake; but he has
+frankly recorded his reasons for readily obeying Kossuth's orders. If
+he had followed up his advantages and marched into Austria, a
+Republic, he believed, would have been proclaimed in Hungary; and a
+compromise with the Austrian Government would have become impossible;
+whereas, by occupying Buda-Pesth, he thought that he should gain a
+vantage ground which would enable him to persuade both parties to
+accept the modified Constitution for Hungary which he desired. Hence
+it came to pass that the greater part of May was taken up by the siege
+of the fortress of Buda, while Goergei was intriguing with Kossuth's
+opponents in the Diet, and the Austrians were gaining ground in
+Hungary. And while he was with difficulty holding his own against
+Goergei's intrigues, Kossuth was alarmed by the news that a more
+formidable enemy had once more appeared on the scene.
+
+On May 1 the Emperor of Austria had formally appealed to the Russians
+to assist him against his Hungarian subjects; and in June the Russian
+forces began to gather near the passes of the Carpathians. On the 17,
+Colonel Szabo encountered the Russians near the Temos Pass. When he
+first advanced to meet them, he believed that he had only to do with
+some skirmishing troops, such as those with whom he had previously
+dealt. But more and more soldiers pressed in to the attack, and Szabo
+was compelled to retreat. Two days later Colonel Kiss, at the head of
+a band of Szeklers, came up to resist the invaders; and, while those
+who were on the hills above hurled down stones and wood on the
+Russians, the soldiers below, though only 400 in number, resisted so
+gallantly that the Russians at first fled before them. At last,
+however, Kiss was laid senseless by a shot, and his soldiers were
+seized with a panic and fled in disorder.
+
+Bem, who had returned to Transylvania about the end of May, now
+attempted to rally the Szekler by inspiriting appeals to the memories
+of their former struggles. On June 25 he recaptured the Saxon town of
+Bistritz, and then encountered in the open field a combined corps of
+Russians and Austrians. For seven hours he held out against them; but
+new reinforcements came up, and he was compelled to retreat. The
+enormous numbers of the Russians seem to have impressed Bem's
+followers, and to have increased their original panic. The country was
+overrun by the enemy; Hermannstadt was captured and recaptured, and
+when, on August 5, it at last fell into the hands of the Russians, Bem
+narrowly escaped with his life. Even then he wished to continue the
+struggle; but on August 7 he was summoned to North Hungary by Kossuth,
+to advise him in his difficulties with Goergei.
+
+After an attempt to supersede Goergei by Meszaros, Kossuth had been
+compelled to allow the former to resume the command; but he had by no
+means recovered confidence in him, and he felt ready to clutch at any
+proposal which would extricate himself and his country from their
+difficulties. Amongst other suggestions he proposed to offer to Jancu
+and the Roumanian leaders independent commands in the Hungarian Army,
+and to concede to them most of the points about which they had been
+fighting. He had even opened negotiations with Jancu for this
+purpose; but Bem steadily opposed the scheme, and the negotiations
+came to nothing. But Kossuth's great hope was to supersede Goergei by
+Bem. This proposal, however, was opposed, not only by Goergei himself,
+but also by Csanyi, who seems throughout to have sympathised with
+Goergei, as against Kossuth. Bem, therefore, returned to the war.
+Kossuth, left unsupported, became more and more alarmed. Csanyi and
+Goergei pressed for his resignation; and, while he was doubting, he
+received the news that Bem had been dangerously wounded in battle. The
+report, indeed, was exaggerated; and Bem wrote a letter to assure
+Kossuth of the slightness of his wound, and to encourage him to stand
+firm. But this letter never arrived, and the next news which Bem
+received was that Kossuth had abdicated, and Goergei been declared
+Dictator of Hungary. Bem wrote a letter of remonstrance to Kossuth,
+and, at the same time, marched towards Lugos, in the Banat, to meet
+the Russians. Dembinski, who was now in Bem's army, disobeyed his
+orders, and Bem was defeated. On that very day, August 13, Goergei
+surrendered at Vilagos with all his forces to the Russian general.
+
+This surrender is now believed to have been necessary on military
+grounds. The advances made by the Austrians during the siege of Buda,
+and the Russian conquest of Transylvania had placed Hungary at the
+mercy of the conqueror. Nevertheless, it cannot be doubted that the
+quarrel between Goergei and Kossuth, and the factions which the former
+had stirred up in the army, had tended considerably to bring about
+this result; while, with regard to the terms of surrender, General
+Goergei has never been able to explain how it was that, while the
+amnesty was so scrupulously observed towards himself both by the
+Austrians and Russians, the generals, whose only fault was that they
+had served under him, were ruthlessly put to death by Haynau. Anyhow,
+whatever may have been the excuses for the act, the surrender of
+Vilagos produced a startling close to the Hungarian War. Bem, indeed,
+hastened back to Transylvania, and attempted to rouse his former
+followers; and General Klapka held out for a month longer at Komorn.
+But Bem's efforts were of no avail; Klapka's defence only served to
+secure rather better terms; and both these generals, as well as
+Kossuth, were forced to take refuge in Turkey.
+
+The news of the surrender of Vilagos did not reach Venice till August
+20. There Manin had had much difficulty in still retaining the
+control which had been necessary for the guidance of affairs; and on
+August 6 a minority of 28 in the Assembly had protested against his
+reappointment as Dictator. The cholera had now been added to the other
+horrors of the siege; provisions were growing scarce; and thus the
+news of Goergei's surrender came as the last straw to break down the
+hopes of the defenders of Venice. On the 22nd, therefore, the
+Government agreed to yield. Manin succeeded in preventing the riots
+which seemed likely to break out on the news of the capitulation; and
+on August 30 the final surrender of Venice to the Austrians brought to
+a close the long struggle for liberty which had begun with the
+Sicilian rising of 1848.
+
+On December 20, 1849, there appeared the following statement in a
+Swiss paper: "In front of Manin's door was a stone on which his name
+was engraved. The Austrians broke it to pieces; but the smallest
+fragments of it have been collected by the Venetians as sacred
+relics."
+
+So ended the revolutionary period of 1848 and 1849. Those Revolutions
+had displayed, in a way unknown before, the strength and the weakness
+of the national principle. The enthusiasm for liberty, and the power
+of generous self-sacrifice, which was kindled by the feeling for a
+common language and common traditions, had been shown in each of the
+Revolutions; and they had struck a blow at the merely diplomatic and
+military settlements of States which produced a lasting effect. But,
+on the other hand, with the love for men of the same race and language
+there awoke in all these nations, with terrible force, the hatred and
+scorn for men of other races and languages; and thus, while the
+leaders of the movement taught tyrants their danger, they supplied
+them at the same time with a defence against that danger,--with
+another justification of the old maxim of tyrants, "Divide et impera."
+And so the work of the Revolutionists did not fail; but yet it could
+not achieve all the noble ends for which it was intended.
+
+The time which followed the defeat of the Revolutionists was to show
+both their failure and their success. The dreary period of reaction
+from 1849 to 1859 could not have been expected by any sane man to be of
+long duration. But the time of reawakening was not like the time of the
+first dawn of hope. The work which had been ennobled by the thought of
+Mazzini, by the sword of Garibaldi, by the statesmanship of Manin,
+and the eloquent enthusiasm of Ciceruacchio, was to be carried to
+completion by the intrigues of Cavour, and the interested speculation
+of Louis Napoleon. In the place of the wisdom of Robert Blum, and the
+wild popular energy of Hecker, was to arise the stern hard policy of
+"blood and iron"; and, as Germany had failed to absorb Prussia, Prussia
+was finally to absorb Germany. The blunders and prejudices of the
+leaders of the Vienna Revolution were to be reproduced by Schmerling,
+without their self-sacrifice or generosity. But at the same time
+Francis Deak, the wise statesman, who had stood aside in dislike of the
+fiercer and more unscrupulous policy of other Magyar leaders, was to
+re-establish gradually for his country the freedom which she had lost
+for a time during the Revolutionary struggle. The race struggles of the
+Austro-Hungarian Empire were to be renewed in a milder form, and the
+solution of their difficulties postponed to a distant future; while the
+yet more dangerous problems of Socialism, which had forced themselves
+in so untimely a manner on the citizens of Vienna and Berlin, were
+gradually to assume ever greater prominence in the affairs of Europe.
+Thus it will be seen that the Revolutions of 1848 to '49 were but the
+climax of movements of which we have not yet seen the end; but, for
+good and for evil, they left a mark on Europe, which is never likely to
+be entirely effaced.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[20] I must admit that my estimate of Goergei is, in many respects,
+lower than that of men whose opportunities of observing the facts, and
+whose general candour of judgment entitles their opinion to great
+respect. I can only plead that the severest judgments which I have
+passed upon him are founded upon his own memoirs; that is, partly upon
+the facts narrated in them, and partly upon the tone in which they are
+written.
+
+[21] This was the title of the Emperor Ferdinand in his capacity of
+King of Hungary.
+
+[22] It will observed that the Roumanians used, wherever possible, the
+old Roman titles, in order to assert their connection with ancient
+Rome.
+
+[23] The Council which advised the Ban.
+
+[24] A Bolognese priest, who followed Garibaldi partly in the character
+of a chaplain and partly as aide-de-camp. See "The Disciples," by Mrs.
+E. H. King.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+    A.
+
+    Aargau, 152, 155, 160.
+
+    Agram, Bishop of in Gaj's time, 99;
+      Assembly at, 144-5;
+      May Meeting at, 318-19;
+      contrasted with Prague, 333.
+
+    Albrecht (Professor), 92. _See_ also Arch Dukes.
+
+    Alessandria, occupation of, 3;
+      in 1821, 39-40, 43;
+      threatened by Radetzky, 182.
+
+    Alexander I. of Russia, character of, 3-4;
+      relations with Mme de Kruedener, 7;
+      plan of Holy Alliance, 8;
+      supports Sardinia, 27;
+      attitude in 1820, 32;
+      treatment of Greece, 46-7;
+      death, 49.
+
+    Alfieri, Vittorio, influence of, 23;
+      Manzoni's feeling to, 25, 54;
+      influence in Piedmont, 35.
+
+    Allemandi, 350.
+
+    Alliance, Holy. _See_ Holy Alliance.
+
+    Altieri, Cardinal, 417.
+
+    Ancona, in 1831, 61, 118;
+      treatment of by French, 159;
+      by Triumvirs, 464-5;
+      fall of, 485.
+
+    Andrian, 208.
+
+    Anfossi, Augusto, conspiracy against Charles Felix, 61;
+      early career, 263;
+      in Milan, 263, 265, 267, 269;
+      death, 337.
+
+    ---- Francesco, 365.
+
+    Antologia, of Florence, 54-5.
+
+    Antonelli, Cardinal, supports Italian war, 346;
+      suspected of treachery, 348.
+
+    Antonini, General, 469.
+
+    Apponyi, Chancellor of Hungary, 201.
