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You may copy it, give it away or re-use + it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License <a href= + "#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this eBook</a> or + online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class= + "tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p> + </div> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +Title: History of European Morals From Augustus to Charlemagne (Vol. 2 of + 2) + +Author: William Edward Hartpole Lecky + +Release Date: April 15, 2012 [Ebook #39535] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EUROPEAN MORALS FROM AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE (VOL. 2 OF 2)*** +</pre> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"></div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">History of</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style= + "font-size: 173%">European Morals</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">From Augustus to Charlemagne</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">By</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style= + "font-size: 144%">William Edward Hartpole Lecky, M.A.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Ninth Edition</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">In Two Volumes</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style= + "font-size: 120%">Vol. 2.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Longmans, Green, And + Co.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style= + "text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1890</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"> + <li><a href="#toc1">Chapter IV. From Constantine To + Charlemagne.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc3">Chapter V. The Position Of Women.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc5">Index.</a></li> + + <li><a href="#toc7">Footnotes</a></li> + </ul> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-body" style= + "margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name="Pg001" + id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> <a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. From Constantine To + Charlemagne.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having in the last + chapter given a brief, but I trust not altogether indistinct, account + of the causes that ensured the triumph of Christianity in Rome, and + of the character of the opposition it overcame, I proceed to examine + the nature of the moral ideal the new religion introduced, and also + the methods by which it attempted to realise it. And at the very + outset of this enquiry it is necessary to guard against a serious + error. It is common with many persons to establish a comparison + between Christianity and Paganism, by placing the teaching of the + Christians in juxtaposition with corresponding passages from the + writings of Marcus Aurelius or Seneca, and to regard the superiority + of the Christian over the philosophical teaching as a complete + measure of the moral advance that was effected by Christianity. But a + moment's reflection is sufficient to display the injustice of such a + conclusion. The ethics of Paganism were part of a philosophy. The + ethics of Christianity were part of a religion. The first were the + speculations of a few highly cultivated individuals <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and neither had nor could have had any + direct influence upon the masses of mankind. The second were + indissolubly connected with the worship, hopes, and fears of a vast + religious system, that acts at least as powerfully on the most + ignorant as on the most educated. The chief objects of Pagan + religions were to foretell the future, to explain the universe, to + avert calamity, to obtain the assistance of the gods. They contained + no instruments of moral teaching analogous to our institution of + preaching, or to the moral preparation for the reception of the + sacrament, or to confession, or to the reading of the Bible, or to + religious education, or to united prayer for spiritual benefits. To + make men virtuous was no more the function of the priest than of the + physician. On the other hand, the philosophic expositions of duty + were wholly unconnected with the religious ceremonies of the temple. + To amalgamate these two spheres, to incorporate moral culture with + religion, and thus to enlist in behalf of the former that desire to + enter, by means of ceremonial observances, into direct communication + with Heaven, which experience has shown to be one of the most + universal and powerful passions of mankind, was among the most + important achievements of Christianity. Something had, no doubt, been + already attempted in this direction. Philosophy, in the hands of the + rhetoricians, had become more popular. The Pythagoreans enjoined + religious ceremonies for the purpose of purifying the mind, and + expiatory rites were common, especially in the Oriental religions. + But it was the distinguishing characteristic of Christianity that its + moral influence was not indirect, casual, remote, or spasmodic. + Unlike all Pagan religions, it made moral teaching a main function of + its clergy, moral discipline the leading object of its services, + moral dispositions the necessary condition of the due performance of + its rites. By the pulpit, by its ceremonies, by all the agencies of + power it possessed, it laboured systematically and perseveringly for + the regeneration of mankind. Under its influence, doctrines + concerning the nature <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg + 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + God, the immortality of the soul, and the duties of man, which the + noblest intellects of antiquity could barely grasp, have become the + truisms of the village school, the proverbs of the cottage and of the + alley.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But neither the + beauty of its sacred writings, nor the perfection of its religious + services, could have achieved this great result without the + introduction of new motives to virtue. These may be either interested + or disinterested, and in both spheres the influence of Christianity + was very great. In the first, it effected a complete revolution by + its teaching concerning the future world and concerning the nature of + sin. The doctrine of a future life was far too vague among the Pagans + to exercise any powerful general influence, and among the + philosophers who clung to it most ardently it was regarded solely in + the light of a consolation. Christianity made it a deterrent + influence of the strongest kind. In addition to the doctrines of + eternal suffering, and the lost condition of the human race, the + notion of a minute personal retribution must be regarded as + profoundly original. That the commission of great crimes, or the + omission of great duties, may be expiated hereafter, was indeed an + idea familiar to the Pagans, though it exercised little influence + over their lives, and seldom or never produced, even in the case of + the worst criminals, those scenes of deathbed repentance which are so + conspicuous in Christian biographies. But the Christian notion of the + enormity of little sins, the belief that all the details of life will + be scrutinised hereafter, that weaknesses of character and petty + infractions of duty, of which the historian and the biographer take + no note, which have no perceptible influence upon society, and which + scarcely elicit a comment among mankind, may be made the grounds of + eternal condemnation beyond the grave, was altogether unknown to the + ancients, and, at a time when it possessed all the freshness of + novelty, it was well fitted to transform the character. The eye of + the Pagan philosopher was ever fixed <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> upon virtue, the eye of the Christian teacher + upon sin. They first sought to amend men by extolling the beauty of + holiness; the second by awakening the sentiment of remorse. Each + method had its excellences and its defects. Philosophy was admirably + fitted to dignify and ennoble, but altogether impotent to regenerate, + mankind. It did much to encourage virtue, but little or nothing to + restrain vice. A relish or taste for virtue was formed and + cultivated, which attracted many to its practice; but in this, as in + the case of all our other higher tastes, a nature that was once + thoroughly vitiated became altogether incapable of appreciating it, + and the transformation of such a nature, which was continually + effected by Christianity, was confessedly beyond the power of + philosophy.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href= + "#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> + Experience has abundantly shown that men who are wholly insensible to + the beauty and dignity of virtue, can be convulsed by the fear of + judgment, can be even awakened to such a genuine remorse for sin as + to reverse the current of their dispositions, detach them from the + most inveterate habits, and renew the whole tenor of their lives.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the habit of + dilating chiefly on the darker side of human nature, while it has + contributed much to the regenerating efficacy of Christian teaching, + has not been without its disadvantages. Habitually measuring + character by its aberrations, theologians, in their estimates of + those strong and passionate natures in which great virtues are + balanced by great failings, have usually fallen into a signal + injustice, which is the more inexcusable, because in their own + writings the Psalms of David are a conspicuous proof of what a noble, + tender, and passionate nature could survive, even in an adulterer and + a murderer. Partly, too, through this habit of operating through the + sense of sin, and partly from a desire to show that man is in an + abnormal and dislocated condition, they <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page005">[pg 005]</span><a name="Pg005" id="Pg005" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> have continually propounded distorted and + degrading views of human nature, have represented it as altogether + under the empire of evil, and have sometimes risen to such a height + of extravagance as to pronounce the very virtues of the heathen to be + of the nature of sin. But nothing can be more certain than that that + which is exceptional and distinctive in human nature is not its vice, + but its excellence. It is not the sensuality, cruelty, selfishness, + passion, or envy, which are all displayed in equal or greater degrees + in different departments of the animal world; it is that moral nature + which enables man apparently, alone of all created beings, to + classify his emotions, to oppose the current of his desires, and to + aspire after moral perfection. Nor is it less certain that in + civilised, and therefore developed man, the good greatly + preponderates over the evil. Benevolence is more common than cruelty; + the sight of suffering more readily produces pity than joy; + gratitude, not ingratitude, is the normal result of a conferred + benefit. The sympathies of man naturally follow heroism and goodness, + and vice itself is usually but an exaggeration or distortion of + tendencies that are in their own nature perfectly innocent.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But these + exaggerations of human depravity, which have attained their extreme + limits in some Protestant sects, do not appear in the Church of the + first three centuries. The sense of sin was not yet accompanied by a + denial of the goodness that exists in man. Christianity was regarded + rather as a redemption from error than from sin,<a id="noteref_2" + name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> and it is + a significant fact that the epithet <span class="tei tei-q">“well + deserving,”</span> which the Pagans usually put upon their tombs, was + also the favourite inscription in the Christian catacombs. The + Pelagian controversy, the teaching of St. Augustine, and the progress + of asceticism, gradually introduced the doctrine of the utter + depravity of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page006">[pg + 006]</span><a name="Pg006" id="Pg006" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + man, which has proved in later times the fertile source of degrading + superstition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In sustaining and + defining the notion of sin, the early Church employed the machinery + of an elaborate legislation. Constant communion with the Church was + regarded as of the very highest importance. Participation in the + Sacrament was believed to be essential to eternal life. At a very + early period it was given to infants, and already in the time of St. + Cyprian we find the practice universal in the Church, and pronounced + by at least some of the Fathers to be ordinarily necessary to their + salvation.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href= + "#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> Among the + adults it was customary to receive the Sacrament daily, in some + churches four times a week.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href= + "#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> Even in + the days of persecution the only part of their service the Christians + consented to omit was the half-secular agape.<a id="noteref_5" name= + "noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> The + clergy had power to accord or withhold access to the ceremonies, and + the reverence with which they were regarded was so great that they + were able to dictate their own conditions of communion.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From these + circumstances there very naturally arose a vast system of moral + discipline. It was always acknowledged that men could only rightly + approach the sacred table in certain moral dispositions, and it was + very soon added that the commission of crimes should be expiated by a + period of penance, before access to the communion was granted. A + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page007">[pg 007]</span><a name="Pg007" + id="Pg007" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> multitude of offences, of very + various degrees of magnitude, such as prolonged abstinence from + religious services, prenuptial unchastity, prostitution, adultery, + the adoption of the profession of gladiator or actor, idolatry, the + betrayal of Christians to persecutors, and paiderastia or unnatural + love, were specified, to each of which a definite spiritual penalty + was annexed. The lowest penalty consisted of deprivation of the + Eucharist for a few weeks. More serious offenders were deprived of it + for a year, or for ten years, or until the hour of death, while in + some cases the sentence amounted to the greater excommunication, or + the deprivation of the Eucharist for ever. During the period of + penance the penitent was compelled to abstain from the marriage-bed, + and from all other pleasures, and to spend his time chiefly in + religious exercises. Before he was readmitted to communion, he was + accustomed publicly, before the assembled Christians, to appear clad + in sackcloth, with ashes strewn upon his head, with his hair shaven + off, and thus to throw himself at the feet of the minister, to + confess aloud his sins, and to implore the favour of absolution. The + excommunicated man was not only cut off for ever from the Christian + rites; he was severed also from all intercourse with his former + friends. No Christian, on pain of being himself excommunicated, might + eat with him or speak with him. He must live hated and alone in this + world, and be prepared for damnation in the next.<a id="noteref_6" + name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This system of + legislation, resting upon religious terrorism, forms one of the most + important parts of early ecclesiastical history, and a leading object + of the Councils was to develop or modify it. Although confession was + not yet an habitual and universally obligatory rite, although it was + only <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page008">[pg 008]</span><a name= + "Pg008" id="Pg008" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> exacted in cases of + notorious sins, it is manifest that we have in this system, not + potentially or in germ, but in full developed activity, an + ecclesiastical despotism of the most crushing order. But although + this recognition of the right of the clergy to withhold from men what + was believed to be essential to their salvation, laid the foundation + of the worst superstitions of Rome, it had, on the other hand, a very + valuable moral effect. Every system of law is a system of education, + for it fixes in the minds of men certain conceptions of right and + wrong, and of the proportionate enormity of different crimes; and no + legislation was enforced with more solemnity, or appealed more + directly to the religious feelings, than the penitential discipline + of the Church. More than, perhaps, any other single agency, it + confirmed that conviction of the enormity of sin, and of the + retribution that follows it, which was one of the two great levers by + which Christianity acted upon mankind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But if + Christianity was remarkable for its appeals to the selfish or + interested side of our nature, it was far more remarkable for the + empire it attained over disinterested enthusiasm. The Platonist + exhorted men to imitate God; the Stoic, to follow reason; the + Christian, to the love of Christ. The later Stoics had often united + their notions of excellence in an ideal sage, and Epictetus had even + urged his disciples to set before them some man of surpassing + excellence, and to imagine him continually near them; but the utmost + the Stoic ideal could become was a model for imitation, and the + admiration it inspired could never deepen into affection. It was + reserved for Christianity to present to the world an ideal character, + which through all the changes of eighteen centuries has inspired the + hearts of men with an impassioned love; has shown itself capable of + acting on all ages, nations, temperaments, and conditions; has been + not only the highest pattern of virtue but the strongest incentive to + its practice; and has exercised so deep an influence that it may be + truly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name= + "Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> said that the simple + record of three short years of active life has done more to + regenerate and to soften mankind than all the disquisitions of + philosophers, and all the exhortations of moralists. This has indeed + been the well-spring of whatever is best and purest in the Christian + life. Amid all the sins and failings, amid all the priestcraft and + persecution and fanaticism that have defaced the Church, it has + preserved, in the character and example of its Founder, an enduring + principle of regeneration. Perfect love knows no rights. It creates a + boundless, uncalculating self-abnegation that transforms the + character, and is the parent of every virtue. Side by side with the + terrorism and the superstitions of dogmatism, there have ever existed + in Christianity those who would echo the wish of St. Theresa, that + she could blot out both heaven and hell, to serve God for Himself + alone; and the power of the love of Christ has been displayed alike + in the most heroic pages of Christian martyrdom, in the most pathetic + pages of Christian resignation, in the tenderest pages of Christian + charity. It was shown by the martyrs who sank beneath the fangs of + wild beasts, extending to the last moment their arms in the form of + the cross they loved;<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href= + "#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> who + ordered their chains to be buried with them as the insignia of their + warfare;<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href= + "#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> who + looked with joy upon their ghastly wounds, because they had been + received for Christ;<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href= + "#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> who + welcomed death as the bridegroom welcomes the bride, because it would + bring them near to Him. St. Felicitas was seized with the pangs of + childbirth as she lay in prison <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> awaiting the hour of martyrdom, and as her + sufferings extorted from her a cry, one who stood by said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“If you now suffer so much, what will it be + when you are thrown to wild beasts?”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“What I now suffer,”</span> she answered, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“concerns myself alone; but then another will suffer for + me, for I will then suffer for Him.”</span><a id="noteref_10" name= + "noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> When St. + Melania had lost both her husband and her two sons, kneeling by the + bed where the remains of those she loved were laid, the childless + widow exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord, I shall serve Thee + more humbly and readily for being eased of the weight Thou hast taken + from me.”</span><a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href= + "#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Christian virtue + was described by St. Augustine as <span class="tei tei-q">“the order + of love.”</span><a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href= + "#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> Those + who know how imperfectly the simple sense of duty can with most men + resist the energy of the passions; who have observed how barren + Mohammedanism has been in all the higher and more tender virtues, + because its noble morality and its pure theism have been united with + no living example; who, above all, have traced through the history of + the Christian Church the influence of the love of Christ, will be at + no loss to estimate the value of this purest and most distinctive + source of Christian enthusiasm. In one respect we can scarcely + realise its effects upon the early Church. The sense of the fixity of + natural laws is now so deeply implanted in the minds of men, that no + truly educated person, whatever may be his religious opinions, + seriously believes that all the more startling phenomena around + him—storms, earthquakes, invasions, or famines—are results of + isolated acts of supernatural power, and are intended to affect some + human interest. But by the early Christians all these things were + directly traced to the Master they so dearly loved. The result of + this conviction was a state of feeling we can now barely understand. + A great poet, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg + 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + lines which are among the noblest in English literature, has spoken + of one who had died as united to the all-pervading soul of nature, + the grandeur and the tenderness, the beauty and the passion of his + being blending with the kindred elements of the universe, his voice + heard in all its melodies, his spirit a presence to be felt and + known, a part of the one plastic energy that permeates and animates + the globe. Something of this kind, but of a far more vivid and real + character, was the belief of the early Christian world. The universe, + to them, was transfigured by love. All its phenomena, all its + catastrophes, were read in a new light, were endued with a new + significance, acquired a religious sanctity. Christianity offered a + deeper consolation than any prospect of endless life, or of + millennial glories. It taught the weary, the sorrowing, and the + lonely, to look up to heaven and to say, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Thou, God, carest for me.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + surprising that a religious system which made it a main object to + inculcate moral excellence, and which by its doctrine of future + retribution, by its organisation, and by its capacity of producing a + disinterested enthusiasm, acquired an unexampled supremacy over the + human mind, should have raised its disciples to a very high condition + of sanctity. There can, indeed, be little doubt that, for nearly two + hundred years after its establishment in Europe, the Christian + community exhibited a moral purity which, if it has been equalled, + has never for any long period been surpassed. Completely separated + from the Roman world that was around them, abstaining alike from + political life, from appeals to the tribunals, and from military + occupations; looking forward continually to the immediate advent of + their Master, and the destruction of the Empire in which they dwelt, + and animated by all the fervour of a young religion, the Christians + found within themselves a whole order of ideas and feelings + sufficiently powerful to guard them from the contamination of their + age. In their general bearing towards society, and <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the nature and minuteness of their + scruples, they probably bore a greater resemblance to the Quakers + than to any other existing sect.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" + href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> Some + serious signs of moral decadence might, indeed, be detected even + before the Decian persecution; and it was obvious that the triumph of + the Church, by introducing numerous nominal Christians into its pale, + by exposing it to the temptations of wealth and prosperity, and by + forcing it into connection with secular politics, must have damped + its zeal and impaired its purity; yet few persons, I think, who had + contemplated Christianity as it existed in the first three centuries + would have imagined it possible that it should completely supersede + the Pagan worship around it; that its teachers should bend the + mightiest monarchs to their will, and stamp their influence on every + page of legislation, and direct the whole course of civilisation for + a thousand years; and yet that the period in which they were so + supreme should have been one of the most contemptible in history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The leading + features of that period may be shortly told. From the death of Marcus + Aurelius, about which time Christianity assumed an important + influence in the Roman world, the decadence of the Empire was rapid + and almost uninterrupted. The first Christian emperor transferred his + capital to a new city, uncontaminated by the traditions and the + glories of Paganism; and he there founded an Empire which derived all + its ethics from Christian sources, and which continued in + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" + id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> existence for about eleven + hundred years. Of that Byzantine Empire the universal verdict of + history is that it constitutes, with scarcely an exception, the most + thoroughly base and despicable form that civilisation has yet + assumed. Though very cruel and very sensual, there have been times + when cruelty assumed more ruthless, and sensuality more extravagant, + aspects; but there has been no other enduring civilisation so + absolutely destitute of all the forms and elements of greatness, and + none to which the epithet mean may be so emphatically applied. The + Byzantine Empire was pre-eminently the age of treachery. Its vices + were the vices of men who had ceased to be brave without learning to + be virtuous. Without patriotism, without the fruition or desire of + liberty, after the first paroxysms of religious agitation, without + genius or intellectual activity; slaves, and willing slaves, in both + their actions and their thoughts, immersed in sensuality and in the + most frivolous pleasures, the people only emerged from their + listlessness when some theological subtilty, or some rivalry in the + chariot races, stimulated them into frantic riots. They exhibited all + the externals of advanced civilisation. They possessed knowledge; + they had continually before them the noble literature of ancient + Greece, instinct with the loftiest heroism; but that literature, + which afterwards did so much to revivify Europe, could fire the + degenerate Greeks with no spark or semblance of nobility. The history + of the Empire is a monotonous story of the intrigues of priests, + eunuchs, and women, of poisonings, of conspiracies, of uniform + ingratitude, of perpetual fratricides. After the conversion of + Constantine there was no prince in any section of the Roman Empire + altogether so depraved, or at least so shameless, as Nero or + Heliogabalus; but the Byzantine Empire can show none bearing the + faintest resemblance to Antonine or Marcus Aurelius, while the + nearest approximation to that character at Rome was furnished by the + Emperor Julian, who contemptuously abandoned the Christian faith. At + last the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg + 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Mohammedan invasion terminated the long decrepitude of the Eastern + Empire. Constantinople sank beneath the Crescent, its inhabitants + wrangling about theological differences to the very moment of their + fall.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Asiatic + Churches had already perished. The Christian faith, planted in the + dissolute cities of Asia Minor, had produced many fanatical ascetics + and a few illustrious theologians, but it had no renovating effect + upon the people at large. It introduced among them a principle of + interminable and implacable dissension, but it scarcely tempered in + any appreciable degree their luxury or their sensuality. The frenzy + of pleasure continued unabated, and in a great part of the Empire it + seemed, indeed, only to have attained its climax after the triumph of + Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The condition of + the Western Empire was somewhat different. Not quite a century after + the conversion of Constantine, the Imperial city was captured by + Alaric, and a long series of barbarian invasions at last dissolved + the whole framework of Roman society, while the barbarians + themselves, having adopted the Christian faith and submitted + absolutely to the Christian priests, the Church, which remained the + guardian of all the treasures of antiquity, was left with a virgin + soil to realise her ideal of human excellence. Nor did she fall short + of what might have been expected. She exercised for many centuries an + almost absolute empire over the thoughts and actions of mankind, and + created a civilisation which was permeated in every part with + ecclesiastical influence. And the dark ages, as the period of + Catholic ascendancy is justly called, do undoubtedly display many + features of great and genuine excellence. In active benevolence, in + the spirit of reverence, in loyalty, in co-operative habits, they far + transcend the noblest ages of Pagan antiquity, while in that humanity + which shrinks from the infliction of suffering, they were superior to + Roman, and in their respect for chastity, to Greek civilisation. On + the other hand, they rank <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg + 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + immeasurably below the best Pagan civilisations in civic and + patriotic virtues, in the love of liberty, in the number and + splendour of the great characters they produced, in the dignity and + beauty of the type of character they formed. They had their full + share of tumult, anarchy, injustice, and war, and they should + probably be placed, in all intellectual virtues, lower than any other + period in the history of mankind. A boundless intolerance of all + divergence of opinion was united with an equally boundless toleration + of all falsehood and deliberate fraud that could favour received + opinions. Credulity being taught as a virtue, and all conclusions + dictated by authority, a deadly torpor sank upon the human mind, + which for many centuries almost suspended its action, and was only + effectually broken by the scrutinising, innovating, and free-thinking + habits that accompanied the rise of the industrial republics in + Italy. Few men who are not either priests or monks would not have + preferred to live in the best days of the Athenian or of the Roman + republics, in the age of Augustus or in the age of the Antonines, + rather than in any period that elapsed between the triumph of + Christianity and the fourteenth century.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, indeed, + difficult to conceive any clearer proof than was furnished by the + history of the twelve hundred years after the conversion of + Constantine, that while theology has undoubtedly introduced into the + world certain elements and principles of good, scarcely if at all + known to antiquity, while its value as a tincture or modifying + influence in society can hardly be overrated, it is by no means for + the advantage of mankind that, in the form which the Greek and + Catholic Churches present, it should become a controlling arbiter of + civilisation. It is often said that the Roman world before + Constantine was in a period of rapid decay; that the traditions and + vitality of half-suppressed Paganism account for many of the + aberrations of later times; that the influence of the Church was + often rather nominal and superficial than <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> supreme; and that, in judging the ignorance of + the dark ages, we must make large allowance for the dislocations of + society by the barbarians. In all this there is much truth; but when + we remember that in the Byzantine Empire the renovating power of + theology was tried in a new capital free from Pagan traditions, and + for more than one thousand years unsubdued by barbarians, and that in + the West the Church, for at least seven hundred years after the + shocks of the invasions had subsided, exercised a control more + absolute than any other moral or intellectual agency has ever + attained, it will appear, I think, that the experiment was very + sufficiently tried. It is easy to make a catalogue of the glaring + vices of antiquity, and to contrast them with the pure morality of + Christian writings; but, if we desire to form a just estimate of the + realised improvement, we must compare the classical and + ecclesiastical civilisations as wholes, and must observe in each case + not only the vices that were repressed, but also the degree and + variety of positive excellence attained. In the first two centuries + of the Christian Church the moral elevation was extremely high, and + was continually appealed to as a proof of the divinity of the creed. + In the century before the conversion of Constantine, a marked + depression was already manifest. The two centuries after Constantine + are uniformly represented by the Fathers as a period of general and + scandalous vice. The ecclesiastical civilisation that followed, + though not without its distinctive merits, assuredly supplies no + justification of the common boast about the regeneration of society + by the Church. That the civilisation of the last three centuries has + risen in most respects to a higher level than any that had preceded + it, I at least firmly believe; but theological ethics, though very + important, form but one of the many and complex elements of its + excellence. Mechanical inventions, the habits of industrial life, the + discoveries of physical science, the improvements of government, the + expansion of literature, the traditions of Pagan antiquity, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" + id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> have all a distinguished + place, while, the more fully its history is investigated, the more + clearly two capital truths are disclosed. The first is that the + influence of theology having for centuries numbed and paralysed the + whole intellect of Christian Europe, the revival, which forms the + starting-point of our modern civilisation, was mainly due to the fact + that two spheres of intellect still remained uncontrolled by the + sceptre of Catholicism. The Pagan literature of antiquity, and the + Mohammedan schools of science, were the chief agencies in + resuscitating the dormant energies of Christendom. The second fact, + which I have elsewhere endeavoured to establish in detail, is that + during more than three centuries the decadence of theological + influence has been one of the most invariable signs and measures of + our progress. In medicine, physical science, commercial interests, + politics, and even ethics, the reformer has been confronted with + theological affirmations which barred his way, which were all + defended as of vital importance, and were all in turn compelled to + yield before the secularising influence of civilisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have here, + then, a problem of deep interest and importance, which I propose to + investigate in the present chapter. We have to enquire why it was + that a religion which was not more remarkable for the beauty of its + moral teaching than for the power with which it acted upon mankind, + and which during the last few centuries has been the source of + countless blessings to the world, should have proved itself for so + long a period, and under such a variety of conditions, altogether + unable to regenerate Europe. The question is not one of languid or + imperfect action, but of conflicting agencies. In the vast and + complex organism of Catholicity there were some parts which acted + with admirable force in improving and elevating mankind. There were + others which had a directly opposite effect.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first aspect + in which Christianity presented itself to the world was as a + declaration of the fraternity of men in <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Christ. Considered as immortal beings, destined + for the extremes of happiness or of misery, and united to one another + by a special community of redemption, the first and most manifest + duty of a Christian man was to look upon his fellow-men as sacred + beings, and from this notion grew up the eminently Christian idea of + the sanctity of all human life. I have already endeavoured to + show—and the fact is of such capital importance in meeting the common + objections to the reality of natural moral perceptions, that I + venture, at the risk of tediousness, to recur to it—that nature does + not tell man that it is wrong to slay without provocation his + fellow-men. Not to dwell upon those early stages of barbarism in + which the higher faculties of human nature are still undeveloped, and + almost in the condition of embryo, it is an historical fact beyond + all dispute, that refined, and even moral societies have existed, in + which the slaughter of men of some particular class or nation has + been regarded with no more compunction than the slaughter of animals + in the chase. The early Greeks, in their dealings with the + barbarians; the Romans, in their dealings with gladiators, and in + some periods of their history, with slaves; the Spaniards, in their + dealings with Indians; nearly all colonists removed from European + supervision, in their dealings with an inferior race; an immense + proportion of the nations of antiquity, in their dealings with + new-born infants, display this complete and absolute callousness, and + we may discover traces of it even in our own islands and within the + last three hundred years.<a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href= + "#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> And + difficult as it may be to realise it in our day, when the atrocity of + all wanton slaughter of men has become an essential part of our moral + feelings, it is nevertheless an incontestable fact <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that this callousness has been + continually shown by good men, by men who in all other respects would + be regarded in any age as conspicuous for their humanity. In the days + of the Tudors, the best Englishmen delighted in what we should now + deem the most barbarous sports, and it is absolutely certain that in + antiquity men of genuine humanity—tender relations, loving friends, + charitable neighbours—men in whose eyes the murder of a + fellow-citizen would have appeared as atrocious as in our own, + attended, instituted, and applauded gladiatorial games, or counselled + without a scruple the exposition of infants. But it is, as I + conceive, a complete confusion of thought to imagine, as is so + commonly done, that any accumulation of facts of this nature throws + the smallest doubt upon the reality of innate moral perceptions. All + that the intuitive moralist asserts is that we know by nature that + there is a distinction between humanity and cruelty; that the first + belongs to the higher or better part of our nature, and that it is + our duty to cultivate it. The standard of the age, which is itself + determined by the general condition of society, constitutes the + natural line of duty; for he who falls below it contributes to + depress it. Now, there is no fact more absolutely certain than that + nations and ages which have differed most widely as to the standard + have been perfectly unanimous as to the excellence of humanity. + Plato, who recommended infanticide; Cato, who sold his aged slaves; + Pliny, who applauded the games of the arena; the old generals, who + made their prisoners slaves or gladiators, as well as the modern + generals, who refuse to impose upon them any degrading labour; the + old legislators, who filled their codes with sentences of torture, + mutilation, and hideous forms of death, as well as the modern + legislators, who are continually seeking to abridge the punishment of + the most guilty; the old disciplinarian, who governed by force, as + well as the modern instructor, who governs by sympathy; the Spanish + girl, whose dark eye glows with rapture <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> as she watches the frantic bull, while the fire + streams from the explosive dart that quivers in its neck; as well as + the reformers we sometimes meet, who are scandalised by all field + sports, or by the sacrifice of animal life for food; or who will eat + only the larger animals, in order to reduce the sacrifice of life to + a minimum; or who are continually inventing new methods of quickening + animal death—all these persons, widely as they differ in their acts + and in their judgments of what things should be called <span class= + "tei tei-q">“brutal,”</span> and of what things should be called + <span class="tei tei-q">“fantastic,”</span> agree in believing + humanity to be better than cruelty, and in attaching a definite + condemnation to acts that fall below the standard of their country + and their time. Now, it was one of the most important services of + Christianity, that besides quickening greatly our benevolent + affections it definitely and dogmatically asserted the sinfulness of + all destruction of human life as a matter of amusement, or of simple + convenience, and thereby formed a new standard higher than any which + then existed in the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The influence of + Christianity in this respect began with the very earliest stage of + human life. The practice of abortion was one to which few persons in + antiquity attached any deep feeling of condemnation. I have noticed + in a former chapter that the physiological theory that the fœtus did + not become a living creature till the hour of birth, had some + influence on the judgments passed upon this practice; and even where + this theory was not generally held, it is easy to account for the + prevalence of the act. The death of an unborn child does not appeal + very powerfully to the feeling of compassion, and men who had not yet + attained any strong sense of the sanctity of human life, who believed + that they might regulate their conduct on these matters by + utilitarian views, according to the general interest of the + community, might very readily conclude that the prevention of birth + was in many cases an act of mercy. In Greece, Aristotle not + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" + id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> only countenanced the + practice, but even desired that it should be enforced by law, when + population had exceeded certain assigned limits.<a id="noteref_15" + name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> No law + in Greece, or in the Roman Republic, or during the greater part of + the Empire, condemned it;<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href= + "#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> and if, + as has been thought, some measure was adopted condemnatory of it + before the close of the Pagan Empire, that measure was altogether + inoperative. A long chain of writers, both Pagan and Christian, + represent the practice as avowed and almost universal. They describe + it as resulting, not simply from licentiousness or from poverty, but + even from so slight a motive as vanity, which made mothers shrink + from the disfigurement of childbirth. They speak of a mother who had + never destroyed her unborn offspring as deserving of signal praise, + and they assure us that the frequency of the crime was such that it + gave rise to a regular profession. At the same time, while Ovid, + Seneca, Favorinus the Stoic of Arles, Plutarch, and Juvenal, all + speak of abortion as general and notorious, they all speak of it as + unquestionably criminal.<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href= + "#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> It was + probably regarded by the average Romans of the later days of Paganism + much as <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name= + "Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Englishmen in the last + century regarded convivial excesses, as certainly wrong, but so + venial as scarcely to deserve censure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The language of + the Christians from the very beginning was widely different. With + unwavering consistency and with the strongest emphasis, they + denounced the practice, not simply as inhuman, but as definitely + murder. In the penitential discipline of the Church, abortion was + placed in the same category as infanticide, and the stern sentence to + which the guilty person was subject imprinted on the minds of + Christians, more deeply than any mere exhortations, a sense of the + enormity of the crime. By the Council of Ancyra the guilty mother was + excluded from the Sacrament till the very hour of death; and though + this penalty was soon reduced, first to ten and afterwards to seven + years' penitence,<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href= + "#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> the + offence still ranked amongst the gravest in the legislation of the + Church. In one very remarkable way the reforms of Christianity in + this sphere were powerfully sustained by a doctrine which is perhaps + the most revolting in the whole theology of the Fathers. To the + Pagans, even when condemning abortion and infanticide, these crimes + appeared comparatively trivial, because the victims seemed very + insignificant and their sufferings very slight. The death of an adult + man who is struck down in the midst of his enterprise and his hopes, + who is united by ties of love or friendship to multitudes around him, + and whose departure causes a perturbation and a pang to the society + in which he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg + 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has + moved, excites feelings very different from any produced by the + painless extinction of a new-born infant, which, having scarcely + touched the earth, has known none of its cares and very little of its + love. But to the theologian this infant life possessed a fearful + significance. The moment, they taught, the fœtus in the womb acquired + animation, it became an immortal being, destined, even if it died + unborn, to be raised again on the last day, responsible for the sin + of Adam, and doomed, if it perished without baptism, to be excluded + for ever from heaven and to be cast, as the Greeks taught, into a + painless and joyless limbo, or, as the Latins taught, into the abyss + of hell. It is probably, in a considerable degree, to this doctrine + that we owe in the first instance the healthy sense of the value and + sanctity of infant life which so broadly distinguishes Christian from + Pagan societies, and which is now so thoroughly incorporated with our + moral feelings as to be independent of all doctrinal changes. That + which appealed so powerfully to the compassion of the early and + mediæval Christians, in the fate of the murdered infants, was not + that they died, but that they commonly died unbaptised; and the + criminality of abortion was immeasurably aggravated when it was + believed to involve, not only the extinction of a transient life, but + also the damnation of an immortal soul.<a id="noteref_19" name= + "noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> In the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Lives of the Saints”</span> there is a + curious legend of a man who, being desirous of ascertaining + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" + id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the condition of a child + before birth, slew a pregnant woman, committing thereby a double + murder, that of the mother and of the child in her womb. Stung by + remorse, the murderer fled to the desert, and passed the remainder of + his life in constant penance and prayer. At last, after many years, + the voice of God told him that he had been forgiven the murder of the + woman. But yet his end was a clouded one. He never could obtain an + assurance that he had been forgiven the death of the child.<a id= + "noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we pass to the + next stage of human life, that of the new-born infant, we find + ourselves in presence of that practice of infanticide which was one + of the deepest stains of the ancient civilisation. The natural + history of this crime is somewhat peculiar.<a id="noteref_21" name= + "noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> Among + savages, whose feelings of compassion are very faint, and whose + warlike and nomadic <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg + 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + habits are eminently unfavourable to infant life, it is, as might be + expected, the usual custom for the parent to decide whether he + desires to preserve the child he has called into existence, and if he + does not, to expose or slay it. In nations that have passed out of + the stage of barbarism, but are still rude and simple in their + habits, the practice of infanticide is usually rare; but, unlike + other crimes of violence, it is not naturally diminished by the + progress of civilisation, for, after the period of savage life is + passed, its prevalence is influenced much more by the sensuality than + by the barbarity of a people.<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" + href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> We may + trace too, in many countries and ages, the notion that children, as + the fruit, representatives, and dearest possessions of their parents, + are acceptable sacrifices to the gods.<a id="noteref_23" name= + "noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> + Infanticide, as is well known, was almost universally <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> admitted among the Greeks, being + sanctioned, and in some cases enjoined, upon what we should now call + <span class="tei tei-q">“the greatest happiness principle,”</span> by + the ideal legislations of Plato and Aristotle, and by the actual + legislations of Lycurgus and Solon. Regarding the community as a + whole, they clearly saw that it is in the highest degree for the + interest of society that the increase of population should be very + jealously restricted, and that the State should be as far as possible + free from helpless and unproductive members; and they therefore + concluded that the painless destruction of infant life, and + especially of those infants who were so deformed or diseased that + their lives, if prolonged, would probably have been a burden to + themselves, was on the whole a benefit. The very sensual tone of + Greek life rendered the modern notion of prolonged continence wholly + alien to their thoughts; and the extremely low social and + intellectual condition of Greek mothers, who exercised no appreciable + influence over the habits of thought of the nation should also, I + think, be taken into account, for it has always been observed that + mothers are much more distinguished than fathers for their affection + for infants that have not yet manifested the first dawning of reason. + Even in Greece, however, infanticide and exposition were not + universally permitted. In Thebes these offences are said to have been + punished by death.<a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href= + "#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The power of life + and death, which in Rome was originally conceded to the father over + his children, would appear to involve an unlimited permission of + infanticide; but a very old law, popularly ascribed to Romulus, in + this respect restricted the parental rights, enjoining the father to + bring up <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg + 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all + his male children, and at least his eldest female child, forbidding + him to destroy any well-formed child till it had completed its third + year, when the affections of the parent might be supposed to be + developed, but permitting the exposition of deformed or maimed + children with the consent of their five nearest relations.<a id= + "noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> The + Roman policy was always to encourage, while the Greek policy was + rather to restrain, population, and infanticide never appears to have + been common in Rome till the corrupt and sensual days of the Empire. + The legislators then absolutely condemned it, and it was indirectly + discouraged by laws which accorded special privileges to the fathers + of many children, exempted poor parents from most of the burden of + taxation, and in some degree provided for the security of exposed + infants. Public opinion probably differed little from that of our own + day as to the fact, though it differed from it much as to the degree, + of its criminality. It was, as will be remembered, one of the charges + most frequently brought against the Christians, and it was one that + never failed to arouse popular indignation. Pagan and Christian + authorities are, however, united in speaking of infanticide as a + crying vice of the Empire, and Tertullian observed that no laws were + more easily or more constantly evaded than those which condemned + it.<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> A broad + distinction was popularly drawn between infanticide and exposition. + The latter, though probably condemned, was certainly not punished by + law;<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> it was + practised on a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg + 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + gigantic scale and with absolute impunity, noticed by writers with + the most frigid indifference, and, at least in the case of destitute + parents, considered a very venial offence.<a id="noteref_28" name= + "noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> Often, + no doubt, the exposed children perished, but more frequently the very + extent of the practice saved the lives of the victims. They were + brought systematically to a column near the Velabrum, and there taken + by speculators, who educated them as slaves, or very frequently as + prostitutes.<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href= + "#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, what + was demanded on this subject was not any clearer moral teaching, but + rather a stronger enforcement of the condemnation long since passed + upon infanticide, and an increased protection for exposed infants. By + the penitential sentences, by the dogmatic considerations I have + enumerated, and by the earnest exhortations both of her preachers and + writers, the Church laboured to deepen the sense of the enormity of + the act, and especially to convince men that the guilt of abandoning + their children to the precarious and doubtful mercy of the stranger + was scarcely less than that of simple infanticide.<a id="noteref_30" + name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> In the + civil law her influence was also displayed, though not, I think, very + advantageously. By the counsel, it is said, of Lactantius, + Constantine, in the very year of his conversion, in order to diminish + infanticide by destitute parents, issued a decree, applicable in the + first instance to Italy, but extended in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 322 to Africa, in which + he commanded that those children whom their parents were unable to + support should be clothed and fed at the expense of the State,<a id= + "noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> a policy + which had already been pursued on a large scale under the Antonines. + In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 331, a law intended to + multiply the chances of the exposed child being taken charge of by + some charitable or interested person, provided that the foundling + should remain the absolute property of its saviour, whether he + adopted it as a son <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg + 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or + employed it as a slave, and that the parent should not have power at + any future time to reclaim it.<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" + href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> By + another law, which had been issued in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 329, it had been + provided that children who had been, not exposed, but sold, might be + reclaimed upon payment by the father.<a id="noteref_33" name= + "noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last two laws + cannot be regarded with unmingled satisfaction. The law regulating + the condition of exposed children, though undoubtedly enacted with + the most benevolent intentions, was in some degree a retrograde step, + the Pagan laws having provided that the father might always withdraw + the child he had exposed, from servitude, by payment of the expenses + incurred in supporting it,<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href= + "#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> while + Trajan had even decided that the exposed child could not become under + any circumstance a slave.<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href= + "#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> The law + of Constantine, on the other hand, doomed it to an irrevocable + servitude; and this law continued in force till <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 529, when Justinian, + reverting to the principle of Trajan, decreed that not only the + father lost all legitimate authority over his child by exposing it, + but also that the person who had saved it could not by that act + deprive it of its natural liberty. But this law applied only to the + Eastern Empire; and in part at least of the West<a id="noteref_36" + name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> the + servitude of exposed infants continued for centuries, and appears + only to have terminated with the general extinction of slavery in + Europe. The law of Constantine concerning the sale of children was + also a step, though perhaps a necessary step, of retrogression. A + series of emperors, among whom Caracalla was conspicuous, had + denounced and endeavoured to abolish, as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“shameful,”</span> the traffic in free children, and + Diocletian had expressly and absolutely condemned it.<a id= + "noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" + id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The extreme misery, however, + resulting from the civil wars under Constantine, had rendered it + necessary to authorise the old practice of selling children in the + case of absolute destitution, which, though it had been condemned, + had probably never altogether ceased. Theodosius the Great attempted + to take a step in advance, by decreeing that the children thus sold + might regain their freedom without the repayment of the + purchase-money, a temporary service being a sufficient compensation + for the purchase;<a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href= + "#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> but this + measure was repealed by Valentinian III. The sale of children in case + of great necessity, though denounced by the Fathers,<a id= + "noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> + continued long after the time of Theodosius, nor does any Christian + emperor appear to have enforced the humane enactment of + Diocletian.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Together with + these measures for the protection of exposed children, there were + laws directly condemnatory of infanticide. This branch of the subject + is obscured by much ambiguity and controversy; but it appears most + probable that the Pagan legislation reckoned infanticide as a form of + homicide, though, being deemed less atrocious than other forms of + homicide, it was punished, not by death, but by banishment.<a id= + "noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> A law of + Constantine, intended principally, and perhaps exclusively, for + Africa, where the sacrifices of children to Saturn were very common, + assimilated to parricide the murder of a child by its father;<a id= + "noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> and + finally, Valentinian, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 374, made all + infanticide a capital offence,<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" + href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" + id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> especially enjoined the + punishment of exposition.<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href= + "#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> A law of + the Spanish Visigoths, in the seventh century, punished infanticide + and abortion with death or blindness.<a id="noteref_44" name= + "noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> In the + Capitularies of Charlemagne the former crime was punished as + homicide.<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href= + "#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not possible + to ascertain, with any degree of accuracy, what diminution of + infanticide resulted from these measures. It may, however, be safely + asserted that the publicity of the trade in exposed children became + impossible under the influence of Christianity, and that the sense of + the serious nature of the crime was very considerably increased. The + extreme destitution, which was one of its most fertile causes, was + met by Christian charity. Many exposed children appear to have been + educated by individual Christians.<a id="noteref_46" name= + "noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> + Brephotrophia and Orphanotrophia are among the earliest recorded + charitable institutions of the Church; but it is not certain that + exposed children were admitted into them, and we find no trace for + several centuries of Christian foundling hospitals. This form of + charity grew up gradually in the early part of the middle ages. It is + said that one existed at Trêves in the sixth, and at Angers in the + seventh century, and it is certain that one existed at Milan in the + eighth century.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href= + "#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> The + Council of Rouen, in the ninth century, invited women who had + secretly borne children to place them at the door of the church, and + undertook to provide for them if they were not reclaimed. It is + probable that they were brought up among <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the numerous slaves or serfs attached to the + ecclesiastical properties; for a decree of the Council of Arles, in + the fifth century, and afterwards a law of Charlemagne, had echoed + the enactment of Constantine, declaring that exposed children should + be the slaves of their protectors. As slavery declined, the memorials + of many sins, like many other of the discordant elements of mediæval + society, were doubtless absorbed and consecrated in the monastic + societies. The strong sense always evinced in the Church of the + enormity of unchastity probably rendered the ecclesiastics more + cautious in this than in other forms of charity, for institutions + especially intended for deserted children advanced but slowly. Even + Rome, the mother of many charities, could boast of none till the + beginning of the thirteenth century.<a id="noteref_48" name= + "noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> About + the middle of the twelfth century we find societies at Milan charged, + among other functions, with seeking for exposed children. Towards the + close of the same century, a monk of Montpellier, whose very name is + doubtful, but who is commonly spoken of as Brother Guy, founded a + confraternity called by the name of the Holy Ghost, and devoted to + the protection and education of children; and this society in the two + following centuries ramified over a great part of Europe.<a id= + "noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> Though + principally and at first, perhaps, exclusively intended for the care + of the orphans of legitimate marriages, though in the fifteenth + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" + id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> century the Hospital of the + Holy Ghost at Paris even refused to admit deserted children, yet the + care of foundlings soon passed in a great measure into its hands. At + last, after many complaints of the frequency of infanticide, St. + Vincent de Paul arose, and gave so great an impulse to that branch of + charity that he may be regarded as its second author, and his + influence was felt not only in private charities, but in legislative + enactments. Into the effects of these measures—the encouragement of + the vice of incontinence by institutions that were designed to + suppress the crime of infanticide, and the serious moral + controversies suggested by this apparent conflict between the + interests of humanity and of chastity—it is not necessary for me to + enter. We are at present concerned with the principles that actuated + Christian charity, not with the wisdom of its organisations. Whatever + mistakes may have been made, the entire movement I have traced + displays an anxiety not only for the life, but also for the moral + well-being, of the castaways of society, such as the most humane + nations of antiquity had never reached. This minute and scrupulous + care for human life and human virtue in the humblest forms, in the + slave, the gladiator, the savage, or the infant, was indeed wholly + foreign to the genius of Paganism. It was produced by the Christian + doctrine of the inestimable value of each immortal soul. It is the + distinguishing and transcendent characteristic of every society into + which the spirit of Christianity has passed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The influence of + Christianity in the protection of infant life, though very real, may + be, and I think often has been, exaggerated. It would be difficult to + overrate its influence in the sphere we have next to examine. There + is scarcely any other single reform so important in the moral history + of mankind as the suppression of the gladiatorial shows, and this + feat must be almost exclusively ascribed to the Christian Church. + When we remember how extremely few of the best and greatest men of + the Roman world had absolutely <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> condemned the games of the amphitheatre, it is + impossible to regard, without the deepest admiration, the unwavering + and uncompromising consistency of the patristic denunciations. And + even comparing the Fathers with the most enlightened Pagan moralists + in their treatment of this matter, we shall usually find one most + significant difference. The Pagan, in the spirit of philosophy, + denounced these games as inhuman, or demoralising, or degrading, or + brutal. The Christian, in the spirit of the Church, represented them + as a definite sin, the sin of murder, for which the spectators as + well as the actors were directly responsible before Heaven. In the + very latest days of the Pagan Empire, magnificent amphitheatres were + still arising,<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href= + "#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> and + Constantine himself had condemned numerous barbarian captives to + combat with wild beasts.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href= + "#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> It was + in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 325, immediately after + the convocation of the Council of Nice, that the first Christian + emperor issued the first edict in the Roman Empire condemnatory of + the gladiatorial games.<a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href= + "#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> It was + issued in Berytus in Syria, and is believed by some to have been only + applicable to the province of Phœnicia;<a id="noteref_53" name= + "noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a> but even + in this province it was suffered to be inoperative, for, only four + years later, Libanius speaks of the shows as habitually celebrated at + Antioch.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href= + "#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> In the + Western Empire their continuance was fully recognised, though a few + infinitesimal restrictions were imposed upon them. Constantine, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 357, prohibited the + lanistæ, or <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg + 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + purveyors of gladiators, from bribing servants of the palace to enrol + themselves as combatants.<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href= + "#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> + Valentinian, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 365, forbade any + Christian criminal,<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href= + "#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> and in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 367, any one connected + with the Palatine,<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href= + "#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> being + condemned to fight. Honorius prohibited any slave who had been a + gladiator passing into the service of a senator; but the real object + of this last measure was, I imagine, not so much to stigmatise the + gladiator, as to guard against the danger of an armed nobility.<a id= + "noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> A much + more important fact is that the spectacles were never introduced into + the new capital of Constantine. At Rome, though they became less + numerous, they do not appear to have been suspended until their final + suppression. The passion for gladiators was the worst, while + religious liberty was probably the best, feature of the old Pagan + society; and it is a melancholy fact that of these two it was the + nobler part that in the Christian Empire was first destroyed. + Theodosius the Great, who suppressed all diversity of worship + throughout the Empire, and who showed himself on many occasions the + docile slave of the clergy, won the applause of the Pagan Symmachus + by compelling his barbarian prisoners to fight as gladiators.<a id= + "noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> Besides + this occasion, we have special knowledge of gladiatorial games that + were celebrated in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 385, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 391, and afterwards in + the reign of Honorius, and the practice of condemning criminals to + the arena still continued.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href= + "#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But although the + suppression of the gladiatorial shows was not effected in the + metropolis of the Empire till nearly ninety years after Christianity + had been the State religion, the distinction between the teaching of + the Christians and Pagans on the subject remained unimpaired. To the + last, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name= + "Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the most estimable of + the Pagans appear to have regarded them with favour or indifference. + Julian, it is true, with a rare magnanimity, refused persistently, in + his conflict with Christianity, to avail himself, as he might most + easily have done, of the popular passion for games which the Church + condemned; but Libanius has noticed them with some approbation,<a id= + "noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> and + Symmachus, as we have already seen, both instituted and applauded + them. But the Christians steadily refused to admit any professional + gladiator to baptism till he had pledged himself to abandon his + calling, and every Christian who attended the games was excluded from + communion. The preachers and writers of the Church denounced them + with the most unqualified vehemence, and the poet Prudentius made a + direct and earnest appeal to the emperor to suppress them. In the + East, where they had never taken very firm root, they appear to have + ceased about the time of Theodosius, and a passion for chariot races, + which rose to the most extravagant height at Constantinople and in + many other cities, took their place. In the West, the last + gladiatorial show was celebrated at Rome, under Honorius, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 404, in honour of the + triumph of Stilicho, when an Asiatic monk, named Telemachus, animated + by the noblest heroism of philanthropy, rushed into the amphitheatre, + and attempted to part the combatants. He perished beneath a shower of + stones flung by the angry spectators; but his death led to the final + abolition of the games.<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href= + "#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> Combats + of men with wild beasts continued, however, much later, and were + especially popular in the East. The difficulty of procuring wild + animals, amid the general poverty, contributed, with other causes, to + their decline. They sank, at last, into games of cruelty to animals, + but of little danger to men, and were finally condemned, at the end + of the seventh century, by the Council of Trullo.<a id="noteref_63" + name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> In + Italy, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name= + "Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the custom of sham + fights, which continued through the whole of the middle ages, and + which Petrarch declares were in his days sometimes attended with + considerable bloodshed, may perhaps be traced in some degree to the + traditions of the amphitheatre.<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" + href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extinction of + the gladiatorial spectacles is, of all the results of early Christian + influence, that upon which the historian can look with the deepest + and most unmingled satisfaction. Horrible as was the bloodshed they + directly caused, these games were perhaps still more pernicious on + account of the callousness of feeling they diffused through all + classes, the fatal obstacle they presented to any general elevation + of the standard of humanity. Yet the attitude of the Pagans + decisively proves that no progress of philosophy or social + civilisation was likely, for a very long period, to have extirpated + them; and it can hardly be doubted that, had they been flourishing + unchallenged as in the days of Trajan, when the rude warriors of the + North obtained the empire of Italy, they would have been eagerly + adopted by the conquerors, would have taken deep root in mediæval + life, and have indefinitely retarded the progress of humanity. + Christianity alone was powerful enough to tear this evil plant from + the Roman soil. The Christian custom of legacies for the relief of + the indigent and suffering replaced the Pagan custom of bequeathing + sums of money for games in honour of the dead; and the month of + December, which was looked forward to with eagerness through all the + Roman world, as the special season of the gladiatorial spectacles, + was consecrated in the Church by another festival commemorative of + the advent of Christ.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The notion of the + sanctity of human life, which led the early Christians to combat and + at last to overthrow the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg + 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + gladiatorial games, was carried by some of them to an extent + altogether irreconcilable with national independence, and with the + prevailing penal system. Many of them taught that no Christian might + lawfully take away life, either as a soldier, or by bringing a + capital charge, or by acting as an executioner. The first of these + questions it will be convenient to reserve for a later period of this + chapter, when I propose to examine the relations of Christianity to + the military spirit, and a very few words will be sufficient to + dispose of the others. The notion that there is something impure and + defiling, even in a just execution, is one which may be traced + through many ages; and executioners, as the ministers of the law, + have been from very ancient times regarded as unholy. In both Greece + and Rome the law compelled them to live outside the walls, and at + Rhodes they were never permitted even to enter the city.<a id= + "noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> Notions + of this kind were very strongly held in the early Church; and a + decree of the penitential discipline which was enforced, even against + emperors and generals, forbade any one whose hands had been imbrued + in blood, even when that blood was shed in a righteous war, + approaching the altar without a preparatory period of penance. The + opinions of the Christians of the first three centuries were usually + formed without any regard to the necessities of civil or political + life; but when the Church obtained an ascendancy, it was found + necessary speedily to modify them; and although Lactantius, in the + fourth century, maintained the unlawfulness of all bloodshed,<a id= + "noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> as + strongly as Origen in the third, and Tertullian in the second, the + common doctrine was simply that no priest or bishop must take any + part in a capital charge. From this exceptional position of the + clergy they speedily acquired the position of official intercessors + for <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name= + "Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> criminals, ambassadors + of mercy, when, from some act of sedition or other cause, their city + or neighbourhood was menaced with a bloody invasion. The right of + sanctuary, which was before possessed by the Imperial statues and by + the Pagan temples, was accorded to the churches. During the holy + seasons of Lent and Easter, no criminal trials could be held, and no + criminal could be tortured or executed.<a id="noteref_67" name= + "noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> + Miracles, it was said, were sometimes wrought to attest the innocence + of accused or condemned men, but were never wrought to consign + criminals to execution by the civil power.<a id="noteref_68" name= + "noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">All this had an + importance much beyond its immediate effect in tempering the + administration of the law. It contributed largely to associate in the + popular imagination the ideas of sanctity and of mercy, and to + increase the reverence for human life. It had also another remarkable + effect, to which I have adverted in another work. The belief that it + was wrong for a priest to bring any charge that could give rise to a + capital sentence caused the leading clergy to shrink from persecuting + heresy to death, at a time when in all other respects the theory of + persecution had been fully matured. When it was readily admitted that + heresy was in the highest degree criminal, and ought to be made + penal, when laws banishing, fining, or imprisoning heretics filled + the statute-book, and when every vestige of religious liberty was + suppressed at <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg + 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + instigation of the clergy, these still shrank from the last and + inevitable step, not because it was an atrocious violation of the + rights of conscience, but because it was contrary to the + ecclesiastical discipline for a bishop, under any circumstances, to + countenance bloodshed. It was on this ground that St. Augustine, + while eagerly advocating the persecution of the Donatists, more than + once expressed a wish that they should not be punished with death, + and that St. Ambrose, and St. Martin of Tours, who were both + energetic persecutors, expressed their abhorrence of the Spanish + bishops, who had caused some Priscillianists to be executed. I have + elsewhere noticed the odious hypocrisy of the later inquisitors, who + relegated the execution of the sentence to the civil power, with a + prayer that the heretics should be punished <span class= + "tei tei-q">“as mildly as possible and without the effusion of + blood,”</span><a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href= + "#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> which + came at last to be interpreted, by the death of fire; but I may here + add, that this hideous mockery is not unique in the history of + religion. Plutarch suggests that one of the reasons for burying + unchaste vestals alive was that they were so sacred that it was + unlawful to lay violent hands upon them,<a id="noteref_70" name= + "noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> and + among the Donatists the Circumcelliones were for a time accustomed to + abstain, in obedience to the evangelical command, from the use of the + sword, while they beat to death those who differed from their + theological opinions with massive clubs, to which they gave the very + significant name of Israelites.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" + href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The time came when + the Christian priests shed blood enough. The extreme scrupulosity, + however, which they at first displayed, is not only exceedingly + curious when contrasted with their later history; it was also, by the + association of ideas which it promoted, very favourable to humanity. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" + id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It is remarkable, however, + that while some of the early Fathers were the undoubted precursors of + Beccaria, their teaching, unlike that of the philosophers in the + eighteenth century, had little or no appreciable influence in + mitigating the severity of the penal code. Indeed, the more carefully + the Christian legislation of the Empire is examined, and the more + fully it is compared with what had been done under the influence of + Stoicism by the Pagan legislators, the more evident, I think, it will + appear that the golden age of Roman law was not Christian, but Pagan. + Great works of codification were accomplished under the younger + Theodosius, and under Justinian; but it was in the reign of Pagan + emperors, and especially of Hadrian and Alexander Severus, that + nearly all the most important measures were taken, redressing + injustices, elevating oppressed classes, and making the doctrine of + the natural equality and fraternity of mankind the basis of legal + enactments. Receiving the heritage of these laws, the Christians, no + doubt, added something; but a careful examination will show that it + was surprisingly little. In no respect is the greatness of the Stoic + philosophers more conspicuous than in the contrast between the + gigantic steps of legal reform made in a few years under their + influence, and the almost insignificant steps taken when Christianity + had obtained an ascendancy in the Empire, not to speak of the long + period of decrepitude that followed. In the way of mitigating the + severity of punishments, Constantine made, it is true, three + important laws prohibiting the custom of branding criminals upon the + face, the condemnation of criminals as gladiators, and the + continuance of the once degrading but now sacred punishment of + crucifixion, which had been very commonly employed; but these + measures were more than counterbalanced by the extreme severity with + which the Christian emperors punished infanticide, adultery, + seduction, rape, and several other crimes, and the number of capital + offences became considerably greater <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> than before.<a id="noteref_72" name= + "noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> The most + prominent evidence, indeed, of ecclesiastical influence in the + Theodosian code is that which must be most lamented. It is the + immense mass of legislation, intended on the one hand to elevate the + clergy into a separate and sacred caste, and on the other to + persecute in every form, and with every degree of violence, all who + deviated from the fine line of Catholic orthodoxy.<a id="noteref_73" + name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last + consequence of the Christian estimate of human life was a very + emphatic condemnation of suicide. We have already seen that the + arguments of the Pagan moralists, who were opposed to this act, were + of four kinds. The religious argument of Pythagoras and Plato was, + that we are all soldiers of God, placed in an appointed post of duty, + which it is a rebellion against our Maker to desert. The civic + argument of Aristotle and the Greek legislators was that we owe our + services to the State, and that therefore voluntarily to abandon life + is to abandon our duty to our country. The argument which Plutarch + and other writers derived from human dignity was that true courage is + shown in the manful endurance of suffering, while suicide, being an + act of flight, is an act of cowardice, and therefore unworthy of man. + The mystical or Quietist argument of the Neoplatonists was that all + perturbation is a pollution of the soul; that the act of suicide is + accompanied by, and springs from, perturbation, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and that therefore the perpetrator ends + his days by a crime. Of these four arguments, the last cannot, I + think, be said to have had any place among the Christian dissuasives + from suicide, and the influence of the second was almost + imperceptible. The notion of patriotism being a moral duty was + habitually discouraged in the early Church; and it was impossible to + urge the civic argument against suicide without at the same time + condemning the hermit life, which in the third century became the + ideal of the Church. The duty a man owes to his family, which a + modern moralist would deem the most obvious and, perhaps, the most + conclusive proof of the general criminality of suicide, and which may + be said to have replaced the civic argument, was scarcely noticed + either by the Pagans or the early Christians. The first were + accustomed to lay so much stress upon the authority, that they + scarcely recognised the duties, of the father; and the latter were + too anxious to attach all their ethics to the interests of another + world, to do much to supply the omission. The Christian estimate of + the duty of humility, and of the degradation of man, rendered appeals + to human dignity somewhat uncongenial to the patristic writers; yet + these writers frequently dilated upon the true courage of patience, + in language to which their own heroism under persecution gave a noble + emphasis. To the example of Cato they opposed those of Regulus and + Job, the courage that endures suffering to the courage that confronts + death. The Platonic doctrine, that we are servants of the Deity, + placed upon earth to perform our allotted task in His sight, with His + assistance, and by His will, they continually enforced and most + deeply realised; and this doctrine was in itself, in most cases, a + sufficient preventive; for, as a great writer has said: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Though there are many crimes of a deeper dye than + suicide, there is no other by which men appear so formally to + renounce the protection of God.”