+
+    Arch Duchess Sophia, opposed to Metternich, 207;
+      favours Jellacic, 288;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 460.
+
+    Arch Duke Albert, in March insurrection, 239, 241.
+
+    ---- Francis Charles, in Imperial Council, 207;
+      appealed to by merchants, 231;
+      attitude to Metternich, 241;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 460.
+
+    ---- John, promises to Italy, 21;
+      his toast at Cologne, 209-10;
+      his liberalism, 241;
+      pressure on Metternich, 243;
+      made administrator, 363, 373;
+      forms new ministry, 374;
+      opens Viennese Parliament, 378;
+      intervenes in Croatian question, 383.
+
+    ---- Louis, helps to govern Vienna, 206;
+      opposes removal of Hye, 207;
+      warns Metternich, 232;
+      his proposal about Windischgraetz, 240;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 460.
+
+    ---- Maximilian, in March rising, 242-3.
+
+    ---- Sigismund, 268.
+
+    ---- Stephen, deserts Hungary, 395, 432;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 461.
+
+    Arcioni, at defence of Rome, 475.
+
+    Armellini, in provisional government, 423;
+      Triumvir, 464; feelings to French, 473.
+
+    Arndt, relations with Stein, 10;
+      professor, 12;
+      in 1816, 12;
+      restored by Frederick William IV., 94;
+      thanked at Frankfort, 361; vote on truce of Malmo, 374-5.
+
+    Arthaber, 245.
+
+    Ascoli, Duke of, 34-5.
+
+    ---- conspiracy in, 464-5.
+
+    Auersperg, General, in October rising, 391, 393.
+
+    Auerswald, death of, 376.
+
+    Austria, Arch Duchy of, relations with Bohemia and Hungary, 250-3.
+
+    ---- Emperors of. _See_ Francis, Ferdinand, Francis Joseph.
+
+    ---- Empire of, special evils of in Italy, 20-22;
+      German language in, 89-90;
+      policy of, 132-3;
+      in Switzerland, 151, 159;
+      political character of, 209;
+      Moering's view of, _see_ Moering;
+      Kossuth's view of, 227-8;
+      attitude of Bohemians towards, 298-300;
+      of Viennese towards, 304;
+      proposed federation of, 333;
+      Radetzky's position in, 335.
+
+    ---- Estates of. _See_ Estates.
+
+    ---- House of, policy towards Serbs, 281-2;
+      feeling to Italy, 363;
+      deposed in Hungary, 458-61.
+
+    Avezzana, 474.
+
+
+    B.
+
+    Bach, his soup kitchen, 212;
+      his treatment of Rieger, 379.
+
+    Baden, from 1815-47, 219-20;
+      movement in in 1847-8, 220-1;
+      programme of leaders of, 232-3;
+      insurrections in, 361, 377-8, 485. _See_ also Struve, Hecker, and
+          Republicans, South German.
+
+    Balbo, Prospero, supposed liberalism of, 35;
+      in 1821, 38-9;
+      inconsistencies, 120-1.
+
+    ---- Cesare, early career, 121;
+      Speranze d'Italia, 121-2.
+
+    Banat, 449, 456.
+
+    Bandiera Brothers, 118-20, 368.
+
+    Bassermann, 221.
+
+    Bassi, Ugo, 475, 487.
+
+    Batthyanyi, Louis, in 1839, 86;
+      in 1857, 202;
+      Prime Minister, 246;
+      his difficulties, 279-80;
+      his appeal to Szeklers, 316;
+      his interview with Jellacic, 383-4;
+      feeling about Lamberg, 386;
+      his resignation, 388;
+      attempted mediation, 462
+
+    Battles, of White Hill, 250-1;
+      of Goito first, 341;
+      second, 356;
+      of Cornuta, 349;
+      of Curtatone, 355;
+      of Somma Campagna, 364;
+      of Custozza, 364;
+      of Schwechat, 396-7, 432;
+      of Novara, 429.
+
+    Bava, General, 341, 363-4.
+
+    Bavaria, treatment of by Metternich, 13;
+      protest against concluding act of Vienna, 18;
+      resistance of to Metternich, 218;
+      revolution of 1848 in, 222;
+      quarrel of with Baden, 377.
+
+    Beauharnais, 21, 25.
+
+    Bem, early career, 394;
+      defence of Vienna, 396;
+      relations with Kossuth and Goergei, 436;
+      first campaign in Transylvania, 446-7;
+      contrasted with Csanyi, 449-50;
+      final struggle of, 492-3;
+      flies to Turkey, 494.
+
+    Bentinck, Lord William, 21, 44.
+
+    Berczenczei, 440.
+
+    Bergamo, 197, 268.
+
+    Berlin, March rising in, 247-9;
+      discontents in, 402-3;
+      riots in, 405-6;
+      struggle of Assembly in, 409-14.
+
+    Bern, 152, 154, 156.
+
+    Bible, Metternich's view of, 6.
+
+    Bini, Carlo, 55.
+
+    Blasendorf, 312-14.
+
+    Blum, Robert, first appearance, 92;
+      sympathy with Ronge, 95;
+      victory of, 96;
+      sympathy with Poland, 192;
+      in March rising, 223-5;
+      influence in Preparatory Parliament, 293, 295;
+      hinders May rising, 361;
+      view of Truce of Malmo, 374-5;
+      action in Frankfort riot, 375-6;
+      difference with Hecker, 376-7;
+      his republicanism, 377-8;
+      in Vienna, 393-7;
+      his death and its effects, 397-8.
+
+    Blumenthal, Major von, 412-13.
+
+    Bohemia, division of classes in, 204;
+      national feeling in, 206;
+      history of in 17th and 18th centuries, 250-3;
+      revival of language in, 253-4;
+      March rising in, 254-60;
+      race difficulties in, 289-92;
+      relations of to Frankfort Parliament, 295-302;
+      effect on of May rising, 308, 310;
+      peculiarity of its position, 333;
+      feeling towards Italy, 335;
+      triumphed over by Frankfort Parliament, 363;
+      Deputies of in Viennese Parliament, 387, 392;
+      Deputies at Olmuetz, 415-16;
+      at Kremsier, 416;
+      treatment of in Constitution of 1849, 455. _See_ also Slavs,
+          Prague, Rieger.
+
+    Bologna, in 1830, 60;
+      attitude to Corsica, 60;
+      sympathy with Lombards, 354;
+      in August, 1848, 368-9;
+      struggle of in 1849, 466, 477-9.
+
+    Bolza, 144, 183, 267.
+
+    Bonn, 412.
+
+    Borrosch, tries to save Latour, 391;
+      at Kremsier, 416.
+
+    Bozzelli, 177.
+
+    Brandenburg, General, 408, 409-10.
+
+    ---- City, 409, 413-14.
+
+    Brescia, 189, 261;
+      March rising in, 268-9;
+      Anfossi's service at, 365;
+      Garibaldi's march to, 356;
+      rising in 1849, 428-9.
+
+    Breslau, 406, 412.
+
+    Brunetti. _See_ Ciceruacchio.
+
+    Buda-Pesth, March movement in, 278-9;
+      contrasted with Presburg, 279-80;
+      death of Lamberg in, 388;
+      question of its defence, 438;
+      besieged by Goergei, 491.
+
+    Bund, constitution of in 1815, 8;
+      effect on of Carlsbad Decrees, 17;
+      strengthened in 1834, 90;
+      proposed reform of, 223.
+
+    Bundestag, duty of, 9;
+      decrees of in 1830, 50;
+      in Schleswig-Holstein question, 165;
+      action of in March, 1848, 224;
+      relations of with Frankfort Parliament, 295, 372-3.
+
+    Buonaparte, Charles Lucien, at Genoa, 143;
+      in Venice, 192-3;
+      advocates Italian Assembly, 419.
+
+    ---- Napoleon I., 1, 2, 20-1.
+
+    ---- Louis Napoleon, expulsion of from Switzerland, 154;
+      letter on Cavaignac's expedition, 467;
+      elected President, 467, 470;
+      answer to Roman deputation, 470.
+
+    Buonaparte, Pierre, 471.
+
+    Buonarotti, 70-1.
+
+    Burschenschaft, 14-15.
+
+
+    C.
+
+    Camarilla, 244, 381.
+
+    Camphausen, his policy, 370;
+      his fall, 405.
+
+    Campo Formio, Treaty of, 20, 23.
+
+    Canino, Prince of. _See_ Buonaparte, Charles Lucien.
+
+    Canning, George, his foreign policy, 48;
+      Metternich's opinion of him, 48;
+      treatment of Greece, 49;
+      his death, 50.
+
+    Capo d'Istria, 47.
+
+    Carbonari, 4;
+      rise and work of, 29-30;
+      in 1820, 31-2, 33;
+      Mazzini's relations with, 56-8.
+
+    Carlowitz, importance of to Serbs, 283, 284;
+      May meeting at, 311-12;
+      June attack on, 319-20;
+      contrasted with Prague, 333.
+
+    ---- General von, 225.
+
+    Carlsbad Decrees, 17, 221.
+
+    Carlsruhe, 221.
+
+    Carpathians, 108, 109.
+
+    Casati, honours Confalonieri, 144;
+      character and position, 185;
+      behaviour in smoking riots, 197;
+      in March rising, 264-6, 267;
+      in Lombard war, 336;
+      policy of, 337;
+      Mazzini's relations with, 342, 349, 365;
+      action in May rising, 357;
+      feeling to Charles Albert, 358.
+
+    Castellani, 464.
+
+    Castlereagh, in 1815, 2;
+      in 1821, 44;
+      suicide, 48.
+
+    Cavaignac, 467.
+
+    Cavour, 181.
+
+    Cernuschi, conduct in March rising, 264;
+      arrested in May, 357-8;
+      his proposal in Rome, 487.
+
+    Charles Albert, early career, 37;
+      visits hospitals, 39;
+      action in 1821, 40, 41, 42;
+      accession, 61;
+      feelings of Italians to, 62-3;
+      Mazzini's letter to, 63-4;
+      position in Italy, 64-6;
+      conduct in 1846, 136-7, 147;
+      sympathies with Sonderbund, 157;
+      attitude in February 1848, 180-2;
+      action about Lombard rising, 337-8;
+      mistakes and victories, 340-1;
+      Pope's suspicions of, 346;
+      treatment of Venetia, 348-50, 359;
+      action about fusion, 350-1;
+      causes of influence, 351-2;
+      later victories and defeats, 355-6;
+      betrayal of Milan, 356-7;
+      Rossi's suspicions of, 420;
+      Guerrazzi's feeling to, 423-4;
+      rebuked by Pope, 425;
+      last war with Austria, 426, 428, 429;
+      Roman feeling towards, 427;
+      abdication, 429-30.
+
+    Charles Felix, his politics, 36-7;
+      accession, 41;
+      appeal to Charles Albert, 42;
+      system of government, 43;
+      treatment of Mazzini, 59;
+      conspiracy against, 61.
+
+    ---- VI. of Germany, treatment of Serbs, 282.