</span><a id="noteref_74" name= + "noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, in addition + to this general teaching, the Christian theologians introduced into + the sphere we are considering new elements both of terrorism and of + persuasion, which have had a decisive influence upon the judgments of + mankind. They carried their doctrine of the sanctity of human life to + such a point that they maintained dogmatically that a man who + destroys his own life has committed a crime similar both in kind and + magnitude to that of an ordinary murderer,<a id="noteref_75" name= + "noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> and they + at the same time gave a new character to death by their doctrines + concerning its penal nature and concerning the future destinies of + the soul. On the other hand, the high position assigned to + resignation in the moral scale, the hope of future happiness, which + casts a ray of light upon the darkest calamities of life, the deeper + and more subtle consolations arising from the feeling of trust and + from the outpouring of prayer, and, above all, the Christian doctrine + of the remedial and providential character of suffering, have proved + sufficient protection against despair. The Christian doctrine, that + pain is a good, had in this respect an influence that was never + attained by the Pagan doctrine, that pain is not an evil.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There were, + however, two forms of suicide which were regarded in the early Church + with some tolerance or hesitation. During the frenzy excited by + persecution, and under the influence of the belief that martyrdom + effaced in a moment the sins of a life, and introduced the sufferer + at once into celestial joys, it was not uncommon for men, in a + transport of enthusiasm, to rush before the Pagan judges, imploring + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" + id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or provoking martyrdom; and + some of the ecclesiastical writers have spoken of these men with + considerable admiration,<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href= + "#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> though + the general tone of the patristic writings and the councils of the + Church condemned them. A more serious difficulty arose about + Christian women who committed suicide to guard their chastity when + menaced by the infamous sentences of their persecutors, or more + frequently by the lust of emperors, or by barbarian invaders. St. + Pelagia, a girl of only fifteen, who has been canonised by the + Church, and who was warmly eulogised by St. Ambrose and St. + Chrysostom, having been captured by the soldiery, obtained permission + to retire to her room for the purpose of robing herself, mounted to + the roof of the house, and, flinging herself down, perished by the + fall.<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href= + "#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> A + Christian lady of Antioch, named Domnina, had two daughters renowned + alike for their beauty and their piety. Being captured during the + Diocletian persecution, and fearing the loss of their chastity, they + agreed by one bold act to free themselves from the danger, and, + casting themselves into a river by the way, mother and daughters sank + unsullied in the wave.<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href= + "#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> The + tyrant Maxentius was fascinated by the beauty of a Christian lady, + the wife of the Prefect of Rome. Having sought in vain to elude his + addresses, having been dragged from her house by the minions of the + tyrant, the faithful wife obtained permission, before yielding to her + master's embraces, to retire for a moment into her chamber, and she + there, with true Roman courage, stabbed herself to the heart.<a id= + "noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> Some + Protestant <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg + 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + controversialists have been scandalised,<a id="noteref_80" name= + "noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> and some + Catholic controversialists perplexed, by the undisguised admiration + with which the early ecclesiastical writers narrate these histories. + To those who have not suffered theological opinions to destroy all + their natural sense of nobility it will need no defence.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This was the only + form of avowed suicide which was in any degree permitted in the early + Church. St. Ambrose rather timidly, and St. Jerome more strongly, + commended it; but at the time when the capture of Rome by the + soldiers of Alaric made the question one of pressing interest, St. + Augustine devoted an elaborate examination to the subject, and while + expressing his pitying admiration for the virgin suicides, decidedly + condemned their act.<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href= + "#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> His + opinion of the absolute sinfulness of suicide has since been + generally adopted by the Catholic theologians, who pretend that + Pelagia and Domnina acted under the impulse of a special + revelation.<a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href= + "#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> At the + same time, by a glaring though very natural <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> inconsistency, no characters were more + enthusiastically extolled than those anchorites who habitually + deprived their bodies of the sustenance that was absolutely necessary + to health, and thus manifestly abridged their lives. St. Jerome has + preserved a curious illustration of the feeling with which these slow + suicides were regarded by the outer world, in his account of the life + and death of a young nun named Blesilla. This lady had been guilty of + what, according to the religious notions of the fourth century, was, + at least, the frivolity of marrying, but was left a widow seven + months afterwards, having thus <span class="tei tei-q">“lost at once + the crown of virginity and the pleasure of marriage.”</span><a id= + "noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> An + attack of illness inspired her with strong religious feelings. At the + age of twenty she retired to a convent. She attained such a height of + devotion that, according to the very characteristic eulogy of her + biographer, <span class="tei tei-q">“she was more sorry for the loss + of her virginity than for the decease of her husband;”</span><a id= + "noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> and a + long succession of atrocious penances preceded, if they did not + produce, her death.<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href= + "#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> The + conviction that she had been killed by fasting, and the spectacle of + the uncontrollable grief of her mother, filled the populace with + indignation, and the funeral was disturbed by tumultuous cries that + the <span class="tei tei-q">“accursed race of monks should be + banished from the city, stoned, or drowned.”</span><a id="noteref_86" + name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> In the + Church itself, however, we find very few traces of any condemnation + of the custom of undermining the constitution by austerities,<a id= + "noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> and if + we may believe but a small part of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> what is related of the habits of the early and + mediæval monks, great numbers of them must have thus shortened their + days. There is a touching story told by St. Bonaventura, of St. + Francis Assisi, who was one of these victims to asceticism. As the + dying saint sank back exhausted with spitting blood, he avowed, as he + looked upon his emaciated body, that <span class="tei tei-q">“he had + sinned against his brother, the ass;”</span> and then, the feeling of + his mind taking, as was usual with him, the form of an hallucination, + he imagined that, when at prayer during the night, he heard a voice + saying: <span class="tei tei-q">“Francis, there is no sinner in the + world whom, if he be converted, God will not pardon; but he who kills + himself by hard penances will find no mercy in eternity.”</span> He + attributed the voice to the devil.<a id="noteref_88" name= + "noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Direct and + deliberate suicide, which occupies so prominent a place in the moral + history of antiquity, almost absolutely disappeared within the + Church; but beyond its pale the Circumcelliones, in the fourth + century, constituted themselves the apostles of death, and not only + carried to the highest point the custom of provoking martyrdom, by + challenging and insulting the assemblies of the Pagans, but even + killed themselves in great numbers, imagining, it would seem, that + this was a form of martyrdom, and would secure for them eternal + salvation. Assembling in hundreds, St. Augustine says even in + thousands, they leaped with paroxysms of frantic joy from the brows + of overhanging cliffs, till the rocks below were reddened with their + blood.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href= + "#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> At a + much later period, we find among the Albigenses a practice, known by + the name of Endura, of accelerating death, in the case of dangerous + illness, by fasting, and sometimes by bleeding.<a id="noteref_90" + name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> The + wretched Jews, stung to madness by the persecution of the Catholics, + furnish <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name= + "Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the most numerous + examples of suicide during the middle ages. A multitude perished by + their own hands, to avoid torture, in France, in 1095; five hundred, + it is said, on a single occasion at York; five hundred in 1320, when + besieged by the Shepherds. The old Pagan legislation on this subject + remained unaltered in the Theodosian and Justinian codes; but a + Council of Arles, in the fifth century, having pronounced suicide to + be the effect of diabolical inspiration, a Council of Bragues, in the + following century, ordained that no religious rites should be + celebrated at the tomb of the culprit, and that no masses should be + said for his soul; and these provisions, which were repeated by later + Councils, were gradually introduced into the laws of the barbarians + and of Charlemagne. St. Lewis originated the custom of confiscating + the property of the dead man, and the corpse was soon subjected to + gross and various outrages. In some countries it could only be + removed from the house through a perforation specially made for the + occasion in the wall; it was dragged upon a hurdle through the + streets, hung up with the head downwards, and at last thrown into the + public sewer, or burnt, or buried in the sand below high-water mark, + or transfixed by a stake on the public highway.<a id="noteref_91" + name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These singularly + hideous and at the same time grotesque customs, and also the extreme + injustice of reducing to beggary the unhappy relations of the dead, + had the very natural effect of exciting, in the eighteenth century, a + strong spirit of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg + 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + reaction. Suicide is indeed one of those acts which may be condemned + by moralists as a sin, but which, in modern times at least, cannot be + regarded as within the legitimate sphere of law; for a society which + accords to its members perfect liberty of emigration, cannot + reasonably pronounce the simple renunciation of life to be an offence + against itself. When, however, Beccaria and his followers went + further, and maintained that the mediæval laws on the subject were as + impotent as they were revolting, they fell, I think, into serious + error. The outrages lavished upon the corpse of the suicide, though + in the first instance an expression of the popular horror of his act, + contributed, by the associations they formed, to strengthen the + feeling that produced them, and they were also peculiarly fitted to + scare the diseased, excited, and oversensitive imaginations that are + most prone to suicide. In the rare occasions when the act was + deliberately contemplated, the knowledge that religious, legislative, + and social influences would combine to aggravate to the utmost the + agony of the surviving relatives, must have had great weight. The + activity of the Legislature shows the continuance of the act; but we + have every reason to believe that within the pale of Catholicism it + was for many centuries extremely rare. It is said to have been + somewhat prevalent in Spain in the last and most corrupt period of + the Gothic kingdom,<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href= + "#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> and many + instances occurred during a great pestilence which raged in England + in the seventh century,<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href= + "#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> and also + during the Black Death of the fourteenth century.<a id="noteref_94" + name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> When the + wives of priests were separated in vast numbers from their husbands + by Hildebrand, and driven into the world blasted, heart-broken, and + hopeless, not a few of them shortened <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> their agony by suicide.<a id="noteref_95" name= + "noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> Among + women it was in general especially rare; and a learned historian of + suicide has even asserted that a Spanish lady, who, being separated + from her husband, and finding herself unable to resist the energy of + her passions, killed herself rather than yield to temptation, is the + only instance of female suicide during several centuries.<a id= + "noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> In the + romances of chivalry, however, this mode of death is frequently + pourtrayed without horror,<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href= + "#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> and its + criminality was discussed at considerable length by Abelard and St. + Thomas Aquinas, while Dante has devoted some fine lines to painting + the condition of suicides in hell, where they are also frequently + represented in the bas-reliefs of cathedrals. A melancholy leading to + desperation, and known to theologians under the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“acedia,”</span> was not uncommon in monasteries, and + most of the recorded instances of mediæval suicides in Catholicism + were by monks. The frequent suicides of monks, sometimes to escape + the world, sometimes through despair at their inability to quell the + propensities of the body, sometimes through insanity produced by + their mode of life, and by their dread of surrounding demons, were + noticed in the early Church,<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" + href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" + id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and a few examples have been + gleaned, from the mediæval chronicles,<a id="noteref_99" name= + "noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> of + suicides produced by the bitterness of hopeless love, or by the + derangement that follows extreme austerity. These are, however, but + few; and it is probable that the monasteries, by providing a refuge + for the disappointed and the broken-hearted, have prevented more + suicides than they have caused, and that, during the whole period of + Catholic ascendancy, the act was more rare than before or after. The + influence of Catholicism was seconded by Mohammedanism, which, on + this as on many other points, borrowed its teaching from the + Christian Church, and even intensified it; for suicide, which is + never expressly condemned in the Bible, is more than once forbidden + in the Koran, and the Christian duty of resignation was exaggerated + by the Moslem into a complete fatalism. Under the empire of + Catholicism and Mohammedanism, suicide, during many centuries, almost + absolutely ceased in all the civilised, active, and progressive part + of mankind. When we recollect how warmly it was applauded, or how + faintly it was condemned, in the civilisation of Greece and Rome; + when we remember, too, that there was scarcely a barbarous tribe, + from Denmark to Spain, who did not habitually practise it,<a id= + "noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> we may + realise the complete <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg + 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + revolution which was effected in this sphere by the influence of + Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few words may be + added on the later phases of this mournful history. The Reformation + does not seem to have had any immediate effect in multiplying + suicide, for Protestants and Catholics held with equal intensity the + religious sentiments which are most fitted to prevent it, and in none + of the persecutions was impatience of life largely displayed. The + history at this period passes chiefly into the new world, where the + unhappy Indians, reduced to slavery, and treated with atrocious + cruelty by their conquerors, killed themselves in great numbers; till + the Spaniards, it is said, discovered an ingenious method of + deterring them, by declaring that the master also would commit + suicide, and would pursue his victims into the world of + spirits.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href= + "#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> In + Europe the act was very common among the witches, who underwent all + the sufferings with none of the consolations of martyrdom. Without + enthusiasm, without hope, without even the consciousness of + innocence, decrepit in body, and distracted in mind, compelled in + this world to endure tortures, before which the most impassioned + heroism might quail, and doomed, as they often believed, to eternal + damnation in the next, they not unfrequently killed themselves in the + agony of their despair. A French judge named Remy tells us that he + knew no less than fifteen witches commit suicide in a single + year.<a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href= + "#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" + id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> In these cases, fear and + madness combined in urging the victims to the deed. Epidemics of + purely insane suicide have also not unfrequently occurred. Both the + women of Marseilles and the women of Lyons were afflicted with an + epidemic not unlike that which, in antiquity, had been noticed among + the girls of Miletus.<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href= + "#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> In that + strange mania which raged in the Neapolitan districts from the end of + the fifteenth to the end of the seventeenth century, and which was + attributed to the bite of the tarantula, the patients thronged in + multitudes towards the sea, and often, as the blue waters opened to + their view, they chanted a wild hymn of welcome, and rushed with + passion into the waves.<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href= + "#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> But + together with these cases, which belong rather to the history of + medicine than to that of morals, we find many facts exhibiting a + startling increase of deliberate suicide, and a no less startling + modification of the sentiments with which it was regarded. The + revival of classical learning, and the growing custom of regarding + Greek and Roman heroes as ideals, necessarily brought the subject + into prominence. The Catholic casuists, and at a later period + philosophers of the school of Grotius and Puffendorf, began to + distinguish certain cases of legitimate suicide, such as that + committed to avoid dishonour or probable sin, or that of the soldier + who fires a mine, knowing he must inevitably perish by the explosion, + or that of a condemned person who saves himself from torture by + anticipating an inevitable fate, or that of a man who offers himself + to death for his friend.<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href= + "#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> The + effect of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg + 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Pagan examples may frequently be detected in the last words or + writings of the suicides. Philip Strozzi, when accused of the + assassination of Alexander I. of Tuscany, killed himself through fear + that torture might extort from him revelations injurious to his + friends, and he left behind him a paper in which, among other things, + he commended his soul to God, with the prayer that, if no higher boon + could be granted, he might at least be permitted to have his place + with Cato of Utica and the other great suicides of antiquity.<a id= + "noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> In + England, the act appears in the seventeenth century and in the first + half of the eighteenth to have been more common than upon the + Continent,<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href= + "#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> and + several partial or even unqualified apologies for it were written. + Sir Thomas More, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Utopia,”</span> + represented the priests and magistrates of his ideal republic + permitting or even enjoining those who were afflicted with incurable + disease to kill themselves, but depriving of burial those who had + done so without authorisation.<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" + href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> Dr. + Donne, the learned and pious Dean of St. Paul's, had in his youth + written an extremely curious, subtle, and learned, but at the same + time feeble and involved, work in defence of suicide, which on his + deathbed he commanded his son neither to publish nor destroy, and + which his son published in 1644. Two or three English suicides left + behind them elaborate defences, as did also a Swede named Robeck, who + drowned himself in 1735, and whose treatise, published in the + following year, acquired considerable celebrity.<a id="noteref_109" + name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> But + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" + id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the most influential writings + about suicide were those of the French philosophers and + revolutionists. Montaigne, without discussing its abstract + lawfulness, recounts, with much admiration, many of the instances in + antiquity.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href= + "#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> + Montesquieu, in a youthful work, defended it with ardent + enthusiasm.<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href= + "#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> + Rousseau devoted to the subject two letters of a burning and + passionate eloquence,<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href= + "#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> in the + first of which he presented with matchless power the arguments in its + favour, while in the second he denounced those arguments as + sophistical, dilated upon the impiety of abandoning the post of duty, + and upon the cowardice of despair, and with a deep knowledge of the + human heart revealed the selfishness that lies at the root of most + suicide, exhorting all who felt impelled to it to set about some work + for the good of others, in which they would assuredly find relief. + Voltaire, in the best-known couplet he ever wrote, defends the act on + occasions of extreme necessity.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" + href="#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> Among + the atheistical party it was warmly eulogised, and Holbach and + Deslandes were prominent as its defenders. The rapid decomposition of + religious opinions weakened the popular sense of its enormity, and at + the same time the humanity of the age, and also a clearer sense of + the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name= + "Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> true limits of + legislation, produced a reaction against the horrible laws on the + subject. Grotius had defended them. Montesquieu at first denounced + them with unqualified energy, but in his later years in some degree + modified his opinions. Beccaria, who was, more than any other writer, + the representative of the opinions of the French school on such + matters, condemned them partly as unjust to the innocent survivors, + partly as incapable of deterring any man who was resolved upon the + act. Even in 1749, in the full blaze of the philosophic movement, we + find a suicide named Portier dragged through the streets of Paris + with his face to the ground, hung from a gallows by his feet, and + then thrown into the sewers;<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" + href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> and the + laws were not abrogated till the Revolution, which, having founded so + many other forms of freedom, accorded the liberty of death. Amid the + dramatic vicissitudes, and the fierce enthusiasm of that period of + convulsions, suicides immediately multiplied. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“The world,”</span> it was said, had been <span class= + "tei tei-q">“empty since the Romans.”</span><a id="noteref_115" name= + "noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> For a + brief period, and in this one country, the action of Christianity + appeared suspended. Men seemed to be transported again into the age + of Paganism, and the suicides, though more theatrical, were + perpetrated with no less deliberation, and eulogised with no less + enthusiasm, than among the Stoics. But the tide of revolution passed + away, and with some qualifications the old opinions resumed their + authority. The laws against suicide were, indeed, for the most part + abolished. In France and several other lands there exists no + legislation on the subject. In other countries the law simply enjoins + burial without religious ceremonies. In England, the burial in a + highway and the mutilation by a stake were abolished under George + IV.; but the monstrous injustice of confiscating to the Crown the + entire property of the deliberate suicide still <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> disgraces the statute-book, though the + force of public opinion and the charitable perjury of juries render + it inoperative.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The common + sentiment of Christendom has, however, ratified the judgment which + the Christian teachers pronounced upon the act, though it has + somewhat modified the severity of the old censure, and has abandoned + some of the old arguments. It was reserved for Madame de Staël, who, + in a youthful work upon the Passions, had commended suicide, to + reconstruct this department of ethics, which had been somewhat + disturbed by the Revolution, and she did so in a little treatise + which is a model of calm, candid, and philosophic piety. Frankly + abandoning the old theological notions that the deed is of the nature + of murder, that it is the worst of crimes, and that it is always, or + even generally, the offspring of cowardice; abandoning, too, all + attempts to scare men by religious terrorism, she proceeded, not so + much to meet in detail the isolated arguments of its defenders, as to + sketch the ideal of a truly virtuous man, and to show how such a + character would secure men against all temptation to suicide. In + pages of the most tender beauty, she traced the influence of + suffering in softening, purifying, and deepening the character, and + showed how a frame of habitual and submissive resignation was not + only the highest duty, but also the source of the purest consolation, + and at the same time the appointed condition of moral amelioration. + Having examined in detail the Biblical aspect of the question, she + proceeded to show how the true measure of the dignity of man is his + unselfishness. She contrasted the martyr with the suicide—the death + which springs from devotion to duty with the death that springs from + rebellion against circumstances. The suicide of Cato, which had been + absurdly denounced by a crowd of ecclesiastics as an act of + cowardice, and as absurdly alleged by many suicides as a + justification for flying from pain or poverty, she represented as an + act of martyrdom—a death like that of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Curtius, accepted nobly for the benefit of + Rome. The eye of the good man should be for ever fixed upon the + interest of others. For them he should be prepared to relinquish life + with all its blessings. For them he should be prepared to tolerate + life, even when it seemed to him a curse.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sentiments of this + kind have, through the influence of Christianity, thoroughly pervaded + European society, and suicide, in modern times, is almost always + found to have sprung either from absolute insanity; from diseases + which, though not amounting to insanity, are yet sufficient to + discolour our judgments; or from that last excess of sorrow, when + resignation and hope are both extinct. Considering it in this light, + I know few things more fitted to qualify the optimism we so often + hear than the fact that statistics show it to be rapidly increasing, + and to be peculiarly characteristic of those nations which rank most + high in intellectual development and in general civilisation.<a id= + "noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> In one + or two countries, strong religious feeling has counteracted the + tendency; but the comparison of town and country, of different + countries, of different provinces of the same country, and of + different periods in history, proves conclusively its reality. Many + reasons may be alleged to explain it. Mental occupations are + peculiarly fitted to produce insanity,<a id="noteref_117" name= + "noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> and the + blaze of publicity, which in modern time encircles an act of suicide, + to draw weak minds to its imitation. If we put the condition of + absolutely savage life, out of our calculation, it is probable that a + highly developed civilisation, while it raises the average of + well-being, is accompanied by more extreme misery and acute + sufferings <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg + 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + than the simpler stages that had preceded it. Nomadic habits, the + vast agglomeration of men in cities, the pressure of a fierce + competition, and the sudden fluctuations to which manufactures are + peculiarly liable, are the conditions of great prosperity, but also + the causes of the most profound misery. Civilisation makes many of + what once were superfluities, necessaries of life, so that their loss + inflicts a pang long after their possession had ceased to be a + pleasure. It also, by softening the character, renders it peculiarly + sensitive to pain, and it brings with it a long train of antipathies, + passions, and diseased imaginations, which rarely or never cross the + thoughts or torture the nerves of the simple peasant. The advance of + religious scepticism, and the relaxation of religious discipline, + have weakened and sometimes destroyed the horror of suicide; and the + habits of self-assertion, the eager and restless ambitions which + political liberty, intellectual activity, and manufacturing + enterprise, all in their different ways conspire to foster, while + they are the very principles and conditions of the progress of our + age, render the virtue of content in all its forms extremely rare, + and are peculiarly unpropitious to the formation of that spirit of + humble and submissive resignation which alone can mitigate the agony + of hopeless suffering.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">From examining the + effect of Christianity in promoting a sense of the sanctity of human + life, we may now pass to an adjoining field, and examine its + influence in promoting a fraternal and philanthropic sentiment among + mankind. And first of all we may notice its effects upon slavery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The reader will + remember the general position this institution occupied in the eyes + of the Stoic moralists, and under the legislation which they had in a + great measure inspired. The legitimacy of slavery was fully + recognised; but Seneca and other moralists had asserted, in the very + strongest terms, the natural equality of mankind, the superficial + character of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg + 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + differences between the slave and his master, and the duty of the + most scrupulous humanity to the former. Instances of a very warm + sympathy between master and slave were of frequent occurrence; but + they may unfortunately be paralleled by not a few examples of the + most atrocious cruelty. To guard against such cruelty, a long series + of enactments, based avowedly upon the Stoical principle of the + essential equality of mankind, had been made under Hadrian, the + Antonines, and Alexander Severus. Not to recapitulate at length what + has been mentioned in a former chapter, it is sufficient to remind + the reader that the right of life and death had been definitely + withdrawn from the master, and that the murder of a slave was + stigmatised and punished by the law. It had, however, been laid down, + by the great lawyer Paul, that homicide implies an intention to kill, + and that therefore the master was not guilty of that crime if his + slave died under chastisement which was not administered with this + intention. But the licence of punishment which this decision might + give was checked by laws which forbade excessive cruelty to slaves, + provided that, when it was proved, they should be sold to another + master, suppressed the private prisons in which they had been + immured, and appointed special officers to receive their + complaints.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the field of + legislation, for about two hundred years after the conversion of + Constantine, the progress was extremely slight. The Christian + emperors, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 319 and 326, adverted + in two elaborate laws to the subject of the murder of slaves,<a id= + "noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> but, + beyond reiterating in very emphatic terms the previous enactments, it + is not easy to see in what way they improved the condition of the + class.<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href= + "#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> They + provided <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg + 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that any master who applied to his slave certain atrocious tortures, + that are enumerated, with the object of killing him, should be deemed + a homicide, but if the slave died under moderate punishment, or under + any punishment not intended to kill him, the master should be + blameless; no charge whatever, it was emphatically said, should be + brought against him. It has been supposed, though I think without + evidence, by commentators<a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href= + "#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> that + this law accorded immunity to the master only when the slave perished + under the application of <span class="tei tei-q">“appropriate”</span> + or servile punishments—that is to say, scourging, irons, or + imprisonment; but the use of torture not intended to kill was in no + degree restricted, nor is there anything in the law to make it appear + either that the master was liable to punishment, if contrary to his + intention his slave succumbed beneath torture, or that Constantine + proposed any penalty for excessive cruelty which did not result in + death. It is, perhaps, not out of place to observe, that this law was + in remarkable harmony with the well-known article of the Jewish code, + which provided that if a slave, wounded to death by his master, + linger for a day or two, the master should not be punished, for the + slave was his money.<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href= + "#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The two features + that were most revolting in the slave system, as it passed from the + Pagan to the Christian emperors, were the absolute want of legal + recognition of slave marriage, and the licence of torturing still + conceded to the master. The Christian emperors before Justinian took + no serious steps to remedy either of these evils, and the measures + that were taken against adultery still continued inapplicable to + slave unions, because <span class="tei tei-q">“the vileness of their + condition makes them unworthy of the observation of the + law.”</span><a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href= + "#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> The + abolition of the punishment of crucifixion had, however, a special + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" + id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> value to the slave class, and + a very merciful law of Constantine forbade the separation of the + families of the slaves.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href= + "#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> Another + law, which in its effects was perhaps still more important, imparted + a sacred character to manumission, ordaining that the ceremony should + be celebrated in the Church,<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" + href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> and + permitting it on Sundays. Some measures were also taken, providing + for the freedom of the Christian slaves of Jewish masters, and, in + two or three cases, freedom was offered as a bribe to slaves, to + induce them to inform against criminals. Intermarriage between the + free and slave classes was still strictly forbidden, and if a free + woman had improper intercourse with her slave, Constantine ordered + that the woman should be executed and the slave burnt alive.<a id= + "noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> By the + Pagan law, the woman had been simply reduced to slavery. The laws + against fugitive slaves were also rendered more severe.<a id= + "noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This legislation + may on the whole be looked upon as a progress, but it certainly does + not deserve the enthusiasm which ecclesiastical writers have + sometimes bestowed upon it. For about two hundred years, there was an + almost absolute pause in the legislation on this subject. Some slight + restrictions were, however, imposed upon the use of torture in + trials; some slight additional facilities of manumission were given, + and some very atrocious enactments made to prevent slaves accusing + their masters. According to that of Gratian, any slave who accused + his master of any offence, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg + 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + except high treason, should immediately be burnt alive, without any + investigation of the justice of the charge.<a id="noteref_127" name= + "noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under Justinian, + however, new and very important measures were taken. In no other + sphere were the laws of this emperor so indisputably an advance upon + those of his predecessors. His measures may be comprised under three + heads. In the first place, all the restrictions upon enfranchisement + which had accumulated under the Pagan legislation were abolished; the + legislator proclaimed in emphatic language, and by the provisions of + many laws, his desire to encourage manumission, and free scope was + thus given to the action of the Church. In the second place, the + freedmen, considered as an intermediate class between the slave and + the citizen, were virtually abolished, all or nearly all the + privileges accorded to the citizen being granted to the emancipated + slave. This was the most important contribution of the Christian + emperors to that great amalgamation of nations and classes which had + been advancing since the days of Augustus; and one of its effects + was, that any person, even of senatorial rank, might marry a slave + when he had first emancipated her. In the third place, a slave was + permitted to marry a free woman with the authorisation of his master, + and children born in slavery became the legal heirs of their + emancipated father. The rape of a slave woman was also in this reign + punished, like that of a free woman, by death.<a id="noteref_128" + name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, important as + were these measures, it is not in the field of legislation that we + must chiefly look for the influence of Christianity upon slavery. + This influence was indeed very great, but it is necessary carefully + to define its nature. The prohibition of all slavery, which was one + of the peculiarities of the Jewish Essenes, and the illegitimacy of + hereditary <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg + 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + slavery, which was one of the speculations of the Stoic Dion + Chrysostom, had no place in the ecclesiastical teaching. Slavery was + distinctly and formally recognised by Christianity,<a id= + "noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> and no + religion ever laboured more to encourage a habit of docility and + passive obedience. Much was indeed said by the Fathers about the + natural equality of mankind, about the duty of regarding slaves as + brothers or companions, and about the heinousness of cruelty to them; + but all this had been said with at least equal force, though it had + not been disseminated over an equally wide area, by Seneca and + Epictetus, and the principle of the original freedom of all men was + repeatedly averred by the Pagan lawyers. The services of Christianity + in this sphere were of three kinds. It supplied a new order of + relations, in which the distinction of classes was unknown. It + imparted a moral dignity to the servile classes, and it gave an + unexampled impetus to the movement of enfranchisement.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first of these + services was effected by the Church ceremonies and the penitential + discipline. In these spheres, from which the Christian mind derived + its earliest, its deepest, and its most enduring impressions, the + difference between the master and his slave was unknown. They + received the sacred elements together, they sat side by side at the + agape, they mingled in the public prayers. In the penal system of the + Church, the distinction between wrongs done to a freeman, and wrongs + done to a slave, which lay at the very root of the whole civil + legislation, was repudiated. At a time when, by the civil law, a + master, whose slave died as a consequence of excessive scourging, was + absolutely unpunished, the Council of Illiberis excluded that master + for <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name= + "Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ever from the + communion.<a id="noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href= + "#note_130"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> The + chastity of female slaves, for the protection of which the civil law + made but little provision, was sedulously guarded by the legislation + of the Church. Slave birth, moreover, was no disqualification for + entering into the priesthood; and an emancipated slave, regarded as + the dispenser of spiritual life and death, often saw the greatest and + the most wealthy kneeling humbly at his feet imploring his absolution + or his benediction.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href= + "#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the next place, + Christianity imparted a moral dignity to the servile class. It did + this not only by associating poverty and labour with that monastic + life which was so profoundly revered, but also by introducing new + modifications into the ideal type of morals. There is no fact more + prominent in the Roman writers than the profound contempt with which + they regarded slaves, not so much on account of their position, as on + account of the character which that position had formed. A servile + character was a synonym for a vicious one. Cicero had declared that + nothing great or noble could exist in a slave, and the plays of + Plautus exhibit the same estimate in every scene. There were, it is + true, some exceptions. Epictetus had not only been, but had been + recognised as one of the noblest characters of Rome. The fidelity of + slaves to their masters had been frequently extolled, and Seneca in + this, as in other respects, had been the defender of the oppressed. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" + id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Still there can be no doubt + that this contempt was general, and also that in the Pagan world it + was to a great extent just. Every age has its own moral ideal, to + which all virtuous men aspire. Every sphere of life has also a + tendency to produce a distinctive type being specially favourable to + some particular class of virtues, and specially unfavourable to + others. The popular estimate, and even the real moral condition, of + each class depends chiefly upon the degree in which the type of + character its position naturally develops, coincides with the ideal + type of the age. Now, if we remember that magnanimity, self-reliance, + dignity, independence, and, in a word, elevation of character, + constituted the Roman ideal of perfection, it will appear evident + that this was preeminently the type of freemen, and that the + condition of slavery was in the very highest degree unfavourable to + its development. Christianity for the first time gave the servile + virtues the foremost place in the moral type. Humility, obedience, + gentleness, patience, resignation, are all cardinal or rudimentary + virtues in the Christian character; they were all neglected or + underrated by the Pagans; they can all expand and flourish in a + servile position.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The influence of + Christianity upon slavery, by inclining the moral type to the servile + classes, though less obvious and less discussed than some others, is, + I believe, in the very highest degree important. There is, probably, + scarcely any other single circumstance that exercises so profound an + influence upon the social and political relations of a religion, as + the class type with which it can most readily assimilate; or, in + other words, the group or variety of virtues to which it gives the + foremost place. The virtues that are most suited to the servile + position were in general so little honoured by antiquity that they + were not even cultivated in their appropriate sphere. The aspirations + of good men were in a different direction. The virtue of the Stoic, + which rose triumphantly under adversity, nearly always withered under + degradation. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg + 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> For + the first time, under the influence of Christianity, a great moral + movement passed through the servile class. The multitude of slaves + who embraced the new faith was one of the reproaches of the Pagans; + and the names of Blandina, Potamiæna, Eutyches, Victorinus, and + Nereus, show how fully they shared in the sufferings and in the glory + of martyrdom <a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href= + "#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a>. The + first and grandest edifice of Byzantine architecture in Italy—the + noble church of St. Vital, at Ravenna—was dedicated by Justinian to + the memory of a martyred slave.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">While Christianity + thus broke down the contempt with which the master had regarded his + slaves, and planted among the latter a principle of moral + regeneration which expanded in no other sphere with an equal + perfection, its action in procuring the freedom of the slave was + unceasing. The law of Constantine, which placed the ceremony under + the superintendence of the clergy, and the many laws that gave + special facilities of manumission to those who desired to enter the + monasteries or the priesthood, symbolised the religious character the + act had assumed. It was celebrated on Church festivals, especially at + Easter; and, although it was not proclaimed a matter of duty or + necessity, it was always regarded as one of the most acceptable modes + of expiating past sins. St. Melania was said to have emancipated + 8,000 slaves; St. Ovidius, a rich martyr of Gaul, 5,000; Chromatius, + a Roman prefect under Diocletian, 1,400; Hermes, a prefect in the + reign of Trajan, 1,250.<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href= + "#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> Pope + St. Gregory, many of the clergy at Hippo under the rule of St. + Augustine, as well as great numbers of private individuals, freed + their slaves as an act of piety.<a id="noteref_134" name= + "noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> It + became customary to do so on occasions <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of national or personal thanksgiving, on + recovery from sickness, on the birth of a child, at the hour of + death, and, above all, in testamentary bequests.<a id="noteref_135" + name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> + Numerous charters and epitaphs still record the gift of liberty to + slaves throughout the middle ages, <span class="tei tei-q">“for the + benefit of the soul”</span> of the donor or testator. In the + thirteenth century, when there were no slaves to emancipate in + France, it was usual in many churches to release caged pigeons on the + ecclesiastical festivals, in memory of the ancient charity, and that + prisoners might still be freed in the name of Christ.<a id= + "noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Slavery, however, + lasted in Europe for about 800 years after Constantine, and during + the period with which alone this volume is concerned, although its + character was changed and mitigated, the number of men who were + subject to it was probably greater than in the Pagan Empire. In the + West the barbarian conquests modified the conditions of labour in two + directions. The cessation of the stream of barbarian captives, the + impoverishment of great families, who had been surrounded by vast + retinues of slaves, the general diminution of town life, and the + barbarian habits of personal independence, checked the old form of + slavery, while the misery and the precarious condition of the free + peasants induced them in great numbers to barter their liberty for + protection by the neighbouring lord.<a id="noteref_137" name= + "noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> In the + East, the destruction <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg + 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + great fortunes through excessive taxation diminished the number of + superfluous slaves; and the fiscal system of the Byzantine Empire, by + which agricultural slaves were taxed according to their + employments,<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href= + "#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> as well + as the desire of emperors to encourage agriculture, led the + legislators to attach the slaves permanently to the soil. In the + course of time, almost the entire free peasantry, and the greater + number of the old slaves, had sunk or risen into the qualified + slavery called serfdom, which formed the basis of the great edifice + of feudalism. Towards the end of the eighth century, the sale of + slaves beyond their native provinces was in most countries + prohibited.<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href= + "#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> The + creation of the free cities of Italy, the custom of emancipating + slaves who were enrolled in the army, and economical changes which + made free labour more profitable than slave labour, conspired with + religious motives in effecting the ultimate freedom of labour. The + practice of manumitting, as an act of devotion, continued to the end; + but the ecclesiastics, probably through the feeling that they had no + right to alienate corporate property, in which they had only a life + interest, were among the last to follow the counsels they so + liberally bestowed upon the laity.<a id="noteref_140" name= + "noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> In the + twelfth century, however, slaves in Europe were very rare. In the + fourteenth century, slavery was almost unknown.<a id="noteref_141" + name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Closely connected + with the influence of the Church in destroying hereditary slavery, + was its influence in redeeming captives from servitude. In no other + form of charity was its beneficial character more continually and + more splendidly displayed. During the long and dreary trials of the + barbarian invasions, when the whole structure of society was + dislocated, when vast districts and mighty cities were in a few + months almost depopulated, and when the flower of the youth of Italy + were mown down by the sword, or carried away into captivity, the + bishops never desisted from their efforts to alleviate the sufferings + of the prisoners. St. Ambrose, disregarding the outcries of the + Arians, who denounced his act as atrocious sacrilege, sold the rich + church ornaments of Milan to rescue some captives who had fallen into + the hands of the Goths, and this practice—which was afterwards + formally sanctioned by St. Gregory the Great—became speedily general. + When the Roman army had captured, but refused to support, seven + thousand Persian prisoners, Acacius, Bishop of Amida, undeterred by + the bitter hostility of the Persians to Christianity, and declaring + that <span class="tei tei-q">“God had no need of plates or + dishes,”</span> sold all the rich church ornaments of his diocese, + rescued the unbelieving prisoners, and sent them back unharmed to + their king. During the horrors of the Vandal invasion, Deogratias, + Bishop of Carthage, took a similar step to ransom the Roman + prisoners. St. Augustine, St. Gregory the Great, St. Cæsarius of + Arles, St. Exuperius of Toulouse, St. Hilary, St. Remi, all melted + down or sold their church vases to free prisoners. St. Cyprian sent a + large sum for the same purpose to the Bishop of Nicomedia. St. + Epiphanius and St. Avitus, in conjunction with a rich Gaulish lady + named Syagria, are said to have rescued thousands. St. Eligius + devoted to this object his entire fortune. St. Paulinus of Nola + displayed a similar generosity, and the legends even assert, though + untruly, that he, like St. Peter Teleonarius and St. Serapion, having + exhausted all other forms of charity, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> as a last gift sold himself to slavery. When, + long afterwards, the Mohammedan conquests in a measure reproduced the + calamities of the barbarian invasions, the same unwearied charity was + displayed. The Trinitarian monks, founded by John of Matha in the + twelfth century, were devoted to the release of Christian captives, + and another society was founded with the same object by Peter + Nolasco, in the following century.<a id="noteref_142" name= + "noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The different + branches of the subject I am examining are so closely intertwined + that it is difficult to investigate one without in a measure + anticipating the others. While discussing the influence of the Church + in protecting infancy, in raising the estimate of human life, and in + alleviating slavery, I have trenched largely upon the last + application of the doctrine of Christian fraternity I must examine—I + mean the foundation of charity. The difference between Pagan and + Christian societies in this matter is very profound; but a great part + of it must be ascribed to causes other than religious opinions. + Charity finds an extended scope for action only, where there exists a + large class of men at once independent and impoverished. In the + ancient societies, slavery in a great measure replaced pauperism, + and, by securing the subsistence of a very large proportion of the + poor, contracted the sphere of charity. And what slavery did at Rome + for the very poor, the system of clientage did for those of a + somewhat higher rank. The existence of these two institutions is + sufficient to show the injustice of judging the two societies by a + mere comparison of their charitable institutions, and we must also + remember that among the ancients the relief of the indigent was one + of the most important functions of the State. Not to dwell upon the + many measures taken with this object in ancient Greece, in + considering the condition of the Roman poor we are at once met + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" + id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by the simple fact that for + several centuries the immense majority of these were habitually + supported by gratuitous distributions of corn. In a very early period + of Roman history we find occasional instances of distribution; but it + was not till <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.u.c.</span></span> 630 that Caius + Gracchus caused a law to be made, supplying the poorer classes with + corn at a price that was little more than nominal; and although, two + years after, the nobles succeeded in revoking this law, it was after + several fluctuations finally re-enacted in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.u.c.</span></span> 679. The + Cassia-Terentia law, as it was called from the consuls under whom it + was at last established, was largely extended in its operation, or, + as some think, revived from neglect in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.u.c.</span></span> 691, by Cato of + Utica, who desired by this means to divert popularity from the cause + of Cæsar, under whom multitudes of the poor were enrolling + themselves. Four years later, Clodius Pulcher, abolishing the small + payment which had been demanded, made the distribution entirely + gratuitous. It took place once a month, and consisted of five + modii<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href= + "#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> a head. + In the time of Julius Cæsar no less than 320,000 persons were + inscribed as recipients; but Cæsar reduced the number by one half. + Under Augustus it had risen to 200,000. This emperor desired to + restrict the distribution of corn to three or four times a year, but, + yielding to the popular wish, he at last consented that it should + continue monthly. It soon became the leading fact of Roman life. + Numerous officers were appointed to provide it. A severe legislation + controlled their acts, and to secure a regular and abundant supply of + corn for the capital became the principal object of the provincial + governors. Under the Antonines the number of the recipients had + considerably increased, having sometimes, it is said, exceeded + 500,000. Septimus Severus added to the corn a ration of oil. Aurelian + replaced the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg + 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + monthly distribution of unground corn by a daily distribution of + bread, and added, moreover, a portion of pork. Gratuitous + distributions were afterwards extended to Constantinople, Alexandria, + and Antioch, and were probably not altogether unknown in smaller + towns.<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href= + "#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have already + seen that this gratuitous distribution of corn ranked, with the + institution of slavery and the gladiatorial exhibitions, as one of + the chief demoralising influences of the Empire. The most injudicious + charity, however pernicious to the classes it is intended to relieve, + has commonly a beneficial and softening influence upon the donor, and + through him upon society at large. But the Roman distribution of + corn, being merely a political device, had no humanising influence + upon the people, while, being regulated only by the indigence, and + not at all by the infirmities or character, of the recipient, it was + a direct and overwhelming encouragement to idleness. With a provision + of the necessaries of life, and with an abundant supply of + amusements, the poor Romans readily gave up honourable labour, all + trades in the city languished, every interruption in the distribution + of corn was followed by fearful sufferings, free gifts of land were + often insufficient to attract the citizens to honest labour, and the + multiplication of children, which rendered the public relief + inadequate, was checked by abortion, exposition, or infanticide.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When we remember + that the population of Rome probably never exceeded a million and a + half, that a large proportion of the indigent were provided for as + slaves, and that more than 200,000 freemen were habitually supplied + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" + id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> with the first necessary of + life, we cannot, I think, charge the Pagan society of the metropolis, + at least, with an excessive parsimony in relieving poverty. But + besides the distribution of corn, several other measures were taken. + Salt, which was very largely used by the Roman poor, had during the + Republic been made a monopoly of the State, and was sold by it at a + price that was little more than nominal.<a id="noteref_145" name= + "noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> The + distribution of land, which was the subject of the agrarian laws, + was, under a new form, practised by Julius Cæsar,<a id="noteref_146" + name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> + Nerva,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href= + "#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> and + Septimus Severus,<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href= + "#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> who + bought land to divide it among the poor citizens. Large legacies were + left to the people by Julius Cæsar, Augustus, and others, and + considerable, though irregular, donations made on occasions of great + rejoicings. Numerous public baths were established, to which, when + they were not absolutely gratuitous, the smallest coin in use gave + admission, and which were in consequence habitually employed by the + poor. Vespasian instituted, and the Antonines extended, a system of + popular education, and the movement I have already noticed, for the + support of the children of poor parents, acquired very considerable + proportions. The first trace of it at Rome may be found under + Augustus, who gave money and corn for the support of young children, + who had previously not been included in the public + distributions.<a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href= + "#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> This + appears, however, to have been but an act of isolated benevolence, + and the honour of first instituting a systematic effort in this + direction belongs to Nerva, who enjoined the support of poor + children, not only in Rome, but in all the cities of Italy.<a id= + "noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> Trajan + greatly extended the system. In <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> his reign 5,000 poor children were supported by + the Government in Rome alone,<a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" + href="#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> and + similar measures, though we know not on what scale, were taken in the + other Italian and even African cities. At the little town of Velleia, + we find a charity instituted by Trajan, for the partial support of + 270 children.<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href= + "#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a> Private + benevolence followed in the same direction, and several inscriptions + which still remain, though they do not enable us to write its + history, sufficiently attest its activity. The younger Pliny, besides + warmly encouraging schools, devoted a small property to the support + of poor children in his native city of Como.<a id="noteref_153" name= + "noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> The + name of Cælia Macrina is preserved as the foundress of a charity for + 100 children at Terracina.<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" + href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> Hadrian + increased the supplies of corn allotted to these charities, and he + was also distinguished for his bounty to poor women.<a id= + "noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> + Antoninus was accustomed to lend money to the poor at four per cent., + which was much below the normal rate of interest,<a id="noteref_156" + name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> and + both he and Marcus Aurelius dedicated to the memory of their wives + institutions for the support of girls.<a id="noteref_157" name= + "noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> + Alexander Severus in like manner dedicated an institution for the + support of children to the memory of his mother.<a id="noteref_158" + name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> Public + hospitals were probably unknown in Europe before Christianity; but + there are traces of the distribution of medicine to the sick + poor;<a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href= + "#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> there + were private infirmaries for slaves, and also, it is believed, + military hospitals.<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href= + "#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> + Provincial towns were occasionally assisted by <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the Government in seasons of great + distress, and there are some recorded instances of private legacies + for their benefit.<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href= + "#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These various + measures are by no means inconsiderable, and it is not unreasonable + to suppose that many similar steps were taken, of which all record + has been lost. The history of charity presents so few salient + features, so little that can strike the imagination or arrest the + attention, that it is usually almost wholly neglected by historians; + and it is easy to conceive what inadequate notions of our existing + charities could be gleaned from the casual allusions in plays or + poems, in political histories or court memoirs. There can, however, + be no question that neither in practice nor in theory, neither in the + institutions that were founded nor in the place that was assigned to + it in the scale of duties, did charity in antiquity occupy a position + at all comparable to that which it has obtained by Christianity. + Nearly all relief was a State measure, dictated much more by policy + than by benevolence; and the habit of selling young children, the + innumerable expositions, the readiness of the poor to enrol + themselves as gladiators, and the frequent famines, show how large + was the measure of unrelieved distress. A very few Pagan examples of + charity have, indeed, descended to us. Among the Greeks we find + Epaminondas ransoming captives, and collecting dowers for poor + girls;<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href= + "#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> Cimon, + feeding the hungry and clothing the naked;<a id="noteref_163" name= + "noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> Bias, + purchasing, emancipating, and furnishing with dowers some captive + girls of Messina.<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href= + "#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> Tacitus + has described with enthusiasm how, after a catastrophe near Rome, the + rich threw open their houses and taxed all their resources to relieve + the sufferers.<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href= + "#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> There + existed, too, among the poor, both of Greece and Rome, mutual + insurance societies, which undertook to provide <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> for their sick and infirm members.<a id= + "noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> The + very frequent reference to mendicancy in the Latin writers shows that + beggars, and therefore those who relieved beggars, were numerous. The + duty of hospitality was also strongly enjoined, and was placed under + the special protection of the supreme Deity. But the active, + habitual, and detailed charity of private persons, which is so + conspicuous a feature in all Christian societies, was scarcely known + in antiquity, and there are not more than two or three moralists who + have even noticed it. Of these, the chief rank belongs to Cicero, who + devoted two very judicious but somewhat cold chapters to the subject. + Nothing, he said, is more suitable to the nature of man than + beneficence or liberality, but there are many cautions to be urged in + practising it. We must take care that our bounty is a real blessing + to the person we relieve; that it does not exceed our own means; that + it is not, as was the case with Sylla and Cæsar, derived from the + spoliation of others; that it springs from the heart and not from + ostentation; that the claims of gratitude are preferred to the mere + impulses of compassion, and that due regard is paid both to the + character and to the wants of the recipient.<a id="noteref_167" name= + "noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Christianity for + the first time made charity a rudimentary virtue, giving it a leading + place in the moral type, and in the exhortations of its teachers. + Besides its general influence in stimulating the affections, it + effected a complete revolution in this sphere, by regarding the poor + as the special representatives of the Christian Founder, and thus + making the love of Christ, rather than the love of man, the principle + of charity. Even in the days of persecution, collections for the + relief of the poor were made at the Sunday meetings. The agapæ or + feasts of love were intended mainly for the poor, and food that was + saved by the fasts was devoted to their benefit. A vast organisation + of charity, presided over <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg + 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by + the bishops, and actively directed by the deacons, soon ramified over + Christendom, till the bond of charity became the bond of unity, and + the most distant sections of the Christian Church corresponded by the + interchange of mercy. Long before the era of Constantine, it was + observed that the charities of the Christians were so extensive—it + may, perhaps, be said so excessive—that they drew very many impostors + to the Church;<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href= + "#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> and + when the victory of Christianity was achieved, the enthusiasm for + charity displayed itself in the erection of numerous institutions + that were altogether unknown to the Pagan world. A Roman lady, named + Fabiola, in the fourth century, founded at Rome, as an act of + penance, the first public hospital, and the charity planted by that + woman's hand overspread the world, and will alleviate, to the end of + time, the darkest anguish of humanity. Another hospital was soon + after founded by St. Pammachus; another of great celebrity by St. + Basil, at Cæsarea. St. Basil also erected at Cæsarea what was + probably the first asylum for lepers. Xenodochia, or refuges for + strangers, speedily rose, especially along the paths of the pilgrims. + St. Pammachus founded one at Ostia; Paula and Melania founded others + at Jerusalem. The Council of Nice ordered that one should be erected + in every city. In the time of St. Chrysostom the church of Antioch + supported 3,000 widows and virgins, besides strangers and sick. + Legacies for the poor became common; and it was not unfrequent for + men and women who desired to live a life of peculiar sanctity, and + especially for priests who attained the episcopacy <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> to bestow their entire properties in + charity. Even the early Oriental monks, who for the most part were + extremely removed from the active and social virtues, supplied many + noble examples of charity. St. Ephrem, in a time of pestilence, + emerged from his solitude to found and superintend a hospital at + Edessa. A monk named Thalasius collected blind beggars in an asylum + on the banks of the Euphrates. A merchant named Apollonius founded on + Mount Nitria a gratuitous dispensary for the monks. The monks often + assisted by their labours provinces that were suffering from + pestilence or famine. We may trace the remains of the pure socialism + that marked the first phase of the Christian community, in the + emphatic language with which some of the Fathers proclaimed charity + to be a matter not of mercy but of justice, maintaining that all + property is based on usurpation, that the earth by right is common to + all men, and that no man can claim a superabundant supply of its + goods except as an administrator for others. A Christian, it was + maintained, should devote at least one-tenth of his profits to the + poor.<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href= + "#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The enthusiasm of + charity, thus manifested in the Church, speedily attracted the + attention of the Pagans. The ridicule of Lucian, and the vain efforts + of Julian to produce a rival system of charity within the limits of + Paganism,<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href= + "#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> + emphatically attested both its pre-eminence and its catholicity. + During <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name= + "Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the pestilences that + desolated Carthage in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 326, and Alexandria in + the reigns of Gallienus and of Maximian, while the Pagans fled + panic-stricken from the contagion, the Christians extorted the + admiration of their fellow-countrymen by the courage with which they + rallied around their bishops, consoled the last hours of the + sufferers, and buried the abandoned dead.<a id="noteref_171" name= + "noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> In the + rapid increase of pauperism arising from the emancipation of numerous + slaves, their charity found free scope for action, and its resources + were soon taxed to the utmost by the horrors of the barbarian + invasions. The conquest of Africa by Genseric deprived Italy of the + supply of corn upon which it almost wholly depended, arrested the + gratuitous distribution by which the Roman poor were mainly + supported, and produced all over the land the most appalling + calamities.<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href= + "#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> The + history of Italy became one monotonous tale of famine and pestilence, + of starving populations and ruined cities. But everywhere amid this + chaos of dissolution we may detect the majestic form of the Christian + priest mediating between the hostile forces, straining every nerve to + lighten the calamities around him. When the Imperial city was + captured and plundered by the hosts of Alaric, a Christian church + remained a secure sanctuary, which neither the passions nor the + avarice of the Goths transgressed. When a fiercer than Alaric had + marked out Rome for his prey, the Pope St. Leo, arrayed in his + sacerdotal robes, confronted the victorious Hun, as the ambassador + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" + id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of his fellow-countrymen, and + Attila, overpowered by religious awe, turned aside in his course. + When, two years later, Rome lay at the mercy of Genseric, the same + Pope interposed with the Vandal conqueror, and obtained from him a + partial cessation of the massacre. The Archdeacon Pelagius interceded + with similar humanity and similar success, when Rome had been + captured by Totila. In Gaul, Troyes is said to have been saved from + destruction by the influence of St. Lupus, and Orleans by the + influence of St. Agnan. In Britain an invasion of the Picts was + averted by St. Germain of Auxerre. The relations of rulers to their + subjects, and of tribunals to the poor, were modified by the same + intervention. When Antioch was threatened with destruction on account + of its rebellion against Theodosius, the anchorites poured forth from + the neighbouring deserts to intercede with the ministers of the + emperor, while the Archbishop Flavian went himself as a suppliant to + Constantinople. St. Ambrose imposed public penance on Theodosius, on + account of the massacre of Thessalonica. Synesius excommunicated for + his oppressions a governor named Andronicus; and two French Councils, + in the sixth century, imposed the same penalty on all great men who + arbitrarily ejected the poor. Special laws were found necessary to + restrain the turbulent charity of some priests and monks, who impeded + the course of justice, and even snatched criminals from the hands of + the law.<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href= + "#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> St. + Abraham, St. Epiphanius, and St. Basil are all said to have obtained + the remission or reduction of oppressive imposts. To provide for the + interests of widows and orphans was part of the official + ecclesiastical duty, and a Council of Macon anathematised any ruler + who brought them to trial without first apprising the bishop of the + diocese. A Council of Toledo, in the fifth century, threatened with + excommunication all who robbed priests, monks, or poor <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> men, or refused to listen to their + expostulations. One of the chief causes of the inordinate power + acquired by the clergy was their mediatorial office, and their + gigantic wealth was in a great degree due to the legacies of those + who regarded them as the trustees of the poor. As time rolled on, + charity assumed many forms, and every monastery became a centre from + which it radiated. By the monks the nobles were overawed, the poor + protected, the sick tended, travellers sheltered, prisoners ransomed, + the remotest spheres of suffering explored. During the darkest period + of the middle ages, monks founded a refuge for pilgrims amid the + horrors of the Alpine snows. A solitary hermit often planted himself, + with his little boat, by a bridgeless stream, and the charity of his + life was to ferry over the traveller.<a id="noteref_174" name= + "noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> When + the hideous disease of leprosy extended its ravages over Europe, when + the minds of men were filled with terror, not only by its + loathsomeness and its contagion, but also by the notion that it was + in a peculiar sense supernatural,<a id="noteref_175" name= + "noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> new + hospitals and refuges overspread Europe, and monks flocked in + multitudes to serve in them.<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" + href="#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> + Sometimes, the legends say, the leper's form was in a moment + transfigured, and he who came to tend the most loathsome of mankind + received his reward, for he found himself in the presence of his + Lord.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is no fact + of which an historian becomes more <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> speedily or more painfully conscious than the + great difference between the importance and the dramatic interest of + the subjects he treats. Wars or massacres, the horrors of martyrdom + or the splendours of individual prowess, are susceptible of such + brilliant colouring, that with but little literary skill they can be + so pourtrayed that their importance is adequately realised, and they + appeal powerfully to the emotions of the reader. But this vast and + unostentatious movement of charity, operating in the village hamlet + and in the lonely hospital, staunching the widow's tears, and + following all the windings of the poor man's griefs, presents few + features the imagination can grasp, and leaves no deep impression + upon the mind. The greatest things are often those which are most + imperfectly realised; and surely no achievements of the Christian + Church are more truly great than those which it has effected in the + sphere of charity. For the first time in the history of mankind, it + has inspired many thousands of men and women, at the sacrifice of all + worldly interests, and often under circumstances of extreme + discomfort or danger, to devote their entire lives to the single + object of assuaging the sufferings of humanity. It has covered the + globe with countless institutions of mercy, absolutely unknown to the + whole Pagan world. It has indissolubly united, in the minds of men, + the idea of supreme goodness with that of active and constant + benevolence. It has placed in every parish a religious minister, who, + whatever may be his other functions, has at least been officially + charged with the superintendence of an organisation of charity, and + who finds in this office one of the most important as well as one of + the most legitimate sources of his power.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are, + however, two important qualifications to the admiration with which we + regard the history of Christian charity—one relating to a particular + form of suffering, and the other of a more general kind. A strong, + ill-defined notion of the supernatural character of insanity had + existed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name= + "Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from the earliest + times; but there were special circumstances which rendered the action + of the Church peculiarly unfavourable to those who were either + predisposed to or afflicted with this calamity. The reality both of + witchcraft and diabolical possession had been distinctly recognised + in the Jewish writings. The received opinions about eternal torture, + and ever-present dæmons, and the continued strain upon the + imagination, in dwelling upon an unseen world, were pre-eminently + fitted to produce madness in those who were at all predisposed to it, + and, where insanity had actually appeared, to determine the form and + complexion of the hallucinations of the maniac.<a id="noteref_177" + name="noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> + Theology supplying all the images that acted most powerfully upon the + imagination, most madness, for many centuries, took a theological + cast. One important department of it appears chiefly in the lives of + the saints. Men of lively imaginations and absolute ignorance, living + apart from all their fellows, amid the horrors of a savage + wilderness, practising austerities by which their physical system was + thoroughly deranged, and firmly persuaded that innumerable devils + were continually hovering about their cells and interfering with + their devotions, speedily and very naturally became subject to + constant hallucinations, which probably form the nucleus of truth in + the legends of their lives. But it was impossible that insanity + should confine itself to the orthodox forms of celestial visions, or + of the apparitions and the defeats of devils. Very frequently it led + the unhappy maniac to some delusion, which called down <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon him the speedy sentence of the + Church. Thus, in the year 1300, the corpse of a Bohemian or, + according to another version, an English girl who imagined herself to + be the Holy Ghost incarnate for the redemption of women, was dug up + and burnt, and two women who believed in her perished at the + stake.<a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href= + "#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> In the + year 1359, a Spaniard declared himself to be the brother of the + archangel Michael, and to be destined for the place in heaven which + Satan had lost; and he added that he was accustomed every day both to + mount into heaven and descend into hell, that the end of the world + was at hand, and that it was reserved for him to enter into single + combat with Antichrist. The poor lunatic fell into the hands of the + Archbishop of Toledo, and was burnt alive.<a id="noteref_179" name= + "noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> In some + cases the hallucination took the form of an irregular inspiration. On + this charge, Joan of Arc, and another girl who had been fired by her + example, and had endeavoured, apparently under a genuine + hallucination, to follow her career,<a id="noteref_180" name= + "noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> were + burnt alive. A famous Spanish physician and scholar, named Torralba, + who lived in the sixteenth century, and who imagined that he had an + attendant angel continually about him, escaped with public penance + and confession;<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href= + "#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> but a + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" + id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> professor of theology in Lima, + who laboured under the same delusion, and added to it some wild + notions about his spiritual dignities, was less fortunate. He was + burnt by the Inquisition of Peru.<a id="noteref_182" name= + "noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> Most + commonly, however, the theological notions about witchcraft either + produced madness or determined its form, and, through the influence + of the clergy of the different sections of the Christian Church, many + thousands of unhappy women, who, from their age, their loneliness, + and their infirmity, were most deserving of pity, were devoted to the + hatred of mankind, and, having been tortured with horrible and + ingenious cruelty, were at last burnt alive.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The existence, + however, of some forms of natural madness was generally admitted; but + the measures for the relief of the unhappy victims were very few, and + very ill judged. Among the ancients, they were brought to the + temples, and subjected to imposing ceremonies, which were believed + supernaturally to relieve them, and which probably had a favourable + influence through their action upon the imagination. The great Greek + physicians had devoted considerable attention to this malady, and + some of their precepts anticipated modern discoveries; but no lunatic + asylum appears to have existed in antiquity.<a id="noteref_183" name= + "noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> In the + first period of the hermit life, when many anchorites became insane + through their penances, a refuge is said to have been opened for them + at Jerusalem.