+
+    Christian VIII. of Denmark, policy of in 1846, 163-4;
+      in 1848, 371-2.
+
+    Chrzanowski, 428.
+
+    Ciceruacchio, his myth of Pius IX., 142-3;
+      his suppression of clerical conspiracy, 145;
+      his demands for reform, 178;
+      desires Lombard war, 339.
+
+    Civita Vecchia, 467, 471, 472-3.
+
+    Coblenz, resistance to King of Prussia, 412.
+
+    Cologne, Archbishop of, quarrel of with Frederick William III., 93;
+      released, 94.
+
+    ---- socialism in, 403.
+
+    Como, 189;
+      March rising in, 268.
+
+    Concordat of Seven, 152, 155.
+
+    Confalonieri, Federigo, position and work, 25-6;
+      in 1821, 36;
+      imprisoned, 44-6;
+      effect of death, 144.
+
+    Congress of Laybach, 34, 39, 40, 46.
+
+    ---- of Verona, 48.
+
+    ---- of Vienna, 2, 3.
+
+    Consalvi, Cardinal, policy, 3;
+      protest about Ferrara, 146.
+
+    Constitution, promise of in Bundes-act, 8;
+      granted by King of Wuertemberg, 13;
+      promised by King of Prussia, 16;
+      crushed in 1819, 17-18.
+
+    ---- for Austria, proposed by Kossuth, 227-8;
+      of April 1848, 305-6;
+      of May, 308;
+      of March 1849, 455-8.
+
+    ---- of Bohemia, old, 251-4.
+
+    ---- of Germany, devised at Frankfort, 415.
+
+    ---- of Hungary, 73-5.
+
+    ---- of Naples in 1848, 178, 199.
+
+    ---- of Piedmont, 182.
+
+    ---- of Prussia in April 1848, 403-4.
+
+    ---- of Sicily, destruction of, 2;
+      in 1820, 33.
+
+    ---- Spanish, 31;
+      in Naples, 32, 34;
+      in Sicily, 33;
+      in Piedmont, 36, 41, 43.
+
+    ---- of Tuscany, 180.
+
+    Corcelles, 485.
+
+    Cornuta, 349.
+
+    Correnti, 264.
+
+    Corsica, 60.
+
+    Corsini, 128.
+
+    Cosenza, 119-20.
+
+    County Assemblies of Hungary, 74.
+
+    Cracow, 129-32, 134-5.
+
+    Cremona, 189;
+      March rising in, 269.
+
+    Crnojevic, 311.
+
+    Croatia, early traditions of, 97-8;
+      language movement in, 98-100;
+      internal struggles, 104-5;
+      treatment of by Magyars, 106-7;
+      sympathy of with Saxons, 116;
+      Kossuth's view of in March 1848, 227-8;
+      soldiers of in Milan, 269;
+      in Venice, 271-3;
+      demands of in March 1848, 276-7;
+      opposition of to "Twelve Points," 287-8;
+      relations of with Ferdinand, 310;
+      with Serbs, 318-19;
+      demands of in Slav Congress, 327;
+      feeling in about Italy, 335-6;
+      sympathy of with Roumanians, 439;
+      attitude of to Constitution of 1849, 455;
+      influence of Jellacic in, 457.
+
+    Csanyi, 449, 450-1.
+
+    Curtatone, Battle of, 355-6.
+
+
+    D.
+
+    Dahlmann, in 1837, 92;
+      in 1840, 94;
+      opposes truce of Malmo, 374;
+      subsequent action in Parliament, 374, 376.
+
+    Dalmatia, 97-8.
+
+    Dandolo, Enrico, 483.
+
+    Dante, influence of on Mazzini, 55-6.
+
+    Darmstadt. _See_ Hesse.
+
+    Dawkins, Consul, 488.
+
+    D'Azeglio, Massimo, "I Casi di Romagna," 128-9;
+      championship of Charles Albert, 137-8;
+      praise of Gizzi, 140;
+      demands Constitution, 181;
+      puts pressure on Pope, 339.
+
+    Deak, in 1832, 81-2;
+      rebuke to Gaj, 100;
+      resignation in 1843, 103;
+      helps in reforms, 201-2;
+      position in first Ministry, 279-80;
+      rebuke to Saxons, 315;
+      attempted mediation, 462;
+      final triumph, 496.
+
+    Debreczin, 438.
+
+    De Laugier, 355.
+
+    Del Caretto, 177.
+
+    Della Torre, in 1821, 42-3.
+
+    Dembinski, made commander, 439;
+      quarrel with Goergei, 452-3;
+      dismissal, 454.
+
+    Denmark, relations of with Schleswig-Holstein, 164, 371-2;
+      war with Germany, 373-5.
+
+    Dessewfy, in 1825, 76.
+
+    Deym, Count, 301, 323.
+
+    Dresden, 223-5.
+
+    Durando, Giacomo, conspiracy of, 61;
+      book on Italy, 125-6;
+      demands Constitution, 181.
+
+    ---- Giovanni, made Papal general, 339-40;
+      denounces Radetzky, 340;
+      relations with Charles Albert and Manin, 345;
+      at Cornuta, 349;
+      defence of Vicenza, 349;
+      surrenders Vicenza, 359.
+
+    Duesseldorf, resistance to King of Prussia, 412.
+
+
+    E.
+
+    Endlicher, Professor, 234.
+
+    England, policy of in 1815, 2;
+      "madness of," 49;
+      relations of with Cracow, 131-2;
+      Gagern's feeling to, 233;
+      action in Sicily, 469.
+
+    Eoetvoes, controversy with Kossuth, 200;
+      in first Ministry, 279;
+      in deputation to Vienna, 387;
+      retirement, 462.
+
+    Estates of Bohemia, 208, 253.
+
+    ---- of Lower Austria, 204, 210;
+      promises of Metternich to, 225;
+      action in March rising, 234-9.
+
+    ---- of Schleswig-Holstein, 371.
+
+    Esterhazy in Hungarian Ministry, 279.
+
+    Ewald, protest in 1837, 92.
+
+
+    F.
+
+    Fabbri, 418.
+
+    Faster, 255, 260, 320, 331.
+
+    Favre, Jules, 476.
+
+    Ferdinand of Austria, accession, 85-6;
+      attitude to Croats, 106;
+      contrasted with Kossuth, 107;
+      feeling of Vienna towards, 206-8, 235, 245-6;
+      March deputation to, 234;
+      struggle with Ministers, 244-5;
+      concessions to Viennese, 246-7;
+      to Bohemia, 290;
+      appeal of Bohemians to, 301-2;
+      attitude in May, 308;
+      treatment of Jellacic, 310;
+      of Roumanians, 318;
+      Palacky's gratitude to, 322;
+      supposed friendship with St Januarius, 352;
+      return to Vienna, 378;
+      attitude towards rival races, 381-5;
+      treatment of Hungarians, 385, 386-7, 388;
+      second flight, 393;
+      abdication, 415-16;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 460-1.
+
+    ---- I. of Germany, Bohemian policy, 250;
+      opposition to Turks, 281.
+
+    ---- II. of Germany, Bohemian policy, 251-2.
+
+    ---- III. of Germany, Bohemian policy, 251-2.
+
+    ---- I. of Naples, destroys Sicilian Constitution, 2;
+      influence of Filangieri on, 29;
+      attitude in 1816, 29;
+      in 1820, 82;
+      goes to Laybach, 34-5;
+      treachery of, 39;
+      tyranny, 44.
+
+    Ferdinand II. of Naples, government of Sicily, 169-70;
+      his birthday, 173;
+      concessions, 177-8;
+      joins Lombard war, 338;
+      jealousy of Charles Albert, 346;
+      May coup d'etat, 352-3;
+      re-conquers Sicily, 468-70.
+
+    ---- of Spain, tyranny, 30;
+      in 1820, 31.
+
+    ---- of Tuscany, 53.
+
+    Ferrara, Austrian claim to, 3;
+      first Austrian occupation, 146-50;
+      expulsion of Austrians from, 354;
+      second occupation, 368;
+      third attack on, 466;
+      capture of, 477;
+      vote of, 477.
+
+    Ferrari, 349.
+
+    Ferrero, action in 1821, 40.
+
+    Ficquelmont, 186, 261, 302.
+
+    Filangieri, 29.
+
+    Fischhof, on March 13th, 235-9;
+      appeals about Press Law, 304;
+      tries to save Latour, 391-2;
+      at Kremsier, 416.
+
+    Fiume, 461.
+
+    Florence, 180, 424-5, 468.
+
+    Forli, 138, 422.
+
+    Foscolo, Ugo, early career, 23;
+      writes "Jacopo Ortis," 24;
+      "Il Conciliatore," 26.
+
+    Fossombroni, his policy, 53-4;
+      effect of his death, 128.
+
+    France in 1815, 2;
+      Mazzini in, 68-9;
+      sympathy with Poland, 129;
+      relations with Poland, 129;
+      with Cracow, 131;
+      in 1848, 215-18, 221, 225, 256;
+      treatment of Roman Republic, 469;
+      ambassador in Sicily, 469.
+
+    Francis, Emperor of Austria, relations with Metternich, 1;
+      popularity in Rhine Province, 12;
+      treatment of Hungary, 73, 75;
+      death, 85;
+      relations with Gaj, 99;
+      concessions to Cracow, 130;
+      rebuke of Salzburgers, 206;
+      effect of death, 206;
+      dislike of Jesuits, 211;
+      treatment of Estates of Lower Austria, 240;
+      treatment of Serbs, 283.
+
+    Francis IV. of Modena, character and policy, 41;
+      treachery, 50, 58;
+      attitude to Charles Albert, 64.
+
+    ---- V. of Modena, 149-50.
+
+    ---- of Naples, supposed liberalism, 30;
+      tyranny of, 62.
+
+    ---- Joseph, Kossuth's hopes from, 227;
+      accession, 416;
+      summons Kremsier Parliament, 416;
+      dissolves it, 417;
+      issues new Constitution, 455;
+      hostility to Hungary, 461;
+      appeals to Russians, 491.
+
+    Frankfort, Decrees at in 1832, 50, 221.
+
+    ---- Preparatory Parliament at, 292-7.
+
+    ---- Committee of Fifty at, 297.
+
+    ---- riots at, 375-6.
+
+    ---- Constituent Assembly at, proposed, 232;
+      early action of, 360-3;
+      causes of loss of power, 397;
+      failure in Schleswig-Holstein question, 370-5;
+      attitude of towards Prussian Parliament, 414;
+      offers Crown of Germany to Frederick William, 415;
+      fall of, 484-5.
+
+    Frankl, note to 399.
+
+    Frederick II. of Prussia, attitude to German literature, 89.
+
+    ---- William III. of Prussia, in 1815, 2-3;
+      feeling to Holy Alliance, 7-8;
+      relations with Schmaltz, 10-11;
+      scruples, 16;
+      quarrel with Archbishop of Cologne, 93;
+      character and death, 93-4.
+
+    ---- William IV. of Prussia, character, 94;
+      relations with Metternich, 163;
+      summons to Estates, 165-6;
+      conduct in March rising, 226, 246-9;
+      treatment of Posen, 370;
+      declares war on Denmark, 373;
+      makes truce, 373-4;
+      appoints Brandenburg, 408;
+      interview with Jacoby, 408-9;
+      dissolves parliament, 413-14;
+      recalls deputies from Frankfort, 484;
+      suppresses Baden rising, 485;
+      _see_ also Prussia, Frankfort, Jacoby.
+
+    Freyburg, Canton, 160-1.
+
+    ---- Town, 162.
+
+    Froebel, 397.
+
+    Fuester, 234.
+
+
+    G.
+
+    Gabler, 254-5, 258.
+
+    Gaeta, 422, 425.
+
+    Gagern, Heinrich von, influence in Darmstadt, 222;
+      at Heidelberg, 283.
+
+    Gaj, his Illyrian movement, 98-9;
+      his answer to Deak, 100;
+      defeat of his work, 100;
+      in March movement in Vienna, 276;
+      suspected by Greek clergy, 283-4;
+      his attitude to Serbs, 319;
+      his feelings to Italy, 335.
+
+    Galicia, insurrection of, 1846, 132-4, 140;
+      Maria Theresa's treatment of, 253;
+      April rising in, 306-7;
+      demands in Slav Congress, 326;
+      wish for separation, 327.
+
+    Galletti, General, 474.
+
+    ---- Minister, 421.
+
+    Garibaldi, repulsed by Charles Albert, 342;
+      in Lombardy, 366-7;
+      excluded from Bologna, 419;
+      defeats Zucchi, 464;
+      invited to Sicily, 469;
+      defeats Oudinot, 475-6;
+      defeats Neapolitans, 477;
+      quarrel with Roselli, 481-2;
+      struggle by the Vascello, 482-6;
+      popularity, 485;
+      advice to Assembly, 486;
+      final effort, 487.
+
+    Gavazzi, 419.
+
+    Gedeon, General, 444.
+
+    Genoa, treatment of, by England, 2;
+      in 1821, 42-3;
+      in 1847-8, 180-2;
+      sends volunteers to Lombardy, 337;
+      final insurrection in, 474.
+
+    Germany, aspirations of, 3;
+      religious feeling in, 5;
+      relations of with Bund, 8-9;
+      Stein's feeling towards, 8-10;
+      discontent in, 12-16;
+      condition of from 1819 to 1840, 90-1;
+      literary and religious movement in, 91-6;
+      question of unity of, 12, 210, 221-3, 226, 232, 236, 238, 248-9,
+          292-4, 407, 415;
+      relations of to Vienna, 209;
+      to Bohemia, 295-302;
+      feeling in to Italy, 335, 346;
+      relations of with Prussia, 376, 378;
+      effect on, of fall of Vienna, 398, 400;
+      fall of liberties of, 484-5.
+
+    Germany, South, 218-22, 232.
+
+    Gervinus, in 1837, 92.
+
+    Gioberti, writes for "Young Italy," 69;
+      early career, 122-3;
+      "Il Primato," 123-5;
+      quarrel with Jesuits, 122, 125;
+      affected by Pius IX.'s election, 138;
+      plans for restoring Pope, 425.
+
+    Giskra, 307-8.
+
+    Gizzi, Cardinal, 140-2.
+
+    Goegg, 220.
+
+    Goethe, influence on Foscolo, 24;
+      opinion of Manzoni, 25.
+
+    Goito. _See_ Battles.
+
+    Goldmark, on March 13th, 237;
+      tries to reconcile Germans and Bohemians, 325;
+      saves Rieger from violence, 379;
+      tries to save Latour, 391.
+
+    Goergei, early career, 433-4;
+      made commander, 434;
+      quarrels with Kossuth, 434-9;
+      feelings to Bem, 436;
+      removed from command, 439;
+      quarrel with Dembinski, 452-4;
+      political creed, 435, 458-9;
+      captures Komorn, 490;
+      besieges Pesth, 491;
+      made Dictator, 493;
+      his surrender, 493-4.
+
+    Goerres, 12, 17.
+
+    Greece, rising in, 46-7, 49.
+
+    Greek Church, 99, 112, 283-4, 313.
+
+    Gregory XVI., treatment of Gaj, 99;
+      unpopularity of, 125;
+      Renzi's charges against, 126;
+      state of government at death of, 138-9;
+      Metternich's attitude to, 146;
+      denounces Swiss reformers, 153;
+      reforms proposed to him, 347;
+      Louis Napoleon's insurrection against, 470.
+
+    Grillo, Giovanni, 171-2.
+
+    Grimm brothers, in 1837, 92.
+
+    Guerrazzi, literary leadership, 54;
+      liberalism of, 148;
+      imprisoned, 180;
+      plans for Leopold, 423-4;
+      in provisional government, 423-4;
+      opposes Mazzini, 424-5;
+      opposes Gioberti, 425;
+      failure of his government, 467-8.
+
+    Guizot, relations with Metternich, 150;
+      policy in Switzerland, 162.
+
+
+    H.
+
+    Hanover, constitution granted, 90;
+      abolished, 91;
+      protest of professors in, 91-2.
+
+    ---- King of, resists March movement, 226;
+      opposes Frankfort Assembly, 373.
+
+    Hansemann, 403, 405, 407, 411.
+
+    Hapsburg. _See_ Austria, house of.
+
+    Haulik, Bishop, 105.
+
+    Haynau, 428-9, 489-90.
+
+    Hecker, causes of popularity, 219-20;
+      attitude of at Heidelberg, 233;
+      effect of insurrection, 376-7.
+
+    Heidelberg, March meeting at, 232.
+
+    Herbst, Dr., note to 134.
+
+    Hermannstadt, importance in Transylvania, 441;
+      treatment by Bem, 449;
+      fall of, 492.
+
+    Hesse Cassel, March rising in, 222.
+
+    ---- Darmstadt, March rising in, 222;
+      position of Gagern in, 233.
+
+    ---- Duke of, his action in Mainz, 361.
+
+    Hofer, Andrew, 10.
+
+    Holy Alliance, end of, 50. _See_ also Alexander, Kruedener (Mme de),
+          Frederick William III., Metternich.
+
+    Honveds, 433.
+
+    Hormayr, 204.
+
+    Horn, Uffo, 258.
+
+    Hoyos, 307.
+
+    Hrabowsky, 312, 320.
+
+    Hungary, difference from other countries, 73-5;
+      division of races in, 96, 276, 288;
+      relations of with Croatia, 97, 276-7, 287-8;
+      growth of national feeling, 106-7;
+      "nobles" 102-3;
+      compared with Lombardy, 191;
+      feelings of, for county government, 201-3;
+      relations of, with Vienna, 209, 226-30;
+      Gagern's admiration of, 233;
+      responsible ministry in, 246-7;
+      relations of with Bohemia, 250, 253;
+      treatment of by Ferdinand, 384-7;
+      invasion of by Jellacic, 388-9;
+      position of after Schwechat, 432-3;
+      division of parties in, 433-9;
+      later struggles in, 433-63;
+      relations of with Venice, 489-90;
+      final effort of, 490-2;
+      fall of, 493-4.
+
+    Hungary, Diet of, in 1825, 75-6;
+      in 1832, 81;
+      in 1840, 100;
+      in 1843, 102;
+      in 1849, 439, 441.
+
+    Hye, share in debating Society, 207;
+      denounces annexation of Cracow, 212;
+      hesitations in March, 234-5;
+      appealed to by Windischgraetz, 245;
+      attitude about press law, 303-4.
+
+    ---- House of Magnates of, their concession to Croats, 105.
+
+
+    I.
+
+    Illyrian Movement, 99, 283.
+
+    Imola, conspiracy in, 464. _See_ also Pius IX.
+
+    Innspruck, 306, 310, 393.
+
+    Inquisition, 465-6.
+
+    Istria, influence of Venice in, 97.
+
+    Italy, conquerors' promises to, 20-1;
+      condition of, in 1820-30, 52-3;
+      question of unity of, 56-8, 170, 190, 419, 423;
+      contrasted with Hungary, 117-18;
+      position of Charles Albert in, 62-4;
+      relations of with Switzerland, 157, 159;
+      feelings of other races to, 335-6;
+      separateness of struggle in, 336;
+      feeling of Frankfort parliament to, 362-3;
+      of Viennese to, 387, 389-90;
+      feelings in towards Roumanians, 439;
+      final struggles in, 463-88.
+
+    ---- Young. _See_ Mazzini.
+
+
+    J.
+
+    Jacoby defies King of Prussia, 409;
+      interview with Blumenthal, 412-13.
+
+    Jahn, 14-15, 16, 94.
+
+    Jancu, career in Transylvania, 443;
+      suspicions of Kossuth, 457;
+      Kossuth's negotiations with, 492.
+
+    Jellacic, elected Ban, 288;
+      in April and May, 310;
+      advances to Serbs, 318-19;
+      feelings to Italy, 335;
+      feelings of Viennese to, 380;
+      position in June, 383;
+      interview with Batthyanyi, 383-4;
+      change of position, 384;
+      invades Hungary, 388;
+      Dictator, 388;
+      his defeats, 390;
+      marches against Vienna, 393;
+      publishes Constitution of 1849, 457.
+
+    Jesuits, attacks on in Saxony, 95;
+      Gioberti's quarrel with, 122, 125;
+      influence at Rome, 126;
+      in Tuscany, 128, 148;
+      in Switzerland, 156, 157;
+      expulsion of from Rome demanded, 178;
+      from Turin, 181;
+      hatred of in Vienna, 211;
+      in Bavaria, 222;
+      Anfossi's hostility to, 263;
+      attacks on in Brescia, 268;
+      propaganda of against Greek Church, 282;
+      hatred of Rossi, 419.
+
+    John, Arch Duke. _See_ Arch Duke.
+
+    Joseph I. of Germany, his treatment of Serbs, 282.
+
+    ---- II. of Germany, his policy, 5;
+      his agrarian reforms, 81;
+      Germanising attempts of, 89-90;
+      reforms in Transylvania, 110-11;
+      policy in Bohemia, 253;
+      denounced by Hungarians, 460.
+
+    Jozipovic, 104-5.
+
+    Jungmann, 254.
+
+
+    K.
+
+    Kikinda. _See_ Velika Kikinda.
+
+    Kiss, victory over Serbs, 385-6;
+      struggle with Russians, 491-2.
+
+    Klapka, captures Komorn, 490;
+      his defence of it, 494.
+
+    Klausenburg, 316, 441, 444, 446.
+
+    Knicsanin, 320, 385.
+
+    Kollar, 254, 283.
+
+    Kolowrat, relations with Metternich, 206, 241;
+      founds College of Censorship, 214;
+      mistakes in March, 231-2;
+      attitude to Bohemians, 260;
+      in March Ministry, 302.