<a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href= + "#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> This + appears, however, to be a solitary instance, arising from the + exigencies of a single class, and no lunatic asylum existed in + Christian Europe till the fifteenth century. The Mohammedans, in this + form of charity, seem to have preceded the Christians. Benjamin of + Tudela, who visited Bagdad in the twelfth century, describes a palace + in that city, called <span class="tei tei-q">“the House of + Mercy,”</span> in which all mad persons found in the country were + confined and bound with <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg + 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + iron chains. They were carefully examined every month and released as + soon as they recovered.<a id="noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href= + "#note_185"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> The + asylum of Cairo is said to have been founded in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1304.<a id= + "noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> Leo + Africanus notices the existence of a similar institution at Fez, in + the beginning of the sixteenth century, and mentions that the + patients were restrained by chains,<a id="noteref_187" name= + "noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> and it + is probable that the care of the insane was a general form of charity + in Mohammedan countries. Among the Christians it first appeared in + quarters contiguous to the Mohammedans; but there is, I think, no + real evidence that it was derived from Mohammedan example. The + Knights of Malta were famous as the one order who admitted lunatics + into their hospitals; but no Christian asylum expressly for their + benefit existed till 1409. The honour of instituting this form of + charity in Christendom belongs to Spain. A monk named Juan Gilaberto + Joffre, filled with compassion at the sight of the maniacs who were + hooted by crowds through the streets of Valencia, founded an asylum + in that city, and his example was speedily followed in other + provinces. The new charity was introduced into Saragossa in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1425, into Seville and + Valladolid in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1436, into Toledo in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1483. All these + institutions existed before a single lunatic asylum had been founded + in any other part of Christendom.<a id="noteref_188" name= + "noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> Two + other very honourable facts may be mentioned, establishing the + preeminence of Spanish charity in this field. The first is, that the + oldest lunatic asylum in the metropolis of Catholicism was that + erected by Spaniards, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1548.<a id= + "noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href="#note_189"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> The + second is, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg + 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + that when, at the close of the last century, Pinel began his great + labours in this sphere, he pronounced Spain to be the country in + which lunatics were treated with most wisdom and most humanity.<a id= + "noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In most countries + their condition was indeed truly deplorable. While many thousands + were burnt as witches, those who were recognised as insane were + compelled to endure all the horrors of the harshest imprisonment. + Blows, bleeding, and chains were their usual treatment, and horrible + accounts were given of madmen who had spent decades bound in dark + cells.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href= + "#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> Such + treatment naturally aggravated their malady, and that malady in many + cases rendered impossible the resignation and ultimate torpor which + alleviate the sufferings of ordinary prisoners. Not until the + eighteenth century was the condition of this unhappy class seriously + improved. The combined progress of theological scepticism and + scientific knowledge relegated witchcraft to the world of phantoms, + and the exertions of Morgagni in Italy, of Cullen in Scotland, and of + Pinel in France, renovated the whole treatment of acknowledged + lunatics.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second + qualification to the admiration with which we regard the history of + Christian charity arises from the undoubted fact that a large + proportion of charitable institutions have directly increased the + poverty they were intended to relieve. The question of the utility + and nature of charity is one which, since the modern discoveries of + political economy, has elicited much discussion, and in many cases, I + think, much exaggeration. What political economy has effected on the + subject may be comprised under two heads. It has elucidated more + clearly, and in greater detail than had before been done, the effect + of provident self-interest in determining the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> welfare of societies, and it has + established a broad distinction between productive and unproductive + expenditure. It has shown that, where idleness is supported, idleness + will become common; that, where systematic public provision is made + for old age, the parsimony of foresight will be neglected; and that + therefore these forms of charity, by encouraging habits of idleness + and improvidence, ultimately increase the wretchedness they were + intended to alleviate. It has also shown that, while unproductive + expenditure, such as that which is devoted to amusements or luxury, + is undoubtedly beneficial to those who provide it, the fruit perishes + in the usage; while productive expenditure, such as the manufacture + of machines, or the improvement of the soil, or the extension of + commercial enterprise, gives a new impulse to the creation of wealth. + It has proved that the first condition of the rapid accumulation of + capital is the diversion of money from unproductive to productive + channels, and that the amount of accumulated capital is one of the + two regulating influences of the wages of the labourer. From these + positions some persons have inferred that charity should be condemned + as a form of unproductive expenditure. But, in the first place, all + charities that foster habits of forethought and develop new + capacities in the poorer classes, such as popular education, or the + formation of savings banks, or insurance companies, or, in many + cases, small and discriminating loans, or measures directed to the + suppression of dissipation, are in the strictest sense productive; + and the same may be said of many forms of employment, given in + exceptional crises through charitable motives; and, in the next + place, it is only necessary to remember that the happiness of + mankind, to which the accumulation of wealth should only be regarded + as a means, is the real object of charity, and it will appear that + many forms which are not strictly productive, in the commercial + sense, are in the highest degree conducive to this end, and have no + serious counteracting evil. In the alleviation of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> those sufferings that do not spring + either from improvidence or from vice, the warmest as well as the + most enlightened charity will find an ample sphere for its + exertions.<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href= + "#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> + Blindness, and other exceptional calamities, against the effects of + which prudence does not and cannot provide, the miseries resulting + from epidemics, from war, from famine, from the first sudden collapse + of industry, produced by new inventions or changes in the channels of + commerce; hospitals, which, besides other advantages, are the + greatest schools of medical science, and withdraw from the crowded + alley multitudes who would otherwise form centres of contagion—these, + and such as these, will long tax to the utmost the generosity of the + wealthy; while, even in the spheres upon which the political + economist looks with the most unfavourable eye, exceptional cases + will justify exceptional assistance. The charity which is pernicious + is commonly not the highest but the lowest kind. The rich man, + prodigal of money, which is to him of little value, but altogether + incapable of devoting any personal attention to the object of his + alms, often injures society by his donations; but this is rarely the + case with that far nobler charity which makes men familiar with the + haunts of wretchedness, and follows the object of its care through + all the phases of his life. The question of the utility of charity is + merely a question of ultimate consequences. Political economy has, no + doubt, laid down some general rules of great value on the subject; + but yet the pages which Cicero devoted to it nearly two thousand + years ago might have been written by the most enlightened modern + economist; and it will be continually found that the Protestant lady, + working in her parish, by the simple force of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> common sense and by a scrupulous and + minute attention to the condition and character of those whom she + relieves, is unconsciously illustrating with perfect accuracy the + enlightened charity of Malthus.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But in order that + charity should be useful, it is essential that the benefit of the + sufferer should be a real object to the donor; and a very large + proportion of the evils that have arisen from Catholic charity may be + traced to the absence of this condition. The first substitution of + devotion for philanthropy, as the motive of benevolence, gave so + powerful a stimulus to the affections, that it may on the whole be + regarded as a benefit, though, by making compassion operate solely + through a theological medium, it often produced among theologians a + more than common indifference to the sufferings of all who were + external to their religious community. But the new principle speedily + degenerated into a belief in the expiatory nature of the gifts. A + form of what may be termed selfish charity arose, which acquired at + last gigantic proportions, and exercised a most pernicious influence + upon Christendom. Men gave money to the poor, simply and exclusively + for their own spiritual benefit, and the welfare of the sufferer was + altogether foreign to their thoughts.<a id="noteref_193" name= + "noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The evil which + thus arose from some forms of Catholic charity may be traced from a + very early period, but it only acquired its full magnitude after some + centuries. The Roman system of gratuitous distribution was, in the + eyes of the political economist, about the worst that could be + conceived, and the charity of the Church being, in at least a + measure, discriminating, was at first a very great, though even then + not an unmingled, good. Labour was also not unfrequently enjoined + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" + id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> as a duty by the Fathers, and + at a later period the services of the Benedictine monks, in + destroying by their example the stigma which slavery had attached to + it, were very great. Still, one of the first consequences of the + exuberant charity of the Church was to multiply impostors and + mendicants, and the idleness of the monks was one of the earliest + complaints. Valentinian made a severe law, condemning robust beggars + to perpetual slavery. As the monastic system was increased, and + especially after the mendicant orders had consecrated mendicancy, the + evil assumed gigantic dimensions. Many thousands of strong men, + absolutely without private means, were in every country withdrawn + from productive labour, and supported by charity. The notion of the + meritorious nature of simple almsgiving immeasurably multiplied + beggars. The stigma, which it is the highest interest of society to + attach to mendicancy, it became a main object of theologians to + remove. Saints wandered through the world begging money, that they + might give to beggars, or depriving themselves of their garments, + that they might clothe the naked, and the result of their teaching + was speedily apparent. In all Catholic countries where ecclesiastical + influences have been permitted to develop unmolested, the monastic + organisations have proved a deadly canker, corroding the prosperity + of the nation. Withdrawing multitudes from all production, + encouraging a blind and pernicious almsgiving, diffusing habits of + improvidence through the poorer classes, fostering an ignorant + admiration for saintly poverty, and an equally ignorant antipathy to + the habits and aims of an industrial civilisation, they have + paralysed all energy, and proved an insuperable barrier to material + progress. The poverty they have relieved has been insignificant + compared with the poverty they have caused. In no case was the + abolition of monasteries effected in a more indefensible manner than + in England; but the transfer of property, that was once employed in a + great measure in charity, to the courtiers of King Henry, was + ultimately <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg + 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + benefit to the English poor; for no misapplication of this property + by private persons could produce as much evil as an unrestrained + monasticism. The value of Catholic services in alleviating pain and + sickness, and the more exceptional forms of suffering, can never be + overrated. The noble heroism of her servants, who have devoted + themselves to charity, has never been surpassed, and the perfection + of their organisation has, I think, never been equalled; but in the + sphere of simple poverty it can hardly be doubted that the Catholic + Church has created more misery than it has cured.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still, even in + this field, we must not forget the benefits resulting, if not to the + sufferer, at least to the donor. Charitable habits, even when formed + in the first instance from selfish motives, even when so misdirected + as to be positively injurious to the recipient, rarely fail to + exercise a softening and purifying influence on the character. All + through the darkest period of the middle ages, amid ferocity and + fanaticism and brutality, we may trace the subduing influence of + Catholic charity, blending strangely with every excess of violence + and every outburst of persecution. It would be difficult to conceive + a more frightful picture of society than is presented by the history + of Gregory of Tours; but that long series of atrocious crimes, + narrated with an almost appalling tranquillity, is continually + interspersed with accounts of kings, queens, or prelates, who, in the + midst of the disorganised society, made the relief of the poor the + main object of their lives. No period of history exhibits a larger + amount of cruelty, licentiousness, and fanaticism than the Crusades; + but side by side with the military enthusiasm, and with the almost + universal corruption, there expanded a vast movement of charity, + which covered Christendom with hospitals for the relief of leprosy, + and which grappled nobly, though ineffectually, with the many forms + of suffering that were generated. St. Peter Nolasco, whose great + labours in ransoming captive Christians I have already noticed, was + an active participator <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg + 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + the atrocious massacre of the Albigenses.<a id="noteref_194" name= + "noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> Of + Shane O'Neale, one of the ablest, but also one of the most ferocious, + Irish chieftains who ever defied the English power, it is related, + amid a crowd of crimes, that, <span class="tei tei-q">“sitting at + meat, before he put one morsel into his mouth he used to slice a + portion above the daily alms, and send it to some beggar at his gate, + saying it was meet to serve Christ first.”</span><a id="noteref_195" + name="noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The great evils + produced by the encouragement of mendicancy which has always + accompanied the uncontrolled development of Catholicity, have + naturally given rise to much discussion and legislation. The fierce + denunciations of the mendicant orders by William of St. Amour in the + thirteenth century were not on account of their encouragement of + mischievous charity;<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href= + "#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> but one + of the disciples of Wycliffe, named Nicholas of Hereford, was + conspicuous for his opposition to indiscriminate gifts to + beggars;<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href= + "#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> and a + few measures of an extended order appear to have been taken even + before the Reformation.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href= + "#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> In + England laws of the most savage cruelty were then passed, in hopes of + eradicating mendicancy. A parliament of Henry VIII., before the + suppression of the monasteries, issued a law providing a system of + organised charity, and imposing on any one who gave anything to a + beggar a fine of ten times the value of his gift. A sturdy beggar was + to be punished with whipping for the first offence, with whipping and + the loss of the tip of his ear for the second <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and with death for the third.<a id= + "noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> Under + Edward VI., an atrocious law, which, however, was repealed in the + same reign, enacted that every sturdy beggar who refused to work + should be branded, and adjudged for two years as a slave to the + person who gave information against him; and if he took flight during + his period of servitude, he was condemned for the first offence to + perpetual slavery, and for the second to death. The master was + authorised to put a ring of iron round the neck of his slave, to + chain him, and to scourge him. Any one might take the children of a + sturdy beggar for apprentices, till the boys were twenty-four and the + girls twenty.<a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href= + "#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> Another + law, made under Elizabeth, punished with death any strong man under + the age of eighteen who was convicted for the third time of begging; + but the penalty in this reign was afterwards reduced to a life-long + service in the galleys, or to banishment, with a penalty of death to + the returned convict.<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href= + "#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> Under + the same queen the poor-law system was elaborated, and Malthus long + afterwards showed that its effects in discouraging parsimony rendered + it scarcely less pernicious than the monastic system that had + preceded it. In many Catholic countries, severe, though less + atrocious, measures were taken to grapple with the evil of + mendicancy. That shrewd and sagacious pontiff, Sixtus V., who, though + not the greatest man, was by far the greatest statesman who has ever + sat on the papal throne, made praiseworthy efforts to check it at + Rome, where ecclesiastical influence had always made it peculiarly + prevalent.<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href= + "#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> Charles + V., in 1531, issued a severe enactment against beggars in the + Netherlands, but excepted from its operation mendicant friars and + pilgrims.<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href= + "#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> Under + Lewis XIV., equally severe measures were taken in France. But though + the practical evil was fully felt, there was little <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> philosophical investigation of its causes + before the eighteenth century. Locke in England,<a id="noteref_204" + name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> and + Berkeley in Ireland,<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href= + "#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> briefly + glanced at the subject; and in 1704 Defoe published a very remarkable + tract, called, <span class="tei tei-q">“Giving Alms no + Charity,”</span> in which he noticed the extent to which mendicancy + existed in England, though wages were higher than in any Continental + country.<a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" href= + "#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> A still + more remarkable book, written by an author named Ricci, appeared at + Modena in 1787, and excited considerable attention. The author + pointed out with much force the gigantic development of mendicancy in + Italy, traced it to the excessive charity of the people, and appears + to have regarded as an evil all charity which sprang from religious + motives and was greater than would spring from the unaided instincts + of men.<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href= + "#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> The + freethinker Mandeville had long before assailed charity schools, and + the whole system of endeavouring to elevate the poor,<a id= + "noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> and + Magdalen asylums and foundling hospitals have had fierce, though I + believe much mistaken, adversaries.<a id="noteref_209" name= + "noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> The + reforms of the poor-laws, and the writings <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of Malthus, gave a new impulse to discussion on + the subject; but, with the qualifications I have stated, no new + discoveries have, I conceive, thrown any just cloud upon the + essential principle of Christian charity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The last method by + which Christianity has laboured to soften the characters of men has + been by accustoming the imagination to expatiate continually upon + images of tenderness and of pathos. Our imaginations, though less + influential than our occupations, probably affect our moral + characters more deeply than our judgments, and, in the case of the + poorer classes especially, the cultivation of this part of our nature + is of inestimable importance. Rooted, for the most part, during their + entire lives, to a single spot, excluded by their ignorance and their + circumstances from most of the varieties of interest that animate the + minds of other men, condemned to constant and plodding labour, and + engrossed for ever with the minute cares of an immediate and an + anxious present, their whole natures would have been hopelessly + contracted, were there no sphere in which their imaginations could + expand. Religion is the one romance of the poor. It alone extends the + narrow horizon of their thoughts, supplies the images of their + dreams, allures them to the supersensual and the ideal. The graceful + beings with which the creative fancy of Paganism peopled the universe + shed a poetic glow on the peasant's toil. Every stage of agriculture + was presided over by a divinity, and the world grew bright by the + companionship of the gods. But it is the peculiarity of the Christian + types, that, while they have fascinated the imagination, they have + also purified the heart. The tender, winning, and almost feminine + beauty of the Christian <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg + 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Founder, the Virgin mother, the agonies of Gethsemane or of Calvary, + the many scenes of compassion and suffering that fill the sacred + writings, are the pictures which, for eighteen hundred years, have + governed the imaginations of the rudest and most ignorant of mankind. + Associated with the fondest recollections of childhood, with the + music of the church bells, with the clustered lights and the tinsel + splendour, that seem to the peasant the very ideal of majesty; + painted over the altar where he received the companion of his life, + around the cemetery where so many whom he had loved were laid, on the + stations of the mountain, on the portal of the vineyard, on the + chapel where the storm-tossed mariner fulfils his grateful vow; + keeping guard over his cottage door, and looking down upon his humble + bed, forms of tender beauty and gentle pathos for ever haunt the poor + man's fancy, and silently win their way into the very depths of his + being. More than any spoken eloquence, more than any dogmatic + teaching, they transform and subdue his character, till he learns to + realise the sanctity of weakness and suffering, the supreme majesty + of compassion and gentleness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Imperfect and + inadequate as is the sketch I have drawn, it will be sufficient to + show how great and multiform have been the influences of Christian + philanthropy. The shadows that rest upon the picture, I have not + concealed; but, when all due allowance has been made for them, enough + will remain to claim our deepest admiration. The high conception that + has been formed of the sanctity of human life, the protection of + infancy, the elevation and final emancipation of the slave classes, + the suppression of barbarous games, the creation of a vast and + multifarious organisation of charity, and the education of the + imagination by the Christian type, constitute together a movement of + philanthropy which has never been paralleled or approached in the + Pagan world. The effects of this movement in promoting happiness have + been very great. Its effect in determining character has probably + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" + id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been still greater. In that + proportion or disposition of qualities which constitutes the ideal + character, the gentler and more benevolent virtues have obtained, + through Christianity, the foremost place. In the first and purest + period they were especially supreme; but in the third century a great + ascetic movement arose, which gradually brought a new type of + character into the ascendant, and diverted the enthusiasm of the + Church into new channels.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Tertullian, + writing in the second century, contrasts, in a well-known passage, + the Christians of his day with the gymnosophists or hermits of India, + declaring that, unlike these, the Christians did not fly from the + world, but mixed with Pagans in the forum, in the market-places, in + the public baths, in the ordinary business of life.<a id= + "noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> But + although the life of the hermit or the monk was unknown in the Church + for more than two hundred years after its foundation, we may detect, + almost from the earliest time, a tone of feeling which produces it. + The central conceptions of the monastic system are the + meritoriousness of complete abstinence from all sexual intercourse, + and of complete renunciation of the world. The first of these notions + appeared in the very earliest period, in the respect attached to the + condition of virginity, which was always regarded as sacred, and + especially esteemed in the clergy, though for a long time it was not + imposed as an obligation. The second was shown in the numerous + efforts that were made to separate the Christian community as far as + possible from the society in which it existed. Nothing could be more + natural than that, when the increase and triumph of the Church had + thrown the bulk of the Christians into active political or military + labour, some should, as an exercise of piety, have endeavoured to + imitate the separation from the world which was once <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the common condition of all. Besides + this, a movement of asceticism had long been raging like a mental + epidemic through the world. Among the Jews—whose law, from the great + stress it laid upon marriage, the excellence of the rapid + multiplication of population, and the hope of being the ancestor of + the Messiah, was peculiarly repugnant to monastic conceptions—the + Essenes had constituted a complete monastic society, abstaining from + marriage and separating themselves wholly from the world. In Rome, + whose practical genius was, if possible, even more opposed than that + of the Jews to an inactive monasticism, and even among those + philosophers who most represented its active and practical spirit, + the same tendency was shown. The Cynics of the later Empire + recommended a complete renunciation of domestic ties, and a life + spent mainly in the contemplation of wisdom. The Egyptian philosophy, + that soon after acquired an ascendancy in Europe, anticipated still + more closely the monastic ideal. On the outskirts of the Church, the + many sects of Gnostics and Manicheans all held under different forms + the essential evil of matter. The Docetæ, following the same notion, + denied the reality of the body of Christ. The Montanists and the + Novatians surpassed and stimulated the private penances of the + orthodox.<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href= + "#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> The + soil was thus thoroughly prepared for a great outburst of asceticism, + whenever the first seed was sown. This was done during the Decian + persecution. Paul, the hermit, who fled to the desert during that + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" + id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> persecution, is said to have + been the first of the tribe.<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" + href="#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> Antony, + who speedily followed, greatly extended the movement, and in a few + years the hermits had become a mighty nation. Persecution, which in + the first instance drove great numbers as fugitives to the deserts, + soon aroused a passionate religious enthusiasm that showed itself in + an ardent desire for those sufferings which were believed to lead + directly to heaven; and this enthusiasm, after the peace of + Constantine, found its natural vent and sphere in the macerations of + the desert life. The imaginations of men were fascinated by the + poetic circumstances of that life which St. Jerome most eloquently + embellished. Women were pre-eminent in recruiting for it. The same + spirit that had formerly led the wife of the Pagan official to + entertain secret relations with the Christian priests, now led the + wife of the Christian to become the active agent of the monks. While + the father designed his son for the army, or for some civil post, the + mother was often straining every nerve to induce him to become a + hermit. The monks secretly corresponded with her, they skilfully + assumed the functions of education, in order that they might + influence the young; and sometimes, to evade the precautions or the + anger of the father, they concealed their profession, and assumed the + garb of lay pedagogues.<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href= + "#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> The + pulpit, which had almost superseded, and immeasurably transcended in + influence, the chairs of the rhetoricians, and which was filled by + such men as Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, Basil, and the Gregories, + was continually exerted in the same cause, and the extreme luxury of + the great cities produced a violent, but not unnatural, reaction of + asceticism. The dignity of the monastic position, which sometimes + brought men who had been simple <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> peasants into connection with the emperors, the + security it furnished to fugitive slaves and criminals, the desire of + escaping from those fiscal burdens which, in the corrupt and + oppressive administration of the Empire, had acquired an intolerable + weight, and especially the barbarian invasions, which produced every + variety of panic and wretchedness, conspired with the new religious + teaching in peopling the desert. A theology of asceticism was + speedily formed. The examples of Elijah and Elisha, to the first of + whom, by a bold flight of imagination, some later Carmelites ascribed + the origin of their order, and the more recent instance of the + Baptist, were at once adduced. To an ordinary layman the life of an + anchorite might appear in the highest degree opposed to that of the + Teacher who began His mission at a marriage feast; who was + continually reproached by His enemies for the readiness with which He + mixed with the world, and who selected from the female sex some of + His purest and most devoted followers; but the monkish theologians, + avoiding, for the most part, these topics, dilated chiefly on His + immaculate birth, His virgin mother, His life of celibacy, His + exhortation to the rich young man. The fact that St. Peter, to whom a + general primacy was already ascribed, was unquestionably married was + a difficulty which was in a measure met by a tradition that both he, + and the other married apostles, abstained from intercourse with their + wives after their conversion.<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" + href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> St. + Paul, however, was probably unmarried, and his writings showed a + decided preference for the unmarried state, which the ingenuity of + theologians also discovered in some quarters where it might be least + expected. Thus, St. Jerome assures us that when the clean animals + entered the ark by sevens, and the unclean ones by pairs, the odd + number typified the celibate, and the even the married condition. + Even of the unclean animals but one pair of each <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> kind was admitted, lest they should + perpetrate the enormity of second marriage.<a id="noteref_215" name= + "noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> + Ecclesiastical tradition sustained the tendency, and Saint James, as + he has been portrayed by Hegesippus, became a kind of ideal saint, a + faithful picture of what, according to the notions of theologians, + was the true type of human nobility. He <span class="tei tei-q">“was + consecrated,”</span> it was said, <span class="tei tei-q">“from his + mother's womb. He drank neither wine nor fermented liquors, and + abstained from animal food. A razor never came upon his head. He + never anointed himself with oil, or used a bath. He alone was allowed + to enter the sanctuary. He never wore woollen, but linen, garments. + He was in the habit of entering the temple alone, and was often found + upon his bended knees, and interceding for the forgiveness of the + people, so that his knees became as hard as a camel's.”</span><a id= + "noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The progress of + the monastic movement, as has been truly said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“was not less rapid or universal than that of + Christianity itself.”</span><a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" + href="#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> Of the + actual number of the anchorites, those who are acquainted with the + extreme unveracity of the first historians of the movement will + hesitate to speak with confidence. It is said that St. Pachomius, + who, early in the fourth century, founded the cœnobitic mode of life, + enlisted under his jurisdiction 7,000 monks;<a id="noteref_218" name= + "noteref_218" href="#note_218"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> that in + the days of St. Jerome nearly 50,000 monks were sometimes assembled + at the Easter festivals;<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href= + "#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> that in + the desert of Nitria alone there were, in the fourth century, 5,000 + monks under a single abbot;<a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" + href="#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> that an + Egyptian city named Oxyrynchus devoted itself almost exclusively to + the ascetic life, and included 20,000 virgins and 10,000 monks;<a id= + "noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> that + St. Serapion presided over 10,000 monks;<a id="noteref_222" name= + "noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> and + that, towards the close of the fourth century, the monastic + population in a great part of Egypt <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was nearly equal to the population of the + cities.<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href= + "#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> Egypt + was the parent of monachism, and it was there that it attained both + its extreme development and its most austere severity; but there was + very soon scarcely any Christian country in which a similar movement + was not ardently propagated. St. Athanasius and St. Zeno are said to + have introduced it into Italy,<a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" + href="#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> where + it soon afterwards received a great stimulus from St. Jerome. St. + Hilarion instituted the first monks in Palestine, and he lived to see + many thousands subject to his rule, and towards the close of his life + to plant monachism in Cyprus. Eustathius, Bishop of Sebastia, spread + it through Armenia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. St. Basil laboured along + the wild shores of the Euxine. St. Martin of Tours founded the first + monastery in Gaul, and 2,000 monks attended his funeral. Unrecorded + missionaries planted the new institution in the heart of Æthiopia, + amid the little islands that stud the Mediterranean, in the secluded + valleys of Wales and Ireland.<a id="noteref_225" name="noteref_225" + href="#note_225"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> But + even more wonderful than the many thousands who thus abandoned the + world is the reverence with which they were regarded by those who, by + their attainments or their character, would seem most opposed to the + monastic ideal. No one had more reason than Augustine to know the + danger of enforced celibacy, but St. Augustine exerted all his + energies to spread monasticism through his diocese. St. Ambrose, who + was by nature an acute statesman; St. Jerome and St. Basil, who were + ambitious scholars; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg + 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> St. + Chrysostom, who was pre-eminently formed to sway the refined throngs + of a metropolis—all exerted their powers in favour of the life of + solitude, and the last three practised it themselves. St. Arsenius, + who was surpassed by no one in the extravagance of his penances, had + held a high office at the court of the Emperor Arcadius. Pilgrims + wandered among the deserts, collecting accounts of the miracles and + the austerities of the saints, which filled Christendom with + admiration; and the strange biographies which were thus formed, wild + and grotesque as they are, enable us to realise very vividly the + general features of the anchorite life which became the new ideal of + the Christian world.<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href= + "#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is, perhaps, + no phase in the moral history of mankind of a deeper or more painful + interest than this ascetic epidemic. A hideous, sordid, and emaciated + maniac, without knowledge, without patriotism, without natural + affection, passing his life in a long routine of useless and + atrocious self-torture, and quailing before the ghastly phantoms of + his delirious brain, had become the ideal of the nations which had + known the writings of Plato and Cicero and the lives of Socrates and + Cato. For about two centuries, the hideous maceration of the body was + regarded as the highest proof of excellence. St. Jerome declares, + with a thrill of admiration, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> how he had seen a monk, who for thirty years + had lived exclusively on a small portion of barley bread and of muddy + water; another, who lived in a hole and never ate more than five figs + for his daily repast;<a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" href= + "#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> a + third, who cut his hair only on Easter Sunday, who never washed his + clothes, who never changed his tunic till it fell to pieces, who + starved himself till his eyes grew dim, and his skin <span class= + "tei tei-q">“like a pumice stone,”</span> and whose merits, shown by + these austerities, Homer himself would be unable to recount.<a id= + "noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> For six + months, it is said, St. Macarius of Alexandria slept in a marsh, and + exposed his body naked to the stings of venomous flies. He was + accustomed to carry about with him eighty pounds of iron. His + disciple, St. Eusebius, carried one hundred and fifty pounds of iron, + and lived for three years in a dried-up well. St. Sabinus would only + eat corn that had become rotten by remaining for a month in water. + St. Besarion spent forty days and nights in the middle of + thorn-bushes, and for forty years never lay down when he slept,<a id= + "noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> which + last penance was also during fifteen years practised by St. + Pachomius.<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href= + "#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> Some + saints, like St. Marcian, restricted themselves to one meal a day, so + small that they continually suffered the pangs of hunger.<a id= + "noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> Of one + of them it is related that his daily food was six ounces of bread and + a few herbs; that he was never seen to recline on a mat or bed, or + even to place his limbs easily for sleep; but that sometimes, from + excess of weariness, his eyes would close at his meals, and the food + would drop from his mouth.<a id="noteref_232" name="noteref_232" + href="#note_232"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> Other + saints, however, ate only every second day;<a id="noteref_233" name= + "noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> while + many, if we could believe the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> monkish historian, abstained for whole weeks + from all nourishment.<a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href= + "#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a> St. + Macarius of Alexandria is said during an entire week to have never + lain down, or eaten anything but a few uncooked herbs on + Sunday.<a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href= + "#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> Of + another famous saint, named John, it is asserted that for three whole + years he stood in prayer, leaning upon a rock; that during all that + time he never sat or lay down, and that his only nourishment was the + Sacrament, which was brought him on Sundays.<a id="noteref_236" name= + "noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> Some of + the hermits lived in deserted dens of wild beasts, others in dried-up + wells, while others found a congenial resting-place among the + tombs.<a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href= + "#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> Some + disdained all clothes, and crawled abroad like the wild beasts, + covered only by their matted hair. In Mesopotamia, and part of Syria, + there existed a sect known by the name of <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Grazers,”</span> who never lived under a roof, who ate + neither flesh nor bread, but who spent their time for ever on the + mountain side, and ate grass like cattle.<a id="noteref_238" name= + "noteref_238" href="#note_238"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> The + cleanliness of the body was regarded as a pollution of the soul, and + the saints who were most admired had become one hideous mass of + clotted filth. St. Athanasius relates with enthusiasm <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> how St. Antony, the patriarch of + monachism, had never, to extreme old age, been guilty of washing his + feet.<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href= + "#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> The + less constant St. Pœmen fell into this habit for the first time when + a very old man, and, with a glimmering of common sense, defended + himself against the astonished monks by saying that he had + <span class="tei tei-q">“learnt to kill not his body, but his + passions.”</span><a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href= + "#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> St. + Abraham the hermit, however, who lived for fifty years after his + conversion, rigidly refused from that date to wash either his face or + his feet.<a id="noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href= + "#note_241"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> He was, + it is said, a person of singular beauty, and his biographer somewhat + strangely remarks that <span class="tei tei-q">“his face reflected + the purity of his soul.”</span><a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" + href="#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> St. + Ammon had never seen himself naked.<a id="noteref_243" name= + "noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> A + famous virgin named Silvia, though she was sixty years old and though + bodily sickness was a consequence of her habits, resolutely refused, + on religious principles, to wash any part of her body except her + fingers.<a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href= + "#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> St. + Euphraxia joined a convent of one hundred and thirty nuns, who never + washed their feet, and who shuddered at the mention of a bath.<a id= + "noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> An + anchorite once imagined that he was mocked by an illusion of the + devil, as he saw gliding before him through the desert a naked + creature black with filth and years of exposure, and with white hair + floating to the wind. It was a once beautiful woman, St. Mary of + Egypt, who had thus, during forty-seven <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> years, been expiating her sins.<a id= + "noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> The + occasional decadence of the monks into habits of decency was a + subject of much reproach. <span class="tei tei-q">“Our + fathers,”</span> said the abbot Alexander, looking mournfully back to + the past, <span class="tei tei-q">“never washed their faces, but we + frequent the public baths.”</span><a id="noteref_247" name= + "noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> It was + related of one monastery in the desert, that the monks suffered + greatly from want of water to drink; but at the prayer of the abbot + Theodosius a copious stream was produced. But soon some monks, + tempted by the abundant supply, diverged from their old austerity, + and persuaded the abbot to avail himself of the stream for the + construction of a bath. The bath was made. Once, and once only, did + the monks enjoy their ablutions, when the stream ceased to flow. + Prayers, tears, and fastings were in vain. A whole year passed. At + last the abbot destroyed the bath, which was the object of the Divine + displeasure, and the waters flowed afresh.<a id="noteref_248" name= + "noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> But of + all the evidences of the loathsome excesses to which this spirit was + carried, the life of St. Simeon Stylites is probably the most + remarkable. It would be difficult to conceive a more horrible or + disgusting picture than is given of the penances by which that saint + commenced his ascetic career. He had bound a rope around him so that + it became imbedded <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg + 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + his flesh, which putrefied around it. <span class="tei tei-q">“A + horrible stench, intolerable to the bystanders, exhaled from his body + and worms dropped from him whenever he moved, and they filled his + bed.”</span> Sometimes he left the monastery and slept in a dry well, + inhabited, it is said, by dæmons. He built successively three + pillars, the last being sixty feet high and scarcely two cubits in + circumference, and on this pillar, during thirty years, he remained + exposed to every change of climate, ceaselessly and rapidly bending + his body in prayer almost to the level of his feet. A spectator + attempted to number these rapid motions, but desisted from weariness + when he had counted 1,244. For a whole year, we are told, St. Simeon + stood upon one leg, the other being covered with hideous ulcers, + while his biographer was commissioned to stand by his side, to pick + up the worms that fell from his body, and to replace them in the + sores, the saint saying to the worm, <span class="tei tei-q">“Eat + what God has given you.”</span> From every quarter pilgrims of every + degree thronged to do him homage. A crowd of prelates followed him to + the grave. A brilliant star is said to have shone miraculously over + his pillar; the general voice of mankind pronounced him to be the + highest model of a Christian saint; and several other anchorites + imitated or emulated his penances.<a id="noteref_249" name= + "noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is, if I + mistake not, no department of literature the importance of which is + more inadequately realised than the lives of the saints. Even where + they have no direct historical value, they have a moral value of the + very highest order. They may not tell us with accuracy what men did + at particular epochs; but they display with the utmost vividness what + they thought and felt, their measure of probability, and their ideal + of excellence. Decrees of councils, elaborate treatises of + theologians, creeds, liturgies, and canons, are all but <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the husks of religious history. They + reveal what was professed and argued before the world, but not that + which was realised in the imagination or enshrined in the heart. The + history of art, which in its ruder day reflected with delicate + fidelity the fleeting images of an anthropomorphic age, is in this + respect invaluable; but still more important is that vast Christian + mythology, which grew up spontaneously from the intellectual + condition of the time, included all its dearest hopes, wishes, + ideals, and imaginings, and constituted, during many centuries, the + popular literature of Christendom. In the case of the saints of the + deserts, there can be no question that the picture—which is drawn + chiefly by eye-witnesses—however grotesque may be some of its + details, is in its leading features historically true. It is true + that self-torture was for some centuries regarded as the chief + measure of human excellence, that tens of thousands of the most + devoted men fled to the desert to reduce themselves by maceration + nearly to the condition of the brute, and that this odious + superstition had acquired an almost absolute ascendancy in the ethics + of the age. The examples of asceticism I have cited are but a few out + of many hundreds, and volumes might be written, and have been + written, detailing them. Till the reform of St. Benedict, the ideal + was on the whole unchanged. The Western monks, from the conditions of + their climate, were constitutionally incapable of rivalling the + abstinence of the Egyptian anchorites; but their conception of + supreme excellence was much the same, and they laboured to compensate + for their inferiority in penances by claiming some superiority in + miracles. From the time of St. Pachomius, the cœnobitic life was + adopted by most monks; but the Eastern monasteries, with the + important exception of a vow of obedience, differed little from a + collection of hermitages. They were in the deserts; the monks + commonly lived in separate cells; they kept silence at their repasts; + they rivalled one another in the extravagance of their penances. A + few feeble efforts were indeed made by <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> St. Jerome and others to moderate austerities, + which frequently led to insanity and suicide, to check the turbulence + of certain wandering monks, who were accustomed to defy the + ecclesiastical authorities, and especially to suppress monastic + mendicancy, which had appeared prominently among some heretical + sects. The orthodox monks commonly employed themselves in weaving + mats of palm-leaves; but, living in the deserts, with no wants, they + speedily sank into a listless apathy; and the most admired were those + who, like Simeon Stylites, and the hermit John, of whom I have + already spoken, were most exclusively devoted to their superstition. + Diversities of individual character were, however, vividly displayed. + Many anchorites, without knowledge, passions, or imagination, having + fled from servile toil to the calm of the wilderness, passed the long + hours in sleep or in a mechanical routine of prayer, and their inert + and languid existences, prolonged to the extreme of old age, closed + at last by a tranquil and almost animal death. Others made their + cells by the clear fountains and clustering palm-trees of some oasis + in the desert, and a blooming garden arose beneath their toil. The + numerous monks who followed St. Serapion devoted themselves largely + to agriculture, and sent shiploads of corn for the benefit of the + poor.<a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href= + "#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> Of one + old hermit it is related that, such was the cheerfulness of his mind, + that every sorrow was dispelled by his presence, and the weary and + the heartbroken were consoled by a few words from his lips.<a id= + "noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> More + commonly, however, the hermit's cell was the scene of perpetual + mourning. Tears and sobs, and frantic strugglings with imaginary + dæmons, and paroxysms of religious despair, were the texture of his + life, and the dread of spiritual enemies, and of that death which his + superstition had rendered so terrible, embittered every hour of his + existence.<a id="noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href= + "#note_252"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> The + solace of intellectual occupations was rarely <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> resorted to. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + duty,”</span> said St. Jerome, <span class="tei tei-q">“of a monk is + not to teach, but to weep.”</span><a id="noteref_253" name= + "noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> A + cultivated and disciplined mind was the least subject to those + hallucinations, which were regarded as the highest evidence of Divine + favour;<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href= + "#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a> and + although in an age when the passion for asceticism was general, many + scholars became ascetics, the great majority of the early monks + appear to have been men who were not only absolutely ignorant + themselves, but who also looked upon learning with positive + disfavour. St. Antony, the true founder of monachism, refused when a + boy to learn letters, because it would bring him into too great + intercourse with other boys.<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" + href="#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> At a + time when St. Jerome had suffered himself to feel a deep admiration + for the genius of Cicero, he was, as he himself tells us, borne in + the night before the tribunal of Christ, accused of being rather a + Ciceronian than a Christian, and severely flagellated by the + angels.<a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href= + "#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> This + saint, however, afterwards modified his opinions about the Pagan + writings, and he was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg + 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + compelled to defend himself at length against his more jealous + brethren, who accused him of defiling his writings with quotations + from Pagan authors, of employing some monks in copying Cicero, and of + explaining Virgil to some children at Bethlehem.<a id="noteref_257" + name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> Of one + monk it is related that, being especially famous as a linguist, he + made it his penance to remain perfectly silent for thirty + years;<a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href= + "#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> of + another, that having discovered a few books in the cell of a brother + hermit, he reproached the student with having thus defrauded of their + property the widow and the orphan;<a id="noteref_259" name= + "noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> of + others, that their only books were copies of the New Testament, which + they sold to relieve the poor.<a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260" + href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">With such men, + living such a life, visions and miracles were necessarily habitual. + All the elements of hallucination were there. Ignorant and + superstitious, believing as a matter of religious conviction that + countless dæmons filled the air, attributing every fluctuation of his + temperament, and every exceptional phenomenon in surrounding nature, + to spiritual agency; delirious, too, from solitude and long continued + austerities, the hermit soon mistook for palpable realities the + phantoms of his brain. In the ghastly gloom of the sepulchre, where, + amid mouldering corpses, he took up his abode; in the long hours of + the night of penance, when the desert wind sobbed around his lonely + cell, and the cries of wild <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg + 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + beasts were borne upon his ear, visible forms of lust or terror + appeared to haunt him, and strange dramas were enacted by those who + were contending for his soul. An imagination strained to the utmost + limit, acting upon a frame attenuated and diseased by macerations, + produced bewildering psychological phenomena, paroxysms of + conflicting passions, sudden alternations of joy and anguish, which + he regarded as manifestly supernatural. Sometimes, in the very + ecstasy of his devotion, the memory of old scenes would crowd upon + his mind. The shady groves and soft voluptuous gardens of his native + city would arise, and, kneeling alone upon the burning sand, he + seemed to see around him the fair groups of dancing-girls, on whose + warm, undulating limbs and wanton smiles his youthful eyes had too + fondly dwelt. Sometimes his temptation sprang from remembered sounds. + The sweet, licentious songs of other days came floating on his ear, + and his heart was thrilled with the passions of the past. And then + the scene would change. As his lips were murmuring the psalter, his + imagination, fired perhaps by the music of some martial psalm, + depicted the crowded amphitheatre. The throng and passion and mingled + cries of eager thousands were present to his mind, and the fierce joy + of the gladiators passed through the tumult of his dream.<a id= + "noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> The + simplest incident came at last to suggest diabolical influence. An + old hermit, weary and fainting upon his journey, once thought how + refreshing would be a draught of the honey of wild bees <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the desert. At that moment his eye + fell upon a rock on which they had built a hive. He passed on with a + shudder and an exorcism, for he believed it to be a temptation of the + devil.<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" href= + "#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> But + most terrible of all were the struggles of young and ardent men, + through whose veins the hot blood of passion continually flowed, + physically incapable of a life of celibacy, and with all that + proneness to hallucination which a southern sun engenders, who were + borne on the wave of enthusiasm to the desert life. In the arms of + Syrian or African brides, whose soft eyes answered love with love, + they might have sunk to rest, but in the lonely wilderness no peace + could ever visit their souls. The Lives of the Saints paint with an + appalling vividness the agonies of their struggle. Multiplying with + frantic energy the macerations of the body, beating their breasts + with anguish, the tears for ever streaming from their eyes, imagining + themselves continually haunted by ever-changing forms of deadly + beauty, which acquired a greater vividness from the very passion with + which they resisted them, their struggles not unfrequently ended in + insanity and in suicide. It is related that when St. Pachomius and + St. Palæmon were conversing together in the desert, a young monk, + with his countenance distracted with madness, rushed into their + presence, and, in a voice broken with convulsive sobs, poured out his + tale of sorrows. A woman, he said, had entered his cell, had seduced + him by her artifices, and then vanished miraculously in the air, + leaving him half dead upon the ground;—and then with a wild shriek + the monk broke away from the saintly listeners. Impelled, as they + imagined, by an evil spirit, he rushed across the desert, till he + arrived at the next village, and there, leaping into the open furnace + of the public baths, he perished in the flames.<a id="noteref_263" + name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> Strange + stories were told <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg + 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + among the monks of revulsions of passion even in the most advanced. + Of one monk especially, who had long been regarded as a pattern of + asceticism, but who had suffered himself to fall into that + self-complacency which was very common among the anchorites, it was + told that one evening a fainting woman appeared at the door of his + cell, and implored him to give her shelter, and not permit her to be + devoured by the wild beasts. In an evil hour he yielded to her + prayer. With all the aspect of profound reverence she won his + regards, and at last ventured to lay her hand upon him. But that + touch convulsed his frame. Passions long slumbering and forgotten + rushed with impetuous fury through his veins. In a paroxysm of fierce + love, he sought to clasp the woman to his heart, but she vanished + from his sight, and a chorus of dæmons, with peals of laughter, + exulted over his fall. The sequel of the story, as it is told by the + monkish writer, is, I think, of a very high order of artistic merit. + The fallen hermit did not seek, as might have been expected, by + penance and prayers to renew his purity. That moment of passion and + of shame had revealed in him a new nature, and severed him + irrevocably from the hopes and feelings of the ascetic life. The fair + form that had arisen upon his dream, though he knew it to be a + deception luring him to destruction, still governed his heart. He + fled from the desert, plunged anew into the world, avoided all + intercourse with the monks, and followed the light of that ideal + beauty even into the jaws of hell.<a id="noteref_264" name= + "noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Anecdotes of this + kind, circulated among the monks, contributed to heighten the + feelings of terror with which they regarded all communication with + the other sex. But to avoid such communication was sometimes very + difficult. Few things are more striking, in the early historians of + the movement we are considering, than the manner in which narratives + of the deepest tragical interest alternate with extremely whimsical + accounts of the profound admiration with which the female devotees + regarded the most austere anchorites, and the unwearied perseverance + with which they endeavoured to force themselves upon their notice. + Some women seem in this respect to have been peculiarly fortunate. + St. Melania, who devoted a great portion of her fortune to the monks, + accompanied by the historian Rufinus, made, near the end of the + fourth century, a long pilgrimage through the Syrian and Egyptian + hermitages.<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href= + "#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> But + with many of the hermits it was a rule never to look upon the face of + any woman, and the number of years they had escaped this + contamination was commonly stated as a conspicuous proof of their + excellence. St. Basil would only speak to a woman under extreme + necessity.<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href= + "#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> St. + John of Lycopolis had not seen a woman for forty-eight years.<a id= + "noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> A + tribune was sent by his wife on a pilgrimage to St. John the hermit + to implore him to allow her to visit him, her desire being so intense + that she would probably, in the opinion of her husband, die if it + were ungratified. At last the hermit told his suppliant that he would + that night visit his wife when she was in bed in her house. The + tribune brought this strange message to his wife, who <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> that night saw the hermit in a + dream.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href= + "#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a> A young + Roman girl made a pilgrimage from Italy to Alexandria, to look upon + the face and obtain the prayers of St. Arsenius, into whose presence + she forced herself. Quailing beneath his rebuffs, she flung herself + at his feet, imploring him with tears to grant her only request—to + remember her, and to pray for her. <span class="tei tei-q">“Remember + you!”</span> cried the indignant saint; <span class="tei tei-q">“it + shall be the prayer of my life that I may forget you.”</span> The + poor girl sought consolation from the Archbishop of Alexandria, who + comforted her by assuring her that, though she belonged to the sex by + which dæmons commonly tempt saints, he doubted not the hermit would + pray for her soul, though he would try to forget her face.<a id= + "noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href="#note_269"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> + Sometimes this female enthusiasm took another and a more subtle form, + and on more than one occasion women were known to attire themselves + as men, and to pass their lives undisturbed as anchorites. Among + others, St. Pelagia, who had been the most beautiful, and one of the + most dangerously seductive actresses of Antioch, having been somewhat + strangely converted, was appointed by the bishops to live in penance + with an elderly virgin of irreproachable piety; but, impelled, we are + told, by her desire for a more austere life, she fled from her + companion, assumed a male attire, took refuge among the monks on the + Mount of Olives, and, with something of the skill of her old + profession, supported her feigned character so consistently that she + acquired great renown, and it was only (it is said) after her death + that the saints discovered who had been living among them.<a id= + "noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href="#note_270"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing + anecdotes and observations will, I hope, have given a sufficiently + clear idea of the general nature of the monastic life in its earliest + phase, and also of the writings it produced. We may now proceed to + examine the ways in which this mode of life affected both the ideal + type and the realised condition of Christian morals. And in the first + place, it is manifest that the proportion of virtues was altered. If + an impartial person were to glance over the ethics of the New + Testament, and were asked what was the central and distinctive virtue + to which the sacred writers most continually referred, he would + doubtless answer that it was that which is described as love, + charity, or philanthropy. If he were to apply a similar scrutiny to + the writings of the fourth and fifth centuries, he would answer that + the cardinal virtue of the religious type was not love, but chastity. + And this chastity, which was regarded as the ideal state, was not the + purity of an undefiled marriage. It was the absolute suppression of + the whole sensual side of our nature. The chief form of virtue, the + central conception of the saintly life, was a perpetual struggle + against all carnal impulses, by men who altogether refused the + compromise of marriage. From this fact, if I mistake not, some + interesting and important consequences may be deduced.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the first + place, religion gradually assumed a very sombre hue. The business of + the saint was to eradicate a natural appetite, to attain a condition + which was emphatically abnormal. The depravity of human nature, + especially <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg + 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + essential evil of the body, was felt with a degree of intensity that + could never have been attained by moralists who were occupied mainly + with transient or exceptional vices, such as envy, anger, or cruelty. + And in addition to the extreme inveteracy of the appetite which it + was desired to eradicate, it should be remembered that a somewhat + luxurious and indulgent life, even when that indulgence is not itself + distinctly evil, even when it has a tendency to mollify the + character, has naturally the effect of strengthening the animal + passions, and is therefore directly opposed to the ascetic ideal. The + consequence of this was first of all a very deep sense of the + habitual and innate depravity of human nature; and, in the next + place, a very strong association of the idea of pleasure with that of + vice. All this necessarily flowed from the supreme value placed upon + virginity. The tone of calm and joyousness that characterises Greek + philosophy, the almost complete absence of all sense of struggle and + innate sin that it displays, is probably in a very large degree to be + ascribed to the fact that, in the department of morals we are + considering, Greek moralists made no serious efforts to improve our + nature, and Greek public opinion acquiesced, without scandal, in an + almost boundless indulgence of illicit pleasures.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while the + great prominence at this time given to the conflicts of the ascetic + life threw a dark shade upon the popular estimate of human nature, it + contributed, I think, very largely to sustain and deepen that strong + conviction of the freedom of the human will which the Catholic Church + has always so strenuously upheld; for there is, probably, no other + form of moral conflict in which men are so habitually and so keenly + sensible of that distinction between our will and our desires, upon + the reality of which all moral freedom ultimately depends. It had + also, I imagine, another result, which it is difficult to describe + with the same precision. What may be called a strong animal nature—a + nature, that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg + 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is, + in which the passions are in vigorous, and at the same time healthy, + action—is that in which we should most naturally expect to find + several moral qualities. Good humour, frankness, generosity, active + courage, sanguine energy, buoyancy of temper, are the usual and + appropriate accompaniments of a vigorous animal temperament, and they + are much more rarely found either in natures that are essentially + feeble and effeminate, or in natures which have been artificially + emasculated by penances, distorted from their original tendency, and + habitually held under severe control. The ideal type of Catholicism + being, on account of the supreme value placed upon virginity, of the + latter kind, the qualities I have mentioned have always ranked very + low in the Catholic conceptions of excellence, and the steady + tendency of Protestant and industrial civilisation has been to + elevate them.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not know + whether the reader will regard these speculations—which I advance + with some diffidence—as far-fetched and fanciful. Our knowledge of + the physical antecedents of different moral qualities is so scanty + that it is difficult to speak on these matters with much confidence; + but few persons, I think, can have failed to observe that the + physical temperaments I have described differ not simply in the one + great fact of the intensity of the animal passions, but also in the + aptitude of each to produce a distinct moral type, or, in other + words, in the harmony of each with several qualities, both good and + evil. A doctrine, therefore, which connects one of these two + temperaments indissolubly with the moral ideal, affects the + appreciation of a large number of moral qualities. But whatever may + be thought of the moral results springing from the physical + temperament which asceticism produced, there can be little + controversy as to the effects springing from the condition of life + which it enjoined. Severance from the interests and affections of all + around him was the chief object of the anchorite, and the first + consequence <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg + 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the prominence of asceticism was a profound discredit thrown upon the + domestic virtues.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extent to + which this discredit was carried, the intense hardness of heart and + ingratitude manifested by the saints towards those who were bound to + them by the closest of earthly ties, is known to few who have not + studied the original literature on the subject. These things are + commonly thrown into the shade by those modern sentimentalists who + delight in idealising the devotees of the past. To break by his + ingratitude the heart of the mother who had borne him, to persuade + the wife who adored him that it was her duty to separate from him for + ever, to abandon his children, uncared for and beggars, to the + mercies of the world, was regarded by the true hermit as the most + acceptable offering he could make to his God. His business was to + save his own soul. The serenity of his devotion would be impaired by + the discharge of the simplest duties to his family. Evagrius, when a + hermit in the desert, received, after a long interval, letters from + his father and mother. He could not bear that the equable tenor of + his thoughts should be disturbed by the recollection of those who + loved him, so he cast the letters unread into the fire.<a id= + "noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> A man + named Mutius, accompanied by his only child, a little boy of eight + years old, abandoned his possessions and demanded admission into a + monastery. The monks received him, but they proceeded to discipline + his heart. <span class="tei tei-q">“He had already forgotten that he + was rich; he must next be taught to forget that he was a + father.”</span><a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href= + "#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" + id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> His little child was separated + from him, clothed in dirty rags, subjected to every form of gross and + wanton hardship, beaten, spurned, and ill treated. Day after day the + father was compelled to look upon his boy wasting away with sorrow, + his once happy countenance for ever stained with tears, distorted by + sobs of anguish. But yet, says the admiring biographer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“though he saw this day by day, such was his love for + Christ, and for the virtue of obedience, that the father's heart was + rigid and unmoved. He thought little of the tears of his child. He + was anxious only for his own humility and perfection in + virtue.”</span><a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href= + "#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> At last + the abbot told him to take his child and throw it into the river. He + proceeded, without a murmur or apparent pang, to obey, and it was + only at the last moment that the monks interposed, and on the very + brink of the river saved the child. Mutius afterwards rose to a high + position among the ascetics, and was justly regarded as having + displayed in great perfection the temper of a saint.<a id= + "noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> An + inhabitant of Thebes once came to the abbot Sisoes, and asked to be + made a monk. The abbot asked if he had any one belonging to him. He + answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“A son.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Take your son,”</span> rejoined the old man, + <span class="tei tei-q">“and throw him into the river, and then you + may become a monk.”</span> The father hastened to fulfil the command, + and the deed was almost consummated when a messenger sent by Sisoes + revoked the order.<a id="noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href= + "#note_275"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Sometimes the same + lesson was taught under the form of a miracle. A man had once + deserted his three children to become a monk. Three years after, he + determined to bring them into the monastery, but, on returning to his + home, found that the two eldest had died during his absence. He came + to his abbot, bearing in his arms his youngest child, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who was still little more than an infant. + The abbot turned to him and said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Do you + love this child?”</span> The father answered, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Yes.”</span> Again the abbot said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Do you love it dearly?”</span> The father answered as + before. <span class="tei tei-q">“Then take the child,”</span> said + the abbot, <span class="tei tei-q">“and throw it into the fire upon + yonder hearth.”</span> The father did as he was commanded, and the + child remained unharmed amid the flames.<a id="noteref_276" name= + "noteref_276" href="#note_276"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> But it + was especially in their dealings with their female relations that + this aspect of the monastic character was vividly displayed. In this + case the motive was not simply to mortify family affections—it was + also to guard against the possible danger resulting from the presence + of a woman. The fine flower of that saintly purity might have been + disturbed by the sight of a mother's or a sister's face. The ideal of + one age appears sometimes too grotesque for the caricature of + another; and it is curious to observe how pale and weak is the + picture which Molière drew of the affected prudery of Tartuffe,<a id= + "noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> when + compared with the narratives that are gravely propounded in the Lives + of the Saints. When the abbot Sisoes had become a very old, feeble, + and decrepit man, his disciples exhorted him to leave the desert for + an inhabited country. Sisoes seemed to yield; but he stipulated, as a + necessary condition, that in his new abode he should never be + compelled to encounter the peril and perturbation of looking on a + woman's face. To such a nature, of course, the desert alone was + suitable, and the old man was suffered to die in peace.<a id= + "noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> A monk + was once travelling with his mother—in itself a <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> most unusual circumstance—and, having + arrived at a bridgeless stream, it became necessary for him to carry + her across. To her surprise, he began carefully wrapping up his hands + in cloths; and upon her asking the reason, he explained that he was + alarmed lest he should be unfortunate enough to touch her, and + thereby disturb the equilibrium of his nature.<a id="noteref_279" + name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> The + sister of St. John of Calama loved him dearly, and earnestly implored + him that she might look upon his face once more before she died. On + his persistent refusal, she declared that she would make a pilgrimage + to him in the desert. The alarmed and perplexed saint at last wrote + to her, promising to visit her if she would engage to relinquish her + design. He went to her in disguise, received a cup of water from her + hands, and came away without being discovered. She wrote to him, + reproaching him with not having fulfilled his promise. He answered + her that he had indeed visited her, that <span class="tei tei-q">“by + the mercy of Jesus Christ he had not been recognised,”</span> and + that she must never see him again.<a id="noteref_280" name= + "noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> The + mother of St. Theodorus came armed with letters from the bishops to + see her son, but he implored his abbot, St. Pachomius, to permit him + to decline the interview; and, finding all her efforts in vain, the + poor woman retired into a convent, together with her daughter, who + had made a similar expedition with similar results.<a id= + "noteref_281" name="noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a> The + mother of St. Marcus persuaded his abbot to command the saint to go + out to her. Placed in a dilemma between the sin of disobedience and + the perils of seeing his mother, St. Marcus extricated himself by an + ingenious device. He went to his mother with his face disguised and + his eyes <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg + 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + shut. The mother did not recognise her son. The son did not see his + mother.<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" href= + "#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> The + sister of St. Pior in like manner induced the abbot of that saint to + command him to admit her to his presence. The command was obeyed, but + St. Pior resolutely kept his eyes shut during the interview.<a id= + "noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> St. + Pœmen and his six brothers had all deserted their mother to cultivate + the perfections of an ascetic life. But ingratitude can seldom quench + the love of a mother's heart, and the old woman, now bent by + infirmities, went alone into the Egyptian desert to see once more the + children she so dearly loved. She caught sight of them as they were + about to leave their cell for the church, but they immediately ran + back into the cell, and, before her tottering steps could reach it, + one of her sons rushed forward and closed the door in her face. She + remained outside weeping bitterly. St. Pœmen then, coming to the + door, but without opening it, said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Why do + you, who are already stricken with age, pour forth such cries and + lamentations?”</span> But she, recognising the voice of her son, + answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“It is because I long to see you, + my sons. What harm could it do you that I should see you? Am I not + your mother? did I not give you suck? I am now an old and wrinkled + woman, and my heart is troubled at the sound of your + voices.”</span><a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href= + "#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> The + saintly brothers, however, refused to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> open their door. They told their mother that + she would see them after death; and the biographer says she at last + went away contented with the prospect. St. Simeon Stylites, in this + as in other respects, stands in the first line. He had been + passionately loved by his parents, and, if we may believe his + eulogist and biographer, he began his saintly career by breaking the + heart of his father, who died of grief at his flight. His mother, + however, lingered on. Twenty-seven years after his disappearance, at + a period when his austerities had made him famous, she heard for the + first time where he was, and hastened to visit him. But all her + labour was in vain. No woman was admitted within the precincts of his + dwelling, and he refused to permit her even to look upon his face. + Her entreaties and tears were mingled with words of bitter and + eloquent reproach.<a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href= + "#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“My son,”</span> she is represented as having + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“why have you done this? I bore you in + my womb, and you have wrung my soul with grief. I gave you milk from + my breast, you have filled my eyes with tears. For the kisses I gave + you, you have given me the anguish of a broken heart; for all that I + have done and suffered for you, you have repaid me by the most cruel + wrongs.”</span> At last the saint sent a message to tell her that she + would soon see him. Three days and three nights she had wept and + entreated in vain, and now, exhausted with grief and age and + privation, she sank feebly to the ground and breathed her last sigh + before that inhospitable door. Then for the first time the saint, + accompanied by his followers, came out. He shed some pious + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" + id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> tears over the corpse of his + murdered mother, and offered up a prayer consigning her soul to + heaven. Perhaps it was but fancy, perhaps life was not yet wholly + extinct, perhaps the story is but the invention of the biographer; + but a faint motion—which appears to have been regarded as + miraculous—is said to have passed over her prostrate form. Simeon + once more commended her soul to heaven, and then, amid the admiring + murmurs of his disciples, the saintly matricide returned to his + devotions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The glaring + mendacity that characterises the Lives of the Catholic Saints, + probably to a greater extent than any other important branch of + existing literature, makes it not unreasonable to hope that many of + the foregoing anecdotes represent much less events that actually took + place than ideal pictures generated by the enthusiasm of the + chroniclers. They are not, however, on that account the less + significant of the moral conceptions which the ascetic period had + created. The ablest men in the Christian community vied with one + another in inculcating as the highest form of duty the abandonment of + social ties and the mortification of domestic affections. A few faint + restrictions were indeed occasionally made. Much—on which I shall + hereafter touch—was written on the liberty of husbands and wives + deserting one another; and something was written on the cases of + children forsaking or abandoning their parents. At first, those who, + when children, were devoted to the monasteries by their parents, + without their own consent, were permitted, when of mature age, to + return to the world; and this liberty was taken from them for the + first time by the fourth Council of Toledo, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 633.<a id="noteref_286" + name="noteref_286" href="#note_286"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> The + Council of Gangra condemned the heretic Eustathius for teaching that + children might, through religious motives, forsake their parents, and + St. Basil wrote in the same strain;<a id="noteref_287" name= + "noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> but + cases of this kind of rebellion against parental authority were + continually recounted with admiration in the Lives of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" + id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Saints, applauded by some of + the leading Fathers, and virtually sanctioned by a law of Justinian, + which deprived parents of the power of either restraining their + children from entering monasteries, or disinheriting them if they had + done so without their consent.<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" + href="#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> St. + Chrysostom relates with enthusiasm the case of a young man who had + been designed by his father for the army, and who was lured away to a + monastery.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href= + "#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> The + eloquence of St. Ambrose is said to have been so seductive, that + mothers were accustomed to shut up their daughters to guard them + against his fascinations.<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href= + "#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> The + position of affectionate parents was at this time extremely painful. + The touching language is still preserved, in which the mother of + Chrysostom—who had a distinguished part in the conversion of her + son—implored him, if he thought it his duty to fly to the desert + life, at least to postpone the act till she had died.<a id= + "noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a> St. + Ambrose devoted a chapter to proving that, while those are worthy of + commendation who enter the monasteries with the approbation, those + are still more worthy of praise who do so against the wishes, of + their parents; and he proceeded to show how small were the penalties + the latter could inflict when compared with the blessings asceticism + could bestow.<a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href= + "#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> Even + before the law of Justinian, the invectives of the clergy were + directed against those who endeavoured to prevent their children + flying to the desert. St. Chrysostom explained to them that they + would certainly be damned.<a id="noteref_293" name="noteref_293" + href="#note_293"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> St. + Ambrose showed that, even in this world, they might not be + unpunished. A girl, he tells us, had resolved to enter into a + convent, and as her relations were expostulating with her on her + intention, one of those present tried to move her by the memory of + her dead father, asking whether, if he were still <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> alive, he would have suffered her to + remain unmarried. <span class="tei tei-q">“Perhaps,”</span> she + calmly answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“it was for this very + purpose he died, that he should not throw any obstacle in my + way.”</span> Her words were more than an answer; they were an oracle. + The indiscreet questioner almost immediately died, and the relations, + shocked by the manifest providence, desisted from their opposition, + and even implored the young saint to accomplish her design.<a id= + "noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> St. + Jerome tells with rapturous enthusiasm of a little girl, named + Asella, who, when only twelve years old, devoted herself to the + religious life and refused to look on the face of any man, and whose + knees, by constant prayer, became at last like those of a + camel.<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href= + "#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> A + famous widow, named Paula, upon the death of her husband, deserted + her family, listened with <span class="tei tei-q">“dry eyes”</span> + to her children, who were imploring her to stay, fled to the society + of the monks at Jerusalem, made it her desire that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“she might die a beggar, and leave not one piece of money + to her son,”</span> and, having dissipated the whole of her fortune + in charities, bequeathed to her children only the embarrassment of + her debts.<a id="noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href= + "#note_296"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> It was + carefully inculcated that all money given or bequeathed to the poor, + or to the monks, produced spiritual benefit to the donors or + testators, but that no spiritual benefit sprang from money bestowed + upon relations; and the more pious minds recoiled <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> from disposing of their property in a + manner that would not redound to the advantage of their souls. + Sometimes parents made it a dying request to their children that they + would preserve none of their property, but would bestow it all among + the poor.<a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href= + "#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> It was + one of the most honourable incidents of the life of St. Augustine, + that he, like Aurelius, Bishop of Carthage, refused to receive + legacies or donations which unjustly spoliated the relatives of the + benefactor.<a id="noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href= + "#note_298"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> + Usually, however, to outrage the affections of the nearest and + dearest relations was not only regarded as innocent, but proposed as + the highest virtue. <span class="tei tei-q">“A young man,”</span> it + was acutely said, <span class="tei tei-q">“who has learnt to despise + a mother's grief, will easily bear any other labour that is imposed + upon him.”</span><a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href= + "#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> St. + Jerome, when exhorting Heliodorus to desert his family and become a + hermit, expatiated with a fond minuteness on every form of natural + affection he desired him to violate. <span class="tei tei-q">“Though + your little nephew twine his arms around your neck; though your + mother, with dishevelled hair and tearing her robe asunder, point to + the breast with which she suckled you; though your father fall down + on the threshold before you, pass on over your father's body. Fly + with tearless eyes to the banner of the cross. In this matter cruelty + is the only piety.... Your widowed sister may throw her gentle arms + around you.... Your father may implore you to wait but a short time + to bury those near to you, who will soon be no more; your weeping + mother may recall your childish days, and may point to her shrunken + breast and to her wrinkled brow. Those around you may tell you that + all the household rests upon you. Such chains as these, the love of + God and the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg + 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + fear of hell can easily break. You say that Scripture orders you to + obey your parents, but he who loves them more than Christ loses his + soul. The enemy brandishes a sword to slay me. Shall I think of a + mother's tears?”</span><a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href= + "#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sentiment + manifested in these cases continued to be displayed in later ages. + Thus, St. Gregory the Great assures us that a certain young boy, + though he had enrolled himself as a monk, was unable to repress his + love for his parents, and one night stole out secretly to visit them. + But the judgment of God soon marked the enormity of the offence. On + coming back to the monastery, he died that very day, and when he was + buried, the earth refused to receive so heinous a criminal. His body + was repeatedly thrown up from the grave, and it was only suffered to + rest in peace when St. Benedict had laid the Sacrament upon its + breast.<a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href= + "#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> One nun + revealed, it is said, after death, that she had been condemned for + three days to the fires of purgatory, because she had loved her + mother too much.<a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href= + "#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a> Of + another saint it is recorded that his benevolence was such that he + was never known to be hard or inhuman to any one except his + relations.<a id="noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href= + "#note_303"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> St. + Romuald, the founder of the Camaldolites, counted his father among + his spiritual children, and on one occasion punished him by + flagellation.<a id="noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href= + "#note_304"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> The + first nun whom St. Francis of Assisi enrolled was a beautiful girl of + Assisi named Clara Scifi, with whom he had for some time carried on a + clandestine correspondence, and whose flight from her father's home + he both counselled and planned.<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" + href="#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> As the + first enthusiasm of asceticism died away, what was lost in influence + by the father was gained by the priest. The confessional made + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" + id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> this personage the confidant + in the most delicate secrets of domestic life. The supremacy of + authority, of sympathy, and sometimes even of affection, passed away + beyond the domestic circle, and, by establishing an absolute + authority over the most secret thoughts and feelings of nervous and + credulous women, the priests laid the foundation of the empire of the + world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The picture I have + drawn of the inroads made in the first period of asceticism upon the + domestic affections, tells, I think, its own story, and I shall only + add a very few words of comment. That it is necessary for many men + who are pursuing a truly heroic course to break loose from the + trammels which those about them would cast over their actions or + their opinions, and that this severance often constitutes at once one + of the noblest and one of the most painful incidents in their career, + are unquestionable truths; but the examples of such occasional and + exceptional sacrifices, endured for some great unselfish end, cannot + be compared with the conduct of those who regarded the mortification + of domestic love as in itself a form of virtue, and whose ends were + mainly or exclusively selfish. The sufferings endured by the ascetic + who fled from his relations were often, no doubt, very great. Many + anecdotes remain to show that warm and affectionate hearts sometimes + beat under the cold exterior of the monk;<a id="noteref_306" name= + "noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> and St. + Jerome, in one of his letters, remarked, with much complacency and + congratulation, that the very bitterest pang of captivity is simply + this irrevocable <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg + 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + separation which the superstition he preached induced multitudes to + inflict upon themselves. But if, putting aside the intrinsic + excellence of an act, we attempt to estimate the nobility of the + agent, we must consider not only the cost of what he did, but also + the motive which induced him to do it. It is this last consideration + which renders it impossible for us to place the heroism of the + ascetic on the same level with that of the great patriots of Greece + or Rome. A man may be as truly selfish about the next world as about + this. Where an overpowering dread of future torments, or an intense + realisation of future happiness, is the leading motive of action, the + theological virtue of faith may be present, but the ennobling quality + of disinterestedness is assuredly absent. In our day, when pictures + of rewards and punishments beyond the grave act but feebly upon the + imagination, a religious motive is commonly an unselfish motive; but + it has not always been so, and it was undoubtedly not so in the first + period of asceticism. The terrors of a future judgment drove the monk + into the desert, and the whole tenor of the ascetic life, while + isolating him from human sympathies, fostered an intense, though it + may be termed a religious, selfishness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The effect of the + mortification of the domestic affections upon the general character + was probably very pernicious. The family circle is the appointed + sphere, not only for the performance of manifest duties, but also for + the cultivation of the affections; and the extreme ferocity which so + often characterised the ascetic was the natural consequence of the + discipline he imposed upon himself. Severed from all other ties, the + monks clung with a desperate tenacity to their opinions and to their + Church, and hated those who dissented from them with all the + intensity of men whose whole lives were concentrated on a single + subject, whose ignorance and bigotry prevented them from conceiving + the possibility of any good thing in opposition to themselves, and + who had made it a main object of their discipline to eradicate all + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" + id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> natural sympathies and + affections. We may reasonably attribute to the fierce biographer the + words of burning hatred of all heretics which St. Athanasius puts in + the mouth of the dying patriarch of the hermits;<a id="noteref_307" + name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> but + ecclesiastical history, and especially the writings of the later + Pagans, abundantly prove that the sentiment was a general one. To the + Christian bishops it is mainly due that the wide and general, though + not perfect, recognition of religious liberty in the Roman + legislation was replaced by laws of the most minute and stringent + intolerance. To the monks, acting as the executive of an omnipresent, + intolerant, and aggressive clergy, is due an administrative change, + perhaps even more important than the legislative change that had + preceded it. The system of conniving at, neglecting, or despising + forms of worship that were formally prohibited, which had been so + largely practised by the sceptical Pagans, and under the lax police + system of the Empire, and which is so important a fact in the history + of the rise of Christianity, was absolutely destroyed. Wandering in + bands through the country, the monks were accustomed to burn the + temples, to break the idols, to overthrow the altars, to engage in + fierce conflicts with the peasants, who often defended with desperate + courage the shrines of their gods. It would be impossible to conceive + men more fitted for the task. Their fierce fanaticism, their + persuasion that every idol was tenanted by a literal dæmon, and their + belief that death incurred in this iconoclastic crusade was a form of + martyrdom, made them careless of all consequences to themselves, + while the reverence that attached to their profession rendered it + scarcely possible for the civil power to arrest them. Men who had + learnt to look with indifference on the tears of a broken-hearted + mother, and whose ideal was indissolubly connected with the + degradation of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg + 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + body, were but little likely to be moved either by the pathos of old + associations, and of reverent, though mistaken, worship, or by the + grandeur of the Serapeum, or of the noble statues of Phidias and + Praxiteles. Sometimes the civil power ordered the reconstruction of + Jewish synagogues or heretical churches which had been illegally + destroyed; but the doctrine was early maintained that such a + reconstruction was a deadly sin. Under Julian some Christians + suffered martyrdom sooner than be parties to it; and St. Ambrose from + the pulpit of Milan, and Simeon Stylites from his desert pillar, + united in denouncing Theodosius, who had been guilty of issuing this + command.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another very + important moral result to which asceticism largely contributed was + the depression and sometimes almost the extinction of the civic + virtues. A candid examination will show that the Christian + civilisations have been as inferior to the Pagan ones in civic and + intellectual virtues as they have been superior to them in the + virtues of humanity and of chastity. We have already seen that one + remarkable feature of the intellectual movement that preceded + Christianity was the gradual decadence of patriotism. In the early + days both of Greece and Rome, the first duty enforced was that of a + man to his country. This was the rudimentary or cardinal virtue of + the moral type. It gave the tone to the whole system of ethics, and + different moral qualities were valued chiefly in proportion to their + tendency to form illustrious citizens. The destruction of this spirit + in the Roman Empire was due, as we have seen, to two causes—one of + them being political and the other intellectual. The political cause + was the amalgamation of the different nations in one great despotism, + which gave indeed an ample field for personal and intellectual + freedom, but extinguished the sentiment of nationality and closed + almost every sphere of political activity. The intellectual cause, + which was by no means unconnected with the political one, was the + growing ascendancy <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg + 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + Oriental philosophies, which dethroned the active Stoicism of the + early Empire, and placed its ideal of excellence in contemplative + virtues and in elaborate purifications. By this decline of the + patriotic sentiment the progress of the new faith was greatly aided. + In all matters of religion the opinions of men are governed much more + by their sympathies than by their judgments; and it rarely or never + happens that a religion which is opposed to a strong national + sentiment, as Christianity was in Judea, as Catholicism and + Episcopalian Protestantism have been in Scotland, and as Anglicanism + is even now in Ireland, can win the acceptance of the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The relations of + Christianity to the sentiment of patriotism were from the first very + unfortunate. While the Christians were, for obvious reasons, + completely separated from the national spirit of Judea, they found + themselves equally at variance with the lingering remnants of Roman + patriotism. Rome was to them the power of Antichrist, and its + overthrow the necessary prelude to the millennial reign. They formed + an illegal organisation, directly opposed to the genius of the + Empire, anticipating its speedy destruction, looking back with + something more than despondency to the fate of the heroes who adorned + its past, and refusing resolutely to participate in those national + spectacles which were the symbols and the expressions of patriotic + feeling. Though scrupulously averse to all rebellion, they rarely + concealed their sentiments, and the whole tendency of their teaching + was to withdraw men as far as possible both from the functions and + the enthusiasm of public life. It was at once their confession and + their boast, that no interests were more indifferent to them than + those of their country.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href= + "#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> They + regarded the lawfulness of taking arms as very questionable, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" + id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and all those proud and + aspiring qualities that constitute the distinctive beauty of the + soldier's character as emphatically unchristian. Their home and their + interests were in another world, and, provided only they were + unmolested in their worship, they avowed with frankness, long after + the Empire had become Christian, that it was a matter of indifference + to them under what rule they lived.<a id="noteref_309" name= + "noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> + Asceticism, drawing all the enthusiasm of Christendom to the desert + life, and elevating as an ideal the extreme and absolute abnegation + of all patriotism,<a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href= + "#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> formed + the culmination of the movement, and was undoubtedly one cause of the + downfall of the Roman Empire.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are, + probably, few subjects on which popular judgments are commonly more + erroneous than upon the relations <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> between positive religions and moral + enthusiasm. Religions have, no doubt, a most real power of evoking a + latent energy which, without their existence, would never have been + called into action; but their influence is on the whole probably more + attractive than creative. They supply the channel in which moral + enthusiasm flows, the banner under which it is enlisted, the mould in + which it is cast, the ideal to which it tends. The first idea which + the phrase <span class="tei tei-q">“a very good man”</span> would + have suggested to an early Roman would probably have been that of + great and distinguished patriotism, and the passion and interest of + such a man in his country's cause were in direct proportion to his + moral elevation. Ascetic Christianity decisively diverted moral + enthusiasm into another channel, and the civic virtues, in + consequence, necessarily declined. The extinction of all public + spirit, the base treachery and corruption pervading every department + of the Government, the cowardice of the army, the despicable + frivolity of character that led the people of Treves, when fresh from + their burning city, to call for theatres and circuses, and the people + of Roman Carthage to plunge wildly into the excitement of the chariot + races, on the very day when their city succumbed beneath the + Vandal;<a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href= + "#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> all + these things coexisted with extraordinary displays of ascetic and of + missionary devotion. The genius and the virtue that might have + defended the Empire were engaged in fierce disputes about the + Pelagian controversy, at the very time when Alaric was encircling + Rome with his armies,<a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href= + "#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> and + there was no subtlety of theological metaphysics which did not kindle + a deeper interest in the Christian leaders than the throes of their + expiring country. The moral enthusiasm that in other days would have + fired the armies of Rome with <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> an invincible valour, impelled thousands to + abandon their country and their homes, and consume the weary hours in + a long routine of useless and horrible macerations. When the Goths + had captured Rome, St. Augustine, as we have seen, pointed with a + just pride to the Christian Church, which remained an unviolated + sanctuary during the horrors of the sack, as a proof that a new + spirit of sanctity and of reverence had descended upon the world. The + Pagan, in his turn, pointed to what he deemed a not less significant + fact—the golden statues of Valour and of Fortune were melted down to + pay the ransom to the conquerors.<a id="noteref_313" name= + "noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> Many of + the Christians contemplated with an indifference that almost amounted + to complacency what they regarded as the predicted ruin of the city + of the fallen gods.<a id="noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href= + "#note_314"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a> When + the Vandals swept over Africa, the Donatists, maddened by the + persecution of the orthodox, received them with open arms, and + contributed their share to that deadly blow.<a id="noteref_315" name= + "noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> The + immortal pass of Thermopylæ was surrendered without a struggle to the + Goths. A Pagan writer accused the monks of having betrayed it.<a id= + "noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href="#note_316"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> It is + more probable that they had absorbed or diverted the heroism that in + other days would have defended it. The conquest, at a later date, of + Egypt, by the Mohammedans, was in a great measure due to an + invitation from the persecuted Monophysites.<a id="noteref_317" name= + "noteref_317" href="#note_317"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a> + Subsequent religious wars <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg + 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + have again and again exhibited the same phenomenon. The treachery of + a religionist to his country no longer argued an absence of all moral + feeling. It had become compatible with the deepest religious + enthusiasm, and with all the courage of a martyr.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is somewhat + difficult to form a just estimate of how far the attitude assumed by + the Church towards the barbarian invaders has on the whole proved + beneficial to mankind. The Empire, as we have seen, had long been, + both morally and politically, in a condition of manifest decline; its + fall, though it might have been retarded, could scarcely have been + averted, and the new religion, even in its most superstitious form, + while it did much to displace, did also much to elicit moral + enthusiasm. It is impossible to deny that the Christian priesthood + contributed very materially, both by their charity and by their + arbitration, to mitigate the calamities that accompanied the + dissolution of the Empire;<a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" + href="#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a> and it + is equally impossible to doubt that their political attitude greatly + increased their power for good. Standing between the conflicting + forces, almost indifferent to the issue, and notoriously exempt from + the passions of the combat, they obtained with the conqueror, and + used for the benefit of the conquered, a degree of influence they + would never have possessed, had they been regarded as Roman patriots. + Their attitude, however, marked a complete, and, as it has proved, a + permanent, change in the position assigned to patriotism in the moral + scale. It <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg + 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> has + occasionally happened in later times, that churches have found it for + their interest to appeal to this sentiment in their conflict with + opposing creeds, or that patriots have found the objects of churchmen + in harmony with their own; and in these cases a fusion of theological + and patriotic feeling has taken place, in which each has intensified + the other. Such has been the effect of the conflict between the + Spaniards and the Moors, between the Poles and the Russians, between + the Scotch Puritans and the English Episcopalians, between the Irish + Catholics and the English Protestants. But patriotism itself, as a + duty, has never found any place in Christian ethics, and strong + theological feeling has usually been directly hostile to its growth. + Ecclesiastics have, no doubt, taken a very large share in political + affairs, but this has been in most cases solely with the object of + wresting them into conformity with ecclesiastical designs; and no + other body of men have so uniformly sacrificed the interests of their + country to the interests of their class. For the repugnance between + the theological and the patriotic spirit, three reasons may, I think, + be assigned. The first is that tendency of strong religious feeling + to divert the mind from all terrestrial cares and passions, of which + the ascetic life was the extreme expression, but which has always, + under different forms, been manifested in the Church. The second + arises from the fact that each form of theological opinion embodies + itself in a visible and organised church, with a government, + interest, and policy of its own, and a frontier often intersecting + rather than following national boundaries; and these churches attract + to themselves the attachment and devotion that would naturally be + bestowed upon the country and its rulers. The third reason is, that + the saintly and the heroic characters, which represent the ideals of + religion and of patriotism, are generically different; for although + they have no doubt many common elements of virtue, the distinctive + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" + id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> excellence of each is derived + from a proportion or disposition of qualities altogether different + from that of the other.<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319" href= + "#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Before dismissing + this very important revolution in moral history, I may add two + remarks. In the first place, we may observe that the relation of the + two great schools of morals to active and political life has been + completely changed. Among the ancients, the Stoics, who regarded + virtue and vice as generically different from all other things, + participated actively in public life, and made this participation one + of the first of duties; while the Epicureans, who resolved virtue + into utility, and esteemed happiness its supreme motive, abstained + from public life, and taught their disciples to neglect it. + Asceticism followed the Stoical school in teaching that virtue and + happiness are generically different things; but it was at the same + time eminently unfavourable to civic virtue. On the other hand, that + great industrial movement which has arisen since the abolition of + slavery, and which has always been essentially utilitarian in its + spirit, has been one of the most active and influential elements of + political progress. This change, though, as far as I know, entirely + unnoticed by historians, constitutes, I believe, one of the great + landmarks of moral history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The second + observation I would make relates to the estimate we form of the value + of patriotic actions. However <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> much historians may desire to extend their + researches to the private and domestic virtues of a people, civic + virtues are always those which must appear most prominently in their + pages. History is concerned only with large bodies of men. The + systems of philosophy or religion which produce splendid results on + the great theatre of public life are fully and easily appreciated, + and readers and writers are both liable to give them very undue + advantages over those systems which do not favour civic virtues, but + exercise their beneficial influence in the more obscure fields of + individual self-culture, domestic morals, or private charity. If + valued by the self-sacrifice they imply, or by their effects upon + human happiness, these last rank very high, but they scarcely appear + in history, and they therefore seldom obtain their due weight in + historical comparisons. Christianity has, I think, suffered + peculiarly from this cause. Its moral action has always been much + more powerful upon individuals than upon societies, and the spheres + in which its superiority over other religions is most incontestable, + are precisely those which history is least capable of realising.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In attempting to + estimate the moral condition of the Roman and Byzantine Empires + during the Christian period, and before the old civilisation had been + dissolved by the barbarian or Mohammedan invasions, we must + continually bear this last consideration in mind. We must remember, + too, that Christianity had acquired an ascendancy among nations which + were already deeply tainted by the inveterate vices of a corrupt and + decaying civilisation, and also that many of the censors from whose + pages we are obliged to form our estimate of the age were men who + judged human frailties with all the fastidiousness of ascetics, and + who expressed their judgments with all the declamatory exaggeration + of the pulpit. Modern critics will probably not lay much stress upon + the relapse of the Christians into the ordinary dress and usages of + the luxurious society about them, upon <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the ridicule thrown by Christians on those who + still adhered to the primitive austerity of the sect, or upon the + fact that multitudes who were once mere nominal Pagans had become + mere nominal Christians. We find, too, a frequent disposition on the + part of moralists to single out some new form of luxury, or some + trivial custom which they regarded as indecorous, for the most + extravagant denunciation, and to magnify its importance in a manner + which in a later age it is difficult even to understand. Examples of + this kind may be found both in Pagan and in Christian writings, and + they form an extremely curious page in the history of morals. Thus + Juvenal exhausts his vocabulary of invective in denouncing the + atrocious criminality of a certain noble, who in the very year of his + consulship did not hesitate—not, it is true, by day, but at least in + the sight of the moon and of the stars—with his own hand to drive his + own chariot along the public road.<a id="noteref_320" name= + "noteref_320" href="#note_320"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a> Seneca + was scarcely less scandalised by the atrocious and, as he thought, + unnatural luxury of those who had adopted the custom of cooling + different beverages by mixing them with snow.<a id="noteref_321" + name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a> Pliny + assures us that the most monstrous of all criminals was the man who + first devised the luxurious custom of wearing golden rings.<a id= + "noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href="#note_322"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> + Apuleius was compelled to defend himself for having eulogised + tooth-powder, and he did so, among other ways, by arguing that nature + has justified this form of propriety, for crocodiles were known + periodically to leave the waters of the Nile, and to lie with open + jaws <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name= + "Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon the banks, while + a certain bird proceeds with its beak to clean their teeth.<a id= + "noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> If we + were to measure the criminality of different customs by the vehemence + of the patristic denunciations, we might almost conclude that the + most atrocious offence of their day was the custom of wearing false + hair, or dyeing natural hair. Clement of Alexandria questioned + whether the validity of certain ecclesiastical ceremonies might not + be affected by wigs; for, he asked, when the priest is placing his + hand on the head of the person who kneels before him, if that hand is + resting upon false hair, who is it he is really blessing? Tertullian + shuddered at the thought that Christians might have the hair of those + who were in hell upon their heads, and he found in the tiers of false + hair that were in use a distinct rebellion against the assertion that + no one can add to his stature, and, in the custom of dyeing the hair, + a contravention of the declaration that man cannot make one hair + white or black. Centuries rolled away. The Roman Empire tottered to + its fall, and floods of vice and sorrow overspread the world; but + still the denunciations of the Fathers were unabated. St. Ambrose, + St. Jerome, and St. Gregory Nazianzen continued with uncompromising + vehemence the war against false hair, which Tertullian and Clement of + Alexandria had begun.<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" href= + "#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But although the + vehemence of the Fathers on such trivial matters might appear at + first sight to imply the existence of a society in which grave + corruption was rare, such a conclusion would be totally untrue. After + every legitimate allowance has been made, the pictures of Roman + society by Ammianus Marcellinus, of the society of Marseilles, by + Salvian, of the society of Asia Minor, and of Constantinople, by + Chrysostom, as well as the whole tenor of the history, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" + id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> innumerable incidental notices + in the writers, of the time, exhibit a condition of depravity, and + especially of degradation, which has seldom been surpassed.<a id= + "noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href="#note_325"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a> The + corruption had reached classes and institutions that appeared the + most holy. The Agapæ, or love feasts, which formed one of the most + touching symbols of Christian unity, had become scenes of drunkenness + and of riot. Denounced by the Fathers, condemned by the Council of + Laodicea in the fourth century, and afterwards by the Council of + Carthage, they lingered as a scandal and an offence till they were + finally suppressed by the Council of Trullo, at the end of the + seventh century.<a id="noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href= + "#note_326"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> The + commemoration of the martyrs soon degenerated into scandalous + dissipation. Fairs were held on the occasion, gross breaches of + chastity were frequent, and the annual festival was suppressed on + account of the immorality it produced.<a id="noteref_327" name= + "noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> The + ambiguous position of the clergy with reference to marriage already + led to grave disorder. In the time of St. Cyprian, before the + outbreak of the Decian persecution, it had been common to find clergy + professing celibacy, but keeping, under various pretexts, their + mistresses in their houses;<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" + href="#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> and, + after Constantine, the complaints on this subject became loud and + general.<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href= + "#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> Virgins + and monks often lived together in the same house, professing + sometimes to share in <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg + 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + chastity the same bed.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" href= + "#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> Rich + widows were surrounded by swarms of clerical sycophants, who + addressed them in tender diminutives, studied and consulted their + every foible, and, under the guise of piety, lay in wait for their + gifts or bequests.<a id="noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href= + "#note_331"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> The + evil attained such a point that a law was made under Valentinian + depriving the Christian priests and monks of that power of receiving + legacies which was possessed by every other class of the community; + and St. Jerome has mournfully acknowledged that the prohibition was + necessary.<a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href= + "#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> Great + multitudes entered the Church to avoid municipal offices;<a id= + "noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a> the + deserts were crowded with men whose sole object was to escape from + honest labour, and even soldiers used to desert their colours for the + monasteries.<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href= + "#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" + id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Noble ladies, pretending a + desire to lead a higher life, abandoned their husbands to live with + low-born lovers.<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href= + "#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> + Palestine, which was soon crowded with pilgrims, had become, in the + time of St. Gregory of Nyssa, a hotbed of debauchery.<a id= + "noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href="#note_336"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> The + evil reputation of pilgrimages long continued; and in the eighth + century we find St. Boniface writing to the Archbishop of Canterbury, + imploring the bishops to take some measures to restrain or regulate + the pilgrimages of their fellow-countrywomen; for there were few + towns in central Europe, on the way to Rome, where English ladies, + who started as pilgrims, were not living in open prostitution.<a id= + "noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href="#note_337"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> The + luxury and ambition of the higher prelates, and the passion for + amusements of the inferior priests,<a id="noteref_338" name= + "noteref_338" href="#note_338"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> were + bitterly acknowledged. St. Jerome complained that the banquets of + many bishops eclipsed in splendour those of the provincial governors, + and the intrigues by which they obtained offices, and the fierce + partisanship of their supporters, appear in every page of + ecclesiastical history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the lay world, + perhaps the chief characteristic was extreme childishness. The moral + enthusiasm was greater than it had been in most periods of Paganism, + but, being drawn away to the desert, it had little influence upon + society. The <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg + 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + simple fact that the quarrels between the factions of the chariot + races for a long period eclipsed all political, intellectual, and + even religious differences, filled the streets again and again with + bloodshed, and more than once determined great revolutions in the + State, is sufficient to show the extent of the decadence. Patriotism + and courage had almost disappeared, and, notwithstanding the rise of + a Belisarius or a Narses, the level of public men was extremely + depressed. The luxury of the court, the servility of the courtiers, + and the prevailing splendour of dress and of ornament, had attained + an extravagant height. The world grew accustomed to a dangerous + alternation of extreme asceticism and gross vice, and sometimes, as + in the case of Antioch,<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href= + "#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> the + most vicious and luxurious cities produced the most numerous + anchorites. There existed a combination of vice and superstition + which is eminently prejudicial to the nobility, though not equally + detrimental to the happiness, of man. Public opinion was so low, that + very many forms of vice attracted little condemnation and punishment, + while undoubted belief in the absolving efficacy of superstitious + rites calmed the imagination and allayed the terrors of conscience. + There was more falsehood and treachery than under the Cæsars, but + there was much less cruelty, violence, and shamelessness. There was + also less public spirit, less independence of character, less + intellectual freedom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In some respects, + however, Christianity had already effected a great improvement. The + gladiatorial games had disappeared from the West, and had not been + introduced into Constantinople. The vast schools of prostitution + which had grown up under the name of temples of Venus were + suppressed. Religion, however deformed and debased, was at least no + longer a seedplot of depravity, and under the influence of + Christianity the effrontery of vice had in a great <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> measure disappeared. The gross and + extravagant indecency of representation, of which we have still + examples in the paintings on the walls, and the signs on many of the + portals of Pompeii; the banquets of rich patricians, served by naked + girls; the hideous excesses of unnatural lust, in which some of the + Pagan emperors had indulged with so much publicity, were no longer + tolerated. Although sensuality was very general, it was less + obtrusive, and unnatural and eccentric forms had become rare. The + presence of a great Church, which, amid much superstition and + fanaticism, still taught a pure morality, and enforced it by the + strongest motives, was everywhere felt—controlling, strengthening, or + overawing. The ecclesiastics were a great body in the State. The + cause of virtue was strongly organised; it drew to itself the best + men, determined the course of vacillating but amiable natures, and + placed some restraint upon the vicious. A bad man might be insensible + to the moral beauties of religion, but he was still haunted by the + recollection of its threatenings. If he emancipated himself from its + influence in health and prosperity, its power returned in periods of + sickness or danger, or on the eve of the commission of some great + crime. If he had nerved himself against all its terrors, he was at + least checked and governed at every turn by the public opinion which + it had created. That total absence of all restraint, all decency, and + all fear and remorse, which had been evinced by some of the monsters + of crime who occupied the Pagan throne, and which proves most + strikingly the decay of the Pagan religion, was no longer possible. + The virtue of the best Pagans was perhaps of as high an order as that + of the best Christians, though it was of a somewhat different type, + but the vice of the worst Pagans certainly far exceeded that of the + worst Christians. The pulpit had become a powerful centre of + attraction, and charities of many kinds were actively developed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moral effects + of the first great outburst of asceticism, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> so far as we have yet traced them, appear + almost unmingled evils. In addition to the essentially distorted + ideal of perfection it produced, the simple withdrawal from active + life of that moral enthusiasm, which is the leaven of society, was + extremely pernicious, and there can be little doubt that to this + cause we must in a great degree attribute the conspicuous failure of + the Church, for some centuries, to effect any more considerable + amelioration in the moral condition of Europe. There were, however, + some distinctive excellences springing even from the first phase of + asceticism, which, although they do not, as I conceive, suffice to + counterbalance these evils, may justly qualify our censure.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first + condition of all really great moral excellence is a spirit of genuine + self-sacrifice and self-renunciation. The habits of compromise, + moderation, reciprocal self-restraint, gentleness, courtesy, and + refinement, which are appropriate to luxurious or utilitarian + civilisations, are very favourable to the development of many + secondary virtues; but there is in human nature a capacity for a + higher and more heroic reach of excellence, which demands very + different spheres for its display, accustoms men to far nobler aims, + and exercises a far greater attractive influence upon mankind. + Imperfect and distorted as was the ideal of the anchorite; deeply, + too, as it was perverted by the admixture of a spiritual selfishness, + still the example of many thousands, who, in obedience to what they + believed to be right, voluntarily gave up everything that men hold + dear, cast to the winds every compromise with enjoyment, and made + extreme self-abnegation the very principle of their lives, was not + wholly lost upon the world. At a time when increasing riches had + profoundly tainted the Church, they taught men <span class= + "tei tei-q">“to love labour more than rest, and ignominy more than + glory, and to give more than to receive.”</span><a id="noteref_340" + name="noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> At a + time when the passion for ecclesiastical <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> dignities had become the scandal of the Empire, + they systematically abstained from them, teaching, in their quaint + but energetic language, that <span class="tei tei-q">“there are two + classes a monk should especially avoid—bishops and + women.”</span><a id="noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href= + "#note_341"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a> The + very eccentricities of their lives, their uncouth forms, their + horrible penances, won the admiration of rude men, and the + superstitious reverence thus excited gradually passed to the charity + and the self-denial which formed the higher elements of the monastic + character. Multitudes of barbarians were converted to Christianity at + the sight of St. Simeon Stylites. The hermit, too, was speedily + idealised by the popular imagination. The more repulsive features of + his life and appearance were forgotten. He was thought of only as an + old man with long white beard and gentle aspect, weaving his mats + beneath the palm-trees, while dæmons vainly tried to distract him by + their stratagems, and the wild beasts grew tame in his presence, and + every disease and every sorrow vanished at his word. The imagination + of Christendom, fascinated by this ideal, made it the centre of + countless legends, usually very childish, and occasionally, as we + have seen, worse than childish, yet full of beautiful touches of + human nature, and often conveying admirable moral lessons.<a id= + "noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href="#note_342"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> Nursery + tales, which first determine the course of the infant imagination, + play no inconsiderable part in the history of humanity. In the fable + of Psyche—that <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg + 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + bright tale of passionate love with which the Greek mother lulled her + child to rest—Pagan antiquity has bequeathed us a single specimen of + transcendent beauty, and the lives of the saints of the desert often + exhibit an imagination different indeed in kind, but scarcely less + brilliant in its display. St. Antony, we are told, was thinking one + night that he was the best man in the desert, when it was revealed to + him that there was another hermit far holier than himself. In the + morning he started across the desert to visit this unknown saint. He + met first of all a centaur, and afterwards a little man with horns + and goat's feet, who said that he was a faun; and these, having + pointed out the way, he arrived at last at his destination. St. Paul + the hermit, at whose cell he stopped, was one hundred and thirteen + years old, and, having been living for a very long period in absolute + solitude, he at first refused to admit the visitor, but at last + consented, embraced him, and began, with a very pardonable curiosity, + to question him minutely about the world he had left; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“whether there was much new building in the towns, what + empire ruled the world, whether there were any idolaters + remaining?”</span> The colloquy was interrupted by a crow, which came + with a loaf of bread, and St. Paul, observing that during the last + sixty years his daily allowance had been only half a loaf, declared + that this was a proof that he had done right in admitting Antony. The + hermits returned thanks, and sat down together by the margin of a + glassy stream. But now a difficulty arose. Neither could bring + himself to break the loaf before the other. St. Paul alleged that St. + Antony, being his guest, should take the precedence; but St. Antony, + who was only ninety years old, dwelt upon the greater age of St. + Paul. So scrupulously polite were these old men, that they passed the + entire afternoon disputing on this weighty question, till at last, + when the evening was drawing in, a happy thought struck them, and, + each holding one end of the loaf, they pulled together. To abridge + the story, St. Paul soon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg + 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + died, and his companion, being a weak old man, was unable to bury + him, when two lions came from the desert and dug the grave with their + paws, deposited the body in it, raised a loud howl of lamentation, + and then knelt down submissively before St. Antony, to beg a + blessing. The authority for this history is no less a person than St. + Jerome, who relates it as literally true, and intersperses his + narrative with severe reflections on all who might question his + accuracy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The historian + Palladius assures us that he heard from the lips of St. Macarius of + Alexandria an account of a pilgrimage which that saint had made, + under the impulse of curiosity, to visit the enchanted garden of + Jannes and Jambres, tenanted by dæmons. For nine days Macarius + traversed the desert, directing his course by the stars, and, from + time to time, fixing reeds in the ground, as landmarks for his + return; but this precaution proved useless, for the devils tore up + the reeds, and placed them during the night by the head of the + sleeping saint. As he drew near the garden, seventy dæmons of various + forms came forth to meet him, and reproached him for disturbing them + in their home. St. Macarius promised simply to walk round and inspect + the wonders of the garden, and then depart without doing it any + injury. He fulfilled his promise, and a journey of twenty days + brought him again to his cell.<a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" + href="#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a> Other + legends are, however, of a less fantastic nature; and many of them + display, though sometimes in very whimsical forms, a spirit of + courtesy which seems to foreshadow the later chivalry, and some of + them contain striking protests against the very superstitions that + were most prevalent. When St. Macarius was sick, a bunch of grapes + was once given to him; but his charity impelled him to give them to + another hermit, who in his turn refused to keep them, and at last, + having made the circuit of the entire desert, they were returned to + the saint.<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href= + "#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" + id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The same saint, whose usual + beverage was putrid water, never failed to drink wine when set before + him by the hermits he visited, atoning privately for this relaxation, + which he thought the laws of courtesy required, by abstaining from + water for as many days as he had drunk glasses of wine.<a id= + "noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> One of + his disciples once meeting an idolatrous priest running in great + haste across the desert, with a great stick in his hand, cried out in + a loud voice, <span class="tei tei-q">“Where are you going, + dæmon?”</span> The priest, naturally indignant, beat the Christian + severely, and was proceeding on his way, when he met St. Macarius, + who accosted him so courteously and so tenderly that the Pagan's + heart was touched, he became a convert, and his first act of charity + was to tend the Christian whom he had beaten.<a id="noteref_346" + name="noteref_346" href="#note_346"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> St. + Avitus being on a visit to St. Marcian, this latter saint placed + before him some bread, which Avitus refused to eat, saying that it + was his custom never to touch food till after sunset. St. Marcian, + professing his own inability to defer his repast, implored his guest + for once to break this custom, and being refused, exclaimed, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Alas! I am filled with anguish that you have + come here to see a wise man and a saint, and you see only a + glutton.”</span> St. Avitus was grieved, and said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“he would rather even eat flesh than hear such + words,”</span> and he sat down as desired. St. Marcian then confessed + that his own custom was the same as that of his brother saint; + <span class="tei tei-q">“but,”</span> he added, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“we know that charity is better than fasting; for charity + is enjoined by the Divine law, but fasting is left in our own power + and will.”</span><a id="noteref_347" name="noteref_347" href= + "#note_347"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a> St. + Epiphanius having invited St. Hilarius to his cell, placed before him + a dish of fowl. <span class="tei tei-q">“Pardon me, father,”</span> + said St. Hilarius, <span class="tei tei-q">“but since I have become a + monk I have never eaten flesh.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“And + I,”</span> said St. Epiphanius, <span class="tei tei-q">“since I have + become a monk have never suffered <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the sun to go down upon my wrath.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Your rule,”</span> rejoined the other, + <span class="tei tei-q">“is more excellent than mine.”</span><a id= + "noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href="#note_348"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> While a + rich lady was courteously fulfilling the duties of hospitality to a + monk, her child, whom she had for this purpose left, fell into a + well. It lay unharmed upon the surface of the water, and afterwards + told its mother that it had seen the arms of the saint sustaining it + below.<a id="noteref_349" name="noteref_349" href= + "#note_349"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a> At a + time when it was the custom to look upon the marriage state with + profound contempt, it was revealed to St. Macarius of Egypt that two + married women in a neighbouring city were more holy than he was. The + saint immediately visited them, and asked their mode of life, but + they utterly repudiated the notion of their sanctity. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Holy father,”</span> they said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“suffer us to tell you frankly the truth. Even this very + night we did not shrink from sleeping with our husbands, and what + good works, then, can you expect from us?”</span> The saint, however, + persisted in his inquiries, and they then told him their stories. + <span class="tei tei-q">“We are,”</span> they said, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in no way related, but we married two brothers. We have + lived together for fifteen years, without one licentious or angry + word. We have entreated our husbands to let us leave them, to join + the societies of holy virgins, but they refused to permit us, and we + then promised before Heaven that no worldly word should sully our + lips.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Of a truth,”</span> cried St. + Macarius, <span class="tei tei-q">“I see that God regards not whether + one is virgin or married, whether one is in a monastery or in the + world. He considers only the disposition of the heart, and gives the + Spirit to all who desire to serve Him, whatever their condition may + be.”</span><a id="noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href= + "#note_350"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have multiplied + these illustrations to an extent that must, I fear, have already + somewhat taxed the patience of my readers; but the fact that, during + a long period of history, these saintly legends formed the ideals + guiding the imagination <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg + 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + reflecting the moral sentiment of the Christian world, gives them an + importance far beyond their intrinsic value. Before dismissing the + saints of the desert, there is one other class of legends to which I + desire to advert. I mean those which describe the connection between + saints and the animal world. These legends are, I think, worthy of + special notice in moral history, as representing the first, and at + the same time one of the most striking efforts ever made in + Christendom to inculcate a feeling of kindness and pity towards the + brute creation. In Pagan antiquity, considerable steps had been made + to raise this form of humanity to a recognised branch of ethics. The + way had been prepared by numerous anecdotes growing for the most part + out of simple ignorance of natural history, which all tended to + diminish the chasm between men and animals, by representing the + latter as possessing to a very high degree both moral and rational + qualities. Elephants, it was believed, were endowed not only with + reason and benevolence, but also with reverential feelings. They + worshipped the sun and moon, and in the forests of Mauritania they + were accustomed to assemble every new moon, at a certain river, to + perform religious rites.<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" href= + "#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> The + hippopotamus taught men the medicinal value of bleeding, being + accustomed, when affected by plethory, to bleed itself with a thorn, + and afterwards close the wound with slime.<a id="noteref_352" name= + "noteref_352" href="#note_352"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a> + Pelicans committed suicide to feed their young; and bees, when they + had broken the laws of their sovereign.<a id="noteref_353" name= + "noteref_353" href="#note_353"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a> A + temple was erected at Sestos to commemorate the affection of an eagle + which loved a young girl, and upon her death cast itself in despair + into the flames by which her body was consumed.<a id="noteref_354" + name="noteref_354" href="#note_354"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> + Numerous anecdotes are related of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> faithful dogs which refused to survive their + masters, and one of these had, it was said, been transformed into the + dog-star.<a id="noteref_355" name="noteref_355" href= + "#note_355"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> The + dolphin, especially, became the subject of many beautiful legends, + and its affection for its young, for music, and above all for little + children, excited the admiration not only of the populace, but of the + most distinguished naturalists.<a id="noteref_356" name="noteref_356" + href="#note_356"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> Many + philosophers ascribed to animals a rational soul, like that of man. + According to the Pythagoreans, human souls transmigrate after death + into animals. According to the Stoics and others, the souls of men + and animals were alike parts of the all-pervading Divine Spirit that + animates the world.<a id="noteref_357" name="noteref_357" href= + "#note_357"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">357</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We may even find + traces from an early period of a certain measure of legislative + protection for animals. By a very natural process, the ox, as a + principal agent in agriculture, and therefore a kind of symbol of + civilisation, was in many different countries regarded with a + peculiar reverence. The sanctity attached to it in Egypt is well + known. That tenderness to animals, which is one of the most beautiful + features in the Old Testament writings, shows itself, among other + ways, in the command not to muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn, + or to yoke together the ox and the ass.<a id="noteref_358" name= + "noteref_358" href="#note_358"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">358</span></span></a> Among + the early Romans the same feeling was carried so far, that for a long + time it was actually a capital offence to slaughter an ox, that + animal being pronounced, in a special sense, the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> fellow-labourer of man.<a id= + "noteref_359" name="noteref_359" href="#note_359"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">359</span></span></a> A + similar law is said to have in early times existed in Greece.<a id= + "noteref_360" name="noteref_360" href="#note_360"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">360</span></span></a> The + beautiful passage in which the Psalmist describes how the sparrow + could find a shelter and a home in the altar of the temple, was as + applicable to Greece as to Jerusalem. The sentiment of Xenocrates + who, when a bird pursued by a hawk took refuge in his breast, + caressed and finally released it, saying to his disciples, that a + good man should never give up a suppliant,<a id="noteref_361" name= + "noteref_361" href="#note_361"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">361</span></span></a> was + believed to be shared by the gods, and it was regarded as an act of + impiety to disturb the birds who had built their nests beneath the + porticoes of the temple.<a id="noteref_362" name="noteref_362" href= + "#note_362"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">362</span></span></a> A case + is related of a child who was even put to death on account of an act + of aggravated cruelty to birds.<a id="noteref_363" name="noteref_363" + href="#note_363"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">363</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The general + tendency of nations, as they advance from a rude and warlike to a + refined and peaceful condition, from the stage in which the realising + powers are faint and dull, to that in which they are sensitive and + vivid, is undoubtedly to become more gentle and humane in their + actions; but this, like all other general tendencies in history, may + be counteracted or modified by many special circumstances. The law I + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" + id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> have mentioned about oxen was + obviously one of those that belong to a very early stage of progress, + when legislators are labouring to form agricultural habits among a + warlike and nomadic people.<a id="noteref_364" name="noteref_364" + href="#note_364"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">364</span></span></a> The + games in which the slaughter of animals bore so large a part, having + been introduced but a little before the extinction of the republic, + did very much to arrest or retard the natural progress of humane + sentiments. In ancient Greece, besides the bull-fights of Thessaly, + the combats of quails and cocks<a id="noteref_365" name="noteref_365" + href="#note_365"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">365</span></span></a> were + favourite amusements, and were much encouraged by the legislators, as + furnishing examples of valour to the soldiers. The colossal + dimensions of the Roman games, the circumstances that favoured them, + and the overwhelming interest they speedily excited, I have described + in a former chapter. We have seen, however, that, notwithstanding the + gladiatorial shows, the standard of humanity towards men was + considerably raised during the Empire. It is also well worthy of + notice that, notwithstanding <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the passion for the combats of wild beasts, + Roman literature and the later literature of the nations subject to + Rome abound in delicate touches displaying in a very high degree a + sensitiveness to the feelings of the animal world. This tender + interest in animal life is one of the most distinctive features of + the poetry of Virgil. Lucretius, who rarely struck the chords of + pathos, had at a still earlier period drawn a very beautiful picture + of the sorrows of the bereaved cow, whose calf had been sacrificed + upon the altar.<a id="noteref_366" name="noteref_366" href= + "#note_366"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">366</span></span></a> + Plutarch mentions, incidentally, that he could never bring himself to + sell, in its old age, the ox which had served him faithfully in the + time of its strength.<a id="noteref_367" name="noteref_367" href= + "#note_367"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">367</span></span></a> Ovid + expressed a similar sentiment with an almost equal emphasis.<a id= + "noteref_368" name="noteref_368" href="#note_368"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">368</span></span></a> Juvenal + speaks of a Roman lady with her eyes filled with tears on account of + the death of a sparrow.<a id="noteref_369" name="noteref_369" href= + "#note_369"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">369</span></span></a> + Apollonius of Tyana, on the ground of humanity, refused, even when + invited by a king, to participate in the chase.<a id="noteref_370" + name="noteref_370" href="#note_370"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">370</span></span></a> Arrian, + the friend of Epictetus, in his book upon <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> coursing, anticipated the beautiful picture + which Addison has drawn of the huntsman refusing to sacrifice the + life of the captured hare which had given him so much pleasure in its + flight.<a id="noteref_371" name="noteref_371" href= + "#note_371"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">371</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These touches of + feeling, slight as they may appear, indicate, I think, a vein of + sentiment such as we should scarcely have expected to find coexisting + with the gigantic slaughter of the amphitheatre. The progress, + however, was not only one of sentiment—it was also shown in distinct + and definite teaching. Pythagoras and Empedocles were quoted as the + founders of this branch of ethics. The moral duty of kindness to + animals was in the first instance based upon a dogmatic assertion of + the transmigration of souls, and, the doctrine that animals are + within the circle of human duty being thus laid down, subsidiary + considerations of humanity were alleged. The rapid growth of the + Pythagorean school, in the latter days of the Empire, made these + considerations familiar to the people.<a id="noteref_372" name= + "noteref_372" href="#note_372"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">372</span></span></a> + Porphyry elaborately advocated, and even Seneca for a time practised, + abstinence from flesh. But the most remarkable figure in this + movement is unquestionably Plutarch. Casting aside the dogma of + transmigration, or at least speaking of it only as a doubtful + conjecture, he places the duty of kindness to animals on the broad + ground of the affections, and he urges that duty with an emphasis and + a detail to which no adequate parallel can, I believe, be found in + the Christian writings for at least seventeen hundred years. He + condemns absolutely the games of the amphitheatre, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> dwells with great force upon the effect + of such spectacles in hardening the character, enumerates in detail, + and denounces with unqualified energy, the refined cruelties which + gastronomic fancies had produced, and asserts in the strongest + language that every man has duties to the animal world as truly as to + his fellow-men.<a id="noteref_373" name="noteref_373" href= + "#note_373"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">373</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we now pass to + the Christian Church, we shall find that little or no progress was at + first made in this sphere. Among the Manicheans, it is true, the + mixture of Oriental notions was shown in an absolute prohibition of + animal food, and abstinence from this food was also frequently + practised upon totally different grounds by the orthodox. One or two + of the Fathers have also mentioned with approbation the humane + counsels of the Pythagoreans.<a id="noteref_374" name="noteref_374" + href="#note_374"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">374</span></span></a> But, on + the other hand, the doctrine of transmigration was emphatically + repudiated by the Catholics; the human race was isolated, by the + scheme of redemption, more than ever from all other races; and in the + range and circle of duties inculcated by the early Fathers those to + animals had no place. This is indeed the one form of humanity which + appears more prominently in the Old Testament than in the New. The + many beautiful traces of it in the former, which indicate a + sentiment,<a id="noteref_375" name="noteref_375" href= + "#note_375"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">375</span></span></a> even + where they do not very strictly define a duty, gave way before an + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" + id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ardent philanthropy which + regarded human interests as the one end, and the relations of man to + his Creator as the one question, of life, and dismissed somewhat + contemptuously, as an idle sentimentalism, notions of duty to + animals.<a id="noteref_376" name="noteref_376" href= + "#note_376"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">376</span></span></a> A + refined and subtle sympathy with animal feeling is indeed rarely + found among those who are engaged very actively in the affairs of + life, and it was not without a meaning or a reason that Shakespeare + placed that exquisitely pathetic analysis of the sufferings of the + wounded stag, which is perhaps its most perfect poetical expression, + in the midst of the morbid dreamings of the diseased and melancholy + Jacques.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But while what are + called the rights of animals had no place in the ethics of the + Church, a feeling of sympathy with the irrational creation was in + some degree inculcated indirectly by the incidents of the hagiology. + It was very natural that the hermit, living in the lonely deserts of + the East, or in the vast forests of Europe, should come into an + intimate connection with the animal world, and it was no less natural + that the popular imagination, when depicting the hermit life, should + make this connection the centre of many picturesque and sometimes + touching legends. The birds, it was said, stooped in their flight at + the old man's call; the lion and the hyena crouched submissively at + his feet; his heart, which was closed to all human interests, + expanded freely at the sight of some suffering animal; and something + of his own sanctity descended to the companions of his solitude and + the objects of his miracles. The wild beasts attended St. Theon when + he walked abroad, and the saint rewarded them by giving them drink + out of his well. An Egyptian hermit had made a beautiful garden in + the desert, and used to sit beneath the palm-trees while a lion ate + fruit from his hand. When <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg + 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> St. + Pœmen was shivering in a winter night, a lion crouched beside him, + and became his covering. Lions buried St. Paul the hermit and St. + Mary of Egypt. They appear in the legends of St. Jerome, St. + Gerasimus, St. John the Silent, St. Simeon, and many others. When an + old and feeble monk, named Zosimas, was on his journey to Cæsarea, + with an ass which bore his possessions, a lion seized and devoured + the ass, but, at the command of the saint, the lion itself carried + the burden to the city gates. St. Helenus called a wild ass from its + herd to bear his burden through the wilderness. The same saint, as + well as St. Pachomius, crossed the Nile on the back of a crocodile, + as St. Scuthinus did the Irish Channel on a sea monster. Stags + continually accompanied saints upon their journeys, bore their + burdens, ploughed their fields, revealed their relics. The hunted + stag was especially the theme of many picturesque legends. A Pagan, + named Branchion, was once pursuing an exhausted stag, when it took + refuge in a cavern, whose threshold no inducement could persuade the + hounds to cross. The astonished hunter entered, and found himself in + presence of an old hermit, who at once protected the fugitive and + converted the pursuer. In the legends of St. Eustachius and St. + Hubert, Christ is represented as having assumed the form of a hunted + stag, which turned upon its pursuer, with a crucifix glittering on + its brow, and, addressing him with a human voice, converted him to + Christianity. In the full frenzy of a chase, hounds and stag stopped + and knelt down together to venerate the relics of St. Fingar. On the + festival of St. Regulus, the wild stags assembled at the tomb of the + saint, as the ravens used to do at that of St. Apollinar of Ravenna. + St. Erasmus was the special protector of oxen, and they knelt down + voluntarily before his shrine. St. Antony was the protector of hogs, + who were usually introduced into his pictures. St. Bridget kept pigs, + and a wild boar came from the forest to subject itself to her rule. A + horse foreshadowed by its lamentations the death of St. Columba. The + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" + id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> three companions of St. Colman + were a cock, a mouse, and a fly. The cock announced the hour of + devotion, the mouse bit the ear of the drowsy saint till he got up, + and if in the course of his studies he was afflicted by any wandering + thoughts, or called away to other business, the fly alighted on the + line where he had left off, and kept the place. Legends, not without + a certain whimsical beauty, described the moral qualities existing in + animals. A hermit was accustomed to share his supper with a wolf, + which, one evening entering the cell before the return of the master, + stole a loaf of bread. Struck with remorse, it was a week before it + ventured again to visit the cell, and when it did so, its head hung + down, and its whole demeanour manifested the most profound + contrition. The hermit <span class="tei tei-q">“stroked with a gentle + hand its bowed down head,”</span> and gave it a double portion as a + token of forgiveness. A lioness knelt down with lamentations before + another saint, and then led him to its cub, which was blind, but + which received its sight at the prayer of the saint. Next day the + lioness returned, bearing the skin of a wild beast as a mark of its + gratitude. Nearly the same thing happened to St. Macarius of + Alexandria; a hyena knocked at his door, brought its young, which was + blind, and which the saint restored to sight, and repaid the + obligation soon afterwards by bringing a fleece of wool. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“O hyena!”</span> said the saint, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“how did you obtain this fleece? you must have stolen and + eaten a sheep.”</span> Full of shame, the hyena hung its head down, + but persisted in offering its gift, which, however, the holy man + refused to receive till the hyena <span class="tei tei-q">“had + sworn”</span> to cease for the future to rob. The hyena bowed its + head in token of its acceptance of the oath, and St. Macarius + afterwards gave the fleece to St. Melania. Other legends simply speak + of the sympathy between saints and the irrational world. The birds + came at the call of St. Cuthbert, and a dead bird was resuscitated by + his prayer. When St. Aengussius, in felling wood, had cut his hand, + the birds gathered round, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg + 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + with loud cries lamented his misfortune. A little bird, struck down + and mortally wounded by a hawk, fell at the feet of St. Kieranus, who + shed tears as he looked upon its torn breast, and offered up a + prayer, upon which the bird was instantly healed.<a id="noteref_377" + name="noteref_377" href="#note_377"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">377</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many hundreds, I + should perhaps hardly exaggerate were I to say many thousands, of + legends of this kind exist in the lives of the saints. Suggested in + the first instance by that desert life which was at once the earliest + phase of monachism and one of the earliest sources of Christian + mythology, strengthened by the symbolism which represented different + virtues and vices under the forms of animals, and by the + reminiscences of the rites and the superstitions of Paganism, the + connection between men and animals became the keynote of an infinite + variety of fantastic tales. In our eyes they may appear extravagantly + puerile, yet it will scarcely, I hope, be necessary to apologise for + introducing them into what purports to be a grave work, when it is + remembered that for many centuries they were universally accepted by + mankind, and were so interwoven with all local traditions, and with + all the associations of education, that they at once determined and + reflected the inmost feelings of the heart. Their tendency to create + a certain feeling of sympathy towards animals is manifest, and this + is probably the utmost <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg + 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + Catholic Church has done in that direction.<a id="noteref_378" name= + "noteref_378" href="#note_378"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">378</span></span></a> A very + few authentic instances may, indeed, be cited of saints whose natural + gentleness of disposition was displayed in kindness to the animal + world. Of St. James of Venice—an obscure saint of the thirteenth + century—it is told that he was accustomed to buy and release the + birds with which Italian boys used to play by attaching them to + strings, saying that <span class="tei tei-q">“he pitied the little + birds of the Lord,”</span> and that his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“tender charity recoiled from all cruelty, even to the + most diminutive of animals.”</span><a id="noteref_379" name= + "noteref_379" href="#note_379"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">379</span></span></a> St. + Francis of Assisi was a more conspicuous example of the same spirit. + <span class="tei tei-q">“If I could only be presented to the + emperor,”</span> he used to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“I would + pray him, for the love of God, and of me, to issue an edict + prohibiting any one from catching or imprisoning my sisters the + larks, and ordering that all who have oxen or asses should at + Christmas feed them particularly well.”</span> A crowd of legends + turning upon this theme were related of him. A wolf, near Gubbio, + being adjured by him, promised to abstain from eating sheep, placed + its paw in the hand of the saint to ratify the promise, and was + afterwards fed from house to house by the inhabitants of the city. A + crowd of birds, on another occasion, came to hear the saint preach, + as fish did to hear St. Antony of Padua. A falcon awoke him at his + hour of prayer. A grasshopper encouraged him by her melody to sing + praises to God. The noisy swallows kept silence when he began to + teach.<a id="noteref_380" name="noteref_380" href= + "#note_380"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">380</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + however, Catholicism has done very little to inculcate humanity to + animals. The fatal vice of theologians, who have always looked upon + others solely through the medium of their own special dogmatic views, + has been an obstacle to all advance in this direction. The animal + world, being altogether external to the scheme of redemption, was + regarded as beyond the range of duty, and the belief that we have any + kind of obligation to its members has never been inculcated—has + never, I believe, been even admitted—by Catholic theologians. In the + popular legends, and in the recorded traits of individual amiability, + it is curious to observe how constantly those who have sought to + inculcate kindness to animals have done so by endeavouring to + associate them with something distinctively Christian. The legends I + have noticed glorified them as the companions of the saints. The stag + was honoured as especially commissioned to reveal the relics of + saints, and as the deadly enemy of the serpent. In the feast of + asses, that animal was led with veneration into the churches, and a + rude hymn proclaimed its dignity, because it had borne Christ in His + flight to Egypt, and in His entry into Jerusalem. St. Francis always + treated lambs with a peculiar tenderness, as being symbols of his + Master. Luther grew sad and thoughtful at a hare hunt, for it seemed + to him to represent the pursuit of souls by the devil. Many popular + legends exist, associating some bird or animal with some incident in + the evangelical narrative, and securing for them in consequence an + unmolested life. But such influences have never extended far. There + are two distinct objects which may be considered by moralists in this + sphere. They may regard the character of the men, or they may regard + the sufferings of the animals. The amount of callousness or of + conscious cruelty displayed or elicited by amusements or practices + that inflict suffering on animals, bears no kind of proportion to the + intensity of that suffering. Could we follow with adequate + realisation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg + 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + pangs of the wounded birds that are struck down in our sports, or of + the timid hare in the long course of its flight, we should probably + conclude that they were not really less than those caused by the + Spanish bull-fight, or by the English pastimes of the last century. + But the excitement of the chase refracts the imagination, and owing + to the diminutive size of the victim, and the undemonstrative + character of its suffering, these sports do not exercise that + prejudicial influence upon character which they would exercise if the + sufferings of the animals were vividly realised, and were at the same + time accepted as an element of the enjoyment. The class of amusements + of which the ancient combats of wild beasts form the type, have no + doubt nearly disappeared from Christendom, and it is possible that + the softening power of Christian teaching may have had some indirect + influence in abolishing them; but a candid judgment will confess that + it has been very little. During the periods, and in the countries, in + which theological influence was supreme, they were + unchallenged.<a id="noteref_381" name="noteref_381" href= + "#note_381"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">381</span></span></a> They + disappeared<a id="noteref_382" name="noteref_382" href= + "#note_382"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">382</span></span></a> at + last, because a luxurious and industrial civilisation involved a + refinement of manners; because a fastidious taste recoiled with a + sensation of disgust from pleasures that an uncultivated taste would + keenly relish; because the drama, at once reflecting <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and accelerating the change, gave a new + form to popular amusements, and because, in consequence of this + revolution, the old pastimes, being left to the dregs of society, + became the occasions of scandalous disorders.<a id="noteref_383" + name="noteref_383" href="#note_383"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">383</span></span></a> In + Protestant <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg + 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + countries the clergy have, on the whole, sustained this movement. In + Catholic countries it has been much more faithfully represented by + the school of Voltaire and Beccaria. A judicious moralist may, + however, reasonably question whether amusements which derive their + zest from a display of the natural ferocious instincts of animals, + and which substitute death endured in the frenzy of combat for death + in the remote slaughter-house or by the slow process of decay, have + added in any appreciable degree to the sum of animal misery, and in + these cases he will dwell less upon the suffering inflicted than upon + the injurious influence the spectacle may sometimes exercise on the + character of the spectator. But there are forms of cruelty which must + be regarded in a different light. The horrors of vivisection, often + so wantonly, so needlessly practised,<a id="noteref_384" name= + "noteref_384" href="#note_384"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">384</span></span></a> the + prolonged and atrocious tortures, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sometimes inflicted in order to procure some + gastronomic delicacy, are so far removed from the public gaze that + they exercise little influence on the character of men. Yet no humane + man can reflect upon them without a shudder. To bring these things + within the range of ethics, to create the notion of duties towards + the animal world, has, so far as Christian countries are concerned, + been one of the peculiar merits of the last century, and, for the + most part, of Protestant nations. However fully we may recognise the + humane spirit transmitted to the world in the form of legends from + the saints of the desert, it must not be forgotten that the + inculcation of humanity to animals on a wide scale is mainly the work + of a recent and a secular age; that the Mohammedans and the Brahmins + have in this sphere considerably surpassed the Christians, and that + Spain and Southern Italy, in which Catholicism has most deeply + planted its roots, are even now, probably beyond all other countries + in Europe, those in which inhumanity to animals is most wanton and + most unrebuked.