+
+    Komorn, 490, 494.
+
+    Kossuth, 51;
+      character and early career, 83-4;
+      imprisoned, 85;
+      released, 86;
+      starts "Pesti Hirlap," 100;
+      attacks Slavs, 101-2;
+      championship of Jozipovic, 105;
+      contrasted with Ferdinand, 107;
+      sympathy with Poland, 129;
+      dispute with Eoetvoes, 200-1;
+      growth of power, 201-3;
+      programme of reform, 201-2;
+      speech of March 3rd, 226-9;
+      its effects, 229, 232, 236, 238;
+      his welcome in Vienna, 246;
+      position of in March Ministry, 279-80;
+      attitude of to Serbs, 284;
+      to Croats, 287-8;
+      to Ferdinand in May, 309;
+      suspected by Bohemians, 332;
+      inconsistencies about Italy, 336;
+      feelings of Viennese towards, 380, 384;
+      treatment of Croatian army, 384;
+      urges advance of Hungarians, 395-6;
+      position after Schwechat, 432;
+      appoints Goergei, 433;
+      quarrels with Goergei, 433-9;
+      relations with Bem, 436;
+      order in October, 441;
+      relations with Csanyi, 449;
+      appoints Vetter, 454;
+      issues Declaration of Independence, 458-62;
+      causes of power, 462;
+      relations with Manin, 489-90;
+      final struggles, 490-2;
+      fall, 493.
+
+    Kotzebue, 14, 15.
+
+    Kremsier, Parliament at, 416-17, 454-5.
+
+    Kriny, 171-2.
+
+    Kruedener, Mme de, 7.
+
+    Kuebeck in March ministry, 302.
+
+    Kudler, 212.
+
+    Kukuljevic, 276-7.
+
+    Kuranda, edits "Grenz Boten," 208;
+      argues with Bohemians, 299;
+      appeals against Press Law, 304.
+
+
+    L.
+
+    La Farina, 170, 172, 176.
+
+    Lago Maggiore, 367.
+
+    La Masa, 174, 176.
+
+    Lamberg, 386, 388.
+
+    Lambruschini, 138, 141, 145.
+
+    Latour, Governor at Vienna, 240, 242.
+
+    ---- War Minister, his intrigues, 381-3, 386, 440;
+      sends Lamberg to Pesth, 386;
+      his plot discovered, 389;
+      sends troops to Hungary, 390-1;
+      his death, 381-2.
+
+    Laybach. _See_ Congress of.
+
+    Lazzaroni, 353.
+
+    Le Blanc, Colonel, 473.
+
+    Leghorn, literary movement in, 54-6;
+      revolution in, 180;
+      Mazzini in, 424.
+
+    Legion, of Vienna students, 302, 396, 399-400.
+
+    ---- of Prague, 321.
+
+    Leipzig, sympathy of, with Dahlmann, 92;
+      riot at in 1845, 95-6;
+      March rising in, 223-5.
+      _See_ also University.
+
+    Lemberg, contrasted with Prague, 333.
+
+    Lemenyi, 314.
+
+    Leo XII., 65.
+
+    Leopold I., Emperor of Germany, treatment of Illyrians, 99;
+      of Transylvania, 110;
+      of Serbs, 281.
+
+    ---- II., Emperor of Germany, Bohemian policy, 253;
+      concessions to Serbs, 283.
+
+    ---- I., Grand Duke of Tuscany, contrasted with his successors, 53.
+
+    ---- II., Grand Duke of Tuscany, policy, 53;
+      treatment of Renzi, 128;
+      banishes D'Azeglio, 129;
+      becomes a reformer, 148;
+      relations with Lucca and Modena, 149-50;
+      grants Constitution, 179-80;
+      declares war on Austria, 338;
+      motives of action, 423-4;
+      flight, 424;
+      recalled, 468.
+
+    Lesseps, 479-81.
+
+    Libelt, 321.
+
+    Loehner, his proposal in March, 240;
+      denounces Latour, 389;
+      at Kremsier, 416.
+
+    Lola Montez, 222.
+
+    Lombardy, effect on of Napoleon's wars, 19;
+      weakness of Central Congregation, 21;
+      condition in 1815, 22;
+      Carbonarism in, 30;
+      state in 1821, 44-6;
+      Menz's plans for, 72-3;
+      in 1846, 143-4;
+      government of, 184-6;
+      grievances of, 189-192;
+      February edict in, 214-15;
+      March risings in, 260-9;
+      war in, 336-68;
+      Austrian treachery in, 426;
+      Charles Albert's last war in, 428-9.
+      _See_ also Nazari.
+
+    Louis, Arch Duke. _See_ Arch Duke.
+
+    ---- Napoleon. _See_ Buonaparte.
+
+    ---- Philippe, his conservatism, 50;
+      attitude in 1833, 60;
+      policy in Switzerland, 153, 154, 159. _See_ also Guizot.
+
+    Lucca, political position, 52;
+      relations of with Tuscany, 149, 150.
+
+    Lueders, General, 448.
+
+    Luzern, 152, 153-4, 156, 160, 162.
+
+    Lychnowsky, his death, 376.
+
+
+    M.
+
+    Maestri, 366.
+
+    Magyars, their relations with other races, 96-7;
+      Metternich's hostility to them, 99;
+      their hostility to Croats, 99-102, 107;
+      1st settlement in Hungary, 108;
+      position in Transylvania, 108, 114;
+      relations with Roumanians, 110, 112, 442-3;
+      opposition to Roth, 115-16;
+      relations with Slovaks, 276;
+      with Slavs, 278, 281-2, 284-6, 310-20;
+      attitude in May, 309;
+      quarrel with Bohemians, 332, 387-8;
+      attitude towards Italy, 335-6;
+      relations with Vienna, 387-9, 395, 397.
+
+    Mailath, Anton, 86, 201, 229.
+
+    Mainz, treatment of by Prussians, 361, 404.
+
+    Malghera, 489-90.
+
+    Malmo, truce of, 373-5;
+      its effect in Berlin, 407.
+
+    Mamiani, Terenzio, his banishment, 61;
+      influence at Paris, 123;
+      refuses amnesty, 141;
+      made Minister, 348;
+      policy and fall, 417-18;
+      made Foreign Minister, 421-2;
+      attitude after Pope's fall, 423;
+      interview with Lesseps, 479.
+
+    Manara, in rising in Milan, 269;
+      difficulties in Lombard war, 337;
+      march to Civita Vecchia, 471;
+      controversy with Oudinot, 471-2;
+      at defence of Rome, 474-7;
+      death, 486.
+
+    Manin, promotes railway with Piedmont, 137;
+      his petitions, 193-5;
+      imprisonment, 196;
+      its effect, 270;
+      his release, 271;
+      in March rising, 271-4;
+      influenced by Venetian traditions, 343-4;
+      relations with Durando, 345;
+      welcomes Pepe, 354-5;
+      resists fusion, 358;
+      tries to help Vicenza, 358-9;
+      resignation, 359-60;
+      recall, 367;
+      final struggle, 488-90;
+      surrender, 494;
+      his stone, 494-5.
+
+    Mannheim, 221.
+
+    Mantua, in March rising, 340;
+      captured by Radetzky, 341;
+      fortification of, 348;
+      movements of Radetzky about, 355.
+
+    Manzoni, career and aims, 24-5;
+      growth of influence, 54.
+
+    Margherita, Solaro della, opposed to Gioberti, 123;
+      politics, 137;
+      sympathy with Sonderbund, 157.
+
+    Maria Theresa, agrarian reforms of, 81;
+      treatment of Transylvania, 110, 115;
+      of Bohemia, 253;
+      of Serbs, 282-3.
+
+    Marinovich, 272.
+
+    Maros Vasarhely, 108, 444.
+
+    Maximilian. _See_ Arch Duke.
+
+    Mayerhoffer, 386.
+
+    Mazzini, 51;
+      early career, 55-6;
+      attitude to Carbonari, 56-7;
+      political creed, 57-9;
+      first banishment, 59;
+      first insurrection, 60;
+      letter to Charles Albert, 63-4;
+      personal influence, 66-7;
+      contrasted with other revolutionists, 67-8;
+      founds Young Italy, 68-9;
+      invasion of Savoy, 69-71;
+      impression on Metternich, 71;
+      relation with Brothers Bandiera, 118-20;
+      sympathy with Poland, 129;
+      effect of on working classes, 191;
+      relations with Tommaseo, 194;
+      appeal for Charles Albert, 337-8;
+      visit to Milan, 342;
+      appealed to by Lombard Government, 349;
+      advice rejected, 349-50;
+      protest against fusion, 350-1;
+      opposes May insurrection, 356-7;
+      plan for defence of Milan, 365-6;
+      last struggle in Lombardy, 367;
+      in Leghorn, 424-5;
+      attitude to Charles Albert, 427;
+      work as Triumvir, 464;
+      warned by Ledru Rollin, 470;
+      urges resistance to French, 473;
+      feeling of Lesseps to, 480;
+      repels Corcelles, 485;
+      his final advice to Assembly, 486.
+
+    Mazzoni, 424.
+
+    Medici, last effort in Lombardy, 367;
+      defends Vascello, 483-6.
+
+    Menotti, Ciro, 50.
+
+    Mensdorff, 331.
+
+    Menz, 71-3, 157.
+
+    Meesenhauser, 396.
+
+    Messina, in 1820, 34;
+      Ferdinand's visit to, 169;
+      September rising in, 171.
+
+    Meszaros, in Batthyanyi's Ministry, 279;
+      rebukes Goergei, 453;
+      supersedes Goergei, 492.
+
+    Metternich, Prince, rise to power, 1;
+      system of government, 2;
+      feeling to Alexander, 3-4;
+      to religion, 5-7;
+      opposition to Stein, 8-10;
+      to S. German States, 13;
+      a "moral power," 15;
+      triumph in 1819, 16-18;
+      surprise at movement of 1820, 32;
+      treatment of Lombardy in 1821, 44;
+      of Confalonieri, 44-6;
+      attitude to Greece, 46-7;
+      opinion of Canning, 48;
+      change towards England, 48-9;
+      triumph in 1832, 50-1;
+      policy towards Tuscany, 53;
+      opinion of Mazzini, 71;
+      feelings to Hungary, 73;
+      quarrel with Szechenyi, 78;
+      defeat in 1839, 86-7;
+      attitude to Gaj, 99;
+      denounces Grand Duke of Tuscany, 128;
+      treatment of Cracow, 134;
+      feeling to Charles Albert, 135-6;
+      treatment of Canton Ticino, 136;
+      occupation of Ferrara, 146;
+      attitude towards Switzerland, 151-2, 157, 162, 167, 214;
+      feeling about Jesuits, 157;
+      relations with Guizot, 159;
+      relations with Frederick William IV., 163, 165;
+      attitude to Schleswig-Holstein, 163-5;
+      position at end of 1847, 167;
+      concessions to Lombardy, 199;
+      opinion of Italy, 200;
+      attack on Hungarian County Government, 201-3;
+      how affected by Ferdinand's accession, 207;
+      attack on Grenz Boten, 208;
+      causes of unpopularity, 211;
+      oppression of Lombardy, 214;
+      attitude to S. Germany, 218-19;
+      alarm at French Revolution, 225;
+      hopes to crush Hungary, 228;
+      vague promises of, 231-2;
+      resistance to March rising, 240-1;
+      demands for removal of, 225, 230, 234-5;
+      his fall, 243-4;
+      opinion of Serbs, 382.