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The influence the + first form of monachism has exercised upon the world, so far as it + has been beneficial, has been chiefly through the imagination, which + has been fascinated by its legends. In the great periods of + theological controversy, the Eastern monks had furnished some leading + theologians; but in general, in Oriental lands, the hermit life + predominated, and extreme maceration was the chief merit of the + saint. But in the West, monachism assumed very different forms, and + exercised far higher functions. At first the Oriental saints were the + ideals of Western monks. The Eastern St. Athanasius had been the + founder of Italian monachism. St. <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Martin of Tours excluded labour from the + discipline of his monks, and he and they, like the Eastern saints, + were accustomed to wander abroad, destroying the idols of the + temples.<a id="noteref_385" name="noteref_385" href= + "#note_385"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">385</span></span></a> But + three great causes conspired to direct the monastic spirit in the + West into practical channels. Conditions of race and climate have + ever impelled the inhabitants of these lands to active life, and have + at the same time rendered them constitutionally incapable of enduring + the austerities or enjoying the hallucinations of the sedentary + Oriental. There arose, too, in the sixth century, a great legislator, + whose form may be dimly traced through a cloud of fantastic legends, + and the order of St. Benedict, with that of St. Columba and some + others, founded on substantially the same principle, soon ramified + through the greater part of Europe, tempered the wild excesses of + useless penances, and, making labour an essential part of the + monastic system, directed the movement to the purposes of general + civilisation. In the last place, the barbarian invasions, and the + dissolution of the Western Empire, dislocating the whole system of + government and almost resolving society into its primitive elements, + naturally threw upon the monastic corporations social, political, and + intellectual functions of the deepest importance.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been + observed that the capture of Rome by Alaric, involving as it did the + destruction of the grandest religious monuments of Paganism, in fact + established in that city the supreme authority of Christianity.<a id= + "noteref_386" name="noteref_386" href="#note_386"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">386</span></span></a> A + similar remark may be extended to the general downfall of the Western + civilisation. In that civilisation Christianity had indeed been + legally enthroned; but the philosophies and traditions of Paganism, + and the ingrained habits of an ancient, and at the same time an + effete society, continually paralysed its energies. What Europe would + have been without the barbarian invasions, we may partly divine from + the history of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg + 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + Lower Empire, which represented, in fact, the old Roman civilisation + prolonged and Christianised. The barbarian conquests, breaking up the + old organisation, provided the Church with a virgin soil, and made + it, for a long period, the supreme and indeed sole centre of + civilisation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + difficult to exaggerate the skill and courage displayed by the + ecclesiastics in this most trying period. We have already seen the + noble daring with which they interfered between the conqueror and the + vanquished, and the unwearied charity with which they sought to + alleviate the unparalleled sufferings of Italy, when the colonial + supplies of corn were cut off, and when the fairest plains were + desolated by the barbarians. Still more wonderful is the rapid + conversion of the barbarian tribes. Unfortunately this, which is one + of the most important, is also one of the most obscure pages in the + history of the Church. Of whole tribes or nations it may be truly + said that we are absolutely ignorant of the cause of their change. + The Goths had already been converted by Ulphilas, before the downfall + of the Empire, and the conversion of the Germans and of several + northern nations was long posterior to it; but the great work of + Christianising the barbarian world was accomplished almost in the + hour when that world became supreme. Rude tribes, accustomed in their + own lands to pay absolute obedience to their priests, found + themselves in a foreign country, confronted by a priesthood far more + civilised and imposing than that which they had left, by gorgeous + ceremonies, well fitted to entice, and by threats of coming judgment, + well fitted to scare their imaginations. Disconnected from all their + old associations, they bowed before the majesty of civilisation, and + the Latin religion, like the Latin language, though with many + adulterations, reigned over the new society. The doctrine of + exclusive salvation, and the doctrine of dæmons, had an admirable + missionary power. The first produced an ardour of proselytising which + the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name= + "Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> polytheist could never + rival; while the Pagan, who was easily led to recognise the Christian + God, was menaced with eternal fire if he did not take the further + step of breaking off from his old divinities. The second dispensed + the convert from the perhaps impossible task of disbelieving his + former religion, for it was only necessary for him to degrade it, + attributing its prodigies to infernal beings. The priests, in + addition to their noble devotion, carried into their missionary + efforts the most masterly judgment. The barbarian tribes usually + followed without enquiry the religion of their sovereign; and it was + to the conversion of the king, and still more to the conversion of + the queen, that the Christians devoted all their energies. Clotilda, + the wife of Clovis, Bertha, the wife of Ethelbert, and Theodolinda, + the wife of Lothaire, were the chief instruments in converting their + husbands and their nations. Nothing that could affect the imagination + was neglected. It is related of Clotilda, that she was careful to + attract her husband by the rich draperies of the ecclesiastical + ceremonies.<a id="noteref_387" name="noteref_387" href= + "#note_387"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">387</span></span></a> In + another case, the first work of proselytising was confided to an + artist, who painted before the terrified Pagans the last judgment and + the torments of hell.<a id="noteref_388" name="noteref_388" href= + "#note_388"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">388</span></span></a> But + especially the belief, which was sincerely held, and sedulously + inculcated, that temporal success followed in the train of + Christianity, and that every pestilence, famine, or military disaster + was the penalty of idolatry, heresy, sacrilege, or vice, assisted the + movement. The theory was so wide, that it met every variety of + fortune, and being taught with consummate skill, to barbarians who + were totally destitute of all critical power, and strongly + predisposed to accept it, it proved extremely efficacious; and hope, + fear, gratitude, and remorse drew multitudes into the Church. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" + id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> The transition was softened by + the substitution of Christian ceremonies and saints for the festivals + and the divinities of the Pagans.<a id="noteref_389" name= + "noteref_389" href="#note_389"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">389</span></span></a> Besides + the professed missionaries, the Christian captives zealously diffused + their faith among their Pagan masters. When the chieftain had been + converted, and the army had followed his profession, an elaborate + monastic and ecclesiastical organisation grew up to consolidate the + conquest, and repressive laws soon crushed all opposition to the + faith.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these ways the + victory of Christianity over the barbarian world was achieved. But + that victory, though very great, was less decisive than might appear. + A religion which professed to be Christianity, and which contained + many of the ingredients of pure Christianity, had risen into the + ascendant, but it had undergone a profound modification through the + struggle. Religions, as well as worshippers, had been baptised. The + festivals, images, and names of saints had been substituted for those + of the idols, and the habits of thought and feeling of the ancient + faith reappeared in new forms and a new language. The tendency to a + material, idolatrous, and polytheistic faith, which had long been + encouraged by the monks, and which the heretics Jovinian, + Vigilantius, and Aerius had vainly resisted, was fatally strengthened + by the infusion of a barbarian element into the Church, by the + general depression of intellect in Europe, and by the many + accommodations that were made to facilitate conversion. Though + apparently defeated and crushed, the old gods still retained, under a + new faith, no small part of their influence over the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">To this tendency + the leaders of the Church made in general no resistance, though in + another form they were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg + 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + deeply persuaded of the vitality of the old gods. Many curious and + picturesque legends attest the popular belief that the old Roman and + the old barbarian divinities, in their capacity of dæmons, were still + waging an unrelenting war against the triumphant faith. A great Pope + of the sixth century relates how a Jew, being once benighted on his + journey, and finding no other shelter for the night, lay down to rest + in an abandoned temple of Apollo. Shuddering at the loneliness of the + building, and fearing the dæmons who were said to haunt it, he + determined, though not a Christian, to protect himself by the sign of + the cross, which he had often heard possessed a mighty power against + spirits. To that sign he owed his safety. For at midnight the temple + was filled with dark and threatening forms. The god Apollo was + holding his court at his deserted shrine, and his attendant dæmons + were recounting the temptations they had devised against the + Christians.<a id="noteref_390" name="noteref_390" href= + "#note_390"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">390</span></span></a> A newly + married Roman, when one day playing ball, took off his wedding-ring, + which he found an impediment in the game, and he gaily put it on the + finger of a statue of Venus, that was standing near. When he + returned, the marble finger had bent so that it was impossible to + withdraw the ring, and that night the goddess appeared to him in a + dream, and told him that she was now his wedded wife, and that she + would abide with him for ever.<a id="noteref_391" name="noteref_391" + href="#note_391"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">391</span></span></a> When + the Irish missionary St. Gall was fishing one night upon a Swiss + lake, near which he had planted a monastery, he heard strange voices + sweeping over the lonely deep. The Spirit of the Water and the Spirit + of the Mountains were consulting <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> together how they could expel the intruder who + had disturbed their ancient reign.<a id="noteref_392" name= + "noteref_392" href="#note_392"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">392</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The details of the + rapid propagation of Western monachism have been amply treated by + many historians, and the causes of its success are sufficiently + manifest. Some of the reasons I have assigned for the first spread of + asceticism continued to operate, while others of a still more + powerful kind had arisen. The rapid decomposition of the entire Roman + Empire by continuous invasions of barbarians rendered the existence + of an inviolable asylum and centre of peaceful labour a matter of + transcendent importance, and the monastery as organised by St. + Benedict soon combined the most heterogeneous elements of attraction. + It was at once eminently aristocratic and intensely democratic. The + power and princely position of the abbot were coveted, and usually + obtained, by members of the most illustrious families; while + emancipated serfs, or peasants who had lost their all in the + invasions, or were harassed by savage nobles, or had fled from + military service, or desired to lead a more secure and easy life, + found in the monastery an unfailing refuge. The institution exercised + all the influence of great wealth, expended for the most part with + great charity, while the monk himself was invested with the aureole + of a sacred poverty. To ardent and philanthropic natures, the + profession opened boundless vistas of missionary, charitable, and + civilising activity. To the superstitious it was the plain road to + heaven. To the ambitious it was the portal to bishoprics, and, after + the monk St. Gregory, not unfrequently to the Popedom. To the + studious it offered the only opportunity then existing in the world + of seeing many books and passing a life of study. To the timid and + retiring it afforded the most secure, and probably the least + laborious life a poor peasant could hope to find. Vast as were the + multitudes that thronged the monasteries, the means for their support + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" + id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were never wanting. The belief + that gifts or legacies to a monastery opened the doors of heaven was + in a superstitious age sufficient to secure for the community an + almost boundless wealth, which was still further increased by the + skill and perseverance with which the monks tilled the waste lands, + by the exemption of their domains from all taxation, and by the + tranquillity which in the most turbulent ages they usually enjoyed. + In France, the Low Countries, and Germany they were pre-eminently + agriculturists. Gigantic forests were felled, inhospitable marshes + reclaimed, barren plains cultivated by their hands. The monastery + often became the nucleus of a city. It was the centre of civilisation + and industry, the symbol of moral power in an age of turbulence and + war.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It must be + observed, however, that the beneficial influence of the monastic + system was necessarily transitional, and the subsequent corruption + the normal and inevitable result of its constitution. Vast societies + living in enforced celibacy, exercising an unbounded influence, and + possessing enormous wealth, must necessarily have become hotbeds of + corruption when the enthusiasm that had created them expired. The + services they rendered as the centres of agriculture, the refuge of + travellers, the sanctuaries in war, the counterpoise of the baronial + castle, were no longer required when the convulsions of invasion had + ceased and when civil society was definitely organised. And a similar + observation may be extended even to their moral type. Thus, while it + is undoubtedly true that the Benedictine monks, by making labour an + essential element of their discipline, did very much to efface the + stigma which slavery had affixed upon it, it is also true that, when + industry had passed out of its initial stage, the monastic theories + of the sanctity of poverty, and the evil of wealth, were its most + deadly opponents. The dogmatic condemnation by theologians of loans + at interest, which are the basis of industrial enterprise, was the + expression of a far deeper antagonism of tendencies and + ideals.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg + 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In one important + respect, the transition from the eremite to the monastic life + involved not only a change of circumstances, but also a change of + character. The habit of obedience, and the virtue of humility, + assumed a position which they had never previously occupied. The + conditions of the hermit life contributed to develop to a very high + degree a spirit of independence and spiritual pride, which was still + further increased by a curious habit that existed in the Church of + regarding each eminent hermit as the special model or professor of + some particular virtue, and making pilgrimages to him, in order to + study this aspect of his character.<a id="noteref_393" name= + "noteref_393" href="#note_393"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">393</span></span></a> These + pilgrimages, combined with the usually solitary and self-sufficing + life of the hermit, and also with the habit of measuring progress + almost entirely by the suppression of a physical appetite, which it + is quite possible wholly to destroy, very naturally produced an + extreme arrogance.<a id="noteref_394" name="noteref_394" href= + "#note_394"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">394</span></span></a> But in + the highly organised and disciplined monasteries of the West, passive + obedience and humility were the very first things that were + inculcated. The monastery, beyond all other institutions, was the + school for their exercise; and as the monk represented the highest + moral ideal of the age, obedience and humility acquired a new value + in the minds of men. Nearly <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg + 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all + the feudal and other organisations that arose out of the chaos that + followed the destruction of the Roman Empire were intimately related + to the Church, not simply because the Church was the strongest power + in Christendom, and supplied in itself an admirable model of an + organised body, but also because it had done much to educate men in + habits of obedience. The special value of this education depended + upon the peculiar circumstances of the time. The ancient + civilisations, and especially that of Rome, had been by no means + deficient in those habits; but it was in the midst of the dissolution + of an old society, and of the ascendancy of barbarians, who + exaggerated to the highest degree their personal independence, that + the Church proposed to the reverence of mankind a life of passive + obedience as the highest ideal of virtue.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The habit of + obedience was no new thing in the world, but the disposition of + humility was pre-eminently and almost exclusively a Christian virtue; + and there has probably never been any sphere in which it has been so + largely and so successfully inculcated as in the monastery. The whole + penitential discipline, the entire mode or tenor of the monastic + life, was designed to tame every sentiment of pride, and to give + humility a foremost place in the hierarchy of virtues. We have here + one great source of the mollifying influence of Catholicism. The + gentler virtues—benevolence and amiability—may, and in an advanced + civilisation often do, subsist in natures that are completely devoid + of genuine humility; but, on the other hand, it is scarcely possible + for a nature to be pervaded by a deep sentiment of humility without + this sentiment exercising a softening influence over the whole + character. To transform a fierce warlike nature into a character of a + gentler type, the first essential is to awaken this feeling. In the + monasteries, the extinction of social and domestic feelings, the + narrow corporate spirit, and, still more, the atrocious opinions that + were prevalent concerning the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> guilt of heresy, produced in many minds an + extreme and most active ferocity; but the practice of charity, and + the ideal of humility, never failed to exercise some softening + influence upon Christendom.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, however + advantageous the temporary pre-eminence of this moral type may have + been, it was obviously unsuited for a later stage of civilisation. + Political liberty is almost impossible where the monastic system is + supreme, not merely because the monasteries divert the energies of + the nation from civic to ecclesiastical channels, but also because + the monastic ideal is the very apotheosis of servitude. Catholicism + has been admirably fitted at once to mitigate and to perpetuate + despotism. When men have learnt to reverence a life of passive, + unreasoning obedience as the highest type of perfection, the + enthusiasm and passion of freedom necessarily decline. In this + respect there is an analogy between the monastic and the military + spirit, both of which promote and glorify passive obedience, and + therefore prepare the minds of men for despotic rule; but, on the + whole, the monastic spirit is probably more hostile to freedom than + the military spirit, for the obedience of the monk is based upon + humility, while the obedience of the soldier coexists with pride. + Now, a considerable measure of pride, or self-assertion, is an + invariable characteristic of free communities.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The ascendancy + which the monastic system gave to the virtue of humility has not + continued. This virtue is indeed the crowning grace and beauty of the + most perfect characters of the saintly type; but experience has shown + that among common men humility is more apt to degenerate into + servility than pride into arrogance; and modern moralists have + appealed more successfully to the sense of dignity than to the + opposite feeling. Two of the most important steps of later moral + history have consisted of the creation of a sentiment of pride as the + parent and the guardian of many virtues. The first of these + encroachments on the monastic <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> spirit was chivalry, which called into being a + proud and jealous military honour that has never since been + extinguished. The second was the creation of that feeling of + self-respect which is one of the most remarkable characteristics that + distinguish Protestant from the most Catholic populations, and which + has proved among the former an invaluable moral agent, forming frank + and independent natures, and checking every servile habit and all + mean and degrading vice.<a id="noteref_395" name="noteref_395" href= + "#note_395"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">395</span></span></a> The + peculiar vigour with which it has been developed in Protestant + countries may be attributed to the suppression of monastic + institutions and habits; to the stigma Protestantism has attached to + mendicancy, which Catholicism has usually glorified and encouraged; + to the high place Protestantism has accorded to private judgment and + personal responsibility; and lastly, to the action of free political + institutions, which have taken deepest root where the principles of + the Reformation have been accepted.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The relation of + the monasteries to the intellectual virtues, which we have next to + examine, opens out a wide field of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> discussion; and, in order to appreciate it, it + will be necessary to revert briefly to a somewhat earlier stage of + ecclesiastical history. And in the first place, it may be observed, + that the phrase intellectual virtue, which is often used in a + metaphorical sense, is susceptible of a strictly literal + interpretation. If a sincere and active desire for truth be a moral + duty, the discipline and the dispositions that are plainly involved + in every honest search fall rigidly within the range of ethics. To + love truth sincerely means to pursue it with an earnest, + conscientious, unflagging zeal. It means to be prepared to follow the + light of evidence even to the most unwelcome conclusions; to labour + earnestly to emancipate the mind from early prejudices; to resist the + current of the desires, and the refracting influence of the passions; + to proportion on all occasions conviction to evidence, and to be + ready, if need be, to exchange the calm of assurance for all the + suffering of a perplexed and disturbed mind. To do this is very + difficult and very painful; but it is clearly involved in the notion + of earnest love of truth. If, then, any system stigmatises as + criminal the state of doubt, denounces the examination of some one + class of arguments or facts, seeks to introduce the bias of the + affections into the enquiries of the reason, or regards the honest + conclusion of an upright investigator as involving moral guilt, that + system is subversive of intellectual honesty.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + ancients, although the methods of enquiry were often very faulty, and + generalisations very hasty, a respect for the honest search after + truth was widely diffused.<a id="noteref_396" name="noteref_396" + href="#note_396"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">396</span></span></a> There + were, as we have already seen, instances in which certain religious + practices which were regarded as attestations of loyalty, or as + necessary to propitiate the gods in favour of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the State, were enforced by law; there + were even a few instances of philosophies, which were believed to + lead directly to immoral results or social convulsions, being + suppressed; but, as a general rule, speculation was untrammelled, the + notion of there being any necessary guilt in erroneous opinion was + unknown, and the boldest enquirers were regarded with honour and + admiration. The religious theory of Paganism had in this respect some + influence. Polytheism, with many faults, had three great merits. It + was eminently poetical, eminently patriotic, and eminently tolerant. + The conception of a vast hierarchy of beings more glorious than, but + not wholly unlike, men, presiding over all the developments of + nature, and filling the universe with their deeds, supplied the chief + nutriment of the Greek imagination. The national religions, + interweaving religious ceremonies and associations with all civic + life, concentrated and intensified the sentiment of patriotism, and + the notion of many distinct groups of gods led men to tolerate many + forms of worship and great variety of creeds. In that colossal + amalgam of nations of which Rome became the metropolis, intellectual + liberty still further advanced; the vast variety of philosophies and + beliefs expatiated unmolested; the search for truth was regarded as + an important element of virtue, and the relentless and most sceptical + criticism which Socrates had applied in turn to all the fundamental + propositions of popular belief remained as an example to his + successors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have already + seen that one leading cause of the rapid progress of the Church was + that its teachers enforced their distinctive tenets as absolutely + essential to salvation, and thus assailed at a great advantage the + supporters of all other creeds which did not claim this exclusive + authority. We have seen, too, that in an age of great and growing + credulity they had been conspicuous for their assertion of the duty + of absolute, unqualified, and unquestioning belief. The notion of the + guilt both of error and of doubt grew rapidly, and, being + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" + id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> soon regarded as a fundamental + tenet, it determined the whole course and policy of the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And here, I think, + it will not be unadvisable to pause for a moment, and endeavour to + ascertain what misconceived truth lay at the root of this fatal + tenet. Considered abstractedly and by the light of nature, it is as + unmeaning to speak of the immorality of an intellectual mistake as it + would be to talk of the colour of a sound. If a man has sincerely + persuaded himself that it is possible for parallel lines to meet, or + for two straight lines to enclose a space, we pronounce his judgment + to be absurd; but it is free from all tincture of immorality. And if, + instead of failing to appreciate a demonstrable truth, his error + consisted in a false estimate of the conflicting arguments of an + historical problem, this mistake—assuming always that the enquiry was + an upright one—is still simply external to the sphere of morals. It + is possible that his conclusion, by weakening some barrier against + vice, may produce vicious consequences, like those which might ensue + from some ill-advised modification of the police force; but it in no + degree follows from this that the judgment is in itself criminal. If + a student applies himself with the same dispositions to Roman and + Jewish histories, the mistakes he may make in the latter are no more + immoral than those which he may make in the former.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are, + however, two cases in which an intellectual error may be justly said + to involve, or at least to represent, guilt. In the first place, + error very frequently springs from the partial or complete absence of + that mental disposition which is implied in a real love of truth. + Hypocrites, or men who through interested motives profess opinions + which they do not really believe, are probably rarer than is usually + supposed; but it would be difficult to over-estimate the number of + those whose genuine convictions are due to the unresisted bias of + their interests. By the term interests, I mean not only material + well-being, but also all those mental luxuries, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> all those grooves or channels for + thought, which it is easy and pleasing to follow, and painful and + difficult to abandon. Such are the love of ease, the love of + certainty, the love of system, the bias of the passions, the + associations of the imagination, as well as the coarser influences of + social position, domestic happiness, professional interest, party + feeling, or ambition. In most men, the love of truth is so languid, + and the reluctance to encounter mental suffering is so great, that + they yield their judgments without an effort to the current, withdraw + their minds from all opinions or arguments opposed to their own, and + thus speedily convince themselves of the truth of what they wish to + believe. He who really loves truth is bound at least to endeavour to + resist these distorting influences, and in as far as his opinions are + the result of his not having done so, in so far they represent a + moral failing.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the next place, + it must be observed that every moral disposition brings with it an + intellectual bias which exercises a great and often a controlling and + decisive influence even upon the most earnest enquirer. If we know + the character or disposition of a man, we can usually predict with + tolerable accuracy many of his opinions. We can tell to what side of + politics, to what canons of taste, to what theory of morals he will + naturally incline. Stern, heroic, and haughty natures tend to systems + in which these qualities occupy the foremost position in the moral + type, while gentle natures will as naturally lean towards systems in + which the amiable virtues are supreme. Impelled by a species of moral + gravitation, the enquirer will glide insensibly to the system which + is congruous to his disposition, and intellectual difficulties will + seldom arrest him. He can have observed human nature with but little + fruit who has not remarked how constant is this connection, and how + very rarely men change fundamentally the principles they had + deliberately adopted on religious, moral, or even political + questions, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg + 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + without the change being preceded, accompanied, or very speedily + followed, by a serious modification of character. So, too, a vicious + and depraved nature, or a nature which is hard, narrow, and + unsympathetic, will tend, much less by calculation or indolence than + by natural affinity, to low and degrading views of human nature. + Those who have never felt the higher emotions will scarcely + appreciate them. The materials with which the intellect builds are + often derived from the heart, and a moral disease is therefore not + unfrequently at the root of an erroneous judgment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of these two + truths the first cannot, I think, be said to have had any influence + in the formation of the theological notion of the guilt of error. An + elaborate process of mental discipline, with a view to strengthening + the critical powers of the mind, is utterly remote from the spirit of + theology; and this is one of the great reasons why the growth of an + inductive and scientific spirit is invariably hostile to theological + interests. To raise the requisite standard of proof, to inculcate + hardness and slowness of belief, is the first task of the inductive + reasoner. He looks with great favour upon the condition of a + suspended judgment; he encourages men rather to prolong than to + abridge it; he regards the tendency of the human mind to rapid and + premature generalisations as one of its most fatal vices; he desires + especially that that which is believed should not be so cherished + that the mind should be indisposed to admit doubt, or, on the + appearance of new arguments, to revise with impartiality its + conclusions. Nearly all the greatest intellectual achievements of the + last three centuries have been preceded and prepared by the growth of + scepticism. The historic scepticism which Vico, Beaufort, Pouilly, + and Voltaire in the last century, and Niebuhr and Lewis in the + present century, applied to ancient history, lies at the root of all + the great modern efforts to reconstruct the history of mankind. The + splendid discoveries of physical science would have been impossible + but for the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg + 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + scientific scepticism of the school of Bacon, which dissipated the + old theories of the universe, and led men to demand a severity of + proof altogether unknown to the ancients. The philosophic scepticism + with which the system of Hume ended and the system of Kant began, has + given the greatest modern impulse to metaphysics and ethics. Exactly + in proportion, therefore, as men are educated in the inductive + school, they are alienated from those theological systems which + represent a condition of doubt as sinful, seek to govern the reason + by the interests and the affections, and make it a main object to + destroy the impartiality of the judgment.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But although it is + difficult to look upon Catholicism in any other light than as the + most deadly enemy of the scientific spirit, it has always cordially + recognised the most important truth, that character in a very great + measure determines opinions. To cultivate the moral type that is most + congenial to the opinions it desires to recommend has always been its + effort, and the conviction that a deviation from that type has often + been the predisposing cause of intellectual heresy, had doubtless a + large share in the first persuasion of the guilt of error. But + priestly and other influences soon conspired to enlarge this + doctrine. A crowd of speculative, historical, and administrative + propositions were asserted as essential to salvation, and all who + rejected them were wholly external to the bond of Christian + sympathy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If, indeed, we put + aside the pure teaching of the Christian founders, and consider the + actual history of the Church since Constantine, we shall find no + justification for the popular theory that beneath its influence the + narrow spirit of patriotism faded into a wide and cosmopolitan + philanthropy. A real though somewhat languid feeling of universal + brotherhood had already been created in the world by the universality + of the Roman Empire. In the new faith the range of genuine sympathy + was strictly limited by the creed. According to the popular belief, + all who differed from the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg + 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + teaching of the orthodox lived under the hatred of the Almighty, and + were destined after death for an eternity of anguish. Very naturally, + therefore, they were wholly alienated from the true believers, and no + moral or intellectual excellence could atone for their crime in + propagating error. The eighty or ninety sects,<a id="noteref_397" + name="noteref_397" href="#note_397"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">397</span></span></a> into + which Christianity speedily divided, hated one another with an + intensity that extorted the wonder of Julian and the ridicule of the + Pagans of Alexandria, and the fierce riots and persecutions that + hatred produced appear in every page of ecclesiastical history. There + is, indeed, something at once grotesque and ghastly in the spectacle. + The Donatists, having separated from the orthodox simply on the + question of the validity of the consecration of a certain bishop, + declared that all who adopted the orthodox view must be damned, + refused to perform their rites in the orthodox churches which they + had seized, till they had burnt the altar and scraped the wood, beat + multitudes to death with clubs, blinded others by anointing their + eyes with lime, filled Africa, during nearly two centuries, with war + and desolation, and contributed largely to its final ruin.<a id= + "noteref_398" name="noteref_398" href="#note_398"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">398</span></span></a> The + childish and almost unintelligible quarrels between the Homoiousians + and the Homoousians, between those who maintained that the nature of + Christ was like that of the Father and those who maintained that it + was the same, filled the world with riot and hatred. The Catholics + tell how an Arian Emperor caused eighty orthodox priests to be + drowned on a single occasion;<a id="noteref_399" name="noteref_399" + href="#note_399"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">399</span></span></a> how + three thousand persons perished in the riots that convulsed + Constantinople when the Arian Bishop Macedonius superseded the + Athanasian Paul;<a id="noteref_400" name="noteref_400" href= + "#note_400"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">400</span></span></a> how + George of Cappadocia, the Arian Bishop of Alexandria, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> caused the widows of the Athanasian party + to be scourged on the soles of their feet, the holy virgins to be + stripped naked, to be flogged with the prickly branches of + palm-trees, or to be slowly scorched over fires till they abjured + their creed.<a id="noteref_401" name="noteref_401" href= + "#note_401"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">401</span></span></a> The + triumph of the Catholics in Egypt was accompanied (if we may believe + the solemn assertions of eighty Arian Bishops) by every variety of + plunder, murder, sacrilege, and outrage,<a id="noteref_402" name= + "noteref_402" href="#note_402"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">402</span></span></a> and + Arius himself was probably poisoned by Catholic hands.<a id= + "noteref_403" name="noteref_403" href="#note_403"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">403</span></span></a> The + followers of St. Cyril of Alexandria, who were chiefly monks, filled + their city with riot and bloodshed, wounded the prefect Orestes, + dragged the pure and gifted Hypatia into one of their churches, + murdered her, tore the flesh from her bones with sharp shells, and, + having stripped her body naked, flung her mangled remains into the + flames.<a id="noteref_404" name="noteref_404" href= + "#note_404"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">404</span></span></a> In + Ephesus, during the contest between St. Cyril and the Nestorians, the + cathedral itself was the theatre of a fierce and bloody + conflict.<a id="noteref_405" name="noteref_405" href= + "#note_405"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">405</span></span></a> + Constantinople, on the occasion of the deposition of St. Chrysostom, + was for several days in a condition of absolute anarchy.<a id= + "noteref_406" name="noteref_406" href="#note_406"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">406</span></span></a> After + the Council of Chalcedon, Jerusalem and Alexandria were again + convulsed, and the bishop of the latter city was murdered in his + baptistery.<a id="noteref_407" name="noteref_407" href= + "#note_407"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">407</span></span></a> About + fifty years later, when the Monophysite controversy was at its + height, the palace of the emperor at Constantinople was blockaded, + the churches were besieged, and the streets commanded by furious + bands of contending monks.<a id="noteref_408" name="noteref_408" + href="#note_408"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">408</span></span></a> + Repressed for a time, the riots broke <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> out two years after with an increased ferocity, + and almost every leading city of the East was filled by the monks + with bloodshed and with outrage.<a id="noteref_409" name= + "noteref_409" href="#note_409"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">409</span></span></a> St. + Augustine himself is accused of having excited every kind of popular + persecution against the Semi-Pelagians.<a id="noteref_410" name= + "noteref_410" href="#note_410"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">410</span></span></a> The + Councils, animated by an almost frantic hatred, urged on by their + anathemas the rival sects.<a id="noteref_411" name="noteref_411" + href="#note_411"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">411</span></span></a> In the + <span class="tei tei-q">“Robber Council”</span> of Ephesus, + Flavianus, the Bishop of Constantinople, was kicked and beaten by the + Bishop of Alexandria, or at least by his followers, and a few days + later died from the effect of the blows.<a id="noteref_412" name= + "noteref_412" href="#note_412"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">412</span></span></a> In the + contested election that resulted in the election of St. Damasus as + Pope of Rome, though no theological question appears to have been at + issue, the riots were so fierce that one hundred and thirty-seven + corpses were found in one of the churches.<a id="noteref_413" name= + "noteref_413" href="#note_413"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">413</span></span></a> The + precedent <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg + 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of + the Jewish persecutions of idolatry having been adduced by St. + Cyprian, in the third century, in favour of excommunication,<a id= + "noteref_414" name="noteref_414" href="#note_414"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">414</span></span></a> was + urged by Optatus, in the reign of Constantine, in favour of + persecuting the Donatists;<a id="noteref_415" name="noteref_415" + href="#note_415"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">415</span></span></a> in the + next reign we find a large body of Christians presenting to the + emperor a petition, based upon this precedent, imploring him to + destroy by force the Pagan worship.<a id="noteref_416" name= + "noteref_416" href="#note_416"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">416</span></span></a> About + fifteen years later, the whole Christian Church was prepared, on the + same grounds, to support the persecuting policy of St. Ambrose,<a id= + "noteref_417" name="noteref_417" href="#note_417"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">417</span></span></a> the + contending sects having found, in the duty of crushing religious + liberty, the solitary tenet on which they were agreed. The most + unaggressive and unobtrusive forms of Paganism were persecuted with + the same ferocity.<a id="noteref_418" name="noteref_418" href= + "#note_418"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">418</span></span></a> To + offer a sacrifice was to commit a capital offence; to hang up a + simple chaplet was to incur the forfeiture of an estate. The noblest + works of Asiatic architecture and of Greek sculpture perished by the + same iconoclasm that shattered the humble temple at which the peasant + loved to pray, or the household gods which consecrated his home. + There were no varieties of belief too minute for the new intolerance + to embitter. The question of the proper time of celebrating Easter + was believed to involve the issue of salvation or damnation;<a id= + "noteref_419" name="noteref_419" href="#note_419"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">419</span></span></a> and + when, long after, in the fourteenth century, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the question of the nature of the light at the + transfiguration was discussed at Constantinople, those who refused to + admit that that light was uncreated, were deprived of the honours of + Christian burial.<a id="noteref_420" name="noteref_420" href= + "#note_420"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">420</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Together with + these legislative and ecclesiastical measures, a literature arose + surpassing in its mendacious ferocity any other the world had known. + The polemical writers habitually painted as dæmons those who diverged + from the orthodox belief, gloated with a vindictive piety over the + sufferings of the heretic upon earth, as upon a Divine punishment, + and sometimes, with an almost superhuman malice, passing in + imagination beyond the threshold of the grave, exulted in no + ambiguous terms on the tortures which they believed to be reserved + for him for ever. A few men, such as Synesius, Basil, or Salvian, + might still find some excellence in Pagans or heretics, but their + candour was altogether exceptional; and he who will compare the + beautiful pictures the Greek poets gave of their Trojan adversaries, + or the Roman historians of the enemies of their country, with those + which ecclesiastical writers, for many centuries, almost invariably + gave of all who were opposed to their Church, may easily estimate the + extent to which cosmopolitan sympathy had retrograded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At the period, + however, when the Western monasteries began to discharge their + intellectual functions, the supremacy of Catholicism was nearly + established, and polemical ardour had begun to wane. The literary + zeal of the Church took other forms, but all were deeply tinged by + the monastic spirit. It is difficult or impossible to conceive what + would have been the intellectual future of the world had Catholicism + never arisen—what principles or impulses would have guided the course + of the human mind, or what new institutions <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> would have been created for its culture. Under + the influence of Catholicism, the monastery became the one sphere of + intellectual labour, and it continued during many centuries to occupy + that position. Without entering into anything resembling a literary + history, which would be foreign to the objects of the present work, I + shall endeavour briefly to estimate the manner in which it discharged + its functions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first idea + that is naturally suggested by the mention of the intellectual + services of monasteries is the preservation of the writings of the + Pagans. I have already observed that among the early Christians there + was a marked difference on the subject of their writings. The school + which was represented by Tertullian regarded them with abhorrence; + while the Platonists, who were represented by Justin Martyr, Clement + of Alexandria, and Origen, not merely recognised with great + cordiality their beauties, but even imagined that they could detect + in them both the traces of an original Divine inspiration, and + plagiarisms from the Jewish writings. While avoiding, for the most + part, these extremes, St. Augustine, the great organiser of Western + Christianity, treats the Pagan writings with appreciative respect. He + had himself ascribed his first conversion from a course of vice to + the 'Hortensius' of Cicero, and his works are full of discriminating, + and often very beautiful, applications of the old Roman literature. + The attempt of Julian to prevent the Christians from teaching the + classics, and the extreme resentment which that attempt elicited, + show how highly the Christian leaders of that period valued this form + of education; and it was naturally the more cherished on account of + the contest. The influence of Neoplatonism, the baptism of multitudes + of nominal Christians after Constantine, and the decline of zeal + which necessarily accompanied prosperity, had all in different ways + the same tendency. In Synesius we have the curious phenomenon of a + bishop who, not content with proclaiming himself the admiring friend + of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name= + "Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Pagan Hypatia, openly + declared his complete disbelief in the resurrection of the body, and + his firm adhesion to the Platonic doctrine of the pre-existence of + souls.<a id="noteref_421" name="noteref_421" href= + "#note_421"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">421</span></span></a> Had the + ecclesiastical theory prevailed which gave such latitude even to the + leaders of the Church, the course of Christianity would have been + very different. A reactionary spirit, however, arose at Rome. The + doctrine of exclusive salvation supplied its intellectual basis; the + political and organising genius of the Roman ecclesiastics impelled + them to reduce belief into a rigid form; the genius of St. Gregory + guided the movement,<a id="noteref_422" name="noteref_422" href= + "#note_422"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">422</span></span></a> and a + series of historical events, of which the ecclesiastical and + political separation of the Western empire from the speculative + Greeks, and the invasion and conversion of the barbarians, were the + most important, definitely established the ascendancy of the Catholic + type. In the convulsions that followed the barbarian invasions, + intellectual energy of a secular kind almost absolutely ceased. A + parting gleam issued, indeed, in the sixth century, from the Court of + Theodoric, at Ravenna, which was adorned by the genius of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" + id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Boëthius, and the talent of + Cassiodorus and Symmachus, but after this time, for a long period, + literature consisted almost exclusively of sermons and lives of + saints, which were composed in the monasteries.<a id="noteref_423" + name="noteref_423" href="#note_423"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">423</span></span></a> Gregory + of Tours was succeeded as an annalist by the still feebler + Fredegarius, and there was then a long and absolute blank. A few + outlying countries showed some faint animation. St. Leander and St. + Isidore planted at Seville a school, which flourished in the seventh + century, and the distant monasteries of Ireland continued somewhat + later to be the receptacles of learning; but the rest of Europe sank + into an almost absolute torpor, till the rationalism of Abelard, and + the events that followed the crusades, began the revival of learning. + The principal service which Catholicism rendered during this period + to Pagan literature was probably the perpetuation of Latin as a + sacred language. The complete absence of all curiosity about that + literature is shown by the fact that Greek was suffered to become + almost absolutely extinct, though there was no time when the Western + nations had not some relations with the Greek empire, or when + pilgrimages to the Holy Land altogether ceased. The study of the + Latin classics was for the most part positively discouraged. The + writers, it was believed, were burning in hell; the monks were too + inflated with their imaginary knowledge to regard with any respect a + Pagan writer, and periodical panics about the approaching termination + of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name= + "Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> world continually + checked any desire for secular learning.<a id="noteref_424" name= + "noteref_424" href="#note_424"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">424</span></span></a> It was + the custom among some monks, when they were under the discipline of + silence, and desired to ask for Virgil, Horace, or any other Gentile + work, to indicate their wish by scratching their ears like a dog, to + which animal it was thought the Pagans might be reasonably + compared.<a id="noteref_425" name="noteref_425" href= + "#note_425"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">425</span></span></a> The + monasteries contained, it is said, during some time, the only + libraries in Europe, and were therefore the sole receptacles of the + Pagan manuscripts; but we cannot infer from this that, if the + monasteries had not existed, similar libraries would not have been + called into being in their place. To the occasional industry of the + monks, in copying the works of antiquity, we must oppose the industry + they displayed, though chiefly at a somewhat later period, in + scraping the ancient parchments, in order that, having obliterated + the writing of the Pagans, they might cover them with their own + legends.<a id="noteref_426" name="noteref_426" href= + "#note_426"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">426</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are some + aspects, however, in which the monastic period of literature appears + eminently beautiful. The fretfulness <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> and impatience and extreme tension of modern + literary life, the many anxieties that paralyse, and the feverish + craving for applause that perverts, so many noble intellects, were + then unknown. Severed from all the cares of active life, in the deep + calm of the monastery, where the turmoil of the outer world could + never come, the monkish scholar pursued his studies in a spirit which + has now almost faded from the world. No doubt had ever disturbed his + mind. To him the problem of the universe seemed solved. Expatiating + for ever with unfaltering faith upon the unseen world, he had learnt + to live for it alone. His hopes were not fixed upon human greatness + or fame, but upon the pardon of his sins, and the rewards of a + happier world. A crowd of quaint and often beautiful legends + illustrate the deep union that subsisted between literature and + religion. It is related of Cædmon, the first great poet of the + Anglo-Saxons, that he found in the secular life no vent for his + hidden genius. When the warriors assembled at their banquets, sang in + turn the praises of war or beauty, as the instrument passed to him, + he rose and went out with a sad heart, for he alone was unable to + weave his thoughts in verse. Wearied and desponding he lay down to + rest, when a figure appeared to him in his dream and commanded him to + sing the Creation of the World. A transport of religious fervour + thrilled his brain, his imprisoned intellect was unlocked, and he + soon became the foremost poet of his land.<a id="noteref_427" name= + "noteref_427" href="#note_427"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">427</span></span></a> A + Spanish boy, having long tried in vain to master his task, and driven + to despair by the severity of his teacher, ran away from his father's + home. Tired with wandering, and full of anxious thoughts, he sat down + to rest by the margin of a well, when his eye was caught by the deep + furrow in the stone. He asked a girl who was drawing water to explain + it, and she told him that it had been worn by the constant attrition + of the rope. The poor boy, who <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was already full of remorse for what he had + done, recognised in the reply a Divine intimation. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If,”</span> he thought, <span class="tei tei-q">“by + daily use the soft rope could thus penetrate the hard stone, surely a + long perseverance could overcome the dulness of my brain.”</span> He + returned to his father's house; he laboured with redoubled + earnestness, and he lived to be the great St. Isidore of Spain.<a id= + "noteref_428" name="noteref_428" href="#note_428"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">428</span></span></a> A monk + who had led a vicious life was saved, it is said, from hell, because + it was found that his sins, though very numerous, were just + outnumbered by the letters of a ponderous and devout book he had + written.<a id="noteref_429" name="noteref_429" href= + "#note_429"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">429</span></span></a> The + Holy Spirit, in the shape of a dove, had been seen to inspire St. + Gregory; and the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, and of several other + theologians, had been expressly applauded by Christ or by his saints. + When, twenty years after death, the tomb of a certain monkish writer + was opened, it was found that, although the remainder of the body had + crumbled into dust, the hand that had held the pen remained flexible + and undecayed.<a id="noteref_430" name="noteref_430" href= + "#note_430"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">430</span></span></a> A young + and nameless scholar was once buried near a convent at Bonn. The + night after his funeral, a nun whose cell overlooked the cemetery was + awakened by a brilliant light that filled the room. She started up, + imagining that the day had dawned, but on looking out she found that + it was still night, though a dazzling splendour was around. A female + form of matchless loveliness was bending over the scholar's grave. + The effluence of her beauty filled the air with light, and she + clasped to her heart a snow-white dove that rose to meet her from the + tomb. It was the Mother of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg + 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> God + come to receive the soul of the martyred scholar; <span class= + "tei tei-q">“for scholars too,”</span> adds the old chronicler, + <span class="tei tei-q">“are martyrs if they live in purity and + labour with courage.”</span><a id="noteref_431" name="noteref_431" + href="#note_431"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">431</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But legends of + this kind, though not without a very real beauty, must not blind us + to the fact that the period of Catholic ascendancy was on the whole + one of the most deplorable in the history of the human mind. The + energies of Christendom were diverted from all useful and progressive + studies, and were wholly expended on theological disquisitions. A + crowd of superstitions, attributed to infallible wisdom, barred the + path of knowledge, and the charge of magic, or the charge of heresy, + crushed every bold enquiry in the sphere of physical nature or of + opinions. Above all, the conditions of true enquiry had been cursed + by the Church. A blind unquestioning credulity was inculcated as the + first of duties, and the habit of doubt, the impartiality of a + suspended judgment, the desire to hear both sides of a disputed + question, and to emancipate the judgment from unreasoning prejudice, + were all in consequence condemned. The belief in the guilt of error + and doubt became universal, and that belief may be confidently + pronounced to be the most pernicious superstition that has ever been + accredited among mankind. Mistaken facts are rectified by enquiry. + Mistaken methods of research, though far more inveterate, are + gradually altered; but the spirit that shrinks from enquiry as + sinful, and deems a state of doubt a state of guilt, is the most + enduring disease that can afflict the mind of man. Not till the + education of Europe passed from the monasteries to the universities, + not till Mohammedan science, and classical free-thought, and + industrial independence broke the sceptre of the Church, did the + intellectual revival of Europe begin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I am aware that so + strong a statement of the intellectual darkness of the middle ages is + likely to encounter opposition <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> from many quarters. The blindness which the + philosophers of the eighteenth century manifested to their better + side has produced a reaction which has led many to an opposite, and, + I believe, far more erroneous extreme. Some have become eulogists of + the period, through love of its distinctive theological doctrines, + and others through archæological enthusiasm, while a very pretentious + and dogmatic, but, I think, sometimes superficial, school of writers, + who loudly boast themselves the regenerators of history, and treat + with supreme contempt all the varieties of theological opinion, are + accustomed, partly through a very shallow historical optimism which + scarcely admits the possibility of retrogression, and partly through + sympathy with the despotic character of Catholicism, to extol the + mediæval society in the most extravagant terms. Without entering into + a lengthy examination of this subject, I may be permitted to indicate + shortly two or three fallacies which are continually displayed in + their appreciations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is an undoubted + truth that, for a considerable period, almost all the knowledge of + Europe was included in the monasteries, and from this it is + continually inferred that, had these institutions not existed, + knowledge would have been absolutely extinguished. But such a + conclusion I conceive to be altogether untrue. During the period of + the Pagan empire, intellectual life had been diffused over a vast + portion of the globe. Egypt and Asia Minor had become great centres + of civilisation. Greece was still a land of learning. Spain, Gaul, + and even Britain,<a id="noteref_432" name="noteref_432" href= + "#note_432"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">432</span></span></a> were + full of libraries and teachers. The schools of Narbonne, Arles, + Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lyons, Marseilles, Poitiers, and Trèves were + already famous. The Christian emperor Gratian, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 376, carried out in + Gaul a system similar to that which <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> had already, under the Antonines, been pursued + in Italy, ordaining that teachers should be supported by the State in + every leading city.<a id="noteref_433" name="noteref_433" href= + "#note_433"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">433</span></span></a> To + suppose that Latin literature, having been so widely diffused, could + have totally perished, or that all interest in it could have + permanently ceased, even under the extremely unfavourable + circumstances that followed the downfall of the Roman Empire and the + Mohammedan invasions, is, I conceive, absurd. If Catholicism had + never existed, the human mind would have sought other spheres for its + development, and at least a part of the treasures of antiquity would + have been preserved in other ways. The monasteries, as corporations + of peaceful men protected from the incursions of the barbarians, + became very naturally the reservoirs to which the streams of + literature flowed; but much of what they are represented as creating, + they had in reality only attracted. The inviolable sanctity which + they secured rendered them invaluable receptacles of ancient learning + in a period of anarchy and perpetual war, and the industry of the + monks in transcribing, probably more than counterbalanced their + industry in effacing, the classical writings. The ecclesiastical + unity of Christendom was also of extreme importance in rendering + possible a general interchange of ideas. Whether these services + outweighed the intellectual evils resulting from the complete + diversion of the human mind from all secular learning, and from the + persistent inculcation, as a matter of duty, of that habit of abject + credulity which it is the first task of the intellectual reformer to + eradicate, may be reasonably doubted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + unfrequent, again, to hear the preceding fallacy stated in a somewhat + different form. We are reminded that almost all the men of genius + during several centuries were great theologians, and we are asked to + conceive the more than Egyptian darkness that would have prevailed + had the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name= + "Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Catholic theology + which produced them not existed. This judgment resembles that of the + prisoner in a famous passage of Cicero, who, having spent his entire + life in a dark dungeon, and knowing the light of day only from a + single ray which passed through a fissure in the wall, inferred that + if the wall were removed, as the fissure would no longer exist, all + light would be excluded. Mediæval Catholicism discouraged and + suppressed in every way secular studies, while it conferred a + monopoly of wealth and honour and power upon the distinguished + theologian. Very naturally, therefore, it attracted into the path of + theology the genius that would have existed without it, but would + under other circumstances have been displayed in other forms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not to be + inferred, however, from this, that mediæval Catholicism had not, in + the sphere of intellect, any real creative power. A great moral or + religious enthusiasm always evokes a certain amount of genius that + would not otherwise have existed, or at least been displayed, and the + monasteries were peculiarly fitted to develop certain casts of mind, + which in no other sphere could have so perfectly expanded. The great + writings of St. Thomas Aquinas<a id="noteref_434" name="noteref_434" + href="#note_434"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">434</span></span></a> and his + followers, and, in more modern times, the massive and conscientious + erudition of the Benedictines, will always make certain periods of + the monastic history venerable to the scholar. But, when we remember + that during many centuries nearly every one possessing any literary + taste or talents became a monk, when we recollect that these monks + were familiar with the language, and might easily have been familiar + with the noble literature, of ancient Rome, and when <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we also consider the mode of their life, + which would seem, from its freedom from care, and from the very + monotony of its routine, peculiarly calculated to impel them to + study, we can hardly fail to wonder how very little of any real value + they added, for so long a period, to the knowledge of mankind. It is + indeed a remarkable fact that, even in the ages when the Catholic + ascendancy was most perfect, some of the greatest achievements were + either opposed or simply external to ecclesiastical influence. Roger + Bacon, having been a monk, is frequently spoken of as a creature of + Catholic teaching. But there never was a more striking instance of + the force of a great genius in resisting the tendencies of his age. + At a time when physical science was continually neglected, + discouraged, or condemned, at a time when all the great prizes of the + world were open to men who pursued a very different course, Bacon + applied himself with transcendent genius to the study of nature. + Fourteen years of his life were spent in prison, and when he died his + name was blasted as a magician. The mediæval laboratories were + chiefly due to the pursuit of alchemy, or to Mohammedan + encouragement. The inventions of the mariner's compass, of gunpowder, + and of rag paper were all, indeed, of extreme importance; but no part + of the credit of them belongs to the monks. Their origin is involved + in much obscurity, but it is almost certain that the last two, at all + events, were first employed in Europe by the Mohammedans of Spain. + Cotton paper was in use among these as early as 1009. Among the + Christian nations it appears to have been unknown till late in the + thirteenth century. The first instance of the employment of artillery + among Christian nations was at the battle of Crecy, but the knowledge + of gunpowder among them has been traced back as far as 1338. There is + abundant evidence, however, of its employment in Spain by Mohammedans + in several sieges in the thirteenth century, and even in a battle + between the Moors of Seville and those of Tunis at the end of the + eleventh <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg + 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + century.<a id="noteref_435" name="noteref_435" href= + "#note_435"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">435</span></span></a> In + invention, indeed, as well as in original research, the mediæval + monasteries were singularly barren. They cultivated formal logic to + great perfection. They produced many patient and laborious, though, + for the most part, wholly uncritical scholars, and many philosophers + who, having assumed their premises with unfaltering faith, reasoned + from them with admirable subtlety; but they taught men to regard the + sacrifice of secular learning as a noble thing; they impressed upon + them a theory of the habitual government of the universe, which is + absolutely untrue; and they diffused, wherever their influence + extended, habits of credulity and intolerance that are the most + deadly poisons to the human mind.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, again, very + frequently observed among the more philosophic eulogists of the + mediæval period, that although the Catholic Church is a trammel and + an obstacle to the progress of civilised nations, although it would + be scarcely possible to exaggerate the misery her persecuting spirit + caused, when the human mind had outstripped her teaching; yet there + was a time when she was greatly in advance of the age, and the + complete and absolute ascendancy she then exercised was + intellectually eminently beneficial. That there is much truth in this + view, I have myself repeatedly maintained. But when men proceed to + isolate the former period, and to make it the theme of unqualified + eulogy, they fall, I think, into a grave error. The evils that sprang + from the later period of Catholic ascendancy were not an accident or + a perversion, but a normal and necessary consequence of the previous + despotism. The principles which were imposed on the mediæval world, + and which were the conditions of so <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> much of its distinctive excellence, were of + such a nature that they claimed to be final, and could not possibly + be discarded without a struggle and a convulsion. We must estimate + the influence of these principles considered as a whole, and during + the entire period of their operation. There are some poisons which, + before they kill men, allay pain and diffuse a soothing sensation + through the frame. We may recognise the hour of enjoyment they + procure, but we must not separate it from the price at which it is + purchased.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extremely + unfavourable influence the Catholic Church long exercised upon + intellectual development had important moral consequences. Although + moral progress does not necessarily depend upon intellectual progress + it is materially affected by it, intellectual activity being the most + important element in the growth of that great and complex organism + which we call civilisation. The mediæval credulity had also a more + direct moral influence in producing that indifference to truth, which + is the most repulsive feature of so many Catholic writings. The very + large part that must be assigned to deliberate forgeries in the early + apologetic literature of the Church we have already seen; and no + impartial reader can, I think, investigate the innumerable grotesque + and lying legends that, during the whole course of the Middle Ages, + were deliberately palmed upon mankind as undoubted facts, can follow + the histories of the false decretals, and the discussions that were + connected with them, or can observe the complete and absolute + incapacity most Catholic historians have displayed, of conceiving any + good thing in the ranks of their opponents, or of stating with common + fairness any consideration that can tell against their cause, without + acknowledging how serious and how inveterate has been the evil. There + have, no doubt, been many noble individual exceptions. Yet it is, I + believe, difficult to exaggerate the extent to which this moral + defect exists in most of the ancient and very much of the modern + literature of Catholicism. It <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> is this which makes it so unspeakably repulsive + to all independent and impartial thinkers, and has led a great German + historian<a id="noteref_436" name="noteref_436" href= + "#note_436"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">436</span></span></a> to + declare, with much bitterness, that the phrase Christian veracity + deserves to rank with the phrase Punic faith. But this absolute + indifference to truth whenever falsehood could subserve the interests + of the Church is perfectly explicable, and was found in multitudes + who, in other respects, exhibited the noblest virtue. An age which + has ceased to value impartiality of judgment will soon cease to value + accuracy of statement; and when credulity is inculcated as a virtue, + falsehood will not long be stigmatised as a vice. When, too, men are + firmly convinced that salvation can only be found within their + Church, and that their Church can absolve from all guilt, they will + speedily conclude that nothing can possibly be wrong which is + beneficial to it. They exchange the love of truth for what they call + the love of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">the</span></em> truth. They regard morals as + derived from and subordinate to theology, and they regulate all their + statements, not by the standard of veracity, but by the interests of + their creed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another important + moral consequence of the monastic system was the great prominence + given to pecuniary compensations for crime. It had been at first one + of the broad distinctions between Paganism and Christianity, that, + while the rites of the former were for the most part unconnected with + moral dispositions, Christianity made purity of heart an essential + element of all its worship. Among the Pagans a few faint efforts had, + it is true, been made in this direction. An old precept or law, which + is referred to by Cicero, and which was strongly reiterated by + Apollonius of Tyana, and the Pythagoreans, declared that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“no impious man should dare to appease the anger of the + divinities by gifts;”</span><a id="noteref_437" name="noteref_437" + href="#note_437"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">437</span></span></a> and + oracles are said to have more than once proclaimed that the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" + id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hecatombs of noble oxen with + gilded horns that were offered up ostentatiously by the rich, were + less pleasing to the gods than the wreaths of flowers and the modest + and reverential worship of the poor.<a id="noteref_438" name= + "noteref_438" href="#note_438"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">438</span></span></a> In + general, however, in the Pagan world, the service of the temple had + little or no connection with morals, and the change which + Christianity effected in this respect was one of its most important + benefits to mankind. It was natural, however, and perhaps inevitable, + that in the course of time, and under the action of very various + causes, the old Pagan sentiment should revive, and even with an + increased intensity. In no respect had the Christians been more nobly + distinguished than by their charity. It was not surprising that the + Fathers, while exerting all their eloquence to stimulate this + virtue—especially during the calamities that accompanied the + dissolution of the Empire—should have dilated in extremely strong + terms upon the spiritual benefits the donor would receive for his + gift. It is also not surprising that this selfish calculation should + gradually, and among hard and ignorant men, have absorbed all other + motives. A curious legend, which is related by a writer of the + seventh century, illustrates the kind of feeling that had arisen. The + Christian bishop Synesius succeeded in converting a Pagan named + Evagrius, who for a long time, however, felt doubts about the + passage, <span class="tei tei-q">“He who giveth to the poor lendeth + to the Lord.”</span> On his conversion, and in obedience to this + verse, he gave Synesius three hundred pieces of gold to be + distributed among the poor; but he exacted from the bishop, as the + representative of Christ, a promissory note, engaging that he should + be repaid in the future world. Many years later, Evagrius, being on + his death-bed, commanded his sons, when they buried him, to place the + note in his hand, and to do so without informing Synesius. His + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" + id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> dying injunction was observed, + and three days afterwards he appeared to Synesius in a dream, told + him that the debt had been paid, and ordered him to go to the tomb, + where he would find a written receipt. Synesius did as he was + commanded, and, the grave being opened, the promissory note was found + in the hand of the dead man, with an endorsement declaring that the + debt had been paid by Christ. The note, it was said, was long after + preserved as a relic in the church of Cyrene.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The kind of + feeling which this legend displays was soon turned with tenfold force + into the channel of monastic life. A law of Constantine accorded, and + several later laws enlarged, the power of bequests to ecclesiastics. + Ecclesiastical property was at the same time exonerated from the + public burdens, and this measure not only directly assisted its + increase, but had also an important indirect influence; for, when + taxation was heavy, many laymen ceded the ownership of their estates + to the monasteries, with a secret condition that they should, as + vassals, receive the revenues unburdened by taxation, and subject + only to a slight payment to the monks as to their feudal lords.<a id= + "noteref_439" name="noteref_439" href="#note_439"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">439</span></span></a> The + monks were regarded as the trustees of the poor, and also as + themselves typical poor, and all the promises that applied to those + who gave to the poor applied, it was said, to the benefactors of the + monasteries. The monastic chapel also contained the relics of saints + or sacred images of miraculous power, and throngs of worshippers + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" + id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> were attracted by the + miracles, and desired to place themselves under the protection, of + the saint. It is no exaggeration to say that to give money to the + priests was for several centuries the first article of the moral + code. Political minds may have felt the importance of aggrandising a + pacific and industrious class in the centre of a disorganised + society, and family affection may have predisposed many in favour of + institutions which contained at least one member of most families; + but in the overwhelming majority of cases the motive was simple + superstition. In seasons of sickness, of danger, of sorrow, or of + remorse, whenever the fear or the conscience of the worshipper was + awakened, he hastened to purchase with money the favour of a saint. + Above all, in the hour of death, when the terrors of the future world + loomed darkly upon his mind, he saw in a gift or legacy to the monks + a sure means of effacing the most monstrous crimes, and securing his + ultimate happiness. A rich man was soon scarcely deemed a Christian + if he did not leave a portion of his property to the Church, and the + charters of innumerable monasteries in every part of Europe attest + the vast tracts of land that were ceded by will to the monks, + <span class="tei tei-q">“for the benefit of the soul”</span> of the + testator.<a id="noteref_440" name="noteref_440" href= + "#note_440"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">440</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It has been + observed by a great historian that we may trace three distinct phases + in the early history of the Church. In the first period religion was + a question of morals; in the second period, which culminated in the + fifth century, it had become a question of orthodoxy; in the third + period, which dates from the seventh century, it was a question of + munificence to monasteries.<a id="noteref_441" name="noteref_441" + href="#note_441"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">441</span></span></a> The + despotism of Catholicism, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the ignorance that followed the barbarian + invasions, had repressed the struggles of heresy, and in the period + of almost absolute darkness that continued from the sixth to the + twelfth century, the theological ideal of unquestioning faith and of + perfect unanimity was all but realised in the West. All the energy + that in previous ages had been expended in combating heresy was now + expended in acquiring wealth. The people compounded for the most + atrocious crimes by gifts to shrines of those saints whose + intercession was supposed to be unfailing. The monks, partly by the + natural cessation of their old enthusiasm, partly by the absence of + any hostile criticism of their acts, and partly too by the very + wealth they had acquired, sank into gross and general immorality. The + great majority of them had probably at no time been either saints + actuated by a strong religious motive, nor yet diseased and + desponding minds seeking a refuge from the world; they had been + simply peasants, of no extraordinary devotion or sensitiveness, who + preferred an ensured subsistence, with no care, little labour, a much + higher social position than they could otherwise acquire, and the + certainty, as they believed, of going to heaven, to the laborious and + precarious existence of the serf, relieved, indeed, by the privilege + of marriage, but exposed to military service, to extreme hardships, + and to constant oppression. Very naturally, when they could do so + with impunity, they broke their vows of chastity. Very naturally, + too, they availed themselves to the full of the condition of affairs, + to draw as much wealth as possible into their community.<a id= + "noteref_442" name="noteref_442" href="#note_442"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">442</span></span></a> The + belief in the approaching <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg + 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> end + of the world, especially at the close of the tenth century, the + crusades, which gave rise to a profitable traffic in the form of a + pecuniary commutation of vows, and the black death, which produced a + paroxysm of religious fanaticism, stimulated the movement. In the + monkish chronicles, the merits of sovereigns are almost exclusively + judged by their bounty to the Church, and in some cases this is the + sole part of their policy which has been preserved.<a id= + "noteref_443" name="noteref_443" href="#note_443"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">443</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There were, no + doubt, a few redeeming points in this dark period. The Irish monks + are said to have been honourably distinguished for their reluctance + to accept the lavish donations of their admirers,<a id="noteref_444" + name="noteref_444" href="#note_444"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">444</span></span></a> and + some missionary monasteries of a high order of excellence were + scattered through Europe. A few legends, too, may be cited censuring + the facility with which money acquired by crime was accepted as an + atonement for crime.<a id="noteref_445" name="noteref_445" href= + "#note_445"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">445</span></span></a> But + these cases were very rare, and the religious history of several + centuries is little more than a history of the rapacity of priests + and of the credulity of laymen. In <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> England, the perpetual demands of the Pope + excited a fierce resentment; and we may trace with remarkable + clearness, in every page of Matthew Paris, the alienation of sympathy + arising from this cause, which prepared and foreshadowed the final + rupture of England from the Church. Ireland, on the other hand, had + been given over by two Popes to the English invader, on the condition + of the payment of Peter's pence. The outrageous and notorious + immorality of the monasteries, during the century before the + Reformation, was chiefly due to their great wealth; and that + immorality, as the writings of Erasmus and Ulric von Hutten show, + gave a powerful impulse to the new movement, while the abuses of the + indulgences were the immediate cause of the revolt of Luther. But + these things arrived only after many centuries of successful fraud. + The religious terrorism that was unscrupulously employed had done its + work, and the chief riches of Christendom had passed into the coffers + of the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is, indeed, + probable that religious terrorism played a more important part in the + monastic phase of Christianity than it had done even in the great + work of the conversion of the Pagans. Although two or three amiable + theologians had made faint and altogether abortive attempts to + question the eternity of punishment; although there had been some + slight difference of opinion concerning the future of some Pagan + philosophers who had lived before the introduction of Christianity, + and also upon the question whether infants who died unbaptised were + only deprived of all joy, or were actually subjected to never-ending + agony, there was no question as to the main features of the Catholic + doctrine. According to the patristic theologians, it was part of the + gospel revelation that the misery and suffering the human race + endures upon earth is but a feeble image of that which awaits it in + the future world; that all its members beyond the Church, as well as + a very large proportion of those who are within its pale, are doomed + to an eternity of agony in a <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> literal and undying fire. The monastic legends + took up this doctrine, which in itself is sufficiently revolting, and + they developed it with an appalling vividness and minuteness. St. + Macarius, it is said, when walking one day through the desert, saw a + skull upon the ground. He struck it with his staff and it began to + speak. It told him that it was the skull of a Pagan priest who had + lived before the introduction of Christianity into the world, and who + had accordingly been doomed to hell. As high as the heaven is above + the earth, so high does the fire of hell mount in waves above the + souls that are plunged into it. The damned souls were pressed + together back to back, and the lost priest made it his single + entreaty to the saint that he would pray that they might be turned + face to face, for he believed that the sight of a brother's face + might afford him some faint consolation in the eternity of agony that + was before him.<a id="noteref_446" name="noteref_446" href= + "#note_446"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">446</span></span></a> The + story is well known of how St. Gregory, seeing on a bas-relief a + representation of the goodness of Trajan to a poor widow, pitied the + Pagan emperor, whom he knew to be in hell, and prayed that he might + be released. He was told that his prayer was altogether + unprecedented; but at last, on his promising that he would never + offer such a prayer again, it was partially granted. Trajan was not + withdrawn from hell, but he was freed from the torments which the + remainder of the Pagan world endured.<a id="noteref_447" name= + "noteref_447" href="#note_447"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">447</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An entire + literature of visions depicting the torments of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> hell was soon produced by the industry of + the monks. The apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, which purported to + describe the descent of Christ into the lower world, contributed to + foster it; and St. Gregory the Great has related many visions in a + more famous work, which professed to be compiled with scrupulous + veracity from the most authentic sources,<a id="noteref_448" name= + "noteref_448" href="#note_448"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">448</span></span></a> and of + which it may be confidently averred that it scarcely contains a + single page which is not tainted with grotesque and deliberate + falsehood. Men, it was said, passed into a trance or temporary death, + and were then carried for a time to hell. Among others, a certain man + named Stephen, from whose lips the saint declares that he had heard + the tale, had died by mistake. When his soul was borne to the gates + of hell, the Judge declared that it was another Stephen who was + wanted; the disembodied spirit, after inspecting hell, was restored + to its former body, and the next day it was known that another + Stephen had died.<a id="noteref_449" name="noteref_449" href= + "#note_449"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">449</span></span></a> + Volcanoes were the portals of hell, and a hermit had seen the soul of + the Arian emperor Theodoric, as St. Eucherius afterwards did the soul + of Charles Martel, carried down that in the Island of Lipari.<a id= + "noteref_450" name="noteref_450" href="#note_450"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">450</span></span></a> The + craters in Sicily, it was remarked, were continually agitated, and + continually increasing, and this, as St. Gregory observes, was + probably due to the impending ruin of the world, when the great press + of lost souls would render it necessary to enlarge the approaches to + their prisons.<a id="noteref_451" name="noteref_451" href= + "#note_451"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">451</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the glimpses + of hell that are furnished in the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Dialogues”</span> of St. Gregory appear meagre and + unimaginative, compared with those of some later monks. A long series + of monastic visions, of which that of St. Fursey, in the seventh + century, was one of the first, and which followed <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in rapid succession, till that of + Tundale, in the twelfth century, professed to describe with the most + detailed accuracy the condition of the lost.<a id="noteref_452" name= + "noteref_452" href="#note_452"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">452</span></span></a> It is + impossible to conceive more ghastly, grotesque, and material + conceptions of the future world than they evince, or more hideous + calumnies against that Being who was supposed to inflict upon His + creatures such unspeakable misery. The devil was represented bound by + red-hot chains, on a burning gridiron in the centre of hell. The + screams of his never-ending agony made its rafters to resound; but + his hands were free, and with these he seized the lost souls, crushed + them like grapes against his teeth, and then drew them by his breath + down the fiery cavern of his throat. Dæmons with hooks of red-hot + iron plunged souls alternately into fire and ice. Some of the lost + were hung up by their tongues, others were sawn asunder, others + gnawed by serpents, others beaten together on an anvil and welded + into a single mass, others boiled and then strained through a cloth, + others twined in the embraces of dæmons whose limbs were of flame. + The fire of earth, it was said, was but a picture of that of hell. + The latter was so immeasurably more intense that it alone could be + called real. Sulphur was mixed with it, partly to increase its heat, + and partly, too, in order that an insufferable stench might be added + to the misery of the lost, while, unlike other flames, it emitted, + according to some visions, no light, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that the horror of darkness might be added to + the horror of pain. A narrow bridge spanned the abyss, and from it + the souls of sinners were plunged into the darkness that was + below.<a id="noteref_453" name="noteref_453" href= + "#note_453"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">453</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Such catalogues of + horrors, though they now awake in an educated man a sentiment of + mingled disgust, weariness, and contempt, were able for many + centuries to create a degree of panic and of misery we can scarcely + realise. With the exception of the heretic Pelagius, whose noble + genius, anticipating the discoveries of modern science, had + repudiated the theological notion of death having been introduced + into the world on account of the act of Adam, it was universally held + among Christians that all the forms of suffering and dissolution that + are manifested on earth were penal inflictions. The destruction of + the world was generally believed to be at hand. The minds of men were + filled with images of the approaching catastrophe, and innumerable + legends of visible dæmons were industriously circulated. It was the + custom then, as it is the custom now, for Catholic priests to stain + the imaginations of young children by ghastly pictures of future + misery, to imprint upon the virgin mind atrocious images which they + hoped, not unreasonably, might prove indelible.<a id="noteref_454" + name="noteref_454" href="#note_454"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">454</span></span></a> In + hours of weakness and of sickness their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> overwrought fancy seemed to see hideous beings + hovering around, and hell itself yawning to receive its victim. St. + Gregory describes how a monk, who, though apparently a man of + exemplary and even saintly piety, had been accustomed secretly to eat + meat, saw on his deathbed a fearful dragon twining its tail round his + body, and, with open jaws, sucking his breath;<a id="noteref_455" + name="noteref_455" href="#note_455"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">455</span></span></a> and how + a little boy of five years old, who had learnt from his father to + repeat blasphemous words, saw, as he lay dying, exulting dæmons who + were waiting to carry him to hell.<a id="noteref_456" name= + "noteref_456" href="#note_456"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">456</span></span></a> To the + jaundiced eye of the theologian, all nature seemed stricken and + forlorn, and its brightness and beauty suggested no ideas but those + of deception and of sin. The redbreast, according to one popular + legend, was commissioned by the Deity to carry a drop of water to the + souls of unbaptised infants in hell, and its breast was singed in + piercing the flames.<a id="noteref_457" name="noteref_457" href= + "#note_457"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">457</span></span></a> In the + calm, still hour of evening, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> when the peasant boy asked why the sinking sun, + as it dipped beneath the horizon, flushed with such a glorious red, + he was answered, in the words of an old Saxon catechism, because it + is then looking into hell.<a id="noteref_458" name="noteref_458" + href="#note_458"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">458</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is related in + the vision of Tundale, that as he gazed upon the burning plains of + hell, and listened to the screams of ceaseless and hopeless agony + that were wrung from the sufferers, the cry broke from his lips, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Alas, Lord! what truth is there in what I + have so often heard—the earth is filled with the mercy of + God?”</span><a id="noteref_459" name="noteref_459" href= + "#note_459"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">459</span></span></a> It is, + indeed, one of the most curious things in moral history, to observe + how men who were sincerely indignant with Pagan writers for + attributing to their divinities the frailties of an occasional + jealousy or an occasional sensuality—for representing them, in a + word, like men of mingled characters and passions—have nevertheless + unscrupulously attributed to their own Divinity a degree of cruelty + which may be confidently said to transcend the utmost barbarity of + which human nature is capable. Neither Nero nor Phalaris could have + looked complacently for ever on millions enduring the torture of + fire—most of them because of a crime which was committed, not by + themselves, but by their ancestors, or because they had adopted some + mistaken conclusion on intricate questions of history or + metaphysics.<a id="noteref_460" name="noteref_460" href= + "#note_460"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">460</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" + id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> To those who do not regard + such teaching as true, it must appear without exception the most + odious in the religious history of the world, subversive of the very + foundations of morals, and well fitted to transform the man who at + once realised it, and accepted it with pleasure, into a monster of + barbarity. Of the writers of the mediæval period, certainly one of + the two or three most eminent was Peter Lombard, whose <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sentences,”</span> though now, I believe, but little + read, were for a long time the basis of all theological literature in + Europe. More than four thousand theologians are said to have written + commentaries upon them<a id="noteref_461" name="noteref_461" href= + "#note_461"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">461</span></span></a>—among + others, Albert the Great, St. Bonaventura, and St. Thomas Aquinas. + Nor is the work unworthy of its former reputation. Calm, clear, + logical, subtle, and concise, the author professes to expound + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" + id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the whole system of Catholic + theology and ethics, and to reveal the interdependence of their + various parts. Having explained the position and the duties, he + proceeds to examine the prospects, of man. He maintains that until + the day of judgment the inhabitants of heaven and hell will + continually see one another; but that, in the succeeding eternity, + the inhabitants of heaven alone will see those of the opposite world; + and he concludes his great work by this most impressive passage: + <span class="tei tei-q">“In the last place, we must enquire whether + the sight of the punishment of the condemned will impair the glory of + the blest, or whether it will augment their beatitude. Concerning + this, Gregory says the sight of the punishment of the lost will not + obscure the beatitude of the just; for when it is accompanied by no + compassion it can be no diminution of happiness. And although their + own joys might suffice to the just, yet to their greater glory they + will see the pains of the evil, which by grace they have escaped.... + The elect will go forth, not indeed locally, but by intelligence, and + by a clear vision, to behold the torture of the impious, and as they + see them they will not grieve. Their minds will be sated with joy as + they gaze on the unspeakable anguish of the impious, returning thanks + for their own freedom. Thus Esaias, describing the torments of the + impious, and the joy of the righteous in witnessing it, says: + <span class="tei tei-q">‘The elect in truth will go out and will see + the corpses of men who have prevaricated against Him; their worm will + not die, and they will be to the satiety of vision to all flesh, that + is to the elect. The just man will rejoice when he shall see the + vengeance.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_462" name="noteref_462" + href="#note_462"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">462</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This passion for + visions of heaven and hell was, in fact, a natural continuation of + the passion for dogmatic definition, which had raged during the fifth + century. It was natural that men, whose curiosity had left no + conceivable question of theology undefined, should have endeavoured + to describe with corresponding precision the condition of the dead. + Much, however, was due to the hallucinations of solitary and ascetic + life, and much more to deliberate imposture. It is impossible for men + to continue long in a condition of extreme panic, and superstition + speedily discovered remedies to allay the fears it had created. If a + malicious dæmon was hovering around the believer, and if the jaws of + hell were opening to receive him, he was defended, on the other hand, + by countless angels; a lavish gift to a church or monastery could + always enlist a saint in his behalf, and priestly power could protect + him against the dangers which priestly sagacity had revealed. When + the angels were weighing the good and evil deeds of a dead man, the + latter were found by far to preponderate; but a priest of St. + Lawrence came in, and turned the scale by throwing down among the + former a heavy gold chalice, which the deceased had given to the + altar.<a id="noteref_463" name="noteref_463" href= + "#note_463"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">463</span></span></a> + Dagobert was snatched from the very arms of dæmons by St. Denis, St. + Maurice, and St. Martin.<a id="noteref_464" name="noteref_464" href= + "#note_464"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">464</span></span></a> + Charlemagne was saved, because the monasteries he had built + outweighed <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg + 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> his + evil deeds.<a id="noteref_465" name="noteref_465" href= + "#note_465"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">465</span></span></a> Others, + who died in mortal sin, were raised from the dead at the desire of + their patron saint, to expiate their guilt. To amass relics, to + acquire the patronage of saints, to endow monasteries, to build + churches, became the chief part of religion, and the more the terrors + of the unseen world were unfolded, the more men sought tranquillity + by the consolations of superstition.<a id="noteref_466" name= + "noteref_466" href="#note_466"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">466</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extent to + which the custom of materialising religion was carried, can only be + adequately realised by those who have examined the mediæval + literature itself. That which strikes a student in perusing this + literature, is not so much the existence of these superstitions, as + their extraordinary multiplication, the many thousands of grotesque + miracles wrought by saints, monasteries, or relics, that were + deliberately asserted and universally believed. Christianity had + assumed a form that was quite as polytheistic and quite as idolatrous + as the ancient Paganism. The low level of intellectual cultivation, + the religious feelings of half-converted barbarians, the interests of + the clergy, the great social importance of the monasteries, and + perhaps also the custom of compounding for nearly all crimes by + pecuniary fines, which was so general in the penal system of the + barbarian tribes, combined in their different ways, with the panic + created by the fear of hell, in driving men in the same direction, + and the wealth and power of the clergy rose to a point that enabled + them to overshadow all other classes. They had found, as has been + well said, in another world, the standing-point <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of Archimedes from which they could move + this. No other system had ever appeared so admirably fitted to endure + for ever. The Church had crushed or silenced every opponent in + Christendom. It had an absolute control over education in all its + branches and in all its stages. It had absorbed all the speculative + knowledge and art of Europe. It possessed or commanded wealth, rank, + and military power. It had so directed its teaching, that everything + which terrified or distressed mankind drove men speedily into its + arms, and it had covered Europe with a vast network of institutions, + admirably adapted to extend and perpetuate its power. In addition to + all this, it had guarded with consummate skill all the approaches to + its citadel. Every doubt was branded as a sin, and a long course of + doubt must necessarily have preceded the rejection of its tenets. All + the avenues of enquiry were painted with images of appalling + suffering, and of malicious dæmons. No sooner did the worshipper + begin to question any article of faith, or to lose his confidence in + the virtue of the ceremonies of his Church, than he was threatened + with a doom that no human heroism could brave, that no imagination + could contemplate undismayed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of all the + suffering that was undergone by those brave men who in ages of + ignorance and superstition dared to break loose from the trammels of + their Church, and who laid the foundation of the liberty we now + enjoy, it is this which was probably the most poignant, and which is + the least realised. Our imaginations can reproduce with much + vividness gigantic massacres like those of the Albigenses or of St. + Bartholomew. We can conceive, too, the tortures of the rack and of + the boots, the dungeon, the scaffold, and the slow fire. We can + estimate, though less perfectly, the anguish which the bold enquirer + must have undergone from the desertion of those he most dearly loved, + from the hatred of mankind, from the malignant calumnies that were + heaped <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name= + "Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon his name. But in + the chamber of his own soul, in the hours of his solitary meditation, + he must have found elements of a suffering that was still more acute. + Taught from his earliest childhood to regard the abandonment of his + hereditary opinions as the most deadly of crimes, and to ascribe it + to the instigation of deceiving dæmons, persuaded that if he died in + a condition of doubt he must pass into a state of everlasting + torture, his imagination saturated with images of the most hideous + and appalling anguish, he found himself alone in the world, + struggling with his difficulties and his doubts. There existed no + rival sect in which he could take refuge, and where, in the professed + agreement of many minds, he could forget the anathemas of the Church. + Physical science, that has disproved the theological theories which + attribute death to human sin, and suffering to Divine vengeance, and + all natural phenomena to isolated acts of Divine + intervention—historical criticism, which has dispelled so many + imposing fabrics of belief, traced so many elaborate superstitions to + the normal action of the undisciplined imagination, and explained and + defined the successive phases of religious progress, were both + unknown. Every comet that blazed in the sky, every pestilence that + swept over the land, appeared a confirmation of the dark threats of + the theologian. A spirit of blind and abject credulity, inculcated as + the first of duties, and exhibited on all subjects and in all forms, + pervaded the atmosphere he breathed. Who can estimate aright the + obstacles against which a sincere enquirer in such an age must have + struggled? Who can conceive the secret anguish he must have endured + in the long months or years during which rival arguments gained an + alternate sway over his judgment, while all doubt was still regarded + as damnable? And even when his mind was convinced, his imagination + would still often revert to his old belief. Our thoughts in after + years flow spontaneously, and even unconsciously, in the channels + that are formed in youth. In <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> moments when the controlling judgment has + relaxed its grasp, old intellectual habits reassume their sway, and + images painted on the imagination will live, when the intellectual + propositions on which they rested have been wholly abandoned. In + hours of weakness, of sickness, and of drowsiness, in the feverish + and anxious moments that are known to all, when the mind floats + passively upon the stream, the phantoms which reason had exorcised + must have often reappeared, and the bitterness of an ancient tyranny + must have entered into his soul.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is one of the + greatest of the many services that were rendered to mankind by the + Troubadours, that they cast such a flood of ridicule upon the visions + of hell, by which the monks had been accustomed to terrify mankind, + that they completely discredited and almost suppressed them.<a id= + "noteref_467" name="noteref_467" href="#note_467"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">467</span></span></a> + Whether, however, the Catholic mind, if unassisted by the literature + of Paganism and by the independent thinkers who grew up under the + shelter of Mohammedanism, could have ever unwound the chains that had + bound it, may well be questioned. The growth of towns, which + multiplied secular interests and feelings, the revival of learning, + the depression of the ecclesiastical classes that followed the + crusades, and, at last, the dislocation of Christendom by the + Reformation, gradually impaired the ecclesiastical doctrine, which + ceased to be realised before it ceased to be believed. There was, + however, another doctrine which exercised a still greater influence + in augmenting the riches of the clergy, and in making donations to + the Church the chief part of religion. I allude, of course, to the + doctrine of purgatory.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A distinguished + modern apologist for the middle ages has made this doctrine the + object of his special and very characteristic eulogy, because, as he + says, by providing a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg + 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + finite punishment graduated to every variety of guilt, and adapted + for those who, without being sufficiently virtuous to pass at once + into heaven, did not appear sufficiently vicious to pass into hell, + it formed an indispensable corrective to the extreme terrorism of the + doctrine of eternal punishment.<a id="noteref_468" name="noteref_468" + href="#note_468"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">468</span></span></a> This is + one of those theories which, though exceedingly popular with a class + of writers who are not without influence in our day, must appear, I + think, almost grotesque to those who have examined the actual + operation of the doctrine during the middle ages. According to the + practical teaching of the Church, the expiatory powers at the + disposal of its clergy were so great, that those who died believing + its doctrines, and fortified in their last hours by its rites, had no + cause whatever to dread the terrors of hell. On the other hand, those + who died external to the Church had no prospect of entering into + purgatory. This latter was designed altogether for true believers; it + was chiefly preached at a time when no one was in the least disposed + to question the powers of the Church to absolve any crime, however + heinous, or to free the worst men from hell, and it was assuredly + never regarded in the light of a consolation. Indeed, the popular + pictures of purgatory were so terrific that it may be doubted whether + the imagination could ever fully realise, though the reason could + easily recognise, the difference between this state and that of the + lost. The fire of purgatory, according to the most eminent + theologians, was like the fire of hell—a literal fire, prolonged, it + was sometimes said, for ages. The declamations of the pulpit + described the sufferings of the saved souls in purgatory as + incalculably greater than any that were endured by the most wretched + mortals upon earth.<a id="noteref_469" name="noteref_469" href= + "#note_469"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">469</span></span></a> The + rude <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name= + "Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> artists of mediævalism + exhausted their efforts in depicting the writhings of the dead in the + flames that encircled them. Innumerable visions detailed with a + ghastly minuteness the various kinds of torture they underwent,<a id= + "noteref_470" name="noteref_470" href="#note_470"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">470</span></span></a> and the + monk, who described what he professed to have seen, usually ended by + the characteristic moral, that could men only realise those + sufferings, they would shrink from no sacrifice to rescue their + friends from such a state. A special place, it was said, was reserved + in purgatory for those who had been slow in paying their + tithes.<a id="noteref_471" name="noteref_471" href= + "#note_471"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">471</span></span></a> St. + Gregory tells a curious story of a man who was, in other respects, of + admirable virtue; but who, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg + 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + a contested election for the popedom, supported the wrong candidate, + and without, as it would appear, in any degree refusing to obey the + successful candidate when elected, continued secretly of opinion that + the choice was an unwise one. He was accordingly placed for some time + after death in boiling water.<a id="noteref_472" name="noteref_472" + href="#note_472"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">472</span></span></a> + Whatever may be thought of its other aspects, it is impossible to + avoid recognising in this teaching a masterly skill in the adaptation + of means to ends, which almost rises to artistic beauty. A system + which deputed its minister to go to the unhappy widow in the first + dark hour of her anguish and her desolation, to tell her that he who + was dearer to her than all the world besides was now burning in a + fire, and that he could only be relieved by a gift of money to the + priests, was assuredly of its own kind not without an extraordinary + merit.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we attempt to + realise the moral condition of the society of Western Europe in the + period that elapsed between the downfall of the Roman Empire and + Charlemagne, during which the religious transformations I have + noticed chiefly arose, we shall be met by some formidable + difficulties. In the first place, our materials are very scanty. From + the year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 642, when the meagre + chronicle of Fredigarius closes, to the biography of Charlemagne by + Eginhard, a century later, there is an almost complete blank in + trustworthy history, and we are reduced to a few scanty and very + doubtful notices in the chronicles of monasteries, the lives of + saints, and the decrees of Councils. All secular literature had + almost disappeared, and the thought of posterity seems to have + vanished from the world.<a id="noteref_473" name="noteref_473" href= + "#note_473"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">473</span></span></a> Of the + first half of the seventh century, however, and of the two centuries + that preceded it, we have much information from <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Gregory of Tours, and Fredigarius, whose + tedious and repulsive pages illustrate with considerable clearness + the conflict of races and the dislocation of governments that for + centuries existed. In Italy, the traditions and habits of the old + Empire had in some degree reasserted their sway; but in Gaul the + Church subsisted in the midst of barbarians, whose native vigour had + never been emasculated by civilisation and refined by knowledge. The + picture which Gregory of Tours gives us is that of a society which + was almost absolutely anarchical. The mind is fatigued by the + monotonous account of acts of violence and of fraud springing from no + fixed policy, tending to no end, leaving no lasting impress upon the + world.<a id="noteref_474" name="noteref_474" href= + "#note_474"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">474</span></span></a> The two + queens Frédégonde and Brunehaut rise conspicuous above other figures + for their fierce and undaunted ambition, for the fascination they + exercised over the minds of multitudes, and for the number and + atrocity of their crimes. All classes seem to have been almost + equally tainted with vice. We read of a bishop named Cautinus, who + had to be carried, when intoxicated, by four men from the + table;<a id="noteref_475" name="noteref_475" href= + "#note_475"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">475</span></span></a> who, + upon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name= + "Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the refusal of one of + his priests to surrender some private property, deliberately ordered + that priest to be buried alive, and who, when the victim, escaping by + a happy chance from the sepulchre in which he had been immured, + revealed the crime, received no greater punishment than a + censure.<a id="noteref_476" name="noteref_476" href= + "#note_476"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">476</span></span></a> The + worst sovereigns found flatterers or agents in ecclesiastics. + Frédégonde deputed two clerks to murder Childebert,<a id= + "noteref_477" name="noteref_477" href="#note_477"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">477</span></span></a> and + another clerk to murder Brunehaut;<a id="noteref_478" name= + "noteref_478" href="#note_478"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">478</span></span></a> she + caused a bishop of Rouen to be assassinated at the altar—a bishop and + an archdeacon being her accomplices;<a id="noteref_479" name= + "noteref_479" href="#note_479"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">479</span></span></a> and she + found in another bishop, named Ægidius, one of her most devoted + instruments and friends.<a id="noteref_480" name="noteref_480" href= + "#note_480"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">480</span></span></a> The + pope, St. Gregory the Great, was an ardent flatterer of + Brunehaut.<a id="noteref_481" name="noteref_481" href= + "#note_481"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">481</span></span></a> + Gundebald, having murdered his three brothers, was consoled by St. + Avitus, the bishop of Vienne, who, without intimating the slightest + disapprobation of the act, assured him that by removing his rivals he + had been a providential agent in preserving the happiness of his + people.<a id="noteref_482" name="noteref_482" href= + "#note_482"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">482</span></span></a> The + bishoprics were filled by men of notorious debauchery, or by grasping + misers.<a id="noteref_483" name="noteref_483" href= + "#note_483"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">483</span></span></a> The + priests sometimes celebrated the sacred mysteries <span class= + "tei tei-q">“gorged with food and dull with wine.”</span><a id= + "noteref_484" name="noteref_484" href="#note_484"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">484</span></span></a> They + had already begun to carry arms, and Gregory tells of two bishops of + the sixth century <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg + 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> who + had killed many enemies with their own hands.<a id="noteref_485" + name="noteref_485" href="#note_485"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">485</span></span></a> There + was scarcely a reign that was not marked by some atrocious domestic + tragedy. There were few sovereigns who were not guilty of at least + one deliberate murder. Never, perhaps, was the infliction of + mutilation, and prolonged and agonising forms of death, more common. + We read, among other atrocities, of a bishop being driven to a + distant place of exile upon a bed of thorns;<a id="noteref_486" name= + "noteref_486" href="#note_486"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">486</span></span></a> of a + king burning together his rebellious son, his daughter-in-law, and + their daughters;<a id="noteref_487" name="noteref_487" href= + "#note_487"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">487</span></span></a> of a + queen condemning a daughter she had had by a former marriage to be + drowned, lest her beauty should excite the passions of her + husband;<a id="noteref_488" name="noteref_488" href= + "#note_488"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">488</span></span></a> of + another queen endeavouring to strangle her daughter with her own + hands;<a id="noteref_489" name="noteref_489" href= + "#note_489"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">489</span></span></a> of an + abbot, compelling a poor man to abandon his house, that he might + commit adultery with his wife, and being murdered, together with his + partner, in the act;<a id="noteref_490" name="noteref_490" href= + "#note_490"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">490</span></span></a> of a + prince who made it an habitual amusement to torture his slaves with + fire, and who buried two of them alive, because they had married + without his permission;<a id="noteref_491" name="noteref_491" href= + "#note_491"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">491</span></span></a> of a + bishop's wife, who, besides other crimes, was accustomed to mutilate + men and to torture women, by applying red-hot irons to the most + sensitive parts of their bodies;<a id="noteref_492" name= + "noteref_492" href="#note_492"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">492</span></span></a> of + great numbers who were deprived of their ears <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and noses, tortured through several days, + and at last burnt alive or broken slowly on the wheel. Brunehaut, at + the close of her long and in some respects great though guilty + career, fell into the hands of Clotaire, and the old queen, having + been subjected for three days to various kinds of torture, was led + out on a camel for the derision of the army, and at last bound to the + tail of a furious horse, and dashed to pieces in its course.<a id= + "noteref_493" name="noteref_493" href="#note_493"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">493</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">And yet this age + was, in a certain sense, eminently religious. All literature had + become sacred. Heresy of every kind was rapidly expiring. The priests + and monks had acquired enormous power, and their wealth was + inordinately increasing.<a id="noteref_494" name="noteref_494" href= + "#note_494"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">494</span></span></a> Several + sovereigns voluntarily abandoned their thrones for the monastic + life.<a id="noteref_495" name="noteref_495" href= + "#note_495"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">495</span></span></a> The + seventh century, which, together with the eighth, forms the darkest + period of the dark ages, is famous in the hagiology as having + produced more saints than any other century, except that of the + martyrs.<a id="noteref_496" name="noteref_496" href= + "#note_496"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">496</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The manner in + which events were regarded by historians was also exceedingly + characteristic. Our principal authority, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> Gregory of Tours, was a bishop of great + eminence, and a man of the most genuine piety, and of very strong + affections.<a id="noteref_497" name="noteref_497" href= + "#note_497"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">497</span></span></a> He + describes his work as a record <span class="tei tei-q">“of the + virtues of saints, and the disasters of nations;”</span><a id= + "noteref_498" name="noteref_498" href="#note_498"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">498</span></span></a> and the + student who turns to his pages from those of the Pagan historians, is + not more struck by the extreme prominence he gives to ecclesiastical + events, than by the uniform manner in which he views all secular + events in their religious aspect, as governed and directed by a + special Providence. Yet, in questions where the difference between + orthodoxy and heterodoxy is concerned, his ethics sometimes exhibit + the most singular distortion. Of this, probably the most impressive + example is the manner in which he has described the career of Clovis, + the great representative of orthodoxy.<a id="noteref_499" name= + "noteref_499" href="#note_499"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">499</span></span></a> Having + recounted the circumstances of his conversion, Gregory proceeds to + tell us, with undisguised admiration, how that chieftain, as the + first-fruits of his doctrine, professed to be grieved at seeing that + part of Gaul was held by an Arian sovereign; how he accordingly + resolved to invade and appropriate that territory; how, with + admirable piety, he commanded his soldiers to abstain from all + devastations when traversing the territory of St. Martin, and how + several miracles attested the Divine approbation of the expedition. + The war—which is the first of the long series of professedly + religious wars that have been undertaken by Christians—was fully + successful, and Clovis proceeded to direct his ambition to new + fields. In his expedition against the Arians, he had found a faithful + ally in his relative Sighebert, the old and infirm king of the + Ripuarian Franks. Clovis now proceeded artfully to suggest to the son + of Sighebert the advantages that son might obtain by his father's + death. The hint was taken. Sighebert was murdered, and Clovis + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" + id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> sent ambassadors to the + parricide, professing a warm friendship, but with secret orders on + the first opportunity to kill him. This being done, and the kingdom + being left entirely without a head, Clovis proceeded to Cologne, the + capital of Sighebert; he assembled the people, professed with much + solemnity his horror of the tragedies that had taken place, and his + complete innocence of all connection with them;<a id="noteref_500" + name="noteref_500" href="#note_500"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">500</span></span></a> but + suggested that, as they were now without a ruler, they should place + themselves under his protection. The proposition was received with + acclamation. The warriors elected him as their king, and thus, says + the episcopal historian, <span class="tei tei-q">“Clovis received the + treasures and dominions of Sighebert, and added them to his own. + Every day God caused his enemies to fall beneath his hand, and + enlarged his kingdom, because he walked with a right heart before the + Lord, and did the things that were pleasing in His + sight.”</span><a id="noteref_501" name="noteref_501" href= + "#note_501"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">501</span></span></a> His + ambition was, however, still unsated. He proceeded, in a succession + of expeditions, to unite the whole of Gaul under his sceptre, + invading, defeating, capturing, and slaying the lawful sovereigns, + who were for the most part his own relations. Having secured himself + against dangers from without, by killing all his relations, with the + exception of his wife and children, he is reported to have lamented + before his courtiers his isolation, declaring that he had no + relations remaining in the world to assist him in his adversity; but + this speech, Gregory assures us, was a stratagem; for the king + desired to discover whether any possible pretender to the throne had + escaped his knowledge and his <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> sword. Soon after, he died, full of years and + honours, and was buried in a cathedral which he had built.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Having recounted + all these things with unmoved composure, Gregory of Tours requests + his reader to permit him to pause, to draw the moral of the history. + It is the admirable manner in which Providence guides all things for + the benefit of those whose opinions concerning the Trinity are + strictly orthodox. Having briefly referred to Abraham, Jacob, Moses, + Aaron, and David, all of whom are said to have intimated the correct + doctrine on this subject, and all of whom were exceedingly + prosperous, he passes to more modern times. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Arius, the impious founder of the impious sect, his + entrails having fallen out, passed into the flames of hell; but + Hilary, the blessed defender of the undivided Trinity, though exiled + on that account, found his country in Paradise. The King Clovis, who + confessed the Trinity, and by its assistance crushed the heretics, + extended his dominions through all Gaul. Alaric, who denied the + Trinity, was deprived of his kingdom and his subjects, and, what was + far worse, was punished in the future world.”</span><a id= + "noteref_502" name="noteref_502" href="#note_502"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">502</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be easy + to cite other, though perhaps not quite such striking, instances of + the degree in which the moral judgments of this unhappy age were + distorted by superstition.<a id="noteref_503" name="noteref_503" + href="#note_503"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">503</span></span></a> + Questions of orthodoxy, or questions of fasting, appeared to the + popular mind immeasurably more important than what <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> we should now call the fundamental + principles of right and wrong. A law of Charlemagne, and also a law + of the Saxons, condemned to death any one who ate meat in Lent,<a id= + "noteref_504" name="noteref_504" href="#note_504"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">504</span></span></a> unless + the priest was satisfied that it was a matter of absolute necessity. + The moral enthusiasm of the age chiefly drove men to abandon their + civic or domestic duties, to immure themselves in monasteries, and to + waste their strength by prolonged and extravagant maceration.<a id= + "noteref_505" name="noteref_505" href="#note_505"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">505</span></span></a> Yet, in + the midst of all this superstition, there can be no question that in + some respects the religious agencies were operating for good. The + monastic bodies that everywhere arose, formed secure asylums for the + multitudes who had been persecuted by their enemies, constituted an + invaluable counterpoise to the rude military forces of the time, + familiarised the imagination of men with religious types that could + hardly fail in some degree to soften the character, and led the way + in most forms of peaceful labour. When men, filled with admiration at + the reports of the sanctity and the miracles of some illustrious + saint, made pilgrimages to behold him, and found him attired in the + rude garb of a peasant, with thick shoes, and with a scythe on his + shoulder, superintending the labours of the farmers,<a id= + "noteref_506" name="noteref_506" href="#note_506"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">506</span></span></a> or + sitting in a small attic mending lamps,<a id="noteref_507" name= + "noteref_507" href="#note_507"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">507</span></span></a> + whatever other benefit they might derive from the interview, they + could scarcely fail to return with an increased sense of <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the dignity of labour. It was probably at + this time as much for the benefit of the world as of the Church, that + the ecclesiastical sanctuaries and estates should remain inviolate, + and the numerous legends of Divine punishment having overtaken those + who transgressed them,<a id="noteref_508" name="noteref_508" href= + "#note_508"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">508</span></span></a> attest + the zeal with which the clergy sought to establish that + inviolability. The great sanctity that was attached to holidays was + also an important boon to the servile classes. The celebration of the + first day of the week, in commemoration of the resurrection, and as a + period of religious exercises, dates from the earliest age of the + Church. The Christian festival was carefully distinguished from the + Jewish Sabbath, with which it never appears to have been confounded + till the close of the sixteenth century; but some Jewish converts, + who considered the Jewish law to be still in force, observed both + days. In general, however, the Christian festival alone was observed, + and the Jewish Sabbatical obligation, as St. Paul most explicitly + affirms, no longer rested upon the Christians. The grounds of the + observance of Sunday were the manifest propriety and expediency of + devoting a certain portion of time to devout exercises, the tradition + which traced the sanctification of Sunday to apostolic times, and the + right of the Church to appoint certain seasons to be kept holy by its + members. When Christianity acquired an ascendancy in the Empire, its + policy on this subject was manifested in one of the laws of + Constantine, which, without making any direct reference to religious + motives, ordered that, <span class="tei tei-q">“on the day of the + sun,”</span> no servile work should be performed except <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> agriculture, which, being dependent on + the weather, could not, it was thought, be reasonably postponed. + Theodosius took a step further, and suppressed the public spectacles + on that day. During the centuries that immediately followed the + dissolution of the Roman Empire, the clergy devoted themselves with + great and praiseworthy zeal to the suppression of labour both on + Sundays and on the other leading Church holidays. More than one law + was made, forbidding all Sunday labour, and this prohibition was + reiterated by Charlemagne in his Capitularies.<a id="noteref_509" + name="noteref_509" href="#note_509"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">509</span></span></a> Several + Councils made decrees on the subject,<a id="noteref_510" name= + "noteref_510" href="#note_510"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">510</span></span></a> and + several legends were circulated, of men who had been afflicted + miraculously with disease or with death, for having been guilty of + this sin.<a id="noteref_511" name="noteref_511" href= + "#note_511"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">511</span></span></a> + Although the moral side of religion was greatly degraded or + forgotten, there was, as I have already intimated, one important + exception. Charity was so interwoven with the superstitious parts of + ecclesiastical teaching, that it continued to grow and nourish in the + darkest period. Of the acts of Queen Bathilda, it is said we know + nothing except her donations to the monasteries, and the charity with + which she purchased slaves and captives, and released them or + converted them into monks.<a id="noteref_512" name="noteref_512" + href="#note_512"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">512</span></span></a> While + many of the bishops were men of gross and scandalous vice, there were + always some who laboured assiduously in the old episcopal vocation of + protecting the oppressed, interceding for the captives, and opening + their sanctuaries to the fugitives. St. Germanus, a bishop of Paris, + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" + id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> near the close of the sixth + century, was especially famous for his zeal in ransoming + captives.<a id="noteref_513" name="noteref_513" href= + "#note_513"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">513</span></span></a> The + fame he acquired was so great, that prisoners are said to have called + upon him to assist them, in the interval between his death and his + burial; and the body of the saint becoming miraculously heavy, it was + found impossible to carry it to the grave till the captives had been + released.<a id="noteref_514" name="noteref_514" href= + "#note_514"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">514</span></span></a> In the + midst of the complete eclipse of all secular learning, in the midst + of a reign of ignorance, imposture, and credulity which cannot be + paralleled in history, there grew up a vast legendary literature, + clustering around the form of the ascetic; and the lives of the + saints, among very much that is grotesque, childish, and even + immoral, contain some fragments of the purest and most touching + religious poetry.<a id="noteref_515" name="noteref_515" href= + "#note_515"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">515</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the chief + title of the period we are considering, to the indulgence of + posterity, lies in its missionary labours. The stream of missionaries + which had at first flowed from Palestine and Italy began to flow from + the West. The Irish monasteries furnished the earliest, and probably + the most numerous, labourers in the field. A great portion of the + north of England was converted by the Irish monks of Lindisfarne. The + fame of St. Columbanus in Gaul, in Germany, and in Italy, for a time + even balanced that of St. Benedict himself, and the school which he + founded at Luxeuil became the great seminary for mediæval + missionaries, while <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg + 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + monastery he planted at Bobbio continued to the present century. The + Irish missionary, St. Gall, gave his name to a portion of Switzerland + he had converted, and a crowd of other Irish missionaries penetrated + to the remotest forests of Germany. The movement which began with St. + Columba in the middle of the sixth century, was communicated to + England and Gaul about a century later. Early in the eighth century + it found a great leader in the Anglo-Saxon St. Boniface, who spread + Christianity far and wide through Germany, and at once excited and + disciplined an ardent enthusiasm, which appears to have attracted all + that was morally best in the Church. During about three centuries, + and while Europe had sunk into the most extreme moral, intellectual, + and political degradation, a constant stream of missionaries poured + forth from the monasteries, who spread the knowledge of the Cross and + the seeds of a future civilisation through every land, from Lombardy + to Sweden.<a id="noteref_516" name="noteref_516" href= + "#note_516"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">516</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the whole, + however, it would be difficult to exaggerate the superstition and the + vice of the period between the dissolution of the Empire and the + reign of Charlemagne. But in the midst of the chaos the elements of a + new society may be detected, and we may already observe in embryo the + movement which ultimately issued in the crusades, the feudal system, + and chivalry. It is exclusively with the moral aspect of this + movement that the present work is concerned, and I shall endeavour, + in the remainder of this chapter, to describe and explain its + incipient stages. It consisted of two parts—a fusion of Christianity + with the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg + 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + military spirit, and an increasing reverence for secular rank.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It had been an + ancient maxim of the Greeks, that no more acceptable gifts can be + offered in the temples of the gods, than the trophies won from an + enemy in battle.<a id="noteref_517" name="noteref_517" href= + "#note_517"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">517</span></span></a> Of this + military religion Christianity had been at first the extreme + negation. I have already had occasion to observe that it had been one + of its earliest rules that no arms should be introduced within the + church, and that soldiers returning even from the most righteous war + should not be admitted to communion until after a period of penance + and purification. A powerful party, which counted among its leaders + Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, Lactantius, and Basil, + maintained that all warfare was unlawful for those who had been + converted; and this opinion had its martyr in the celebrated + Maximilianus, who suffered death under Diocletian solely because, + having been enrolled as a soldier, he declared that he was a + Christian, and that therefore he could not fight. The extent to which + this doctrine was disseminated has been suggested with much + plausibility as one of the causes of the Diocletian + persecution.<a id="noteref_518" name="noteref_518" href= + "#note_518"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">518</span></span></a> It was + the subject of one of the reproaches of Celsus; and Origen, in reply, + frankly accepted the accusation that Christianity was incompatible + with military service, though he maintained that the prayers of the + Christians were more efficacious than the swords of the + legions.<a id="noteref_519" name="noteref_519" href= + "#note_519"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">519</span></span></a> At the + same time, there can be no question that many Christians, from a very + early date, did enlist in the army, and that they were not cut off + from the Church. The legend of the thundering legion, under Marcus + Aurelius, whatever we may think of the pretended miracle, attested + the fact, and it is expressly asserted by Tertullian.<a id= + "noteref_520" name="noteref_520" href="#note_520"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">520</span></span></a> The + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" + id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> first fury of the Diocletian + persecution fell upon Christian soldiers, and by the time of + Constantine the army appears to have become, in a great degree, + Christian. A Council of Arles, under Constantine, condemned soldiers + who, through religious motives, deserted their colours; and St. + Augustine threw his great influence into the same scale. But even + where the calling was not regarded as sinful, it was strongly + discouraged. The ideal or type of supreme excellence conceived by the + imagination of the Pagan world and to which all their purest moral + enthusiasm naturally aspired, was the patriot and soldier. The ideal + of the Catholic legends was the ascetic, whose first duty was to + abandon all secular feelings and ties. In most family circles the + conflict between the two principles appeared, and in the moral + atmosphere of the fourth and fifth centuries it was almost certain + that every young man who was animated by any pure or genuine + enthusiasm would turn from the army to the monks. St. Martin, St. + Ferreol, St. Tarrachus, and St. Victricius, were among those who + through religious motives abandoned the army.<a id="noteref_521" + name="noteref_521" href="#note_521"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">521</span></span></a> When + Ulphilas translated the Bible into Gothic, he is said to have + excepted the four books of Kings, through fear that they might + encourage the martial disposition of the barbarians.<a id= + "noteref_522" name="noteref_522" href="#note_522"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">522</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first + influence that contributed to bring the military profession into + friendly connection with religion was the received doctrine + concerning the Providential government of affairs. It was generally + taught that all national catastrophes were penal inflictions, + resulting, for the most part, from the vices or the religious errors + of the leading men, and that temporal prosperity was the reward of + orthodoxy and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg + 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + virtue. A great battle, on the issue of which the fortunes of a + people or of a monarch depended, was therefore supposed to be the + special occasion of Providential interposition, and the hope of + obtaining military success became one of the most frequent motives of + conversion. The conversion of Constantine was professedly, and the + conversion of Clovis was perhaps really, due to the persuasion that + the Divine interposition had in a critical moment given them the + victory; and I have already noticed how large a part must be assigned + to this order of ideas in facilitating the progress of Christianity + among the barbarians. When a cross was said to have appeared + miraculously to Constantine, with an inscription announcing the + victory of the Milvian bridge; when the same holy sign, adorned with + the sacred monogram, was carried in the forefront of the Roman + armies; when the nails of the cross, which Helena had brought from + Jerusalem, were converted by the emperor into a helmet, and into bits + for his war-horse, it was evident that a great change was passing + over the once pacific spirit of the Church.<a id="noteref_523" name= + "noteref_523" href="#note_523"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">523</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Many circumstances + conspired to accelerate it. Northern tribes, who had been taught that + the gates of the Walhalla were ever open to the warrior who presented + himself stained with the blood of his vanquished enemies, were + converted to Christianity; but they carried their old feelings into + their new creed. The conflict of many races, and the paralysis of all + government that followed the fall of the Empire, made force + everywhere dominant, and petty wars incessant. The military + obligations attached to the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“benefices”</span> which the sovereigns gave to their + leading chiefs, connected the idea of military service with that of + rank still more closely than it had been connected before, and + rendered it doubly honourable <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> in the eyes of men. Many bishops and abbots, + partly from the turbulence of their times and characters, and partly, + at a later period, from their position as great feudal lords, were + accustomed to lead their followers in battle; and this custom, though + prohibited by Charlemagne, may be traced to so late a period as the + battle of Agincourt.<a id="noteref_524" name="noteref_524" href= + "#note_524"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">524</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The stigma which + Christianity had attached to war was thus gradually effaced. At the + same time, the Church remained, on the whole, a pacific influence. + War was rather condoned than consecrated, and, whatever might be the + case with a few isolated prelates, the Church did nothing to increase + or encourage it. The transition from the almost Quaker tenets of the + primitive Church to the essentially military Christianity of the + Crusades was chiefly due to another cause—to the terrors and to the + example of Mohammedanism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This great + religion, which so long rivalled the influence of Christianity, had + indeed spread the deepest and most justifiable panic through + Christendom. Without any of those aids to the imagination which + pictures and images can furnish, without any elaborate sacerdotal + organisation, preaching the purest Monotheism among ignorant and + barbarous men, and inculcating, on the whole, an extremely high and + noble system of morals, it spread with a rapidity and it acquired a + hold over the minds of its votaries, which it is probable that no + other religion has altogether equalled. It borrowed from Christianity + that doctrine of salvation by belief, which is perhaps the most + powerful impulse that can be applied to the characters of masses of + men, and it elaborated so minutely the charms of its sensual heaven, + and the terrors of its material hell, as to cause the alternative to + appeal with unrivalled force to the gross imaginations of the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" + id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> people. It possessed a book + which, however inferior to that of the opposing religion, has + nevertheless been the consolation and the support of millions in many + ages. It taught a fatalism which in its first age nerved its + adherents with a matchless military courage, and which, though in + later days it has often paralysed their active energies, has also + rarely failed to support them under the pressure of inevitable + calamity. But, above all, it discovered the great, the fatal secret + of uniting indissolubly the passion of the soldier with the passion + of the devotee. Making the conquest of the infidel the first of + duties, and proposing heaven as the certain reward of the valiant + soldier, it created a blended enthusiasm that soon overpowered the + divided counsels and the voluptuous governments of the East, and, + within a century of the death of Mohammed, his followers had almost + extirpated Christianity from its original home, founded great + monarchies in Asia and Africa, planted a noble, though transient and + exotic, civilisation in Spain, menaced the capital of the Eastern + empire, and, but for the issue of a single battle, they would + probably have extended their sceptre over the energetic and + progressive races of Central Europe. The wave was broken by Charles + Martel, at the battle of Poitiers, and it is now useless to speculate + what might have been the consequences had Mohammedanism unfurled its + triumphant banner among those Teutonic tribes who have so often + changed their creed, and on whom the course of civilisation has so + largely depended. But one great change was in fact achieved. The + spirit of Mohammedanism slowly passed into Christianity, and + transformed it into its image. The spectacle of an essentially + military religion fascinated men who were at once very warlike and + very superstitious. The panic that had palsied Europe was after a + long interval succeeded by a fierce reaction of resentment. Pride and + religion conspired to urge the Christian warriors against those who + had so often defeated the armies and wasted the territory of + Christendom, who had shorn the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> empire of the Cross of many of its fairest + provinces, and profaned that holy city which was venerated not only + for its past associations, but also for the spiritual blessings it + could still bestow upon the pilgrim. The papal indulgences proved not + less efficacious in stimulating the military spirit than the promises + of Mohammed, and for about two centuries every pulpit in Christendom + proclaimed the duty of war with the unbeliever, and represented the + battle-field as the sure path to heaven. The religious orders which + arose united the character of the priest with that of the warrior, + and when, at the hour of sunset, the soldier knelt down to pray + before his cross, that cross was the handle of his sword.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would be + impossible to conceive a more complete transformation than + Christianity had thus undergone, and it is melancholy to contrast + with its aspect during the crusades the impression it had once most + justly made upon the world, as the spirit of gentleness and of peace + encountering the spirit of violence and war. Among the many curious + habits of the Pagan Irish, one of the most significant was that of + perpendicular burial. With a feeling something like that which + induced Vespasian to declare that a Roman emperor should die + standing, the Pagan warriors shrank from the notion of being + prostrate even in death, and they appear to have regarded this + martial burial as a special symbol of Paganism. An old Irish + manuscript tells how, when Christianity had been introduced into + Ireland, a king of Ulster on his deathbed charged his son never to + become a Christian, but to be buried standing upright like a man in + battle, with his face for ever turned to the south, defying the men + of Leinster.<a id="noteref_525" name="noteref_525" href= + "#note_525"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">525</span></span></a> As late + as the sixteenth century, it is said that in some parts of Ireland + children were baptised by <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg + 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + immersion; but the right arms of the males were carefully held above + the water, in order that, not having been dipped in the sacred + stream, they might strike the more deadly blow.<a id="noteref_526" + name="noteref_526" href="#note_526"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">526</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It had been boldly + predicted by some of the early Christians that the conversion of the + world would lead to the establishment of perpetual peace. In looking + back, with our present experience, we are driven to the melancholy + conclusion that, instead of diminishing the number of wars, + ecclesiastical influence has actually and very seriously increased + it. We may look in vain for any period since Constantine, in which + the clergy, as a body, exerted themselves to repress the military + spirit, or to prevent or abridge a particular war, with an energy at + all comparable to that which they displayed in stimulating the + fanaticism of the crusaders, in producing the atrocious massacre of + the Albigenses, in embittering the religious contests that followed + the Reformation. Private wars were, no doubt, in some degree + repressed by their influence; for the institution of the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Truce of God”</span> was for a time of much value, and + when, towards the close of the middle ages, the custom of duels + arose, it was strenuously condemned by the clergy; but we can hardly + place any great value on their exertions in this field, when we + remember that duels were almost or altogether unknown to the Pagan + world; that, having arisen in a period of great superstition, the + anathemas of the Church were almost impotent to discourage them; and + that in our own century they are rapidly disappearing before the + simple censure of an industrial society. It is possible—though it + would, I imagine, be difficult to prove it—that the mediatorial + office, so often exercised by bishops, may sometimes have prevented + wars; and it is certain that during the period of the religious wars, + so much military spirit existed in Europe that it must necessarily + have found a vent, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg + 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + under no circumstances could the period have been one of perfect + peace. But when all these qualifications have been fully admitted, + the broad fact will remain, that, with the exception of + Mohammedanism, no other religion has done so much to produce war as + was done by the religious teachers of Christendom during several + centuries. The military fanaticism evoked by the indulgences of the + popes, by the exhortations of the pulpit, by the religious importance + attached to the relics at Jerusalem, and by the prevailing hatred of + misbelievers, has scarcely ever been equalled in its intensity, and + it has caused the effusion of oceans of blood, and has been + productive of incalculable misery to the world. Religious fanaticism + was a main cause of the earlier wars, and an important ingredient in + the later ones. The peace principles, that were so common before + Constantine, have found scarcely any echo except from Erasmus, the + Anabaptists, and the Quakers;<a id="noteref_527" name="noteref_527" + href="#note_527"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">527</span></span></a> and + although some very important pacific agencies have arisen out of the + industrial progress of modern times, these have been, for the most + part, wholly unconnected with, and have in some cases been directly + opposed to, theological interests.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But although + theological influences cannot reasonably be said to have diminished + the number of wars, they have had a very real and beneficial effect + in diminishing their atrocity. On few subjects have the moral + opinions of different ages exhibited so marked a variation as in + their judgments of what punishment may justly be imposed on a + conquered enemy, and these variations have often been cited as an + argument against those who believe in the existence of natural moral + perceptions. To those, however, who accept <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> that doctrine, with the limitations that have + been stated in the first chapter, they can cause no perplexity. In + the first dawning of the human intelligence (as I have said) the + notion of duty, as distinguished from that of interest, appears, and + the mind, in reviewing the various emotions by which it is + influenced, recognises the unselfish and benevolent motives as + essentially and generically superior to the selfish and the cruel. + But it is the general condition of society alone that determines the + standard of benevolence—the classes towards which every good man will + exercise it. At first, the range of duty is the family, the tribe, + the state, the confederation. Within these limits every man feels + himself under moral obligations to those about him; but he regards + the outer world as we regard wild animals, as beings upon whom he may + justifiably prey. Hence, we may explain the curious fact that the + terms brigand or corsair conveyed in the early stages of society no + notion of moral guilt.<a id="noteref_528" name="noteref_528" href= + "#note_528"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">528</span></span></a> Such + men were looked upon simply as we look upon huntsmen, and if they + displayed courage and skill in their pursuit, they were deemed fit + subjects for admiration. Even in the writings of the most enlightened + philosophers of Greece, war with barbarians is represented as a form + of chase, and the simple desire of obtaining the barbarians as slaves + was considered a sufficient reason for invading them. The right of + the conqueror to kill his captives <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> was generally recognised, nor was it at first + restricted by any considerations of age or sex. Several instances are + recorded of Greek and other cities being deliberately destroyed by + Greeks or by Romans, and the entire populations ruthlessly + massacred.<a id="noteref_529" name="noteref_529" href= + "#note_529"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">529</span></span></a> The + whole career of the early republic of Rome, though much idealised and + transfigured by later historians, was probably governed by these + principles.<a id="noteref_530" name="noteref_530" href= + "#note_530"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">530</span></span></a> The + normal fate of the captive, which, among barbarians, had been death, + was, in civilised antiquity, slavery; but many thousands were + condemned to the gladiatorial shows, and the vanquished general was + commonly slain in the Mamertine prison, while his conqueror ascended + in triumph to the Capitol.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A few traces of a + more humane spirit may, it is true, be discovered. Plato had + advocated the liberation of all Greek prisoners upon payment of a + fixed ransom,<a id="noteref_531" name="noteref_531" href= + "#note_531"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">531</span></span></a> and the + Spartan general Callicratidas had nobly acted upon this + principle;<a id="noteref_532" name="noteref_532" href= + "#note_532"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">532</span></span></a> but his + example never appears to have been generally followed. In Rome, the + notion of international obligation was <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> very strongly felt. No war was considered just + which had not been officially declared; and even in the case of wars + with barbarians, the Roman historians often discuss the sufficiency + or insufficiency of the motives, with a conscientious severity a + modern historian could hardly surpass.<a id="noteref_533" name= + "noteref_533" href="#note_533"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">533</span></span></a> The + later Greek and Latin writings occasionally contain maxims which + exhibit a considerable progress in this sphere. The sole legitimate + object of war, both Cicero and Sallust declared to be an assured + peace. That war, according to Tacitus, ends well which ends with a + pardon. Pliny refused to apply the epithet great to Cæsar, on account + of the torrents of human blood he had shed. Two Roman + conquerors<a id="noteref_534" name="noteref_534" href= + "#note_534"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">534</span></span></a> are + credited with the saying that it is better to save the life of one + citizen than to destroy a thousand enemies. Marcus Aurelius + mournfully assimilated the career of a conqueror to that of a simple + robber. Nations or armies which voluntarily submitted to Rome were + habitually treated with great leniency, and numerous acts of + individual magnanimity are recorded. The violation of the chastity of + conquered women by soldiers in a siege was denounced as a rare and + atrocious crime.<a id="noteref_535" name="noteref_535" href= + "#note_535"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">535</span></span></a> The + extreme atrocities of ancient war appear at last to have been + practically, though not legally, restricted to two classes.<a id= + "noteref_536" name="noteref_536" href="#note_536"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">536</span></span></a> Cities + where Roman ambassadors had been insulted, or where some special act + of ill faith or cruelty had taken place, were razed to the ground, + and their populations massacred or delivered into slavery. Barbarian + prisoners were regarded almost as wild beasts, and sent in thousands + to fill the slave market or to combat in the arena.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The changes + Christianity effected in the rights of war were very important, and + they may, I think, be comprised under three heads. In the first + place, it suppressed the gladiatorial shows, and thereby saved + thousands of captives from a bloody death. In the next place, it + steadily discouraged the practice of enslaving prisoners, ransomed + immense multitudes with charitable contributions, and by slow and + insensible gradations proceeded on its path of mercy till it became a + recognised principle of international law, that no Christian + prisoners should be reduced to slavery.<a id="noteref_537" name= + "noteref_537" href="#note_537"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">537</span></span></a> In the + third place, it had a more indirect but very powerful influence by + the creation of a new warlike ideal. The ideal knight of the Crusades + and of chivalry, uniting all the force and fire of the ancient + warrior, with something of the tenderness and humility of the + Christian saint, sprang from the conjunction of the two streams of + religious and of military <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg + 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + feeling; and although this ideal, like all others, was a creation of + the imagination not often perfectly realised in life, yet it remained + the type and model of warlike excellence, to which many generations + aspired; and its softening influence may even now be largely traced + in the character of the modern gentleman.</p> + + <div class="tei tei-tb"> + <hr style="width: 50%" /> + </div> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Together with the + gradual fusion of the military spirit with Christianity, we may dimly + descry, in the period before Charlemagne, the first stages of that + consecration of secular rank which at a later period, in the forms of + chivalry, the divine right of kings, and the reverence for + aristocracies, played so large a part both in moral and in political + history.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have already + seen that the course of events in the Roman Empire had been towards + the continual aggrandisement of the imperial power. The + representative despotism of Augustus was at last succeeded by the + oriental despotism of Diocletian. The senate sank into a powerless + assembly of imperial nominees, and the spirit of Roman freedom wholly + perished with the extinction of Stoicism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It would probably + be a needless refinement to seek any deeper causes for this change + than may be found in the ordinary principles of human nature. + Despotism is the normal and legitimate government of an early society + in which knowledge has not yet developed the powers of the people; + but when it is introduced into a civilised community, it is of the + nature of a disease, and a disease which, unless it be checked, has a + continual tendency to spread. When free nations abdicate their + political functions, they gradually lose both the capacity and the + desire for freedom. Political talent and ambition, having no sphere + for action, steadily decay, and servile, enervating, and vicious + habits proportionately increase. Nations are organic beings in a + constant process of expansion or decay, and where they do not exhibit + a progress of liberty they usually exhibit a progress of + servitude.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It can hardly be + asserted that Christianity had much influence <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> upon this change. By accelerating in some + degree that withdrawal of the virtuous energies of the people from + the sphere of government which had long been in process, it prevented + the great improvement of morals, which it undoubtedly effected, from + appearing perceptibly in public affairs. It taught a doctrine of + passive obedience, which its disciples nobly observed in the worst + periods of persecution. On the other hand, the Christians + emphatically repudiated the ascription of Divine honours to the + sovereign, and they asserted with heroic constancy their independent + worship, in defiance of the law. After the time of Constantine, + however, their zeal became far less pure, and sectarian interests + wholly governed their principles. Much misapplied learning has been + employed in endeavouring to extract from the Fathers a consistent + doctrine concerning the relations of subjects to their sovereigns; + but every impartial observer may discover that the principle upon + which they acted was exceedingly simple. When a sovereign was + sufficiently orthodox in his opinions, and sufficiently zealous in + patronising the Church and in persecuting the heretics, he was + extolled as an angel. When his policy was opposed to the Church, he + was represented as a dæmon. The estimate which Gregory of Tours has + given of the character of Clovis, though far more frank, is not a + more striking instance of moral perversion than the fulsome and + indeed blasphemous adulation which Eusebius poured upon Constantine—a + sovereign whose character was at all times of the most mingled + description, and who, shortly after his conversion, put to a violent + death his son, his nephew, and his wife. If we were to estimate the + attitude of ecclesiastics to sovereigns by the language of Eusebius, + we should suppose that they ascribed to them a direct Divine + inspiration, and exalted the Imperial dignity to an extent that was + before unknown.<a id="noteref_538" name="noteref_538" href= + "#note_538"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">538</span></span></a> But + when Julian <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg + 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mounted the throne, the whole aspect of the Church was changed. This + great and virtuous, though misguided sovereign, whose private life + was a model of purity, who carried to the throne the manners, tastes, + and friendships of a philosophic life, and who proclaimed and, with + very slight exceptions, acted with the largest and most generous + toleration, was an enemy of the Church, and all the vocabulary of + invective was in consequence habitually lavished upon him. + Ecclesiastics and laymen combined in insulting him, and when, after a + brief but glorious reign of less than two years, he met an honourable + death on the battle-field, neither the disaster that had befallen the + Roman arms, nor the present dangers of the army, nor the heroic + courage which the fallen emperor had displayed, nor the majestic + tranquillity of his end, nor the tears of his faithful friends, could + shame the Christian community into the decency of silence. A peal of + brutal merriment filled the land. In Antioch the Christians assembled + in the theatres and in the churches, to celebrate with rejoicing the + death which their emperor had met in fighting against the enemies of + his country.<a id="noteref_539" name="noteref_539" href= + "#note_539"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">539</span></span></a> A crowd + of vindictive legends expressed the exultation of the Church,<a id= + "noteref_540" name="noteref_540" href="#note_540"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">540</span></span></a> and St. + Gregory Nazianzen devoted his eloquence to immortalising it. His + brother had at one time been a high official in the Empire, and had + fearlessly owned his Christianity under Julian; but that emperor not + only did not remove him from his post, but even honoured him with his + warm friendship.<a id="noteref_541" name="noteref_541" href= + "#note_541"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">541</span></span></a> The + body of Julian had been laid but a short time in the grave, when St. + Gregory delivered two fierce invectives against his memory, collected + the grotesque calumnies that had been heaped upon his character, + expressed a regret that his remains had not been flung after death + into the common sewer, and regaled the hearers by an <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> emphatic assertion of the tortures that + were awaiting him in hell. Among the Pagans a charge of the gravest + kind was brought against the Christians. It was said that Julian died + by the spear, not of an enemy, but of one of his own Christian + soldiers. When we remember that he was at once an emperor and a + general, that he fell when bravely and confidently leading his army + in the field, and in the critical moment of a battle on which the + fortunes of the Empire largely depended, this charge, which Libanius + has made, appears to involve as large an amount of base treachery as + any that can be conceived. It was probably a perfectly groundless + calumny; but the manner in which it was regarded among the Christians + is singularly characteristic. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Libanius,”</span> says one of the ecclesiastical + historians, <span class="tei tei-q">“clearly states that the emperor + fell by the hand of a Christian; and this, probably, was the truth. + It is not unlikely that some of the soldiers who then served in the + Roman army might have conceived the idea of acting like the ancient + slayers of tyrants who exposed themselves to death in the cause of + liberty, and fought in defence of their country, their families, and + their friends, and whose names are held in universal admiration. + Still less is he deserving of blame who, for the sake of God and of + religion, performed so bold a deed.”</span><a id="noteref_542" name= + "noteref_542" href="#note_542"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">542</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It may be + asserted, I think, without exaggeration, that the complete + subordination of all other principles to their theological interests, + which characterised the ecclesiastics under Julian, continued for + many centuries. No language of invective was too extreme to be + applied to a sovereign who opposed their interests. No language of + adulation was too extravagant for a sovereign who sustained them. Of + all the emperors who disgraced the throne of Constantinople, the most + odious and ferocious was probably Phocas. An obscure centurion, he + rose by a military revolt to the supreme power, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and the Emperor Maurice, with his family, + fell into his hands. He resolved to put the captive emperor to death; + but, first of all, he ordered his five children to be brought out and + to be successively murdered before the eyes of their father, who bore + the awful sight with a fine mixture of antique heroism and of + Christian piety, murmuring, as each child fell beneath the knife of + the assassin, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou art just, O Lord, and + righteous are Thy judgments,”</span> and even interposing, at the + last moment, to reveal the heroic fraud of the nurse who desired to + save his youngest child by substituting for it her own. But + Maurice—who had been a weak and avaricious rather than a vicious + sovereign—had shown himself jealous of the influence of the Pope, had + forbidden the soldiers, during the extreme danger of their country, + deserting their colours to enrol themselves as monks, and had even + encouraged the pretensions of the Archbishop of Constantinople to the + title of Universal Bishop; and, in the eyes of the Roman priests, the + recollection of these crimes was sufficient to excuse the most brutal + of murders. In two letters, full of passages from Scripture, and + replete with fulsome and blasphemous flattery, the Pope, St. Gregory + the Great, wrote to congratulate Phocas and his wife upon their + triumph; he called heaven and earth to rejoice over them; he placed + their images to be venerated in the Lateran, and he adroitly + insinuated that it was impossible that, with their well-known piety, + they could fail to be very favourable to the See of Peter.<a id= + "noteref_543" name="noteref_543" href="#note_543"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">543</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The course of + events in relation to the monarchical power was for some time + different in the East and the West. Constantine had himself assumed + more of the pomp and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg + 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + manner of an oriental sovereign than any preceding emperor, and the + court of Constantinople was soon characterised by an extravagance of + magnificence on the part of the monarch, and of adulation on the part + of the subjects, which has probably never been exceeded.