+
+    Metternich, Princess, her opinion of Pius IX., 141;
+      of Frederick William IV., 166.
+    ---- Germain, 375.
+
+    Mieroslawski, in March rising, 248;
+      enthusiasm for in Berlin, 370;
+      in Sicily, 469;
+      in Baden, 485.
+
+    Mihacsfalva, 317.
+
+    Milan, grain riots in 1847, 144;
+      demonstration at, 146-7;
+      government of in February 1848, 182-6;
+      Provincial Congregation, 189;
+      smoking riots, 196-8;
+      Metternich's concessions to, 199;
+      effect of Sicilian revolution in, 199-200;
+      March rising, 262-9;
+      government of, in Lombard war, 336-7;
+      Mazzini's visit to, 342, 349-50;
+      contrasted with Venice, 343-4;
+      May rising in, 356-7;
+      fall of, 365-7.
+
+    Military frontier, 281, 319, 455.
+
+    Minto, Lord, 147, 177.
+
+    Modena, political position, 52;
+      Austrian occupation, 150;
+      insurrection in, 337;
+      defended by Durando, 345;
+      Radetzky's policy in, note to 380. _See_ also Francis IV. and V.
+
+    Moga, General, hesitations, 396;
+      defeat, 396-7;
+      deposition, 433.
+
+    Moltke, 374.
+
+    Moncenigo, 195-6.
+
+    Montanara, 365.
+
+    Montanelli, promotes unity in Italy, 138;
+      brings pressure on Pius IX., 148;
+      his scheme of constituent Assembly, 419;
+      joins provisional Government, 424;
+      offered place in Triumvirate, 468.
+
+    Montecuccoli, 236-9.
+
+    Monti, Vincenzo, 22, 23.
+
+    Moravia, relations of with Bohemia, 258, 289, 290, 291;
+      demands of in Slav Congress, 326.
+
+    Moro, Domenico, 119.
+
+    Moering, 213.
+
+    Murat, 21, 29, 32.
+
+
+    N.
+
+    Naples, Carbonari in, 4, 29, 30;
+      struggles for freedom in, 28-9;
+      tyranny in, 169;
+      relations of with Sicily, 169-71, 469;
+      insurrection of in 1848, 177;
+      riots in, 338;
+      coup d'etat in, 351-3;
+      struggle of with Rome, 477.
+
+    ---- Kings of. _See_ Ferdinand, Francis.
+
+    Napoleon. _See_ Buonaparte.
+
+    Nassau, revolution of '48, 222-3.
+
+    Nazari, 186-90.
+
+    Neuhaus, 155.
+
+    Neusatz, 284-5.
+
+    Nicholas of Russia, 49.
+
+    Nopcsa, 314.
+
+    Nota, Alberto, 37.
+
+    Novara. _See_ Battles.
+
+    Nugent, General, his promises to Italy, 21;
+      his appointment in Naples, 29;
+      his choice of Pepe, 32;
+      his invasion of Venetia, 348;
+      attack on Brescia, 428;
+      death, 429.
+
+
+    O.
+
+    Ochsenbein, 159.
+
+    O'Donnell, 261, 264;
+      his carriage, 266.
+
+    Offenburg (meeting at), 166, 220.
+
+    Olivieri, 356.
+
+    Olmuetz, 415, 416.
+
+    Opizzoni, opinion of smoking riots, 198;
+      saved by Bolognese, 369.
+
+    Orsini, preserves order, 464-5.
+
+    Oudinot, expedition to Civita Vecchia, 470, 472-3;
+      interview with Manara, 471-2;
+      defeated by Garibaldi, 475;
+      his treachery, 480, 481, 482-3;
+      capture of Rome, 487.
+
+
+    P.
+
+    Pachta, 183-4.
+
+    Padua, 197;
+      relations of with Venice, 344;
+      Durando's wish to assist, 345;
+      desire of for fusion, 358;
+      fall of, 359.
+
+    Palacky, revives Bohemian language, 254;
+      refusal to Committee of Fifty, 297;
+      speech in Prague Committee, 298-9;
+      summons Slav Congress, 301;
+      speech in Congress, 321-3;
+      feast of reconciliation, 325;
+      action in June rising, 330;
+      accused of plot, 332.
+
+    Palermo, in 1820, 33-4;
+      in 1847, 170-1;
+      in January, 1848, _see_ Sicily;
+      bombardment of, 469.
+
+    Palffy, 194, 271, 273.
+
+    Palma, Count, 40.
+
+    Palmanuova, fall of, 359.
+
+    Palmerston, protest about Cracow, 134;
+      policy in Italy, 147;
+      opposition to Metternich, 158;
+      policy in Switzerland, 162;
+      treatment of Manin, 488.
+
+    Papacy, Metternich's respect for independence of, 50;
+      its effect on Charles Albert, 65;
+      Gioberti's view of, 123-4.
+
+    Pareto, 338.
+
+    Parini, Giuseppe, 23.
+
+    Paris, contrasted with Palermo and Presburg, Preface, 2;
+      treatment of Young Italy in, 68;
+      Polish centre in, 70;
+      revolution in, _see_ France;
+      Mazzini's address from, 337;
+      Rossi's influence in, 418.
+
+    Parma, political position of, 52;
+      occupied by Austrians, 150;
+      throws off Austrian yoke, 347;
+      defended by Durando, 345.
+
+    Passalacqua, 338.
+
+    Pavia, 189, 197, 427.
+
+    Peasantry, of Poland, 80.
+
+    ---- of Hungary, 80-3.
+
+    Pepe, Guglielmo, chosen leader in 1820, 31-2;
+      defeated in 1821, 42;
+      heads Lombard expedition, 338;
+      recalled by Ferdinand, 334;
+      welcomed by Manin, 354.
+
+    ---- Florestano, 33.
+
+    Perczel, his quarrel with Goergei, 434.
+
+    Perthes, 91.
+
+    Peschiera, 349, 355, 358.
+
+    Pesth. _See_ Buda-Pesth.
+
+    Petoefy, 278.
+
+    Pfuel, General von, 247, 370, 404.
+
+    Piedmont, Gioberti's view of its position, 124-5;
+      relations of with Ticino, 135-6;
+      share of in Lombard war, _see_ Charles Albert;
+      league of princes against, 346;
+      fusion of with Lombardy, 350-1, 356;
+      fusion of with Venetia, 359-60;
+      relations of with Rome, 427.
+
+    Pillersdorf, concessions to Bohemians, 289;
+      in March Ministry, 302-4;
+      advice in May, 308;
+      his fall, 378.
+
+    Pisa. _See_ University.
+
+    Pius VII., his protest against Treaty of Vienna, 3;
+      effect on Papacy of early career, 65, 124, 126.
+
+    Pius VIII., 65.
+
+    Pius IX., election, 140;
+      amnesty, 141;
+      popular belief in, 142-3;
+      reforms, 145;
+      conspiracy against him, 145;
+      uncertainties, 147; effect of his reforms, 169;
+      concessions at end of 1847, 179;
+      hesitations, 335;
+      dragged into Lombard war, 338;
+      confusion of his position, 339;
+      Encyclical of April 29th, 346-7;
+      accepts Mamiani, 348;
+      suspicions of King of Naples, 354;
+      Radetzky's alarm at his reforms, 358;
+      attitude in June 1848, 417-18;
+      appoints Rossi, 418;
+      accepts democratic Ministry, 421;
+      flight to Gaeta, 422;
+      denounces Charles Albert, 425.
+
+    Poerio, Carlo, 177.
+
+    Poland, insurrection of 1830, 50;
+      relations of exiles with Italy, 69-71;
+      weakness of, 80;
+      feelings of Liberals to, 129;
+      proposals about in Frankfort Parliament, 306;
+      its share in Slav Congress, 321, 323, 327.
+
+    Pollet, 243.
+
+    Portugal, 48.
+
+    Posen, Blum's feeling to, 129;
+      March movement in, 248-9;
+      relations of with Prussia, 296, 370;
+      with Frankfort Parliament, 362;
+      cruelties of Pfuel in, 404, 405;
+      concessions to, 408.
+
+    Pozzo di Borgo, 4.
+
+    Pragmatic Sanction, 97.
+
+    Prague, in the 17th century, 252;
+      March movement in, 254-60;
+      race difficulties in, 289-90;
+      meeting of Congress at, 320-8;
+      June rising in, 328-33;
+      effect of fall, 332-3.
+
+    Presburg, influence of contrasted with Paris, preface 2;
+      policy of contrasted with Buda-Pesth, 278-9.
+
+    Press, Austrian law on, 193-4;
+      demands for freedom of, 195, 212, 220, 221, 224, 236, 305, 371;
+      concessions of in Vienna, 244, 303-4;
+      in Hungary, 246, 280;
+      in Berlin, 247;
+      censorship of, 214, 224, 225, 231.
+
+    Prussia, position in Europe, 7;
+      hatred of in Rhine Province, 12;
+      position of in Germany in 1837, 93;
+      policy of to Cracow, 130;
+      rivalry of with Frankfort, 361, 375;
+      relations of with Posen, 370;
+      action of in Danish war, 371-5;
+      change of relations with Germany, 376, 496;
+      constitutional struggles in, 402-14.
+
+    ---- King of. _See_ Frederick William III. and IV.
+
+    Prussia, Prince William of, 370, 404, 407.
+
+    Puchner, relations of with Roumans, 440-1;
+      campaign in Transylvania, 442-6;
+      negotiates with Russians, 447-8;
+      deposed, 463.
+
+    Pulazky, 229, 254, 389, 395, 436.
+
+
+    R.
+
+    Raab, 437, 490.
+
+    Radetzky, appealed to by Duke of Modena, 150;
+      threatens Charles Albert, 182;
+      Milanese opinion of, 184;
+      hostility of to Lombard clergy, 196;
+      organizes smoking massacres, 197-8;
+      proclamation by, 198-9;
+      in March rising, 265-6, 269;
+      accepted as champion of Empire, 335;
+      retreat from Milan, 337;
+      denounced by Durando, 340;
+      recaptures Mantua, 341;
+      fortifies it, 348;
+      at Curtatone, 355;
+      at Goito, 356;
+      share in May conspiracy, 357;
+      captures Vicenza, 359;
+      defeats Charles Albert, 363-4;
+      reconquers Lombardy, 367;
+      invades Roman States, 368;
+      policy of in Modena, note to 380;
+      treachery of in Lombardy, 426;
+      final struggle against Venice, 490.