<a id= + "noteref_544" name="noteref_544" href="#note_544"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">544</span></span></a> The + imperial power in the East overshadowed the ecclesiastical, and the + priests, notwithstanding their fierce outbreak during the + iconoclastic controversy, and a few minor paroxysms of revolt, + gradually sank into that contented subservience which has usually + characterised the Eastern Church. In the West, however, the Roman + bishops were in a great degree independent of the sovereigns, and in + some degree opposed to their interests. The transfer of the imperial + power to Constantinople, by leaving the Roman bishops the chief + personages in a city which long association as well as actual power + rendered the foremost in the world, was one of the great causes of + the aggrandisement of the Papacy and the Arianism of many sovereigns, + the jealousy which others exhibited of ecclesiastical encroachments, + and the lukewarmness of a few in persecuting heretics, were all + causes of dissension. On the severance of the Empire, the Western + Church came in contact with rulers of another type. The barbarian + kings were little more than military chiefs, elected for the most + part by the people, surrounded by little or no special sanctity, and + maintaining their precarious and very restricted authority by their + courage or their skill. A few feebly imitated the pomp of the Roman + emperors, but their claims had no great weight with the world. The + aureole which the genius of Theodoric cast around his throne passed + away upon his death, and the Arianism of that great sovereign + sufficiently debarred him from the sympathies of the Church. In Gaul, + under a few bold and unscrupulous men, the Merovingian dynasty + emerged from a host of petty kings, and consolidated the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> whole country into one kingdom; but after + a short period it degenerated, the kings became mere puppets in the + hands of the mayors of the palace, and these latter, whose office had + become hereditary, who were the chiefs of the great landed + proprietors, and who had acquired by their position a personal + ascendancy over the sovereigns, became the virtual rulers of the + nation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was out of + these somewhat unpromising conditions that the mediæval doctrine of + the Divine right of kings, and the general reverence for rank, that + formed the essence of chivalry, were slowly evolved. Political and + moral causes conspired in producing them. The chief political + causes—which are well known—may be summed up in a few words.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">When Leo the + Isaurian attempted, in the eighth century, to repress the worship of + images, the resistance which he met at Constantinople, though + violent, was speedily allayed; but the Pope, assuming a far higher + position than any Byzantine ecclesiastic could attain, boldly + excommunicated the emperor, and led a revolt against his authority, + which resulted in the virtual independence of Italy. His position was + at this time singularly grand. He represented a religious cause to + which the great mass of the Christian world were passionately + attached. He was venerated as the emancipator of Italy. He exhibited + in the hour of his triumph a moderation which conciliated many + enemies, and prevented the anarchy that might naturally have been + expected. He presided, at the same time, over a vast monastic + organisation, which ramified over all Christendom, propagated his + authority among many barbarous nations, and, by its special + attachment to the Papacy, as distinguished from the Episcopacy, + contributed very much to transform Christianity into a spiritual + despotism. One great danger, however, still menaced his power. The + barbarous Lombards were continually invading his territory, and + threatening the independence of Rome. The Lombard monarch, Luitprand + had quailed in the very <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg + 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + hour of his triumph before the menace of eternal torture but his + successor, Astolphus, was proof against every fear, and it seemed as + though the Papal city must have inevitably succumbed before his + arms.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their complete + military impotence, the Popes looked abroad for some foreign succour, + and they naturally turned to the Franks, whose martial tastes and + triumphs were universally renowned. Charles Martel, though simply a + mayor of the palace, had saved Europe from the Mohammedans, and the + Pope expected that he would unsheath his sword for the defence of the + Vatican. Charles, however, was deaf to all entreaties; and, although + he had done more than any ruler since Constantine for the Church, his + attention seems to have been engrossed by the interests of his own + country, and he was much alienated from the sympathies of the clergy. + An ancient legend tells how a saint saw his soul carried by dæmons + into hell, because he had secularised Church property, and a more + modern historian<a id="noteref_545" name="noteref_545" href= + "#note_545"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">545</span></span></a> has + ascribed his death to his having hesitated to defend the Pope. His + son, Pepin, however, actuated probably in different degrees by + personal ambition, a desire for military adventure, and religious + zeal, listened readily to the prayer of the Pope, and a compact was + entered into between the parties, which proved one of the most + important events in history. Pepin agreed to secure the Pope from the + danger by which he was threatened. The Pope agreed to give his + religious sanction to the ambition of Pepin, who designed to depose + the Merovingian dynasty, and to become in name, as he was already in + fact, the sovereign of Gaul.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + necessary for me to recount at length the details of these + negotiations, which are described by many historians. It is + sufficient to say, that the compact was religiously observed. Pepin + made two expeditions to Italy, and completely <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> shattered the power of the Lombards, + wresting from them the rich exarchate of Ravenna, which he ceded to + the Pope, who still retained his nominal allegiance to the Byzantine + emperor, but who became, by this donation, for the first time + avowedly an independent temporal prince. On the other hand, the + deposition of Childeric was peaceably effected; the last of the + Merovingians was immured in a monastery, and the Carlovingian dynasty + ascended the throne under the special benediction of the Pope, who + performed on the occasion the ceremony of consecration, which had not + previously been in general use,<a id="noteref_546" name="noteref_546" + href="#note_546"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">546</span></span></a> placed + the crown with his own hands on the head of Pepin, and delivered a + solemn anathema against all who should rebel against the new king or + against his successors.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extreme + importance of these events was probably not fully realised by any of + the parties concerned in them. It was evident, indeed, that the Pope + had been freed from a pressing danger, and had acquired a great + accession of temporal power, and also that a new dynasty had arisen + in Gaul under circumstances that were singularly favourable and + imposing. But, much more important than these facts was the permanent + consecration of the royal authority that had been effected. The Pope + had successfully asserted his power of deposing and elevating kings, + and had thus acquired a position which influenced the whole + subsequent course of European history. The monarch, if he had become + in some degree subservient to the priest, had become in a great + degree independent of his people; the Divine origin of his power was + regarded as a dogma of religion, and a sanctity surrounded him which + immeasurably aggrandised his power. The ascription, by the Pagans, of + divinity to kings had had no appreciable effect in increasing their + authority or restraining the limits of criticism or of rebellion. The + ascription of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg + 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + Divine right to kings, independent of the wishes of the people, has + been one of the most enduring and most potent of superstitions, and + it has even now not wholly vanished from the world.<a id= + "noteref_547" name="noteref_547" href="#note_547"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">547</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Mere isolated + political events have, however, rarely or never this profound + influence, unless they have been preceded and prepared by other + agencies. The first predisposing cause of the ready reception of the + doctrine of the Divine character of authority, may probably be found + in the prominence of the monastic system. I have already observed + that this system represents in its extreme form that exaltation of + the virtues of humility and of obedience which so broadly + distinguishes the Christian from the Pagan type of excellence. I have + also noticed that, owing to the concurrence of many causes, it had + acquired such dimensions and influence as to supply the guiding ideal + of the Christian world. Controlling or monopolising all education and + literature, furnishing most of the legislators and many of the + statesmen of the age, attracting to themselves all moral enthusiasm + and most intellectual ability, the monks soon left their impress on + the character of nations. Habits of obedience and dispositions of + humility were diffused, revered, and idealised, and a Church which + rested mainly on tradition fostered a deep sense of the sanctity of + antiquity, and a natural disposition to observe traditional customs. + In this <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name= + "Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> manner a tone of + feeling was gradually formed that assimilated with the monarchical + and aristocratical institutions of feudalism, which flourished + chiefly because they corresponded with the moral feelings of the + time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the next place, + a series of social and political causes diminished the personal + independence for which the barbarians had been noted. The king had at + first been, not the sovereign of a country, but the chief of a + tribe.<a id="noteref_548" name="noteref_548" href= + "#note_548"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">548</span></span></a> + Gradually, however, with more settled habits, the sovereignty assumed + a territorial character, and we may soon discover the rudiments of a + territorial aristocracy. The kings gave their leading chiefs portions + of conquered land or of the royal domains, under the name of + benefices. The obligation of military service was attached to these + benefices, and by slow and perhaps insensible stages, each of which + has been the subject of fierce controversy, they were made + irrevocable, and ultimately hereditary. While society was still + disorganised, small landlords purchased the protection of the Church, + or of some important chief, by surrendering their estates, which they + received back as tenants, subject to the condition of the payment of + rent, or of military service. Others, without making such surrender, + placed themselves under the care of a neighbouring lord, and offered, + in return, homage or military aid. At the same time, through causes + to which I have already adverted, the free peasants for the most part + sank into serfs, subject to and protected by the landowners. In this + manner a hierarchy of ranks was gradually formed, of which the + sovereign was the apex and the serf the basis. The complete legal + organisation of this hierarchy belongs to <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the period of feudalism, which is not within + the scope of the present volume; but the chief elements of feudalism + existed before Charlemagne, and the moral results flowing from them + may be already discerned. Each rank, except the very highest, was + continually brought into contact with a superior, and a feeling of + constant dependence and subordination was accordingly fostered. To + the serf, who depended for all things upon the neighbouring noble, to + the noble, who held all his dignities on the condition of frequent + military service under his sovereign, the idea of secular rank became + indissolubly connected with that of supreme greatness.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It will appear + evident, from the foregoing observations, that in the period before + Charlemagne the moral and political causes were already in action, + which at a much later period produced the organisation of chivalry—an + organisation which was founded on the combination and the + glorification of secular rank and military prowess. But, in order + that the tendencies I have described should acquire their full force, + it was necessary that they should be represented or illustrated in + some great personage, who, by the splendour and the beauty of his + career, could fascinate the imaginations of men. It is much easier to + govern great masses of men through their imagination than through + their reason. Moral principles rarely act powerfully upon the world, + except by way of example or ideals. When the course of events has + been to glorify the ascetic or monarchical or military spirit, a + great saint, or sovereign, or soldier will arise, who will + concentrate in one dazzling focus the blind tendencies of his time, + kindle the enthusiasm and fascinate the imagination of the people. + But for the prevailing tendency, the great man would not have arisen, + or would not have exercised his great influence. But for the great + man, whose career appealed vividly to the imagination, the prevailing + tendency would never have acquired its full intensity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This typical + figure appeared in Charlemagne, whose <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> colossal form towers with a majestic grandeur + both in history and in romance. Of all the great rulers of men, there + has probably been no other who was so truly many-sided, whose + influence pervaded so completely all the religious, intellectual, and + political modes of thought existing in his time. Rising in one of the + darkest periods of European history, this great emperor resuscitated, + with a brief but dazzling splendour, the faded glories of the Empire + of the West, conducted, for the most part in person, numerous + expeditions against the barbarous nations around him, promulgated a + vast system of legislation, reformed the discipline of every order of + the Church, and reduced all classes of the clergy to subservience to + his will, while, by legalising tithes, he greatly increased their + material prosperity. He at the same time contributed, in a measure, + to check the intellectual decadence by founding schools and + libraries, and drawing around him all the scattered learning of + Europe. He reformed the coinage, extended commerce, influenced + religious controversies, and convoked great legislative assemblies, + which ultimately contributed largely to the organisation of + feudalism. In all these spheres the traces of his vast, organising, + and far-seeing genius may be detected, and the influence which he + exercised over the imaginations of men is shown by the numerous + legends of which he is the hero. In the preceding ages the supreme + ideal had been the ascetic. When the popular imagination embodied in + legends its conception of humanity in its noblest and most attractive + form, it instinctively painted some hermit-saint of many penances and + many miracles. In the Romances of Charlemagne and of Arthur we may + trace the dawning of a new type of greatness. The hero of the + imagination of Europe was no longer a hermit, but a king, a warrior, + a knight. The long train of influences I have reviewed, culminating + in Charlemagne, had done their work. The age of the ascetics began to + fade. The age of the crusades and of chivalry succeeded + it.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name= + "Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is curious to + observe the manner in which, under the influence of the prevailing + tendency, the career of Charlemagne was transfigured by the popular + imagination. His military enterprises had been chiefly directed + against the Saxons, against whom he had made not less than thirty-two + expeditions. With the Mohammedans he had but little contact. It was + Charles Martel, not his grandson, who, by the great battle of + Poitiers, had checked their career. Charlemagne made, in person, but + a single expedition against them in Spain, and that expedition was on + a small scale, and was disastrous in its issue. But in the + Carlovingian romances, which arose at a time when the enthusiasm of + the Crusades was permeating Christendom, events were represented in a + wholly different light. Charles Martel has no place among the ideal + combatants of the Church. He had appeared too early, his figure was + not sufficiently great to fascinate the popular imagination, and by + confiscating ecclesiastical property, and refusing to assist the Pope + against the Lombards, he had fallen under the ban of the clergy. + Charlemagne, on the other hand, was represented as the first and + greatest of the crusaders. His wars with the Saxons were scarcely + noticed. His whole life was said to have been spent in heroic and + triumphant combats with the followers of Mohammed.<a id="noteref_549" + name="noteref_549" href="#note_549"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">549</span></span></a> Among + the achievements attributed to him was an expedition to rescue Nismes + and Carcassonne from their grasp, which was, in fact, a dim tradition + of the victories of Charles Martel.<a id="noteref_550" name= + "noteref_550" href="#note_550"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">550</span></span></a> He is + even said to have carried his victorious arms into the heart of + Palestine, and he is the hero of what are probably the three earliest + extant romances of the Crusades.<a id="noteref_551" name= + "noteref_551" href="#note_551"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">551</span></span></a> In + fiction, as in history, his reign forms the <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> great landmark separating the early period of + the middle ages from the age of military Christianity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the verge of + this great change I draw this history to a close. In pursuing our + long and chequered course, from Augustus to Charlemagne, we have seen + the rise and fall of many types of character, and of many forms of + enthusiasm. We have seen the influence of universal empire expanding, + and the influence of Greek civilisation intensifying, the sympathies + of Europe. We have surveyed the successive progress of Stoicism, + Platonism, and Egyptian philosophies, at once reflecting and guiding + the moral tendencies of society. We have traced the course of + progress or retrogression in many fields of social, political, and + legislative life, have watched the cradle of European Christianity, + examined the causes of its triumph, the difficulties it encountered, + and the priceless blessings its philanthropic spirit bestowed upon + mankind. We have also pursued step by step the mournful history of + its corruption, its asceticism, and its intolerance, the various + transformations it produced or underwent when the turbid waters of + the barbarian invasions had inundated the civilisations of Europe. It + remains for me, before concluding this work, to investigate one class + of subjects to which I have, as yet, but briefly adverted—to examine + the effects of the changes I have described upon the character and + position of woman, and upon the grave moral questions concerning the + relations of the sexes.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name= + "Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> <a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. The Position Of + Women.</span></h1> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the long series + of moral revolutions that have been described in the foregoing + chapters, I have more than once had occasion to refer to the position + that was assigned to woman in the community, and to the virtues and + vices that spring directly from the relations of the sexes. I have + not, however, as yet discussed these questions with a fulness at all + corresponding to their historical importance, and I propose, in + consequence, before concluding this volume, to devote a few pages to + their examination. Of all the many questions that are treated in this + work, there is none which I approach with so much hesitation, for + there is probably none which it is so difficult to treat with + clearness and impartiality, and at the same time without exciting any + scandal or offence. The complexity of the problem, arising from the + very large place which exceptional institutions or circumstances, and + especially the influence of climate and race, have had on the + chastity of nations, I have already noticed, and the extreme delicacy + of the matters with which this branch of ethics is connected must be + palpable to all. The first duty of an historian, however, is to + truth; and it is absolutely impossible to present a true picture of + the moral condition of different ages, and to form a true estimate of + the moral effects of different religions, without adverting to the + department of morals, which has exhibited most change, and has + probably exercised most influence.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is natural + that, in the period when men are still perfect barbarians, when their + habits of life are still nomadic, and when, war and the chase, being + their sole pursuits, the qualities that are required in these form + their chief measure of excellence, the inferiority of women to men + should be regarded as undoubted, and their position should be + extremely degraded. In all those qualities which are then most + prized, women are indisputably inferior. The social qualities in + which they are especially fitted to excel have no sphere for their + display. The ascendancy of beauty is very faint, and, even if it were + otherwise, few traces of female beauty could survive the hardships of + the savage life. Woman is looked upon merely as the slave of man, and + as the minister to his passions. In the first capacity, her life is + one of continual, abject, and unrequited toil. In the second + capacity, she is exposed to all the violent revulsions of feeling + that follow, among rude men, the gratification of the animal + passions.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Even in this early + stage, however, we may trace some rudiments of those moral sentiments + which are destined at a later period to expand. The institution of + marriage exists. The value of chastity is commonly in some degree + felt, and appears in the indignation which is displayed against the + adulterer. The duty of restraining the passions is largely recognised + in the female, though the males are only restricted by the + prohibition of adultery.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The first two + steps which are taken towards the elevation of woman are probably the + abandonment of the custom of purchasing wives, and the construction + of the family on the basis of monogamy. In the earliest periods of + civilisation, the marriage contract was arranged between the + bridegroom and the father of the bride, on the condition of a sum of + money being paid by the former to the latter. This sum, which is + known in the laws of the barbarians as the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mundium,”</span><a id="noteref_552" name="noteref_552" + href="#note_552"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">552</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" + id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was in fact a payment to the + father for the cession of his daughter, who thus became the bought + slave of her husband. It is one of the most remarkable features of + the ancient laws of India, that they forbade this gift, on the ground + that the parent should not sell his child;<a id="noteref_553" name= + "noteref_553" href="#note_553"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">553</span></span></a> but + there can be little doubt that this sale was at one time the ordinary + type of marriage. In the Jewish writings we find Jacob purchasing + Leah and Rachel by certain services to their father; and this custom, + which seems to have been at one time general in Judea,<a id= + "noteref_554" name="noteref_554" href="#note_554"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">554</span></span></a> appears + in the age of Homer to have been general in Greece. At an early + period, however, of Greek history, the purchase-money was replaced by + the dowry, or sum of money paid by the father of the bride for the + use of his daughter;<a id="noteref_555" name="noteref_555" href= + "#note_555"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">555</span></span></a> and + this, although it passed into the hands of the husband, contributed + to elevate the wife, in the first place, by the dignity it gave her, + and, in the next place, by special laws, which both in Greece and + Rome secured it to her in most cases of separation.<a id= + "noteref_556" name="noteref_556" href="#note_556"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">556</span></span></a> The + wife thus possessed a guarantee against ill-usage by her husband. She + ceased to be his slave, and became in some degree a contracting + party. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name= + "Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Among the early + Germans, a different and very remarkable custom existed. The bride + did not bring any dowry to her husband, nor did the bridegroom give + anything to the father of the bride; but he gave his gift to the + bride herself, on the morning after the first night of marriage, and + this, which was called the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Morgengab,”</span> or morning gift, was the origin of + the jointure.<a id="noteref_557" name="noteref_557" href= + "#note_557"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">557</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Still more + important than the foregoing was the institution of monogamy, by + which, from its earliest days, the Greek civilisation proclaimed its + superiority to the Asiatic civilisations that had preceded it. We may + regard monogamy either in the light of our intuitive moral sentiment + on the subject of purity, or in the light of the interests of + society. In its Oriental or polygamous stage, marriage is regarded + almost exclusively, in its lowest aspect, as a gratification of the + passions; while in European marriages the mutual attachment and + respect of the contracting parties, the formation of a household, and + the long train of domestic feelings and duties that accompany it, + have all their distinguished place among the motives of the contract, + and the lower element has comparatively little prominence. In this + way it may be intelligibly said, without any reference to utilitarian + considerations, that monogamy is a higher state than polygamy. The + utilitarian arguments in its defence are also extremely powerful, and + may be summed up in three sentences. Nature, by making the number of + males and females nearly equal, indicates it as natural. In no other + form of marriage can the government of the family, which is one of + the chief ends of marriage, be so happily sustained, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and in no other does woman assume the + position of the equal of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Monogamy was the + general system in Greece, though there are said to have been slight + and temporary deviations into the earlier system, after some great + disasters, when an increase of population was ardently desired.<a id= + "noteref_558" name="noteref_558" href="#note_558"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">558</span></span></a> A broad + line must, however, be drawn between the legendary or poetical + period, as reflected in Homer and perpetuated in the tragedians, and + the later historical period. It is one of the most remarkable, and to + some writers one of the most perplexing, facts in the moral history + of Greece, that in the former and ruder period women had undoubtedly + the highest place, and their type exhibited the highest perfection. + Moral ideas, in a thousand forms, have been sublimated, enlarged, and + changed, by advancing civilisation; but it may be fearlessly asserted + that the types of female excellence which are contained in the Greek + poems, while they are among the earliest, are also among the most + perfect in the literature of mankind. The conjugal tenderness of + Hector and Andromache; the unwearied fidelity of Penelope, awaiting + through the long revolving years the return of her storm-tossed + husband, who looked forward to her as to the crown of all his + labours; the heroic love of Alcestis, voluntarily dying that her + husband might live; the filial piety of Antigone; the majestic + grandeur of the death of Polyxena; the more subdued and saintly + resignation of Iphigenia, excusing with her last breath the father + who had condemned her; the joyous, modest, and loving Nausicaa, whose + figure shines like a perfect idyll among the tragedies of the + Odyssey—all these are pictures of perennial beauty, which Rome and + Christendom, chivalry and modern civilisation, have neither eclipsed + nor transcended. Virgin modesty and conjugal fidelity, the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" + id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> graces as well as the virtues + of the most perfect womanhood, have never been more exquisitely + pourtrayed. The female figures stand out in the canvas almost as + prominently as the male ones, and are surrounded by an almost equal + reverence. The whole history of the Siege of Troy is a history of the + catastrophes that followed a violation of the nuptial tie. Yet, at + the same time, the position of women was in some respects a degraded + one. The custom of purchase-money given to the father of the bride + was general. The husbands appear to have indulged largely, and with + little or no censure, in concubines.<a id="noteref_559" name= + "noteref_559" href="#note_559"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">559</span></span></a> Female + captives of the highest rank were treated with great harshness. The + inferiority of women to men was strongly asserted, and it was + illustrated and defended by a very curious physiological notion, that + the generative power belonged exclusively to men, women having only a + very subordinate part in the production of their children.<a id= + "noteref_560" name="noteref_560" href="#note_560"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">560</span></span></a> The + woman Pandora was said to have been the author of all human ills.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the historical + age of Greece, the legal position of women had in some respects + slightly improved, but their moral condition had undergone a marked + deterioration. Virtuous women lived a life of perfect seclusion. The + foremost and most dazzling type of Ionic womanhood was the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" + id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> courtesan, while, among the + men, the latitude accorded by public opinion was almost + unrestricted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The facts in moral + history, which it is at once most important and most difficult to + appreciate, are what may be called the facts of feeling. It is much + easier to show what men did or taught than to realise the state of + mind that rendered possible such actions or teaching; and in the case + before us we have to deal with a condition of feeling so extremely + remote from that of our own day, that the difficulty is preeminently + great. Very sensual, and at the same time very brilliant societies, + have indeed repeatedly existed, and the histories of both France and + Italy afford many examples of an artistic and intellectual enthusiasm + encircling those who were morally most frail; but the peculiarity of + Greek sensuality is, that it grew up, for the most part, uncensured, + and indeed even encouraged, under the eyes of some of the most + illustrious of moralists. If we can imagine Ninon de l'Enclos at a + time when the rank and splendour of Parisian society thronged her + drawing-rooms, reckoning a Bossuet or a Fénelon among her + followers—if we can imagine these prelates publicly advising her + about the duties of her profession, and the means of attaching the + affections of her lovers—we shall have conceived a relation scarcely + more strange than that which existed between Socrates and the + courtesan Theodota.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + reconstruct, as far as possible, the modes of feeling of the Greek + moralists, it will be necessary in the first place to say a few words + concerning one of the most delicate, but at the same time most + important, problems with which the legislator and the moralist have + to deal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a favourite + doctrine of the Christian Fathers, that concupiscence, or the sensual + passion, was <span class="tei tei-q">“the original sin”</span> of + human nature; and it must be owned that the progress of knowledge, + which is usually extremely opposed to the ascetic theory of life, + concurs with the theological view, in showing <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the natural force of this appetite to be + far greater than the well-being of man requires. The writings of + Malthus have proved, what the Greek moralists appear in a + considerable degree to have seen, that its normal and temperate + exercise in the form of marriage, would produce, if universal, the + utmost calamities to the world, and that, while nature seems in the + most unequivocal manner to urge the human race to early marriages, + the first condition of an advancing civilisation in populous + countries is to restrain or diminish them. In no highly civilised + society is marriage general on the first development of the passions, + and the continual tendency of increasing knowledge is to render such + marriages more rare. It is also an undoubted truth that, however much + moralists may enforce the obligation of extra-matrimonial purity, + this obligation has never been even approximately regarded; and in + all nations, ages, and religions a vast mass of irregular indulgence + has appeared, which has probably contributed more than any other + single cause to the misery and the degradation of man.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are two ends + which a moralist, in dealing with this question, will especially + regard—the natural duty of every man doing something for the support + of the child he has called into existence, and the preservation of + the domestic circle unassailed and unpolluted. The family is the + centre and the archetype of the State, and the happiness and goodness + of society are always in a very great degree dependent upon the + purity of domestic life. The essentially exclusive nature of marital + affection, and the natural desire of every man to be certain of the + paternity of the child he supports, render the incursions of + irregular passions within the domestic circle a cause of extreme + suffering. Yet it would appear as if the excessive force of these + passions would render such incursions both frequent and + inevitable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under these + circumstances, there has arisen in society a figure which is + certainly the most mournful, and in some <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> respects the most awful, upon which the eye of + the moralist can dwell. That unhappy being whose very name is a shame + to speak; who counterfeits with a cold heart the transports of + affection, and submits herself as the passive instrument of lust; who + is scorned and insulted as the vilest of her sex, and doomed, for the + most part, to disease and abject wretchedness and an early death, + appears in every age as the perpetual symbol of the degradation and + the sinfulness of man. Herself the supreme type of vice, she is + ultimately the most efficient guardian of virtue. But for her, the + unchallenged purity of countless happy homes would be polluted, and + not a few who, in the pride of their untempted chastity, think of her + with an indignant shudder, would have known the agony of remorse and + of despair. On that one degraded and ignoble form are concentrated + the passions that might have filled the world with shame. She + remains, while creeds and civilisations rise and fall, the eternal + priestess of humanity, blasted for the sins of the people.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In dealing with + this unhappy being, and with all of her sex who have violated the law + of chastity, the public opinion of most Christian countries + pronounces a sentence of extreme severity. In the Anglo-Saxon nations + especially, a single fault of this kind is sufficient, at least in + the upper and middle classes, to affix an indelible brand which no + time, no virtues, no penitence can wholly efface. This sentence is + probably, in the first instance, simply the expression of the + religious feeling on the subject, but it is also sometimes defended + by powerful arguments drawn from the interests of society. It is said + that the preservation of domestic purity is a matter of such + transcendent importance that it is right that the most crushing + penalties should be attached to an act which the imagination can + easily transfigure, which legal enactments can never efficiently + control, and to which the most violent passions may prompt. It is + said, too, that an anathema which drives into obscurity all evidences + of sensual passions <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg + 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> is + peculiarly fitted to restrict their operation; for, more than any + other passions, they are dependent on the imagination, which is + readily fired by the sight of evil. It is added, that the emphasis + with which the vice is stigmatised produces a corresponding + admiration for the opposite virtue, and that a feeling of the most + delicate and scrupulous honour is thus formed among the female + population, which not only preserves from gross sin, but also + dignifies and ennobles the whole character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In opposition to + these views, several considerations of much weight have been urged. + It is argued that, however persistently society may ignore this form + of vice, it exists nevertheless, and on the most gigantic scale, and + that evil rarely assumes such inveterate and perverting forms as when + it is shrouded in obscurity and veiled by an hypocritical appearance + of unconsciousness. The existence in England of certainly not less + than fifty thousand unhappy women,<a id="noteref_561" name= + "noteref_561" href="#note_561"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">561</span></span></a> sunk in + the very lowest depths of vice and misery, shows sufficiently what an + appalling amount of moral evil is festering uncontrolled, + undiscussed, and unalleviated, under the fair surface of a decorous + society. In the eyes of every physician, and indeed in the eyes of + most continental writers who have adverted to the subject, no other + feature of English life appears so infamous as the fact that an + epidemic, which is one of the most dreadful now existing among + mankind, which communicates itself from the guilty husband to the + innocent wife, and even transmits its taint to her offspring, and + which the experience of other nations conclusively proves may be + vastly diminished, should be suffered to rage unchecked <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> because the Legislature refuses to take + official cognisance of its existence, or proper sanitary measures for + its repression.<a id="noteref_562" name="noteref_562" href= + "#note_562"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">562</span></span></a> If the + terrible censure which English public opinion passes upon every + instance of female frailty in some degree diminishes the number, it + does not prevent such instances from being extremely numerous, and it + immeasurably aggravates the suffering they produce. Acts which in + other European countries would excite only a slight and transient + emotion, spread in England, over a wide circle, all the bitterness of + unmitigated anguish. Acts which naturally neither imply nor produce a + total subversion of the moral feelings, and which, in other + countries, are often followed by happy, virtuous, and affectionate + lives, in England almost invariably lead to absolute ruin. + Infanticide is greatly multiplied, and a vast proportion of those + whose reputations and lives have been blasted by one momentary sin, + are hurled into the abyss of habitual prostitution—a condition which, + owing to the sentence of public opinion and the neglect of + legislators, is in no other European country so hopelessly vicious or + so irrevocable.<a id="noteref_563" name="noteref_563" href= + "#note_563"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">563</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is added, too, + that the immense multitude who are thus doomed to the extremity of + life-long wretchedness are not always, perhaps not generally, of + those whose dispositions seem naturally incapable of virtue. The + victims of <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg + 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + seduction are often led aside quite as much by the ardour of their + affections, and by the vivacity of their intelligence, as by any + vicious propensities.<a id="noteref_564" name="noteref_564" href= + "#note_564"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">564</span></span></a> Even in + the lowest grades, the most dispassionate observers have detected + remains of higher feelings, which, in a different moral atmosphere, + and under different moral husbandry, would have undoubtedly been + developed.<a id="noteref_565" name="noteref_565" href= + "#note_565"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">565</span></span></a> The + statistics of prostitution show that a great proportion of those who + have fallen into it have been impelled by the most extreme poverty, + in many instances verging upon starvation.<a id="noteref_566" name= + "noteref_566" href="#note_566"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">566</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These opposing + considerations, which I have very briefly indicated, and which I do + not propose to discuss or to <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> estimate, will be sufficient to exhibit the + magnitude of the problem. In the Greek civilisation, legislators and + moralists endeavoured to meet it by the cordial recognition of two + distinct orders of womanhood<a id="noteref_567" name="noteref_567" + href="#note_567"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">567</span></span></a>—the + wife, whose first duty was fidelity to her husband; the hetæra, or + mistress, who subsisted by her fugitive attachments. The wives of the + Greeks lived in almost absolute seclusion. They were usually married + when very young. Their occupations were to weave, to spin, to + embroider, to superintend the household, to care for their sick + slaves. They lived in a special and retired part of the house. The + more wealthy seldom went abroad, and never except when accompanied by + a female slave; never attended the public spectacles; received no + male visitors except in the presence of their husbands, and had not + even a seat at their own tables when male guests were there. Their + pre-eminent virtue was fidelity, and it is probable that this was + very strictly and very generally observed. Their remarkable freedom + from temptations, the public opinion which strongly discouraged any + attempt to seduce them, and the ample sphere for illicit pleasures + that was accorded to the other sex, all contributed to protect it. On + the other hand, living, as they did, almost exclusively among their + female slaves, being deprived of all the educating influence of male + society, and having no place at those public spectacles which were + the chief means of Athenian culture, their minds must necessarily + have been exceedingly contracted. Thucydides doubtless expressed the + prevailing sentiment of his countrymen when he said that the highest + merit of woman is not to be spoken of either for good or for + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" + id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> evil; and Phidias illustrated + the same feeling when he represented the heavenly Aphrodite standing + on a tortoise, typifying thereby the secluded life of a virtuous + woman.<a id="noteref_568" name="noteref_568" href= + "#note_568"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">568</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their own + restricted sphere their lives were probably not unhappy. Education + and custom rendered the purely domestic life that was assigned to + them a second nature, and it must in most instances have reconciled + them to the extra-matrimonial connections in which their husbands too + frequently indulged. The prevailing manners were very gentle. + Domestic oppression is scarcely ever spoken of; the husband lived + chiefly in the public place; causes of jealousy and of dissension + could seldom occur; and a feeling of warm affection, though not a + feeling of equality, must doubtless have in most cases spontaneously + arisen. In the writings of Xenophon we have a charming picture of a + husband who had received into his arms his young wife of fifteen, + absolutely ignorant of the world and of its ways. He speaks to her + with extreme kindness, but in the language that would be used to a + little child. Her task, he tells her, is to be like a queen bee, + dwelling continually at home and superintending the work of her + slaves. She must distribute to each their tasks, must economise the + family income, and must take especial care that the house is strictly + orderly—the shoes, the pots, and the clothes always in their places. + It is also, he tells her, a part of her duty to tend her sick slaves; + but here his wife interrupted him, exclaiming, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nay, but that will indeed be the most agreeable of my + offices, if such as I treat with kindness are likely to be grateful, + and to love me more than before.”</span> With a very tender and + delicate care to avoid everything resembling a reproach, the husband + persuades his wife to give up the habits of wearing high-heeled + boots, in order to appear tall, and of colouring her face with + vermilion and white lead. He promises her that if she faithfully + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" + id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> performs her duties he will + himself be the first and most devoted of her slaves. He assured + Socrates that when any domestic dispute arose he could extricate + himself admirably, if he was in the right; but that, whenever he was + in the wrong, he found it impossible to convince his wife that it was + otherwise.<a id="noteref_569" name="noteref_569" href= + "#note_569"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">569</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">We have another + picture of Greek married life in the writings of Plutarch, but it + represents the condition of the Greek mind at a later period than + that of Xenophon. In Plutarch the wife is represented not as the mere + housekeeper, or as the chief slave of her husband, but as his equal + and his companion. He enforces, in the strongest terms, reciprocity + of obligations, and desires that the minds of women should be + cultivated to the highest point.<a id="noteref_570" name= + "noteref_570" href="#note_570"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">570</span></span></a> His + precepts of marriage, indeed, fall little if at all below any that + have appeared in modern days. His letter of consolation to his wife, + on the death of their child, breathes a spirit of the tenderest + affection. It is recorded of him that, having had some dispute with + the relations of his wife, she feared that it might impair their + domestic happiness, and she accordingly persuaded her husband to + accompany her on a pilgrimage to Mount Helicon, where they offered up + together a sacrifice to Love, and prayed that their affection for one + another might never be diminished.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In general, + however, the position of the virtuous Greek woman was a very low one. + She was under a perpetual tutelage: first of all to her parents, who + disposed of her hand, then to her husband, and in her days of + widowhood to her sons. In cases of inheritance her male relations + were preferred to her. The privilege of divorce, which, in Athens, at + least, she possessed as well as her husband, appears to have been + practically almost nugatory, on account of the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> shock which public declarations in the + law court gave to the habits which education and public opinion had + formed. She brought with her, however, a dowry, and the recognised + necessity of endowing daughters was one of the causes of those + frequent expositions which were perpetrated with so little blame. The + Athenian law was also peculiarly careful and tender in dealing with + the interests of female orphans.<a id="noteref_571" name= + "noteref_571" href="#note_571"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">571</span></span></a> Plato + had argued that women were equal to men; but the habits of the people + were totally opposed to this theory. Marriage was regarded chiefly in + a civic light, as the means of producing citizens, and in Sparta it + was ordered that old or infirm husbands should cede their young wives + to stronger men, who could produce vigorous soldiers for the State. + The Lacedæmonian treatment of women, which differed in many respects + from that which prevailed in the other Greek States, while it was + utterly destructive of all delicacy of feeling or action, had + undoubtedly the effect of producing a fierce and masculine + patriotism; and many fine examples are recorded of Spartan mothers + devoting their sons on the altar of their country, rejoicing over + their deaths when nobly won, and infusing their own heroic spirit + into the armies of the people. For the most part, however, the names + of virtuous women seldom appear in Greek history. The simple modesty + which was evinced by Phocion's wife, in the period when her husband + occupied the foremost position in Athens,<a id="noteref_572" name= + "noteref_572" href="#note_572"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">572</span></span></a> and a + few instances of conjugal and filial affection, have been recorded; + but in general the only women who attracted the notice of the people + were the hetæræ, or courtesans.<a id="noteref_573" name="noteref_573" + href="#note_573"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">573</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In order to + understand the position which these last assumed in Greek life, we + must transport ourselves in thought into a moral latitude totally + different from our own. The Greek conception of excellence was the + full and perfect development of humanity in all its organs and + functions, and without any tinge of asceticism. Some parts of human + nature were recognised as higher than others; and to suffer any of + the lower appetites to obscure the mind, restrain the will and + engross the energies of life, was acknowledged to be disgraceful; but + the systematic repression of a natural appetite was totally foreign + to Greek modes of thought. Legislators, moralists, and the general + voice of the people, appear to have applied these principles almost + unreservedly to intercourse between the sexes, and the most virtuous + men habitually and openly entered into relations which would now be + almost universally censured.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The experience, + however, of many societies has shown that a public opinion may + accord, in this respect, almost unlimited licence to one sex, without + showing any corresponding indulgence to the other. But, in Greece, a + concurrence of causes had conspired to bring a certain section of + courtesans into a position they have in no other society attained. + The voluptuous worship of Aphrodite gave a kind of religious sanction + to their profession. Courtesans were the priestesses in her temples, + and those of Corinth were believed by their prayers to have averted + calamities from their city. Prostitution is said to have entered into + the religious rites of Babylon, Biblis, Cyprus, and Corinth, and + these as well as Miletus, Tenedos, Lesbos, and Abydos became famous + for their schools of vice, which grew up under the shadow of the + temples.<a id="noteref_574" name="noteref_574" href= + "#note_574"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">574</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the next place, + the intense æsthetic enthusiasm that prevailed was eminently fitted + to raise the most beautiful to honour. In a land and beneath a sky + where natural beauty developed to the highest point, there arose a + school of matchless artists both in painting and in sculpture, and + public games and contests were celebrated, in which supreme physical + perfection was crowned by an assembled people. In no other period of + the world's history was the admiration of beauty in all its forms so + passionate or so universal. It coloured the whole moral teaching of + the time, and led the chief moralists to regard virtue simply as the + highest kind of supersensual beauty. It appeared in all literature, + where the beauty of form and style was the first of studies. It + supplied at once the inspiration and the rule of all Greek art. It + led the Greek wife to pray, before all other prayers, for the beauty + of her children. It surrounded the most beautiful with an aureole of + admiring reverence. The courtesan was often the queen of beauty. She + was the model of the statues of Aphrodite, that commanded the + admiration of Greece. Praxiteles was accustomed to reproduce the form + of Phryne, and her statue, carved in gold, stood in the temple of + Apollo at Delphi; and when she was accused of corrupting the youth of + Athens, her advocate, Hyperides, procured her acquittal by suddenly + unveiling her charms before the dazzled eyes of the assembled judges. + Apelles was at once the painter and the lover of Laïs, and Alexander + gave him, as the choicest gift, his own favourite concubine, of whom + the painter had become enamoured while pourtraying her. The chief + flower-painter of antiquity acquired his skill through his love of + the flower-girl Glycera, whom he was accustomed to paint among her + garlands. Pindar and Simonides sang the praises of courtesans, and + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" + id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> grave philosophers made + pilgrimages to visit them, and their names were known in every + city.<a id="noteref_575" name="noteref_575" href= + "#note_575"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">575</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + surprising that, in such a state of thought and feeling, many of the + more ambitious and accomplished women should have betaken themselves + to this career, nor yet that they should have attained the social + position which the secluded existence and the enforced ignorance of + the Greek wives had left vacant. The courtesan was the one free woman + of Athens, and she often availed herself of her freedom to acquire a + degree of knowledge which enabled her to add to her other charms an + intense intellectual fascination. Gathering around her the most + brilliant artists, poets, historians, and philosophers, she flung + herself unreservedly into the intellectual and æsthetic enthusiasms + of her time, and soon became the centre of a literary society of + matchless splendour. Aspasia, who was as famous for her genius as for + her beauty, won the passionate love of Pericles. She is said to have + instructed him in eloquence, and to have composed some of his most + famous orations; she was continually consulted on affairs of state; + and Socrates, like other philosophers, attended her assemblies. + Socrates himself has owned his deep obligations to the instructions + of a courtesan named Diotima. The courtesan Leontium was among the + most ardent disciples of Epicurus.<a id="noteref_576" name= + "noteref_576" href="#note_576"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">576</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another cause + probably contributed indirectly to the elevation of this class, to + which it is extremely difficult to allude in an English book, but + which it is impossible altogether <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> to omit, even in the most cursory survey of + Greek morals. Irregular female connections were looked upon as + ordinary and not disgraceful incidents in the life of a good man, for + they were compared with that lower abyss of unnatural love, which was + the deepest and strangest taint of Greek civilisation. This vice, + which never appears in the writings of Homer and Hesiod, doubtless + arose under the influence of the public games, which, accustoming men + to the contemplation of absolutely nude figures,<a id="noteref_577" + name="noteref_577" href="#note_577"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">577</span></span></a> awoke + an unnatural passion,<a id="noteref_578" name="noteref_578" href= + "#note_578"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">578</span></span></a> totally + remote from all modern feelings, but which in Greece it was regarded + as heroic to resist.<a id="noteref_579" name="noteref_579" href= + "#note_579"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">579</span></span></a> The + popular religion in this, as in other cases, was made to bend to the + new vice. Hebe, the cup-bearer of the gods, was replaced by Ganymede, + and the worst vices of earth were transported to Olympus.<a id= + "noteref_580" name="noteref_580" href="#note_580"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">580</span></span></a> Artists + sought to reflect the passion in their <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> statues of the Hermaphrodite, of Bacchus, and + the more effeminate Apollo; moralists were known to praise it as the + bond of friendship, and it was spoken of as the inspiring enthusiasm + of the heroic Theban legion of Epaminondas.<a id="noteref_581" name= + "noteref_581" href="#note_581"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">581</span></span></a> In + general, however, it was stigmatised as unquestionably a vice, but it + was treated with a levity we can now hardly conceive. We can scarcely + have a better illustration of the extent to which moral ideas and + feelings have changed, than the fact that the first two Greeks who + were considered worthy of statues by their fellow-countrymen are said + to have been Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who were united by an impure + love, and who were glorified for a political assassination.<a id= + "noteref_582" name="noteref_582" href="#note_582"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">582</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is probable + that this cause conspired with the others to dissociate the class of + courtesans from the idea of supreme depravity with which they have + usually been connected. The great majority, however, were sunk in + this, as in all other ages, in abject degradation;<a id="noteref_583" + name="noteref_583" href="#note_583"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">583</span></span></a> + comparatively few attained the condition of hetæræ, and even of these + it is probable that the greater number exhibited the characteristics + which in all ages have attached to their class. Faithlessness, + extreme rapacity, and extravagant luxury, were common among them; but + yet it is unquestionable that there were many exceptions. The + excommunication of society did not press upon or degrade them; and + though they were never regarded with the same honour as married + women, it seems generally to have been believed that the wife and the + courtesan had each her place and her function in the world, and her + own peculiar type of excellence. The courtesan Leæna, who was a + friend of Harmodius, died in torture rather than reveal <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the conspiracy of her friend, and the + Athenians, in allusion to her name, caused the statue of a tongueless + lioness to be erected to commemorate her constancy.<a id= + "noteref_584" name="noteref_584" href="#note_584"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">584</span></span></a> The + gentle manners and disinterested affection of a courtesan named + Bacchis were especially recorded, and a very touching letter paints + her character, and describes the regret that followed her to the + tomb.<a id="noteref_585" name="noteref_585" href= + "#note_585"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">585</span></span></a> In one + of the most remarkable of his pictures of Greek life, Xenophon + describes how Socrates, having heard of the beauty of the courtesan + Theodota, went with his disciples to ascertain for himself whether + the report was true; how with a quiet humour he questioned her about + the sources of the luxury of her dwelling, and how he proceeded to + sketch for her the qualities she should cultivate in order to attach + her lovers. She ought, he tells her, to shut the door against the + insolent, to watch her lovers in sickness, to rejoice greatly when + they succeed in anything honourable, to love tenderly those who love + her. Having carried on a cheerful and perfectly unembarrassed + conversation with her, with no kind of reproach on his part, either + expressed or implied, and with no trace either of the timidity or + effrontery of conscious guilt upon hers, the best and wisest of the + Greeks left his hostess with a graceful compliment to her + beauty.<a id="noteref_586" name="noteref_586" href= + "#note_586"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">586</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">My task in + describing this aspect of Greek life has been an eminently unpleasing + one, and I should certainly not have entered upon even the baldest + and most guarded disquisition on a subject so difficult, painful, and + delicate, had it not been absolutely indispensable to a history of + morals to give at least an outline of the progress that has + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" + id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> been effected in this sphere. + What I have written will sufficiently explain why Greece, which was + fertile, beyond all other lands, in great men, was so remarkably + barren of great women. It will show, too, that while the Greek + moralists recognised, like ourselves, the distinction between the + higher and the lower sides of our nature, they differed very widely + from modern public opinion in the standard of morals they enforced. + The Christian doctrine, that it is criminal to gratify a powerful and + a transient physical appetite, except under the condition of a + lifelong contract, was altogether unknown. Strict duties were imposed + upon Greek wives. Duties were imposed at a later period, though less + strictly, upon the husband. Unnatural love was stigmatised, but with + a levity of censure which to a modern mind appears inexpressibly + revolting. Some slight legal disqualifications rested upon the whole + class of hetæræ, and, though more admired, they were less respected + than women who had adopted a domestic life; but a combination of + circumstances had raised them, in actual worth and in popular + estimation, to an unexampled elevation, and an aversion to marriage + became very general, and extra-matrimonial connections were formed + with the most perfect frankness and publicity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If we now turn to + the Roman civilisation, we shall find that some important advances + had been made in the condition of women. The virtue of chastity has, + as I have shown, been regarded in two different ways. The utilitarian + view, which commonly prevails in countries where a political spirit + is more powerful than a religious spirit, regards marriage as the + ideal state, and to promote the happiness, sanctity, and security of + this state is the main object of all its precepts. The mystical view + which rests upon the natural feeling of shame, and which, as history + proves, has prevailed especially where political sentiment is very + low, and religious sentiment very strong, regards virginity as its + supreme type, and marriage as simply the most pardonable declension + from <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name= + "Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> ideal purity. It is, I + think, a very remarkable fact, that at the head of the religious + system of Rome we find two sacerdotal bodies which appear + respectively to typify these ideas. The Flamens of Jupiter and the + Vestal Virgins were the two most sacred orders in Rome. The + ministrations of each were believed to be vitally important to the + State. Each could officiate only within the walls of Rome. Each was + appointed with the most imposing ceremonies. Each was honoured with + the most profound reverence. But in one important respect they + differed. The Vestal was the type of virginity, and her purity was + guarded by the most terrific penalties. The Flamen, on the other + hand, was the representative of Roman marriage in its strictest and + holiest form. He was necessarily married. His marriage was celebrated + with the most solemn rites. It could only be dissolved by death. If + his wife died, he was degraded from his office.<a id="noteref_587" + name="noteref_587" href="#note_587"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">587</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Of these two + orders, there can be no question that the Flamen was the most + faithful expression of the Roman sentiments. The Roman religion was + essentially domestic, and it was a main object of the legislator to + surround marriage with every circumstance of dignity and solemnity. + Monogamy was, from the earliest times, strictly enjoined; and it was + one of the great benefits that have resulted from the expansion of + Roman power, that it made this type dominant in Europe. In the + legends of early Rome we have ample evidence both of the high moral + estimate of women, and of their prominence in Roman life. The + tragedies of Lucretia and of Virginia display a delicacy of honour, a + sense of the supreme excellence of unsullied purity, which no + Christian nation could surpass. The legends of the Sabine women + interceding between their parents and their husbands, and thus saving + the infant republic, and of the mother of Coriolanus <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> averting by her prayers the ruin + impending over her country, entitled women to claim their share in + the patriotic glories of Rome. A temple of Venus Calva was associated + with the legend of Roman ladies, who, in an hour of danger, cut off + their long tresses to make bowstrings for the soldiers.<a id= + "noteref_588" name="noteref_588" href="#note_588"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">588</span></span></a> Another + temple preserved to all posterity the memory of the filial piety of + that Roman woman who, when her mother was condemned to be starved to + death, obtained permission to visit her in her prison, and was + discovered feeding her from her breast.<a id="noteref_589" name= + "noteref_589" href="#note_589"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">589</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The legal + position, however, of the Roman wife was for a long period extremely + low. The Roman family was constituted on the principle of the + uncontrolled authority of its head, both over his wife and over his + children, and he could repudiate the former at will. Neither the + custom of gifts to the father of the bride, nor the custom of + dowries, appears to have existed in the earliest period of Roman + history; but the father disposed absolutely of the hand of his + daughter, and sometimes even possessed the power of breaking off + marriages that had been actually contracted.<a id="noteref_590" name= + "noteref_590" href="#note_590"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">590</span></span></a> In the + forms of marriage, however, which were usual in the earlier periods + of Rome, the absolute power passed into the hands of the husband, and + he had the right, in some cases, of putting her to death.<a id= + "noteref_591" name="noteref_591" href="#note_591"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">591</span></span></a> Law and + public opinion combined in making matrimonial purity most strict. For + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" + id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> five hundred and twenty years, + it was said, there was no such thing as a divorce in Rome.<a id= + "noteref_592" name="noteref_592" href="#note_592"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">592</span></span></a> Manners + were so severe, that a senator was censured for indecency because he + had kissed his wife in the presence of their daughter.<a id= + "noteref_593" name="noteref_593" href="#note_593"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">593</span></span></a> It was + considered in a high degree disgraceful for a Roman mother to + delegate to a nurse the duty of suckling her child.<a id= + "noteref_594" name="noteref_594" href="#note_594"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">594</span></span></a> + Sumptuary laws regulated with the most minute severity all the + details of domestic economy.<a id="noteref_595" name="noteref_595" + href="#note_595"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">595</span></span></a> The + courtesan class, though probably numerous and certainly uncontrolled, + were regarded with much contempt. The disgrace of publicly professing + themselves members of it was believed to be a sufficient + punishment;<a id="noteref_596" name="noteref_596" href= + "#note_596"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">596</span></span></a> and an + old law, which was probably intended to teach in symbol the duties of + married life, enjoined that no such person should touch the altar of + Juno.<a id="noteref_597" name="noteref_597" href= + "#note_597"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">597</span></span></a> It was + related of a certain ædile, that he failed to obtain redress for an + assault which had been made upon him, because it had occurred in a + house of ill-fame, in which it was disgraceful for a Roman magistrate + to be found.<a id="noteref_598" name="noteref_598" href= + "#note_598"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">598</span></span></a> The + sanctity of female purity was believed to be attested by all nature. + The most savage animals became tame before a virgin.<a id= + "noteref_599" name="noteref_599" href="#note_599"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">599</span></span></a> When a + woman walked naked round a field, caterpillars and all loathsome + insects fell dead before her.<a id="noteref_600" name="noteref_600" + href="#note_600"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">600</span></span></a> It was + said that drowned men floated on their backs, and drowned women on + their faces; and this, in the opinion of Roman naturalists, was due + to the superior purity of the latter.<a id="noteref_601" name= + "noteref_601" href="#note_601"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">601</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a remark of + Aristotle, that the superiority of the Greeks to the barbarians was + shown, among other things, in the fact that the Greeks did not, like + other nations, regard their wives as slaves, but treated them as + helpmates and companions. A Roman writer has appealed, on the whole + with greater justice, to the treatment of wives by his fellow + countrymen, as a proof of the superiority of Roman to Greek + civilisation. He has observed that while the Greeks kept their wives + in a special quarter in the interior of their houses, and never + permitted them to sit at banquets except with their relatives, or to + see any male except in the presence of a relative, no Roman ever + hesitated to lead his wife with him to the feast, or to place the + mother of the family at the head of his table.<a id="noteref_602" + name="noteref_602" href="#note_602"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">602</span></span></a> + Whether, in the period when wives were completely subject to the rule + of their husbands, much domestic oppression occurred, it is now + impossible to say. A temple dedicated to a goddess named Viriplaca, + whose mission was to appease husbands, was worshipped by Roman women + on the Palatine;<a id="noteref_603" name="noteref_603" href= + "#note_603"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">603</span></span></a> and a + strange and improbable, if not incredible story, is related by Livy, + of the discovery during the Republic, of a vast conspiracy by Roman + wives to poison their husbands.<a id="noteref_604" name="noteref_604" + href="#note_604"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">604</span></span></a> On the + whole, however, it is probable that the Roman matron was from the + earliest period a name of honour;<a id="noteref_605" name= + "noteref_605" href="#note_605"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">605</span></span></a> that + the beautiful sentence of a jurisconsult of the Empire, who defined + marriage as a lifelong fellowship of all divine and human + rights,<a id="noteref_606" name="noteref_606" href= + "#note_606"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">606</span></span></a> + expressed most faithfully the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> feelings of the people, and that female virtue + had in every age a considerable place in Roman biographies.<a id= + "noteref_607" name="noteref_607" href="#note_607"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">607</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have already + enumerated the chief causes of that complete dissolution of Roman + morals which began shortly after the Punic wars, which contributed + very largely to the destruction of the Republic, and which attained + its climax under the Cæsars. There are few examples in history of a + revolution pervading so completely every sphere of religious, + domestic, social, and political life. Philosophical scepticism + corroded the ancient religions. An inundation of Eastern luxury and + Eastern morals submerged all the old habits of austere simplicity. + The civil wars and the Empire degraded the character of the people, + and the exaggerated prudery of republican manners only served to make + the rebound into vice the more irresistible. In the fierce outburst + of ungovernable and almost frantic depravity that marked this evil + period, the violations of female virtue were infamously prominent. + The vast multiplication of slaves, which is in every age peculiarly + fatal to moral purity; the fact that a great proportion of those + slaves were chosen from the most voluptuous provinces of the Empire; + the games of Flora, in which races of naked courtesans were + exhibited; the pantomimes, which derived their charms chiefly from + the audacious indecencies of the actors; the influx of the Greek and + Asiatic hetæræ who were attracted by the wealth of the metropolis; + the licentious paintings which began to adorn every house; the rise + of Baiæ, which rivalled the luxury and surpassed the beauty of the + chief centres of Asiatic vice, combining with the intoxication of + great wealth suddenly acquired, with the disruption, through many + causes, of all the ancient habits and beliefs, and with the tendency + to pleasure which the closing of the paths of honourable political + ambition by the imperial <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg + 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + despotism, naturally produced, had all their part in preparing those + orgies of vice which the writers of the Empire reveal. Most scholars + will, I suppose, retain a vivid recollection of the new insight into + the extent and wildness of human guilt which they obtained when they + first opened the pages of Suetonius or Lampridius; and the sixth + Satire of Juvenal paints with a fierce energy, though probably with + the natural exaggeration of a satirist, the extent to which + corruption had spread among the women. It was found necessary, under + Tiberius, to make a special law prohibiting members of noble houses + from enrolling themselves as prostitutes.<a id="noteref_608" name= + "noteref_608" href="#note_608"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">608</span></span></a> The + extreme coarseness of the Roman disposition prevented sensuality from + assuming that æsthetic character which had made it in Greece the + parent of Art, and had very profoundly modified its influence, while + the passion for gladiatorial shows often allied it somewhat + unnaturally with cruelty. There have certainly been many periods in + history when virtue was more rare than under the Cæsars; but there + has probably never been a period when vice was more extravagant or + uncontrolled. Young emperors especially, who were surrounded by + swarms of sycophants and panders, and who often lived in continual + dread of assassination, plunged with the most reckless and feverish + excitement into every variety of abnormal lust. The reticence which + has always more or less characterised modern society and modern + writers was unknown, and the unblushing, undisguised obscenity of the + Epigrams of Martial, of the Romances of Apuleius and Petronius, and + of some of the Dialogues of Lucian, reflected but too faithfully the + spirit of their time.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There had arisen, + too, partly through vicious causes, and partly, I suppose, through + the unfavourable influence which the attraction of the public + institutions exercised on domestic <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> life, a great and general indisposition towards + marriage, which Augustus attempted in vain to arrest by his laws + against celibacy, and by conferring many privileges on the fathers of + three children.<a id="noteref_609" name="noteref_609" href= + "#note_609"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">609</span></span></a> A + singularly curious speech is preserved, which is said to have been + delivered on this subject, shortly before the close of the Republic, + by Metellus Numidicus, in order, if possible, to overcome this + indisposition. <span class="tei tei-q">“If, Romans,”</span> he said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“we could live without wives, we should all + keep free from that source of trouble; but since nature has ordained + that men can neither live sufficiently agreeably with wives, nor at + all without them, let us consider the perpetual endurance of our race + rather than our own brief enjoyment.”</span><a id="noteref_610" name= + "noteref_610" href="#note_610"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">610</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the midst of + this torrent of corruption a great change was passing over the legal + position of Roman women. They had at first been in a condition of + absolute subjection or subordination to their relations. They + arrived, during the Empire, at a point of freedom and dignity which + they subsequently lost, and have never altogether regained. The + Romans recognised two distinct classes of marriages: the stricter, + and, in the eyes of the law, more honourable, forms, which placed the + woman <span class="tei tei-q">“in the hand”</span> of her husband and + gave him an almost absolute authority over her person and her + property; and a less strict form, which left her <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> legal position unchanged. The former, + which were general during the Republic, were of three kinds—the + <span class="tei tei-q">“confarreatio,”</span> which was celebrated + and could only be dissolved by the most solemn religious ceremonies, + and was jealously restricted to patricians; the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“coemptio,”</span> which was purely civil, and derived + its name from a symbolical sale; and the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“usus,”</span> which was effected by the mere + cohabitation of a woman with a man without interruption for the space + of a year. Under the Empire, however, these kinds of marriage became + almost wholly obsolete; a laxer form, resting upon a simple mutual + agreement, without any religious or civil ceremony, was general, and + it had this very important consequence, that the woman so married + remained, in the eyes of the law, in the family of her father, and + was under his guardianship, not under the guardianship of her + husband. But the old <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" + xml:lang="la"><span style="font-style: italic">patria + potestas</span></span> had become completely obsolete, and the + practical effect of the general adoption of this form of marriage was + the absolute legal independence of the wife. With the exception of + her dowry, which passed into the hands of her husband, she held her + property in her own right; she inherited her share of the wealth of + her father, and she retained it altogether independently of her + husband. A very considerable portion of Roman wealth thus passed into + the uncontrolled possession of women. The private man of business of + the wife was a favourite character with the comedians, and the + tyranny exercised by rich wives over their husbands—to whom it is + said they sometimes lent money at high interest—a continual theme of + satirists.<a id="noteref_611" name="noteref_611" href= + "#note_611"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">611</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A complete + revolution had thus passed over the constitution <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the family. Instead of being + constructed on the principle of autocracy, it was constructed on the + principle of coequal partnership. The legal position of the wife had + become one of complete independence, while her social position was + one of great dignity. The more conservative spirits were naturally + alarmed at the change, and two measures were taken to arrest it. The + Oppian law was designed to restrain the luxury of women; but, in + spite of the strenuous exertions of Cato, this law was speedily + repealed.<a id="noteref_612" name="noteref_612" href= + "#note_612"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">612</span></span></a> A more + important measure was the Voconian law, which restricted within very + narrow limits the property which women might inherit; but public + opinion never fully acquiesced in it, and by several legal + subterfuges its operation was partially evaded.<a id="noteref_613" + name="noteref_613" href="#note_613"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">613</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another and a + still more important consequence resulted from the changed form of + marriage. Being looked upon merely as a civil contract, entered into + for the happiness of the contracting parties, its continuance + depended upon mutual consent. Either party might dissolve it at will, + and the dissolution gave both parties a right to remarry. There can + be no question that under this system the obligations of marriage + were treated with extreme levity. We find Cicero repudiating his wife + Terentia, because he desired a new dowry;<a id="noteref_614" name= + "noteref_614" href="#note_614"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">614</span></span></a> + Augustus compelling the husband of Livia to repudiate her when she + was already pregnant, that he might marry her himself;<a id= + "noteref_615" name="noteref_615" href="#note_615"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">615</span></span></a> Cato + ceding his wife, with the consent of her father, to his friend + Hortensius, and resuming her <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> after his death;<a id="noteref_616" name= + "noteref_616" href="#note_616"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">616</span></span></a> Mæcenas + continually changing his wife;<a id="noteref_617" name="noteref_617" + href="#note_617"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">617</span></span></a> + Sempronius Sophus repudiating his wife, because she had once been to + the public games without his knowledge;<a id="noteref_618" name= + "noteref_618" href="#note_618"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">618</span></span></a> Paulus + Æmilius taking the same step without assigning any reason, and + defending himself by saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“My shoes are + new and well made, but no one knows where they pinch + me.”</span><a id="noteref_619" name="noteref_619" href= + "#note_619"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">619</span></span></a> Nor did + women show less alacrity in repudiating their husbands. Seneca + denounced this evil with especial vehemence, declaring that divorce + in Rome no longer brought with it any shame, and that there were + women who reckoned their years rather by their husbands than by the + consuls.<a id="noteref_620" name="noteref_620" href= + "#note_620"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">620</span></span></a> + Christians and Pagans echoed the same complaint. According to + Tertullian, <span class="tei tei-q">“divorce is the fruit of + marriage.”</span><a id="noteref_621" name="noteref_621" href= + "#note_621"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">621</span></span></a> Martial + speaks of a woman who had already arrived at her tenth husband;<a id= + "noteref_622" name="noteref_622" href="#note_622"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">622</span></span></a> + Juvenal, of a woman having eight husbands in five years.<a id= + "noteref_623" name="noteref_623" href="#note_623"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">623</span></span></a> But the + most extraordinary recorded instance of this kind is related by St. + Jerome, who assures us that there existed at Rome a wife who was + married to her twenty-third husband, she herself being his + twenty-first wife.<a id="noteref_624" name="noteref_624" href= + "#note_624"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">624</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are, no + doubt, extreme cases; but it is unquestionable that the stability of + married life was very seriously impaired. It would be easy, however, + to exaggerate the influence of legal changes in affecting it. In a + purer state of public opinion a very wide latitude of divorce might + probably have been allowed to both parties, without any serious + consequence. The right of repudiation, which the husband had always + possessed, was, as we have seen, in the Republic never or very rarely + exercised. Of those who scandalised good men by the rapid recurrence + of their marriages, probably <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> most, if marriage had been indissoluble, would + have refrained from entering into it, and would have contented + themselves with many informal connections, or, if they had married, + would have gratified their love of change by simple adultery. A vast + wave of corruption had flowed in upon Rome, and under any system of + law it would have penetrated into domestic life. Laws prohibiting all + divorce have never secured the purity of married life in ages of + great corruption, nor did the latitude which was accorded in imperial + Rome prevent the existence of a very large amount of female + virtue.