+
+    Ragusa, 98.
+
+    Rainieri, 182, 184, 188, 198.
+
+    Rajacic, timidity, 286;
+      summons Serb Assembly, 287;
+      conduct in Serb Assembly, 311;
+      elected Patriarch, 312;
+      attitude to Croats, 319;
+      struggle with Stratimirovic, 385-6;
+      checks opposition to Austria, 457.
+
+    Rakoczi, 281-2. See note also.
+
+    Ramorino, 70-1, 428.
+
+    Recsey, 388-9.
+
+    Regis, Colonel, in 1821, 43;
+      in 1831, 60.
+
+    Renzi, Pietro, his insurrection, 125-8.
+
+    Republicans, Italian, in Lombard war, 342;
+     attitude of in Milan, 356-8, 365;
+      government of Rome by, 464-6;
+      defence of Rome by, 473-87.
+
+    Republicans, South German, 232-3, 361, 376-8, 485.
+
+    Reichenberg, rivalry with Prague, 291.
+
+    Restelli, 366.
+
+    Rhine Province, Prussian tyranny in, 12;
+      in March rising, 248;
+      Socialism in, 403;
+      relations of with France, 404.
+
+    Ridolfi, 148.
+
+    Rieger, summons Slav Congress, 301;
+      accused of plot, 332;
+      treatment of in Vienna Parliament, 379;
+      at Kremsier, 416.
+
+    Riego, Raphael, his insurrection, 30-1.
+
+    Rilliet, General, 161.
+
+    Rimini, insurrection of, 127-8.
+
+    Rodbertus, 407.
+
+    Rollin, Ledru, warns Mazzini, 470;
+      opposes expedition to Rome, 476;
+      his insurrection, 484.
+
+    Romagna, insurrection in, 128.
+
+    Roman States, movement in for Constituent Assembly, 422-3;
+      government of by Triumvirate, 464-7;
+      reconquest of by Austrians, 485.
+      _See_ also Pius VII., Gregory XVI., Saffi, Ciceruacchio.
+
+    Rome, opening of Parliament in, 417;
+      rising in after Rossi's death, 421;
+      Mazzini in, 427;
+      Triumvirate in, 464-7;
+      relations of with Tuscany, 467-8;
+      French expedition against, 470-3;
+      siege of, 473-7, 481-4;
+      fall of, 486-8.
+      _See_ also Pius IX., Mazzini, Ciceruacchio.
+
+    Ronge, 94-5, 221.
+
+    Roselli, 481-2.
+
+    Rossi, influence at Paris, 122;
+      share in election of Pius IX., 140;
+      relations of with Guizot, 159;
+      appointed Minister, 418;
+      policy, 419;
+      death, 420-1.
+
+    Roth, Stephen, his pamphlet, 113-14;
+      emigration scheme, 115-16;
+      government in Transylvania, 445;
+      death, 450-2.
+
+    Roumanians, conquered by Szekler, 108;
+      position in Transylvania, 110;
+      effect on of Joseph II.'s reforms, 110-11;
+      Libellus Wallachorum, 111-12;
+      treatment of by Schaguna, 113;
+      defence of by Roth, 114;
+      May meeting, 312-15;
+      growing sympathy with Saxons, 316;
+      insurrection of, 317-18;
+      struggles of in September and October, 439-46, 448;
+      feelings of to Constitution of 1849, 456;
+      Kossuth's concessions to, 457.
+
+    Rovigo, relations of with Venice, 344.
+
+    Ruffini, Jacopo, his suicide, 69.
+
+    Ruggiero, Settimo, 176, 469-70.
+
+    Russia, position of in Europe, 7, 10;
+      policy of to Cracow, 130;
+      hatred of in Vienna, 238;
+      feeling of German Liberals to, 296;
+      of Palacky to, 297;
+      fear of in Berlin, 404;
+      invades Transylvania, 448;
+      defeat of by Bem, 449;
+      conquers Transylvania, 491-2.
+
+    ---- Czar of. _See_ Alexander, Nicholas.
+
+    Ruthenians, demands of in Slav Congress, 323.
+
+
+    S.
+
+    St. Gallen, 152, 158.
+
+    Saaz, rivalry with Prague, 291.
+
+    Saffi, Aurelio, action in time of Gregory XVI., 138;
+      appeal for a Constituent Assembly, 432;
+      made Triumvir, 464;
+      helps in preserving order, 464-5.
+
+    Salmen, 315.
+
+    Salvotti, 46.
+
+    Sand, Ludwig, 15.
+
+    Santa Rosa, Santorre di, his policy in 1821, 36;
+      relations with Charles Albert, 40;
+      policy, 42-3;
+      final defeat, 43.
+
+    ---- Pietro di, 181.
+
+    Sardinia, King of. _See_ Victor Amadeus, Victor Emmanuel, Charles
+          Felix, Charles Albert.
+
+    Sardinia, position of. _See_ Piedmont.
+
+    Sarner Bund, 152-3.
+
+    Savelli, 139.
+
+    Savoy, invasion of in 1834, 69-71;
+      House of, _see_ Victor Amadeus, &c.
+
+    Saxons, position of in Transylvania, 108-10, 441;
+      relations of to Roumanians, 110, 112, 444-5;
+      treatment of by Magyars, 114-15;
+      protest against absorption, 315-16;
+      vote on that subject, 317;
+      relations of with Puchner, 445;
+      application of to Russia, 448;
+      treatment of by Csanyi, 449-52.
+
+    Saxony, King of, in 1815, 2.
+
+    ---- Prussian claim to, 3;
+      position of in 1837, 92;
+      reform movement in, 95-6;
+      revolution of 1848 in, 223-5.
+
+    Schaguna, his work for Roumanians, 113;
+      share in May meeting, 314-15;
+      attempt to check Roumans, 318;
+      relations with Puchner, 445;
+      appeal to Russia, 448.
+
+    Scharnhorst, 11.
+
+    Schauffer, 398.
+
+    Schill, 11.
+
+    Schiller, on German literature, 89.
+
+    Schilling, insults Bohemians, 298-9.
+
+    Schleswig-Holstein, question of in 1846, 163-5;
+      in 1848, 371-5;
+      effect of in Prussia, 404-7.
+
+    Schmalz, his pamphlet, 11;
+      his honours, 12.
+
+    Schmerling, 317, 496.
+
+    Schuselka, his pamphlet, 208;
+      demand for his expulsion, 208;
+      appeal against Press law, 304;
+      tries to reconcile Germans and Bohemians, 325;
+      speech to Magyar deputation, 387-8.
+
+    Schuette, organizes April demonstration, 304-5.
+
+    Schwarzenberg, 268-9.
+
+    Schwytz, 152-3.
+
+    Sciva, 171-2.
+
+    Sedlnitzky, 185, 204, 207, 212, 214;
+      his fall, 247.
+
+    Serbs, effect of their entry into Hungary, 97-8;
+      in Buda-Pesth, 277;
+      demands of in March 1848, 278, 280, 284;
+      treatment of in March and April 1848, 284-5;
+      movement for independence, 286-7;
+      May meeting of, 311-12;
+      May insurrection, 319, 320;
+      demands of in Slav Congress, 323;
+      Metternich's opinion of, 382;
+      changed character of movement, 85-6;
+      feeling of to Constitution of 1849, 455-6;
+      influence of Rajacic over, 457.
+
+    Sicily, constitution destroyed, 2;
+      attitude of in 1820, 33-4;
+      reconquest of, 44;
+      effect of insurrection, 167;
+      Neapolitan government of, 168-70;
+      insurrection in January 1848, 171-7;
+      offers throne to Duke of Genoa, 346-52;
+      fall of, 468-70.
+
+    Sigel, 485.
+
+    Silesia, Prussian, effect of famine in, 166;
+      March rising in, 248;
+      general condition of, 402-3;
+      Roman Catholics in, 412.
+
+    ---- Austrian, relations of with Bohemia, 258, 289, 290.
+
+    Silvio Pellico, 26.
+
+    Simon of Breslau, action in Frankfort riots, 375-6.
+
+    Sismondi, 26, 69.
+
+    Sladkowsky, 323, 328.
+
+    Slavonia, relations of with Croatia, 97-8;
+      centre of Serb movement, 280-4.
+
+    Slavs, their position in Hungary, 101;
+      attempts to Magyarise, 101-2;
+      in March 1848, 276;
+      relations of with Germany, 296;
+      Congress of, 300-1, 320-8.
+
+    ---- Southern, connection between, 98-9.
+
+    Slovaks, relations of with Bohemia, 254;
+      demands of in March 1848, 276;
+      in Slav Congress, 326;
+      relations of with Ferdinand, 461.
+
+    Slovenes, demands of in March 1848, 276;
+      in Slav Congress, 327.
+
+    Smolka, tries to save Latour, 391.
+
+    Socialism, at Frankfort, 294-5;
+      at Vienna, 305, 389;
+      at Berlin, 403;
+      later rise of, 496.
+
+    Solothurn, 152.
+
+    Sommaruga, 207.
+
+    Sonderbund, 155, 159, 160;
+      war of, 160-3.
+
+    Sophia, Arch Duchess. _See_ Arch Duchess.
+
+    Spain, popular feeling in, 4, 5;
+      rule of in Lombardy, 20;
+      rising in 1820, 30-1;
+      French invasion of in 1822, 48.
+
+    Spaur, 182, 188-9, 261.
+
+    Speri, Tito, 428.
+
+    Stabile, Mariano, 176.
+
+    Staende. _See_ Estates.
+
+    Statella, General, 354.
+
+    Stein, influence on Czar, 4;
+      opposition to Metternich, 8-10;
+      loss of power, 10;
+      attitude towards Wartburg demonstration, 15;
+      zeal for constitution, 16.
+
+    Stephen. _See_ Arch Dukes.
+
+    Sterbini, denounces Rossi, 419;
+      Rossi's feeling to, 420;
+      appointed Minister, 421;
+      in provisional government, 423;
+      opposition to Roselli, 482.
+
+    Stratimirovic, character and position, 286;
+      burns Crnojevic's letter, 311;
+      finds allies for Serbs, 312, 319;
+      overthrow by Rajacic, 385-6;
+      counteracted by Rajacic, 482.
+
+    Strobach, 323, 392.
+
+    Struve, early efforts of, 219-21;
+      at Heidelberg, 233;
+      his fifteen proposals, 294-5;
+      heads September rising, 377-8.
+
+    Stuttgart, 485. _See_ also Wuertemberg.
+
+    Suplikac, 312, 386.
+
+    Switzerland, struggles in, 151-63;
+      attacks of Austria on, 214;
+      effect of on Baden, 220.
+
+    Swornost, 308-9, 321, 323, 328.
+
+    Szabo, 491.
+
+    Szaffarik, work for Slovaks, 254;
+      effect on Serbs, 283;
+      summons Slav Congress, 301;
+      in Slav Congress, 321;
+      action in June rising, 330.
+
+    Szechenyi, in 1825, 75-6;
+      political position, 77;
+      quarrel with Metternich, 78;
+      effect of his movement in Croatia, 98;
+      championship of Slavs, 102-3;
+      relations with Batthyanyi, 202;
+      opposition to Kossuth, 203, 246, 279;
+      madness, 462.
+
+    Szegedin, 316.
+
+    Szeklers, position in Transylvania, 108-9;
+      attitude to Roumanians, 110;
+      appealed to by Magyars, 316;
+      collision of with Roumans, 317-18, 440;
+      opposition to Puchner, 441;
+      appealed to by Roumans, 442;
+      cruelties, 444;
+      Bem's relations with, 447;
+      resistance of to Russians, 491-2.
+
+    Szemere, his Press law, 280.
+
+    Szent-Tomas, 385.
+
+
+    T.
+
+    Taaffe, opposition to Pillersdorf, 304.
+
+    Tatischeff, 47.
+
+    Teleki, Governor of Transylvania, 315.
+
+    Thun, Count Leo, controversy with Pulszky, 254;
+      joins National Committee, 301;
+      threatens Swornost, 323;
+      appeals to Windischgraetz, 324;
+      imprisoned, 329-30.
+
+    ---- Count Matthias, summons Slavonic Congress, 301.
+
+    Thurgau, 152, 155.
+
+    Thurn, General, 490.
+
+    Ticino, Canton, relations with Piedmont, 135-7, 342;
+      for free trade, 144;
+      attacked by Uri, 160.
+
+    Tommaseo, his petitions, 193-4;
+      early career, 194;
+      arrest and release, 270-1;
+      tries to help Vicenza, 358;
+      opposes fusion, 359-60.
+
+    Torres, 337.
+
+    Torresani, 182-3, 188, 197, 244, 265, 267.
+
+    Transylvania, position of its Diet, 79;
+      Diet dissolved in 1832, 83;
+      Diet restored in 1839, 86;
+      geographical position of, 107-8;
+      ethnology of, 108-9;
+      Roth's view of, 114;
+      effect on Hungary, 281-2;
+      position of Roumanians in, 313;
+      loss of independence, 316-17;
+      later struggles in, 439-52;
+      conquest of by Russians, 491-2.
+
+    Treviso, 344, 359.
+
+    Trieste, Italian attack on, 360.
+
+    Trojan, 255, 260.
+
+    Tugend Bund, 11, 129.
+
+    Turansky, 327, 332.
+
+    Turin, in February 1848, 181-2.
+      _See_ Santa Rosa, University.
+
+    Turkey, hostility of House of Austria to, 281;
+      flight of Hungarian leaders to, 494.
+
+    Tuscany, special position of, 52-4;
+      Guerrazzi's hopes for, 423-4;
+      rising in 1849, 424-5;
+      failure of movement in, 467-8.
+
+    Tyrol, Italian, 341, 343, 345, 363.
+
+    ---- German, 266, 267.
+      _See_ Innspruck.
+
+    Tyssowsky, 132.
+
+
+    U.
+
+    Udine, relations of with Venice, 344;
+      fall of, 348.
+
+    Universities, their effect on revolutionary movement, 38.
+
+    ---- of Germany, 14-16.
+
+    University, of Berlin, 404.
+
+    ---- of Goettingen, in 1837, 92.
+
+    ---- of Heidelberg, 164-5.
+
+    ---- of Leipzig, Slavonic feeling in, 98.
+
+    ---- of Munich, 222, 259.
+
+    ---- of Padua, closing of, 199.
+
+    ---- of Pavia, closing of, 199.
+
+    ---- of Pisa, 148, 355.
+
+    ---- of Prague, 258-9, 308-9, 321, 324, 328, 330.
+
+    ---- of Turin, in 1821, 38-9;
+      in 1848, 337.
+
+    University, of Vienna, 212, 230, 233-5, 302-4, 305, 307.
+
+    ---- of Zurich, 153.
+
+    Unruh, von, struggle with Brandenburg, 409-10;
+      attitude at Brandenburg, 413;
+      effect of his action, 413.
+
+    Urban, 440.
+
+    Urbarium, 81.
+
+    Urbino, 356-7.
+
+    Uri, 160.
+
+    Utrecht, Peace of, its effect in Lombardy, 20.
+
+
+    V.
+
+    Varga, Catherine, 113.
+
+    Vay, 441.
+
+    Velika Kikinda, effect of riot at, 285-6.
+
+    Venetia, compared with Lombardy, 192;
+      relations with Venice, 344-5;
+      struggle in, 348-9, 359;
+      fusion of with Piedmont, 359-60.
+
+    Venice, influence in Dalmatia and Istria, 97;
+      trade of with Piedmont, 135;
+      character of before revolution, 192;
+      movements in, 193-6;
+      March rising in, 270-4, 343;
+      contrasted with Milan, 343-4;
+      relations with other cities, 343-5;
+      Pepe welcomed at, 354-5;
+      vote of fusion at, 359-60;
+      recalls Manin, 367;
+       sympathy of with Bologna, 369;
+      feeling in towards Pius IX., 464;
+      towards Louis Napoleon, 470;
+      final struggle of, 488-90;
+      surrender of, 494.
+      _See_ also Buonaparte (Charles Lucien), Manin.
+
+    Verona, transference of Viceroy to, 199;
+     Radetzky's relations with, 341, 355, 364.
+      _See_ also Congress.
+
+    Vetter, 454.
+
+    Vicenza, relations of with Venice, 344;
+      defence of, 349;
+      fall of, 359;
+      Austrian treachery in, 426.
+
+    Victor Amadeus, King of Sardinia, his relations with Austria, 26-7.
+
+    Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, protest in 1815, 3;
+      his relations with Austria, 27;
+      his despotism, 27-8;
+      attitude in 1820, 35-6;
+      abdication, 41.
+
+    Victor Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, afterwards King of Italy, wounded at
+          Goito, 356;
+      accession to throne of Piedmont, 429.
+
+    Vienna, effect of on Lombardy, 189-90;
+      Metternich's government of, 204-8;
+      effect on of Ferdinand's accession, 206-8;
+      double position of, 209;
+      movements in, 210-14, 225-6;
+      March rising in, 229-47;
+      its effect in Bohemia, 259;
+      in Milan, 262;
+      in Venice, 271;
+      relations of with Prague, 325-6;
+      July Parliament in, 378-80;
+      relations of with Hungary, 380, 384, 387;
+      with Bohemia, 379, 392;
+      with Italy, 379-80, 387;
+      October rising in, 390-7;
+      fall of, 397-9;
+      effect of fall on Prussia, 408.
+    ---- Concluding Act of, 17-18.
+
+    ---- Decrees of 1834, 90, 221.
+
+    ---- Treaty of, 3, 8, 17, 130, 146, 149, 151, 155, 160, 164. _See_
+          also Congress.
+
+    Vilagos, 493-4.
+
+    Villamarina, 135.
+
+
+    W.
+
+    Waizen, declaration of, 438-9.
+
+    Wallachia, rising in in 1821, 46-7.
+
+    Wallacks. _See_ Roumanians.
+
+    Warsaw, trade with Cracow, 130;
+      insurrection in, 131.
+
+    Wartburg, Feast of, 14-15.
+
+    Weimar, Duke of, his policy, 13-16.
+
+    Welden, General, besieges Bologna, 368-9;
+      cruelty of in Pavia, 426.
+
+    Wellington, his opinion of Navarino, 49;
+      small effect of his rule, 50.
+
+    Wesselenyi, position and influence, 79;
+      speech at Presburg, 83;
+      imprisonment and its results, 85-6;
+      appeal to Szeklers, 316;
+      joins deputation to Vienna, 387;
+      retirement from politics, 462.
+
+    Willisen, General von, 370.
+
+    Wimpffen, General, 478.
+
+    Windischgraetz, made commandant of Vienna, 240;
+      proposed Dictatorship of, 240-1, 244-5;
+      protest against deposition of Metternich, 243;
+      announcement on March 22nd, 247;
+      irritation of Bohemians with, 323-4, 328;
+      attitude in June rising in Prague, 329-32;
+      besieges Vienna, 395-7;
+      defeats Goergei, 437-8;
+      his offer to Goergei, 438;
+      rejects mediation in Hungary, 462;
+      military opinion of his generalship, 463.
+
+    Workmen's movements, in Vienna, 239-40, 305, 389-90;
+      in Berlin, 247, 402, 403, 405-6, 408;
+      in Prague, 323, 328;
+      in Silesia, 402, 405, 406.
+
+    Wrangel, 410-11.
+
+    Wuertemberg, first two Kings of, 13;
+      protest of against Concluding Act, 18;
+      Roth's relations with, 115;
+      resistance of to Metternich, 218;
+      March rising in, 221-2;
+      quarrel with Baden, 377. _See_ also Stuttgart.
+
+
+    Y.
+
+    Ypsilanti, 40.
+
+
+    Z.
+
+    Zay, his circular, 101-2.
+
+    Zichy, Governor of Venice, 272, 273.
+    ---- Hungarian Count, his execution, 434.
+
+    Zitz, action of in Frankfort riots, 375.
+
+    Zollverein, 93, 210.
+
+    Zucchi, recalled to Milan, 366;
+      treatment of Garibaldi, 419;
+      defeated by Garibaldi, 464.
+
+    Zug, Canton, 162.
+
+    Zurich, 152, 154, 156. _See_ also University.
+
+
+
+
+    CHISWICK PRESS:--C. WHITTINGHAM AND CO., TOOKS COURT,
+    CHANCERY LANE.
+
+
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Many old spellings have been preserved; in particular, the spelling
+of many Slavic names with a c has been left unchanged. Obvious
+misspellings and punctuation errors have been corrected, and dashes
+representing ranges have been regularised as endashes (-) rather
+than emdashes (--).
+
+Additionally:
+
+"Raizenstadt" and "Raitzenstadt";
+
+"Voyvodschaft" and "Voyvodeschaft";
+
+"Windischgraets" and "Windischgraetz";
+
+"Buda Pesth" and "Buda-Pesth";
+
+"Krudener" and "Kruedener";
+
+"Pressburg" and "Presburg";
+
+"Gaeta" and "Gaeta";
+
+and "Crnojevic" and "Crnojevic" have in each case been regularised to
+the latter form. Instances of a.m. and p.m. in small capitals on page
+482 have been regularised to lower case ("from 2 a.m. till 6 p.m.").
+
+All references to Madame de Kruedener have been regularised as "Mme";
+this was the form used in the main text, except that in this plain text
+version the superscript typography of "me" has been removed. The index
+entry for de Kruedener on page 505 has been moved to fit the alphabetical
+order.
+
+Both "Daniele Manin" and "Daniel Manin" were used in the text and have
+not been changed.
+
+A duplicated word on page 319 ("disputed the right of of the Serbs to
+stay in Hungary") has been removed.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT OF 1848-9
+IN ITALY, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, AND GERMANY***
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