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I have observed, + in a former chapter, that the moral contrasts shown in ancient life + surpass those of modern societies, in which we very rarely find + clusters of heroic or illustrious men arising in nations that are in + general very ignorant or very corrupt. I have endeavoured to account + for this fact by showing that the moral agencies of antiquity were in + general much more fitted to develop virtue than to repress vice, and + that they raised noble natures to almost the highest conceivable + point of excellence, while they entirely failed to coerce or to + attenuate the corruption of the depraved. In the female life of + Imperial Rome we find these contrasts vividly displayed. There can be + no question that the moral tone of the sex was extremely low—lower, + probably, than in France under the Regency, or in England under the + Restoration—and it is also certain that frightful excesses of + unnatural passion, of which the most corrupt of modern courts present + no parallel, were perpetrated with but little concealment on the + Palatine. Yet there is probably no period in which examples of + conjugal heroism and fidelity appear more frequently than in this + very age, in which marriage was most free and in which corruption was + so general. Much simplicity of manners continued to co-exist with the + excesses of an almost unbridled luxury. Augustus, we are told, used + to make his daughters and granddaughters <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> weave and spin, and his wife and sister made + most of the clothes he wore.<a id="noteref_625" name="noteref_625" + href="#note_625"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">625</span></span></a> The + skill of wives in domestic economy, and especially in spinning, was + frequently noticed in their epitaphs.<a id="noteref_626" name= + "noteref_626" href="#note_626"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">626</span></span></a> + Intellectual culture was much diffused among them,<a id="noteref_627" + name="noteref_627" href="#note_627"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">627</span></span></a> and we + meet with several noble specimens, in the sex, of large and + accomplished minds united with all the gracefulness of intense + womanhood, and all the fidelity of the truest love. Such were + Cornelia, the brilliant and devoted wife of Pompey,<a id= + "noteref_628" name="noteref_628" href="#note_628"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">628</span></span></a> Marcia, + the friend, and Helvia, the mother of Seneca. The Northern Italian + cities had in a great degree escaped the contamination of the times, + and Padua and Brescia were especially noted for the virtue of their + women.<a id="noteref_629" name="noteref_629" href= + "#note_629"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">629</span></span></a> In an + age of extravagant sensuality a noble lady, named Mallonia, plunged + her dagger in her heart rather than yield to the embraces of + Tiberius.<a id="noteref_630" name="noteref_630" href= + "#note_630"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">630</span></span></a> To the + period when the legal bond of marriage was most relaxed must be + assigned most of those noble examples of the constancy of Roman + wives, which have been for so many generations household tales among + mankind. Who has not read with emotion of the tenderness and heroism + of Porcia, claiming her right to share in the trouble which clouded + her husband's brow; how, doubting her own courage, she did not + venture to ask Brutus to reveal to her his enterprise till she had + secretly tried her power of endurance by piercing her thigh with a + knife; how once, and but once in his presence, her noble spirit + failed, when, as she was about to separate from him for the last + time, her eye chanced to fall upon a picture of the parting interview + of Hector and Andromache?<a id="noteref_631" name="noteref_631" href= + "#note_631"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">631</span></span></a> + Paulina, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg + 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + wife of Seneca, opened her own veins in order to accompany her + husband to the grave; when much blood had already flowed, her slaves + and freedmen bound her wounds, and thus compelled her to live; but + the Romans ever after observed with reverence the sacred pallor of + her countenance—the memorial of her act.<a id="noteref_632" name= + "noteref_632" href="#note_632"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">632</span></span></a> When + Pætus was condemned to die by his own hand, those who knew the love + which his wife Arria bore him, and the heroic fervour of her + character, predicted that she would not long survive him. Thrasea, + who had married her daughter, endeavoured to dissuade her from + suicide by saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“If I am ever called upon + to perish, would you wish your daughter to die with me?”</span> She + answered, <span class="tei tei-q">“Yes, if she will have then lived + with you as long and as happily as I with Pætus.”</span> Her friends + attempted, by carefully watching her, to secure her safety, but she + dashed her head against the wall with such force that she fell upon + the ground, and then, rising up, she said, <span class="tei tei-q">“I + told you I would find a hard way to death if you refuse me an easy + way.”</span> All attempts to restrain her were then abandoned, and + her death was perhaps the most majestic in antiquity. Pætus for a + moment hesitated to strike the fatal blow; but his wife, taking the + dagger, plunged it deeply into her own breast, and then, drawing it + out, gave it, all reeking as it was, to her husband, exclaiming, with + her dying breath, <span class="tei tei-q">“My Pætus, it does not + pain.”</span><a id="noteref_633" name="noteref_633" href= + "#note_633"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">633</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The form of the + elder Arria towers grandly above her fellows, but many other Roman + wives in the days of the early Cæsars and of Domitian exhibited a + very similar fidelity. Over the dark waters of the Euxine, into those + unknown and inhospitable regions from which the Roman imagination + recoiled with a peculiar horror, many noble ladies freely followed + their husbands, and there were some wives who <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page311">[pg 311]</span><a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> refused to survive them.<a id= + "noteref_634" name="noteref_634" href="#note_634"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">634</span></span></a> The + younger Arria was the faithful companion of Thrasea during his heroic + life, and when he died she was only persuaded to live that she might + bring up their daughters.<a id="noteref_635" name="noteref_635" href= + "#note_635"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">635</span></span></a> She + spent the closing days of her life with Domitian in exile;<a id= + "noteref_636" name="noteref_636" href="#note_636"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">636</span></span></a> while + her daughter, who was as remarkable for the gentleness as for the + dignity of her character,<a id="noteref_637" name="noteref_637" href= + "#note_637"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">637</span></span></a> went + twice into exile with her husband Helvidius, and was once banished, + after his death, for defending his memory.<a id="noteref_638" name= + "noteref_638" href="#note_638"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">638</span></span></a> + Incidental notices in historians, and a few inscriptions which have + happened to remain, show us that such instances were not uncommon, + and in Roman epitaphs no feature is more remarkable than the deep and + passionate expressions of conjugal love that continually occur.<a id= + "noteref_639" name="noteref_639" href="#note_639"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">639</span></span></a> It + would be difficult to find a more touching image of that love, than + the medallion which is so common on the Roman sarcophagi, in which + husband and wife are represented together, each with an arm thrown + fondly over the shoulder of the other, united in death as they had + been in life, and meeting it with an aspect of perfect calm, because + they were companions in the tomb.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In the latter days + of the Pagan Empire some measures were taken to repress the + profligacy that was so prevalent. Domitian enforced the old + Scantinian law against unnatural love.<a id="noteref_640" name= + "noteref_640" href="#note_640"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">640</span></span></a> + Vespasian moderated the luxury of the court; Macrinus caused those + who had committed adultery to be bound together and burnt + alive.<a id="noteref_641" name="noteref_641" href= + "#note_641"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">641</span></span></a> A + practice of men and women bathing together was condemned by Hadrian, + and afterwards by Alexander Severus, but was only finally suppressed + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" + id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> by Constantine. Alexander + Severus and Philip waged an energetic war against panders.<a id= + "noteref_642" name="noteref_642" href="#note_642"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">642</span></span></a> The + extreme excesses of this, as of most forms of vice, were probably + much diminished after the accession of the Antonines; but Rome + continued to be a centre of very great corruption till the influence + of Christianity, the removal of the court to Constantinople, and the + impoverishment that followed the barbarian conquests, in a measure + corrected the evil.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + moralists, however, some important steps were taken. One of the most + important was a very clear assertion of the reciprocity of that + obligation to fidelity in marriage which in the early stages of + society had been imposed almost exclusively upon wives.<a id= + "noteref_643" name="noteref_643" href="#note_643"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">643</span></span></a> The + legends of Clytemnestra and of Medea reveal the feelings of fierce + resentment which were sometimes produced among Greek wives by the + almost unlimited indulgence that was accorded to their + husbands;<a id="noteref_644" name="noteref_644" href= + "#note_644"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">644</span></span></a> and it + is told of Andromache, as the supreme instance of her love of Hector, + that she cared for his illegitimate children as much as for her + own.<a id="noteref_645" name="noteref_645" href= + "#note_645"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">645</span></span></a> In + early Rome, the obligations of husbands were never, I imagine, + altogether unfelt; but they were rarely or never enforced, nor were + they ever regarded as bearing any kind of equality to those imposed + upon the wife. The term adultery, and all the legal penalties + connected with it, were restricted to the infractions by a wife of + the nuptial tie. Among the many instances of magnanimity recorded of + Roman wives, few are more touching than that of Tertia Æmilia, the + faithful wife of Scipio. She discovered that her husband had become + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" + id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> enamoured of one of her + slaves; but she bore her pain in silence, and when he died she gave + liberty to her captive, for she could not bear that she should remain + in servitude whom her dear lord had loved.<a id="noteref_646" name= + "noteref_646" href="#note_646"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">646</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Aristotle had + clearly asserted the duty of husbands to observe in marriage the same + fidelity as they expected from their wives,<a id="noteref_647" name= + "noteref_647" href="#note_647"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">647</span></span></a> and at + a later period both Plutarch and Seneca enforced this duty in the + strongest and most unequivocal manner.<a id="noteref_648" name= + "noteref_648" href="#note_648"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">648</span></span></a> The + degree to which, in theory at least, it won its way in Roman life is + shown by its recognition as a legal maxim by Ulpian,<a id= + "noteref_649" name="noteref_649" href="#note_649"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">649</span></span></a> and by + its appearance in a formal judgment of Antoninus Pius, who, while + issuing, at the request of a husband, a condemnation for adultery + against a guilty wife, appended to it this remarkable condition: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Provided always it is established that by + your life you gave her an example of fidelity. It would be unjust + that a husband should exact a fidelity he does not himself + keep.”</span><a id="noteref_650" name="noteref_650" href= + "#note_650"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">650</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another change, + which may be dimly descried in the later Pagan society, was a + tendency to regard purity rather in a mystical point of view, as + essentially good, than in the utilitarian point of view. This change + resulted chiefly from the rise of the Neoplatonic and Pythagorean + philosophies, which concurred in regarding the body, with its + passions, as essentially evil, and in representing all virtue as a + purification from its taint. Its most important consequence was a + somewhat stricter view of pre-nuptial unchastity, which in the case + of men, and when it was not excessive, and did not take the form of + adultery, had previously been uncensured, or was looked upon with a + disapprobation so slight as scarcely to amount to censure. The elder + Cato had expressly justified it;<a id="noteref_651" name= + "noteref_651" href="#note_651"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">651</span></span></a> and + Cicero has left us an extremely curious judgment on the subject, + which shows at a glance the feelings of the people, and the vast + revolution that, under the influence of Christianity, has been + effected in, at least, the professions of mankind. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“If there be any one,”</span> he says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“who thinks that young men should be altogether + restrained from the love of courtesans, he is indeed very severe. I + am not prepared to deny his position; but he differs not only from + the licence of our age, but also from the customs and allowances of + our ancestors. When, indeed, was this not done? When was it blamed? + When was it not allowed? When was that which is now lawful not + lawful?”</span><a id="noteref_652" name="noteref_652" href= + "#note_652"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">652</span></span></a> + Epictetus, who on most subjects was among the most austere of the + Stoics, recommends his disciples to abstain, <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“as far as + possible,”</span> from pre-nuptial connections, and at least from + those which were adulterous and unlawful, but not to blame those who + were less strict.<a id="noteref_653" name="noteref_653" href= + "#note_653"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">653</span></span></a> The + feeling of the Romans is curiously exemplified in the life of + Alexander Severus, who, of all the emperors, was probably the most + energetic in legislating against vice. When appointing a provincial + governor, he was accustomed to provide him with horses and servants, + and, if he was unmarried, with a concubine, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“because,”</span> as the historian very gravely observes, + <span class="tei tei-q">“it was impossible that he could exist + without one.”</span><a id="noteref_654" name="noteref_654" href= + "#note_654"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">654</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">What was written + among the Pagans in opposition to these views was not much, but it is + worthy of notice, as illustrating the tendency that had arisen. + Musonius Rufus distinctly and emphatically asserted that no union of + the sexes other than marriage was permissible.<a id="noteref_655" + name="noteref_655" href="#note_655"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">655</span></span></a> Dion + Chrysostom desired prostitution to be suppressed by law. The ascetic + notion of the impurity even of marriage may be faintly traced. + Apollonius of Tyana lived, on this ground, a life of celibacy.<a id= + "noteref_656" name="noteref_656" href="#note_656"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">656</span></span></a> Zenobia + refused to cohabit with her husband, except so far as was necessary + for the production of an heir.<a id="noteref_657" name="noteref_657" + href="#note_657"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">657</span></span></a> Hypatia + is said, like many Christian saints, to have maintained the position + of a virgin wife.<a id="noteref_658" name="noteref_658" href= + "#note_658"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">658</span></span></a> The + belief <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name= + "Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in the impurity of all + corporeal things, and in the duty of rising above them, was in the + third century strenuously enforced.<a id="noteref_659" name= + "noteref_659" href="#note_659"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">659</span></span></a> Marcus + Aurelius and Julian were both admirable representatives of the best + Pagan spirit of their time. Each of them lost his wife early, each + was eulogised by his biographer for the virtue he manifested after + her death; but there is a curious and characteristic difference in + the forms which that virtue assumed. Marcus Aurelius, we are told, + did not wish to bring into his house a stepmother to rule over his + children, and accordingly took a concubine.<a id="noteref_660" name= + "noteref_660" href="#note_660"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">660</span></span></a> Julian + ever after lived in perfect continence.<a id="noteref_661" name= + "noteref_661" href="#note_661"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">661</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The foregoing + facts, which I have given in the most condensed form, and almost + unaccompanied by criticism or by comment, will be sufficient, I hope, + to exhibit the state of feeling of the Romans on this subject, and + also the direction in which that feeling was being modified. Those + who are familiar with this order of studies will readily understand + that it is impossible to mark out with precision the chronology of a + moral sentiment; but there can be no question that in the latter days + of the Roman Empire the perceptions of men on this subject became + more subtle and more refined than they had previously been, and it is + equally certain that the Oriental philosophies which had superseded + Stoicism largely influenced the change. Christianity soon constituted + itself the representative of the new tendency. It regarded purity as + the most important of all virtues, and it strained to the utmost all + the vast agencies it possessed, to enforce it. In the legislation of + the first Christian emperors we find many traces of a fiery zeal. + Panders were condemned to have molten lead poured down their throats. + In the case of rape, not only the ravisher, but even the injured + person, if she consented to the act, was put to death.<a id= + "noteref_662" name="noteref_662" href="#note_662"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">662</span></span></a> A great + service <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name= + "Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> was done to the cause + both of purity and of philanthropy, by a law which permitted + actresses, on receiving baptism, to abandon their profession, which + had been made a form of slavery, and was virtually a slavery to + vice.<a id="noteref_663" name="noteref_663" href= + "#note_663"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">663</span></span></a> Certain + musical girls, who were accustomed to sing or play at the banquets of + the rich, and who were regarded with extreme horror by the Fathers, + were suppressed, and a very stringent law forbade the revival of the + class.<a id="noteref_664" name="noteref_664" href= + "#note_664"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">664</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Side by side with + the civil legislation, the penitential legislation of the Church was + exerted in the same direction. Sins of unchastity probably occupy a + larger place than any others in its enactments. The cases of + unnatural love, and of mothers who had made their daughters + courtesans, were punished by perpetual exclusion from communion, and + a crowd of minor offences were severely visited. The ascetic passion + increased the prominence of this branch of ethics, and the + imaginations of men were soon fascinated by the pure and noble + figures of the virgin martyrs of the Church, who on more than one + occasion fully equalled the courage of men, while they sometimes + mingled with their heroism traits of the most exquisite feminine + gentleness. For the patient endurance of excruciating physical + suffering, Christianity produced no more sublime figure than + Blandina, the poor servant-girl who was martyred at Lyons; and it + would be difficult to find in all history a more touching picture of + natural purity than is contained in one simple incident of the + martyrdom of St. Perpetua. It is related of that saint that she was + condemned to be slaughtered by a wild bull, and, as she fell half + dead from its horns upon the sand of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> arena, it was observed that even in that awful + moment her virgin modesty was supreme, and her first instinctive + movement was to draw together her dress, which had been torn in the + assault.<a id="noteref_665" name="noteref_665" href= + "#note_665"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">665</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A crowd of very + curious popular legends also arose, which, though they are for the + most part without much intrinsic excellence, have their importance in + history, as showing the force with which the imaginations of men were + turned in this direction, and the manner in which Christianity was + regarded as the great enemy of the passions of the flesh. Thus, St. + Jerome relates an incredible story of a young Christian, being, in + the Diocletian persecution, bound with ribands of silk in the midst + of a lovely garden, surrounded by everything that could charm the ear + and the eye, while a beautiful courtesan assailed him with her + blandishments, against which he protected himself by biting out his + tongue and spitting it in her face.<a id="noteref_666" name= + "noteref_666" href="#note_666"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">666</span></span></a> Legends + are recounted of young <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg + 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + Christian men assuming the garb and manners of libertines, that they + might obtain access to maidens who had been condemned to vice, + exchanging dresses with them, and thus enabling them to escape.<a id= + "noteref_667" name="noteref_667" href="#note_667"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">667</span></span></a> St. + Agnes was said to have been stripped naked before the people, who all + turned away their eyes except one young man, who instantly became + blind.<a id="noteref_668" name="noteref_668" href= + "#note_668"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">668</span></span></a> The + sister of St. Gregory of Nyssa was afflicted with a cancer in her + breast, but could not bear that a surgeon should see it, and was + rewarded for her modesty by a miraculous cure.<a id="noteref_669" + name="noteref_669" href="#note_669"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">669</span></span></a> To the + fabled zone of beauty the Christian saints opposed their zones of + chastity, which extinguished the passion of the wearer, or would only + meet around the pure.<a id="noteref_670" name="noteref_670" href= + "#note_670"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">670</span></span></a> Dæmons + were said not unfrequently to have entered into the profligate. The + garment of a girl who was possessed was brought to St. Pachomius, and + he discovered from it that she had a lover.<a id="noteref_671" name= + "noteref_671" href="#note_671"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">671</span></span></a> A + courtesan accused St. Gregory Thaumaturgus of having been her lover, + and having refused to pay her what he had promised. He paid the + required sum, but she was immediately possessed by a daemon.<a id= + "noteref_672" name="noteref_672" href="#note_672"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">672</span></span></a> The + efforts of the saints to reclaim courtesans from the path of vice + created <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name= + "Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a large class of + legends. St. Mary Magdalene, St. Mary of Egypt, St. Afra, St. + Pelagia, St. Thais, and St. Theodota, in the early Church, as well as + St. Marguerite of Cortona, and Clara of Rimini, in the middle ages, + had been courtesans.<a id="noteref_673" name="noteref_673" href= + "#note_673"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">673</span></span></a> St. + Vitalius, it is said, was accustomed every night to visit the dens of + vice in his neighbourhood, to give the inmates money to remain + without sin for that night, and to offer up prayers for their + conversion.<a id="noteref_674" name="noteref_674" href= + "#note_674"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">674</span></span></a> It is + related of St. Serapion, that, as he was passing through a village in + Egypt, a courtesan beckoned to him. He promised at a certain hour to + visit her. He kept his appointment, but declared that there was a + duty which his order imposed on him. He fell down on his knees and + began repeating the Psalter, concluding every psalm with a prayer for + his hostess. The strangeness of the scene, and the solemnity of his + tone and manner, overawed and fascinated her. Gradually her tears + began to flow. She knelt beside him and began to join in his prayers. + He heeded her not, but hour after hour continued in the same stern + and solemn voice, without rest and without interruption, to repeat + his alternate prayers and psalms, till her repentance rose to a + paroxysm of terror, and, as the grey morning streaks began to + illumine the horizon, she fell half dead at his feet, imploring him + with broken sobs to lead her anywhere where she might expiate the + sins of her past.<a id="noteref_675" name="noteref_675" href= + "#note_675"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">675</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But the services + rendered by the ascetics in imprinting on the minds of men a profound + and enduring conviction of the importance of chastity, though + extremely great, were <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg + 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + seriously counterbalanced by their noxious influence upon marriage. + Two or three beautiful descriptions of this institution have been + culled out of the immense mass of the patristic writings;<a id= + "noteref_676" name="noteref_676" href="#note_676"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">676</span></span></a> but, in + general, it would be difficult to conceive anything more coarse or + more repulsive than the manner in which they regarded it.<a id= + "noteref_677" name="noteref_677" href="#note_677"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">677</span></span></a> The + relation which nature has designed for the noble purpose of repairing + the ravages of death, and which, as Linnæus has shown, extends even + through the world of flowers, was invariably treated as a consequence + of the fall of Adam, and marriage was regarded almost exclusively in + its lowest aspect. The tender love which it elicits, the holy and + beautiful domestic qualities that follow in its train, were almost + absolutely omitted from consideration.<a id="noteref_678" name= + "noteref_678" href="#note_678"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">678</span></span></a> The + object of the ascetic was to attract men to a life of virginity, and, + as a necessary consequence, marriage was treated as an inferior + state. It was regarded as being necessary, indeed, and therefore + justifiable, for the propagation of the species, and to free men from + greater evils; but still as a condition of degradation from which all + who aspired to real sanctity should fly. To <span class= + "tei tei-q">“cut down by the axe of Virginity the wood of + Marriage,”</span> was, in the energetic language of St. Jerome, the + end of the saint;<a id="noteref_679" name="noteref_679" href= + "#note_679"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">679</span></span></a> and if + he <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name= + "Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> consented to praise + marriage, it was merely because it produced virgins.<a id= + "noteref_680" name="noteref_680" href="#note_680"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">680</span></span></a> Even + when the bond had been formed, the ascetic passion retained its + sting. We have already seen how it embittered other relations of + domestic life. Into this, the holiest of all, it infused a tenfold + bitterness. Whenever any strong religious fervour fell upon a husband + or a wife, its first effect was to make a happy union impossible. The + more religious partner immediately desired to live a life of solitary + asceticism, or at least, if no ostensible separation took place, an + unnatural life of separation in marriage. The immense place this + order of ideas occupies in the hortatory writings of the Fathers, and + in the legends of the saints, must be familiar to all who have any + knowledge of this department of literature. Thus—to give but a very + few examples—St. Nilus, when he had already two children, was seized + with a longing for the prevailing asceticism, and his wife was + persuaded, after many tears, to consent to their separation.<a id= + "noteref_681" name="noteref_681" href="#note_681"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">681</span></span></a> St. + Ammon, on the night of his marriage, proceeded to greet his bride + with an harangue upon the evils of the married state, and they + agreed, in consequence, at once to separate.<a id="noteref_682" name= + "noteref_682" href="#note_682"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">682</span></span></a> St. + Melania laboured long and earnestly to induce her husband to allow + her to desert his bed, before he would consent.<a id="noteref_683" + name="noteref_683" href="#note_683"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">683</span></span></a> St. + Abraham ran away from his wife on the night of his marriage.<a id= + "noteref_684" name="noteref_684" href="#note_684"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">684</span></span></a> St. + Alexis, according to a somewhat later legend, took the same step, but + many years after returned from Jerusalem to his father's house, in + which his wife was still lamenting her desertion, begged and received + a lodging as an act of charity, and lived there unrecognised and + unknown till his death.<a id="noteref_685" name="noteref_685" href= + "#note_685"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">685</span></span></a> St. + Gregory of Nyssa—who was <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg + 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> so + unfortunate as to be married—wrote a glowing eulogy of virginity, in + the course of which he mournfully observed that this privileged state + could never be his. He resembled, he assures us, an ox that was + ploughing a field, the fruit of which he must never enjoy; or a + thirsty man, who was gazing on a stream of which he never can drink; + or a poor man, whose poverty seems the more bitter as he contemplates + the wealth of his neighbours; and he proceeded to descant in feeling + terms upon the troubles of matrimony.<a id="noteref_686" name= + "noteref_686" href="#note_686"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">686</span></span></a> Nominal + marriages, in which the partners agreed to shun the marriage bed, + became not uncommon. The emperor Henry II., Edward the Confessor, of + England, and Alphonso II., of Spain, gave examples of it. A very + famous and rather picturesque history of this kind is related by + Gregory of Tours. A rich young Gaul, named Injuriosus, led to his + home a young bride to whom he was passionately attached. That night, + she confessed to him, with tears, that she had vowed to keep her + virginity, and that she regretted bitterly the marriage into which + her love for him had betrayed her. He told her that they should + remain united, but that she should still observe her vow; and he + fulfilled his promise. When, after several years, she died, her + husband, in laying her in the tomb, declared, with great solemnity, + that he restored her to God as immaculate as he had received her; and + then a smile lit up the face of the dead woman, and she said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Why do you tell that which no one asked + you?”</span> The husband soon afterwards died, and his corpse, which + had been laid in a distinct compartment from that of his wife in the + tomb, was placed side by side with it by the angels.<a id= + "noteref_687" name="noteref_687" href="#note_687"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">687</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extreme + disorders which such teaching produced in domestic life, and also the + extravagances which grew up among some heretics, naturally alarmed + the more judicious leaders of the Church, and it was ordained that + married persons should not enter into an ascetic life, except by + mutual consent.<a id="noteref_688" name="noteref_688" href= + "#note_688"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">688</span></span></a> The + ascetic ideal, however, remained unchanged. To abstain from marriage, + or in marriage to abstain from a perfect union, was regarded as a + proof of sanctity, and marriage was viewed in its coarsest and most + degraded form. The notion of its impurity took many forms, and + exercised for some centuries an extremely wide influence over the + Church. Thus, it was the custom during the middle ages to abstain + from the marriage bed during the night after the ceremony, in honour + of the sacrament.<a id="noteref_689" name="noteref_689" href= + "#note_689"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">689</span></span></a> It was + expressly enjoined that no married persons should participate in any + of the great Church festivals if the night before they had lain + together, and St. Gregory the Great tells of a young wife who was + possessed by a dæmon, because she had taken part in a procession of + St. Sebastian, without fulfilling this condition.<a id="noteref_690" + name="noteref_690" href="#note_690"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">690</span></span></a> The + extent to which the feeling on the subject was carried is shown by + the famous vision of Alberic in the twelfth century, in which a + special place of torture, consisting of a lake of mingled lead, + pitch, and resin is represented as existing in hell for the + punishment of married people who had lain together on Church + festivals or fast days.<a id="noteref_691" name="noteref_691" href= + "#note_691"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">691</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Two other + consequences of this way of regarding marriage were a very strong + disapproval of second marriages, and a very strong desire to secure + celibacy in the clergy. The first of these notions had existed, + though in a very different form, and connected with very different + motives, among the early Romans, who were accustomed, we are told, to + honour with <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg + 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> the + crown of modesty those who were content with one marriage, and to + regard many marriages as a sign of illegitimate intemperance.<a id= + "noteref_692" name="noteref_692" href="#note_692"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">692</span></span></a> This + opinion appears to have chiefly grown out of a very delicate and + touching feeling which had taken deep root in the Roman mind, that + the affection a wife owes her husband is so profound and so pure that + it must not cease even with his death; that it should guide and + consecrate all her subsequent life, and that it never can be + transferred to another object. Virgil, in very beautiful lines, puts + this sentiment into the mouth of Dido;<a id="noteref_693" name= + "noteref_693" href="#note_693"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">693</span></span></a> and + several examples are recorded of Roman wives, sometimes in the prime + of youth and beauty, upon the death of their husbands, devoting the + remainder of their lives to retirement and to the memory of the + dead.<a id="noteref_694" name="noteref_694" href= + "#note_694"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">694</span></span></a> Tacitus + held up the Germans as in this respect a model to his + countrymen,<a id="noteref_695" name="noteref_695" href= + "#note_695"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">695</span></span></a> and the + epithet <span class="tei tei-q">“univiræ”</span> inscribed on many + Roman tombs shows how this devotion was practised and valued.<a id= + "noteref_696" name="noteref_696" href="#note_696"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">696</span></span></a> The + family of Camillus was especially honoured for the absence of second + marriages among its members.<a id="noteref_697" name="noteref_697" + href="#note_697"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">697</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“To love a wife when living,”</span> said one + of the latest Roman poets, <span class="tei tei-q">“is a pleasure; to + love her when dead is an act of religion.”</span><a id="noteref_698" + name="noteref_698" href="#note_698"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">698</span></span></a> In the + case of men, the propriety of abstaining from second marriages was + probably not felt so strongly as in the case of women, and what + feeling on the subject existed was chiefly due to another + motive—affection for the children, whose interests, it was thought, + might be injured by a stepmother.<a id="noteref_699" name= + "noteref_699" href="#note_699"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">699</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The sentiment + which thus recoiled from second marriages passed with a vastly + increased strength into ascetic Christianity, but it was based upon + altogether different grounds. We find, in the first place, that an + affectionate remembrance of the husband had altogether vanished from + the motives of the abstinence. In the next place, we may remark that + the ecclesiastical writers, in perfect conformity with the extreme + coarseness of their views about the sexes, almost invariably assumed + that the motive to second or third marriages must be simply the force + of the animal passions. The Montanists and the Novatians absolutely + condemned second marriages.<a id="noteref_700" name="noteref_700" + href="#note_700"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">700</span></span></a> The + orthodox pronounced them lawful, on account of the weakness of human + nature, but they viewed them with the most emphatic + disapproval,<a id="noteref_701" name="noteref_701" href= + "#note_701"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">701</span></span></a> partly + because they considered them manifest signs of incontinence, and + partly because they regarded them as inconsistent with their doctrine + that marriage is an emblem of the union of Christ with the Church. + The language of the Fathers on this subject appears to a modern mind + most extraordinary, and, but for their distinct and reiterated + assertion that they considered these marriages permissible,<a id= + "noteref_702" name="noteref_702" href="#note_702"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">702</span></span></a> would + appear to amount to a peremptory condemnation. Thus—to give but a few + samples—digamy, or second marriage, is described by Athenagoras as + <span class="tei tei-q">“a decent adultery.”</span><a id= + "noteref_703" name="noteref_703" href="#note_703"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">703</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Fornication,”</span> according to Clement of + Alexandria, <span class="tei tei-q">“is a lapse from one marriage + into many.”</span><a id="noteref_704" name="noteref_704" href= + "#note_704"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">704</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The first Adam,”</span> said St. Jerome, + <span class="tei tei-q">“had one wife; the second Adam <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had no wife. They who approve of digamy + hold forth a third Adam, who was twice married, whom they + follow.”</span><a id="noteref_705" name="noteref_705" href= + "#note_705"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">705</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Consider,”</span> he again says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“that she who has been twice married, though + she be an old, and decrepit, and poor woman, is not deemed worthy to + receive the charity of the Church. But if the bread of charity is + taken from her, how much more that bread which descends from + heaven!”</span><a id="noteref_706" name="noteref_706" href= + "#note_706"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">706</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“Digamists,”</span> according to Origen, + <span class="tei tei-q">“are saved in the name of Christ, but are by + no means crowned by him.”</span><a id="noteref_707" name= + "noteref_707" href="#note_707"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">707</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“By this text,”</span> said St. Gregory + Nazianzen, speaking of St. Paul's comparison of marriage to the union + of Christ with the Church, <span class="tei tei-q">“second marriages + seem to me to be reproved. If there are two Christs there may be two + husbands or two wives. If there is but one Christ, one Head of the + Church, there is but one flesh—a second is repelled. But if he + forbids a second, what is to be said of third marriages? The first is + law, the second is pardon and indulgence, the third is iniquity; but + he who exceeds this number is manifestly bestial.”</span><a id= + "noteref_708" name="noteref_708" href="#note_708"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">708</span></span></a> + Digamists were excluded from the priesthood and from the + distributions of Church charity; a period of penance was imposed on + them before they were admitted to communion,<a id="noteref_709" name= + "noteref_709" href="#note_709"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">709</span></span></a> and two + English statutes of the Middle Ages withheld the benefit of clergy + from any prisoner who had <span class="tei tei-q">“married two wives + or one widow.”</span><a id="noteref_710" name="noteref_710" href= + "#note_710"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">710</span></span></a> The + Council of Illiberis, in the beginning of the fourth century, while + in general condemning baptism by laymen, permitted it in case of + extreme necessity; but provided that even in that case the + officiating layman must not have been twice married.<a id= + "noteref_711" name="noteref_711" href="#note_711"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">711</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" + id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Among the Greeks fourth + marriages were at one time deemed absolutely unlawful, and much + controversy was excited by the Emperor Leo the Wise, who, having had + three wives, had taken a mistress, but afterwards, in defiance of the + religious feelings of his people, determined to raise her to the + position of a wife.<a id="noteref_712" name="noteref_712" href= + "#note_712"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">712</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The subject of the + celibacy of the clergy, in which the ecclesiastical feelings about + marriage were also shown, is an extremely large one, and I shall not + attempt to deal with it, except in a most cursory manner.<a id= + "noteref_713" name="noteref_713" href="#note_713"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">713</span></span></a> There + are two facts connected with it which every candid student must + admit. The first is, that in the earliest period of the Church, the + privilege of marriage was accorded to the clergy. The second is, that + a notion of the impurity of marriage existed, and that it was felt + that the clergy, as pre-eminently the holy class, should have less + licence than laymen. The first form this feeling took appears in the + strong conviction that a second marriage of a priest, or the marriage + of a priest with a widow, was unlawful and criminal.<a id= + "noteref_714" name="noteref_714" href="#note_714"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">714</span></span></a> This + belief seems to <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg + 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + have existed from the earliest period of the Church, and was retained + with great tenacity and unanimity through many centuries. In the next + place, we find from an extremely early date an opinion, that it was + an act of virtue, at a later period that it was an act of duty, for + priests after ordination to abstain from cohabiting with their wives. + The Council of Nice refrained, by the advice of Paphnutius, who was + himself a scrupulous celibate, from imposing this last rule as a + matter of necessity;<a id="noteref_715" name="noteref_715" href= + "#note_715"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">715</span></span></a> but in + the course of the fourth century it was a recognised principle that + clerical marriages were criminal. They were celebrated, however, + habitually, and usually with the greatest openness. The various + attitudes assumed by the ecclesiastical authorities in dealing with + this subject form an extremely curious page of the history of morals, + and supply the most crushing evidence of the evils which have been + produced by the system of celibacy. I can at present, however, only + refer to the vast mass of evidence which has been collected on the + subject, derived from the writings of Catholic divines and from the + decrees of Catholic Councils during the space of many centuries. It + is a popular illusion, which is especially common among writers who + have little direct knowledge of the middle ages, that the atrocious + immorality of monasteries, in the century before the Reformation, was + a new fact, and that the ages when the faith of men was undisturbed, + were ages of great moral purity. In fact, it appears, from the + uniform testimony of the ecclesiastical writers, that ecclesiastical + immorality in the eighth and three following centuries was little if + at all less outrageous than in any other period, while the Papacy, + during almost the whole of the tenth century, was held by men of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" + id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> infamous lives. Simony was + nearly universal.<a id="noteref_716" name="noteref_716" href= + "#note_716"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">716</span></span></a> + Barbarian chieftains married at an early age, and totally incapable + of restraint, occupied the leading positions in the Church, and gross + irregularities speedily became general. An Italian bishop of the + tenth century epigrammatically described the morals of his time, when + he declared, that if he were to enforce the canons against unchaste + people administering ecclesiastical rites, no one would be left in + the Church except the boys; and if he were to observe the canons + against bastards, these also must be excluded.<a id="noteref_717" + name="noteref_717" href="#note_717"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">717</span></span></a> The + evil acquired such magnitude that a great feudal clergy, bequeathing + the ecclesiastical benefices from father to son, appeared more than + once likely to arise.<a id="noteref_718" name="noteref_718" href= + "#note_718"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">718</span></span></a> A tax + called <span class="tei tei-q">“Culagium,”</span> which was in fact a + licence to clergymen to keep concubines, was during several centuries + systematically levied by princes.<a id="noteref_719" name= + "noteref_719" href="#note_719"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">719</span></span></a> + Sometimes the evil, by its very extension, corrected itself. Priestly + marriages were looked upon as normal events not implying any guilt, + and in the eleventh century several instances are recorded in which + they were not regarded as any impediment to the power of working + miracles.<a id="noteref_720" name="noteref_720" href= + "#note_720"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">720</span></span></a> But + this was a rare exception. From the earliest period a long succession + of Councils as well as such men as St. Boniface, St. Gregory the + Great, St. Peter Damiani, St. Dunstan, St. Anselm, Hildebrand and his + successors in the Popedom, denounced priestly marriage or concubinage + as an atrocious crime, and the habitual life of the priests was, in + theory at least, generally recognised as a life of sin.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is not + surprising that, having once broken their vows and begun to live what + they deemed a life of habitual sin, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the clergy should soon have sunk far below the + level of the laity. We may not lay much stress on such isolated + instances of depravity as that of Pope John XXIII., who was condemned + among many other crimes for incest, and for adultery;<a id= + "noteref_721" name="noteref_721" href="#note_721"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">721</span></span></a> or the + abbot-elect of St. Augustine, at Canterbury, who in 1171 was found, + on investigation, to have seventeen illegitimate children in a single + village;<a id="noteref_722" name="noteref_722" href= + "#note_722"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">722</span></span></a> or an + abbot of St. Pelayo, in Spain, who in 1130 was proved to have kept no + less than seventy concubines;<a id="noteref_723" name="noteref_723" + href="#note_723"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">723</span></span></a> or + Henry III., Bishop of Liège, who was deposed in 1274 for having + sixty-five illegitimate children;<a id="noteref_724" name= + "noteref_724" href="#note_724"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">724</span></span></a> but it + is impossible to resist the evidence of a long chain of Councils and + ecclesiastical writers, who conspire in depicting far greater evils + than simple concubinage. It was observed that when the priests + actually took wives the knowledge that these connections were illegal + was peculiarly fatal to their fidelity, and bigamy and extreme + mobility of attachments were especially common among them. The + writers of the middle ages are full of accounts of nunneries that + were like brothels, of the vast multitude of infanticides within + their walls, and of that inveterate prevalence of incest among the + clergy, which rendered it necessary again and again to issue the most + stringent enactments that priests should not be permitted to live + with their mothers or sisters. Unnatural love, which it had been one + of the great services of Christianity almost to eradicate from the + world, is more than once spoken of as lingering in the monasteries; + and, shortly before the Reformation, complaints became loud and + frequent of the employment of the confessional for the purposes of + debauchery.<a id="noteref_725" name="noteref_725" href= + "#note_725"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">725</span></span></a> The + measures taken on the subject were very numerous and severe. At + first, the evil chiefly complained of was the clandestine + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" + id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> marriage of priests, and + especially their intercourse with wives whom they had married + previous to their ordination. Several Councils issued their anathemas + against priests <span class="tei tei-q">“who had improper relations + with their wives;”</span> and rules were made that priests should + always sleep in the presence of a subordinate clerk; and that they + should only meet their wives in the open air and before at least two + witnesses. Men were, however, by no means unanimous in their way of + regarding this matter. Synesius, when elected to a bishopric, at + first declined, boldly alleging as one of his reasons, that he had a + wife whom he loved dearly, and who, he hoped, would bear him many + sons, and that he did not mean to separate from her or visit her + secretly as an adulterer.<a id="noteref_726" name="noteref_726" href= + "#note_726"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">726</span></span></a> A + Bishop of Laon, at a later date, who was married to a niece of St. + Rémy, and who remained with his wife till after he had a son and a + daughter, quaintly expressed his penitence by naming them + respectively Latro and Vulpecula.<a id="noteref_727" name= + "noteref_727" href="#note_727"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">727</span></span></a> St. + Gregory the Great describes the virtue of a priest, who, through + motives of piety, had discarded his wife. As he lay dying, she + hastened to him to watch the bed which for forty years she had not + been allowed to share, and, bending over what seemed the inanimate + form of her husband, she tried to ascertain whether any breath still + remained, when the dying saint, collecting his last energies, + exclaimed, <span class="tei tei-q">“Woman, begone; take away the + straw; there is fire yet.”</span><a id="noteref_728" name= + "noteref_728" href="#note_728"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">728</span></span></a> The + destruction of priestly marriage is chiefly due to Hildebrand, who + pursued this object with the most untiring resolution. Finding that + his appeals to the ecclesiastical authorities and to the civil rulers + were insufficient, he boldly turned to the people, exhorted them, in + defiance of all Church traditions, to withdraw their obedience from + married priests, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg + 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + kindled among them a fierce fanaticism of asceticism, which speedily + produced a fierce persecution of the offending pastors. Their wives, + in immense numbers, were driven forth with hatred and with scorn; and + many crimes, and much intolerable suffering, followed the disruption. + The priests sometimes strenuously resisted. At Cambrai, in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1077, they burnt alive + as a heretic a zealot who was maintaining the doctrines of + Hildebrand. In England, half a century later, they succeeded in + surprising a Papal legate in the arms of a courtesan, a few hours + after he had delivered a fierce denunciation of clerical + unchastity.<a id="noteref_729" name="noteref_729" href= + "#note_729"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">729</span></span></a> But + Papal resolution supported by popular fanaticism won the victory. + Pope Urban II. gave licence to the nobles to reduce to slavery the + wives whom priests had obstinately refused to abandon, and after a + few more acts of severity priestly marriage became obsolete. The + extent, however, of the disorders that still existed, is shown by the + mournful confessions of ecclesiastical writers, by the uniform and + indignant testimony of the poets and prose satirists who preceded the + Reformation, by the atrocious immoralities disclosed in the + monasteries at the time of their suppression, and by the significant + prudence of many lay Catholics, who were accustomed to insist that + their priest should take a concubine for the protection of the + families of his parishioners.<a id="noteref_730" name="noteref_730" + href="#note_730"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">730</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is scarcely + possible to conceive a more demoralising influence than a priesthood + living such a life as I have described. In Protestant countries, + where the marriage of the clergy is fully recognised, it has, indeed, + been productive of the greatest and the most unequivocal benefits. + Nowhere, it may be confidently asserted, does Christianity assume a + more beneficial or a more winning form than in those gentle clerical + households which stud our land, constituting, as Coleridge said, + <span class="tei tei-q">“the one idyll of modern life,”</span> the + most perfect type of domestic peace, the centre of civilisation in + the remotest village. Notwithstanding some class narrowness and + professional bigotry, notwithstanding some unworthy, but half + unconscious mannerism, which is often most unjustly stigmatised as + hypocrisy, it would be difficult to find in any other quarter so much + happiness at once diffused and enjoyed, or so much virtue attained + with so little tension or struggle. Combining with his sacred calling + a warm sympathy with the intellectual, social, and political + movements of his time, possessing the enlarged practical knowledge of + a father of a family, and entering with a keen zest into the + occupations and the amusements of his parishioners, a good clergyman + will rarely obtrude his religious convictions into secular spheres, + but yet will make them apparent in all. They will be revealed by a + higher and deeper moral tone, by a more scrupulous purity in word and + action, by an all-pervasive gentleness, which refines, and softens, + and mellows, and adds as much to the charm as to the excellence of + the character <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg + 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + which it is displayed. In visiting the sick, relieving the poor, + instructing the young, and discharging a thousand delicate offices + for which a woman's tact is especially needed, his wife finds a + sphere of labour which is at once intensely active and intensely + feminine, and her example is not less beneficial than her + ministrations.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the Catholic + priesthood, on the other hand, where the vow of celibacy is + faithfully observed, a character of a different type is formed, which + with very grave and deadly faults combines some of the noblest + excellences to which humanity can attain. Separated from most of the + ties and affections of earth, viewing life chiefly through the + distorted medium of the casuist or the confessional, and deprived of + those relationships which more than any others soften and expand the + character, the Catholic priests have been but too often conspicuous + for their fierce and sanguinary fanaticism, and for their + indifference to all interests except those of their Church; while the + narrow range of their sympathies, and the intellectual servitude they + have accepted, render them peculiarly unfitted for the office of + educating the young, which they so persistently claim, and which, to + the great misfortune of the world, they were long permitted to + monopolise. But, on the other hand, no other body of men have ever + exhibited a more single-minded and unworldly zeal, refracted by no + personal interests, sacrificing to duty the dearest of earthly + objects, and confronting with undaunted heroism every form of + hardship, of suffering, and of death.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">That the middle + ages, even in their darkest periods, produced many good and great men + of the latter type it would be unjust and absurd to deny. It can + hardly, however, be questioned that the extreme frequency of illicit + connections among the clergy tended during many centuries most + actively to lower the moral tone of the laity, and to counteract the + great services in the cause of purity which Christian teaching + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" + id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> had undoubtedly effected. The + priestly connections were rarely so fully recognised as to enable the + mistress to fill a position like that which is now occupied by the + wife of a clergyman, and the spectacle of the chief teachers and + exemplars of morals living habitually in an intercourse which was + acknowledged to be ambiguous or wrong, must have acted most + injuriously upon every class of the community. Asceticism, + proclaiming war upon human nature, produced a revulsion towards its + extreme opposite, and even when it was observed it was frequently + detrimental to purity of mind. The habit of continually looking upon + marriage in its coarsest light, and of regarding the propagation of + the species as its one legitimate end, exercised a peculiarly + perverting influence upon the imagination. The exuberant piety of + wives who desired to live apart from their husbands often drove the + latter into serious irregularities.<a id="noteref_731" name= + "noteref_731" href="#note_731"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">731</span></span></a> The + notion of sin was introduced into the dearest of relationships,<a id= + "noteref_732" name="noteref_732" href="#note_732"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">732</span></span></a> and the + whole subject was distorted and degraded. It is one of the great + benefits of Protestantism that it did much to banish these modes of + thought and feeling from the world, and to restore marriage to its + simplicity and its dignity. We have a gratifying illustration + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" + id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> of the extent to which an old + superstition has declined, in the fact that when Goldsmith, in his + great romance, desired to depict the harmless eccentricities of his + simple-minded and unworldly vicar, he represented him as maintaining + that opinion concerning the sinfulness of the second marriage of a + clergyman which was for many centuries universal in the Church.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Another injurious + consequence, resulting, in a great measure, from asceticism, was a + tendency to depreciate extremely the character and the position of + women. In this tendency we may detect in part the influence of the + earlier Jewish writings, in which an impartial observer may find + evident traces of the common Oriental depreciation of women. The + custom of purchase-money to the father of the bride was admitted. + Polygamy was authorised,<a id="noteref_733" name="noteref_733" href= + "#note_733"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">733</span></span></a> and + practised by the wisest man on an enormous scale. A woman was + regarded as the origin of human ills. A period of purification was + appointed after the birth of every child; but, by a very significant + provision, it was twice as long in the case of a female as of a male + child.<a id="noteref_734" name="noteref_734" href= + "#note_734"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">734</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The badness of men,”</span> a Jewish writer + emphatically declared, <span class="tei tei-q">“is better than the + goodness of women.”</span><a id="noteref_735" name="noteref_735" + href="#note_735"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">735</span></span></a> The + types of female excellence exhibited in the early period of Jewish + history are in general of a low order, and certainly far inferior to + those of Roman history or Greek poetry; and the warmest eulogy of a + woman in the Old Testament is probably that which was bestowed upon + her who, with circumstances of the most aggravated treachery, had + murdered the sleeping fugitive who had taken refuge under her + roof.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg + 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The combined + influence of the Jewish writings, and of that ascetic feeling which + treated women as the chief source of temptation to man, was shown in + those fierce invectives, which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a + portion of the writings of the Fathers, and which contrast so + curiously with the adulation bestowed upon particular members of the + sex. Woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all + human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a + woman. She should live in continual penance, on account of the curses + she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, + for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed + of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the dæmon. + Physical beauty was indeed perpetually the theme of ecclesiastical + denunciations, though one singular exception seems to have been made; + for it has been observed that in the middle ages the personal beauty + of bishops was continually noticed upon their tombs.<a id= + "noteref_736" name="noteref_736" href="#note_736"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">736</span></span></a> Women + were even forbidden by a provincial Council, in the sixth century, on + account of their impurity, to receive the Eucharist into their naked + hands.<a id="noteref_737" name="noteref_737" href= + "#note_737"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">737</span></span></a> Their + essentially subordinate position was continually maintained.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is probable + that this teaching had its part in determining the principles of + legislation concerning the sex. The Pagan laws during the Empire had + been continually repealing the old disabilities of women, and the + legislative movement in their favour continued with unabated force + from Constantine to Justinian, and appeared also in some of the early + laws of the barbarians.<a id="noteref_738" name="noteref_738" href= + "#note_738"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">738</span></span></a> But in + the whole feudal legislation <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> women were placed in a much lower legal + position than in the Pagan Empire.<a id="noteref_739" name= + "noteref_739" href="#note_739"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">739</span></span></a> In + addition to the personal restrictions which grew necessarily out of + the Catholic doctrines concerning divorce, and concerning the + subordination of the weaker sex, we find numerous and stringent + enactments, which rendered it impossible for women to succeed to any + considerable amount of property, and which almost reduced them to the + alternative of marriage or a nunnery.<a id="noteref_740" name= + "noteref_740" href="#note_740"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">740</span></span></a> The + complete inferiority of the sex was continually maintained by the + law; and that generous public opinion which in Rome had frequently + revolted against the injustice done to girls, in depriving them of + the greater part of the inheritance of their fathers, totally + disappeared. Wherever the canon law has been the basis of + legislation, we find laws of succession sacrificing the interests of + daughters and of wives,<a id="noteref_741" name="noteref_741" href= + "#note_741"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">741</span></span></a> and a + state of public opinion which has been formed and regulated by these + laws; nor was any serious attempt made to abolish them till the + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" + id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> close of the last century. The + French revolutionists, though rejecting the proposal of Siéyès and + Condorcet to accord political emancipation to women, established at + least an equal succession of sons and daughters, and thus initiated a + great reformation of both law and opinion, which sooner or later must + traverse the world.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In their efforts + to raise the standard of purity, the Christian teachers derived much + assistance from the incursions and the conquests of the barbarians. + The dissolution of vast retinues of slaves, the suspension of most + public games, and the general impoverishment that followed the + invasions, were all favourable to female virtue; and in this respect + the various tribes of barbarians, however violent and lawless, were + far superior to the more civilised community. Tacitus, in a very + famous work, had long before pourtrayed in the most flattering + colours the purity of the Germans. Adultery, he said, was very rare + among them. The adulteress was driven from the house with shaven + hair, and beaten ignominiously through the village. Neither youth, + nor beauty, nor wealth could enable a woman who was known to have + sinned to secure a husband. Polygamy was restricted to the princes, + who looked upon a plurality of wives rather as a badge of dignity + than as a gratification of the passions. Mothers invariably gave suck + to their own children. Infanticide was forbidden. Widows were not + allowed to re-marry. The men feared captivity, much more for their + wives than for themselves; they believed that a sacred and prophetic + gift resided in women; they consulted them as oracles, and followed + their counsels.<a id="noteref_742" name="noteref_742" href= + "#note_742"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">742</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is generally + believed, and it is not improbable, that Tacitus in this work + intended to reprove the dissolute habits of his fellow-countrymen, + and considerably over-coloured the virtue of the barbarians. Of the + substantial justice, however, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of his picture we have much evidence. Salvian, + who, about three centuries later, witnessed and described the manners + of the barbarians who had triumphed over the Empire, attested in the + strongest language the contrast which their chastity presented to the + vice of those whom they had subdued.<a id="noteref_743" name= + "noteref_743" href="#note_743"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">743</span></span></a> The + Scandinavian mythology abounds in legends exhibiting the clear + sentiment of the heathen tribes on the subject of purity, and the + awful penalties threatened in the next world against the + seducers.<a id="noteref_744" name="noteref_744" href= + "#note_744"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">744</span></span></a> The + barbarian women were accustomed to practise medicine and to interpret + dreams, and they also very frequently accompanied their husbands to + battle, rallied their broken forces, and even themselves took part in + the fight.<a id="noteref_745" name="noteref_745" href= + "#note_745"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">745</span></span></a> + Augustus had discovered that it was useless to keep barbarian chiefs + as hostages, and that the one way of securing the fidelity of + traitors was by taking their wives, for these, at least, were never + sacrificed. Instances of female heroism are said to have occurred in + the conquered nations, which might rival the most splendid in the + Roman annals. When Marius had vanquished an army of the Teutons, + their wives besought the conqueror to permit them to become the + servants of the Vestal Virgins, in order that their honour, at least, + might be secure in slavery. Their request was refused, and that night + they all perished by their own hands.<a id="noteref_746" name= + "noteref_746" href="#note_746"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">746</span></span></a> A + powerful noble once solicited the hand of a Galatian lady named + Camma, who, faithful to her husband, resisted all his entreaties. + Resolved at any hazard to succeed, he caused her husband to be + assassinated, and when she took refuge in the temple of Diana, and + enrolled herself among the priestesses, he sent noble after noble to + induce her to relent. After a time, he ventured himself into her + presence. She feigned <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg + 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> a + willingness to yield, but told him it was first necessary to make a + libation to the goddess. She appeared as a priestess before the + altar, bearing in her hand a cup of wine, which she had poisoned. She + drank half of it herself, handed the remainder to her guilty lover, + and when he had drained the cup to the dregs, burst into a fierce + thanksgiving, that she had been permitted to avenge, and was soon to + rejoin, her murdered husband.<a id="noteref_747" name="noteref_747" + href="#note_747"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">747</span></span></a> Another + and still more remarkable instance of conjugal fidelity was furnished + by a Gaulish woman named Epponina. Her husband, Julius Sabinus, had + rebelled against Vespasian; he was conquered, and might easily have + escaped to Germany, but could not bear to abandon his young wife. He + retired to a villa of his own, concealed himself in subterranean + cellars that were below it, and instructed a freedman to spread the + report that he had committed suicide, while, to account for the + disappearance of his body, he set fire to the villa. Epponina, + hearing of the suicide, for three days lay prostrate on the ground + without eating. At length the freedman came to her, and told her that + the suicide was feigned. She continued her lamentations by day, but + visited her husband by night. She became with child, but owing, it is + said, to an ointment, she succeeded in concealing her state from her + friends. When the hour of parturition was at hand, she went alone + into the cellar, and without any assistance or attendance was + delivered of twins, whom she brought up underground. For nine years + she fulfilled her task, when Sabinus was discovered, and, to the + lasting disgrace of Vespasian, was executed, in spite of the + supplications of his wife, who made it her last request that she + might be permitted to die with him.<a id="noteref_748" name= + "noteref_748" href="#note_748"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">748</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The moral purity + of the barbarians was of a kind altogether <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> different from that which the ascetic movement + inculcated. It was concentrated exclusively upon marriage. It showed + itself in a noble conjugal fidelity; but it was little fitted for a + life of celibacy, and did not, as we have seen, prevent excessive + disorders among the priesthood. The practice of polygamy among the + barbarian kings was also for some centuries unchecked, or at least + unsuppressed, by Christianity. The kings Caribert and Chilperic had + both many wives at the same time.<a id="noteref_749" name= + "noteref_749" href="#note_749"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">749</span></span></a> + Clotaire married the sister of his first wife during the lifetime of + the latter, who, on the intention of the king being announced, is + reported to have said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Let my lord do what + seemeth good in his sight, only let thy servant live in thy + favour.”</span><a id="noteref_750" name="noteref_750" href= + "#note_750"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">750</span></span></a> + Theodebert, whose general goodness of character is warmly extolled by + the episcopal historian, abandoned his first wife on account of an + atrocious crime which she had committed; took, during her lifetime, + another, to whom he had previously been betrothed; and upon the death + of this second wife, and while the first was still living, took a + third, whom, however, at a later period he murdered.<a id= + "noteref_751" name="noteref_751" href="#note_751"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">751</span></span></a> St. + Columbanus was expelled from Gaul chiefly on account of his + denunciations of the polygamy of King Thierry.<a id="noteref_752" + name="noteref_752" href="#note_752"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">752</span></span></a> + Dagobert had three wives, as well as a multitude of concubines.<a id= + "noteref_753" name="noteref_753" href="#note_753"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">753</span></span></a> + Charlemagne himself had at the same time two wives, and he indulged + largely in concubines.<a id="noteref_754" name="noteref_754" href= + "#note_754"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">754</span></span></a> After + this period examples of this nature became rare. The Popes and the + bishops exercised a strict supervision over domestic morals, and + strenuously, and in most cases successfully, opposed the attempts of + kings and nobles to repudiate their wives.</p><span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">But, + notwithstanding these startling facts, there can be no doubt that the + general purity of the barbarians was from the first superior to that + of the later Romans, and it appears in many of their laws. It has + been very happily observed,<a id="noteref_755" name="noteref_755" + href="#note_755"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">755</span></span></a> that + the high value placed on this virtue is well illustrated by the fact + that in the Salic code, while a charge of cowardice falsely brought + against a man was only punished by a fine of three solidi, a charge + of unchastity falsely brought against a woman was punished by a fine + of forty-five. The Teutonic sentiment was shown in a very stern + legislation against adultery and rape,<a id="noteref_756" name= + "noteref_756" href="#note_756"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">756</span></span></a> and + curiously minute precautions were sometimes taken to guard against + them. A law of the Spanish Visigoths prohibited surgeons from + bleeding any free woman except in the presence of her husband, of her + nearest relative, or at least of some properly appointed witness, and + a Salic law imposed a fine of fifteen pieces of gold upon any one who + improperly pressed her hand.<a id="noteref_757" name="noteref_757" + href="#note_757"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">757</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the + influence of Christianity, assisted by the barbarians, a vast change + passed gradually over the world. The vice we are considering was + probably more rare; it certainly assumed less extravagant forms, and + it was screened from observation with a new modesty. The theory of + morals had become clearer, and the practice was somewhat improved. + The extreme grossness of literature had disappeared, and the more + glaring violations of marriage were always censured and often + repressed. The penitential discipline, and the exhortations of the + pulpit, diffused abroad an immeasurably higher sense of the + importance of purity than Pagan antiquity had known. St. Gregory the + Great, following in the steps of some Pagan philosophers,<a id= + "noteref_758" name="noteref_758" href="#note_758"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">758</span></span></a> + strenuously urged upon <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg + 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + mothers the duty of themselves suckling their children; and many + minute and stringent precepts were made against extravagances of + dress and manners. The religious institutions of Greece and Asia + Minor, which had almost consecrated prostitution, were for ever + abolished, and the courtesan sank into a lower stage of + degradation.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides these + changes, the duty of reciprocal fidelity in marriage was enforced + with a new earnestness. The contrast between the levity with which + the frailty of men has in most ages been regarded, and the extreme + severity with which women who have been guilty of the same offence + have generally been treated, forms one of the most singular anomalies + in moral history, and appears the more remarkable when we remember + that the temptation usually springs from the sex which is so readily + pardoned; that the sex which is visited with such crushing penalties + is proverbially the most weak; and that, in the case of women, but + not in the case of men, the vice is very commonly the result of the + most abject misery and poverty. For this disparity of censure several + reasons have been assigned. The offence can be more surely and easily + detected, and therefore more certainly punished, in the case of women + than of men; and, as the duty of providing for his children falls + upon the father, the introduction into the family of children who are + not his own is a special injury to him, while illegitimate children + who do not spring from adultery will probably, on account of their + father having entered into no compact to support them, ultimately + become criminals or paupers, and therefore a burden to society.<a id= + "noteref_759" name="noteref_759" href="#note_759"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">759</span></span></a> It may + be added, I think, that several causes render the observance of this + virtue more difficult for one sex than for the other; that its + violation, when every allowance has been made for the moral + degradation which is a result of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the existing condition of public opinion, is + naturally more profoundly prejudicial to the character of women than + of men; and also that much of our feeling on these subjects is due to + laws and moral systems which were formed by men, and were in the + first instance intended for their own protection.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The passages in + the Fathers, asserting the equality of the obligation imposed upon + both sexes, are exceedingly unequivocal;<a id="noteref_760" name= + "noteref_760" href="#note_760"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">760</span></span></a> and + although the doctrine itself had been anticipated by Seneca and + Plutarch, it had probably never before, and it has never since, been + so fully realised as in the early Church. It cannot, however, be said + that the conquest has been retained. At the present day, although the + standard of morals is far higher than in Pagan Rome, it may be + questioned whether the inequality of the censure which is bestowed + upon the two sexes is not as great as in the days of Paganism, and + that inequality is continually the cause of the most shameful and the + most pitiable injustice. In one respect, indeed, a great + retrogression resulted from chivalry, and long survived its decay. + The character of the seducer, and especially of the passionless + seducer who pursues his career simply as a kind of sport, and under + the influence of no stronger motive than vanity or a spirit of + adventure, has been glorified and idealised in the popular literature + of Christendom in a manner to which we can find no parallel in + antiquity. When we reflect that the object of such a man is by the + coldest and most deliberate treachery to blast the <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> lives of innocent women; when we compare + the levity of his motive with the irreparable injury he inflicts; and + when we remember that he can only deceive his victim by persuading + her to love him, and can only ruin her by persuading her to trust + him, it must be owned that it would be difficult to conceive a + cruelty more wanton and more heartless, or a character combining more + numerous elements of infamy and of dishonour. That such a character + should for many centuries have been the popular ideal of a + considerable section of literature, and the boast of numbers who most + plume themselves upon their honour, is assuredly one of the most + mournful facts in history, and it represents a moral deflection + certainly not less than was revealed in ancient Greece by the + position that was assigned to the courtesan.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The fundamental + truth, that the same act can never be at once venial for a man to + demand, and infamous for a woman to accord, though nobly enforced by + the early Christians, has not passed into the popular sentiment of + Christendom. The mystical character, however, which the Church + imparted to marriage has been extremely influential. Partly by + raising it into a sacrament, and partly by representing it as, in + some mysterious and not very definable sense, an image of the union + of Christ with His Church, a feeling was fostered that a lifelong + union of one man and one woman is, under all circumstances, the + single form of intercourse between the sexes which is not + illegitimate; and this conviction has acquired the force of a primal + moral intuition.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There can, I + think, be little doubt that, in the stringency with which it is + usually laid down, it rests not upon the law of nature, but upon + positive law, although unassisted nature is sufficient to lead men + many steps in its direction. Considering the subject simply in the + light of unaided reason, two rules comprise the whole duty of man. He + must abstain from whatever injures happiness or degrades character. + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" + id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> Under the first head, he must + include the more remote as well as the immediate consequences of his + act. He must consider how his partner will be affected by the union, + the light in which society will view the connection, the probable + position of the children to be born, the effect of these births, and + also the effect of his example upon the well-being of society at + large. Some of the elements of this calculation vary in different + stages of society. Thus, public opinion in one age will reprobate, + and therefore punish, connections which, in another age, are fully + sanctioned; and the probable position of the children, as well as the + effect of the births upon society, will depend greatly upon + particular and national circumstances.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Under the second + head is comprised the influence of this intercourse in clouding or + developing the moral feelings, lowering or elevating the tone of + character, exciting or allaying the aberrations of the imagination, + incapacitating men for pure affections or extending their range, + making the animal part of our nature more or less predominant. We + know, by the intuition of our moral nature, that this predominance is + always a degraded, though it is not always an unhappy, condition. We + also know that it is a law of our being, that powerful and beautiful + affections, which had before been latent, are evoked in some + particular forms of union, while other forms of union are peculiarly + fitted to deaden the affections and to pervert the character.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In these + considerations we have ample grounds for maintaining that the + lifelong union of one man and of one woman should be the normal or + dominant type of intercourse between the sexes. We can prove that it + is on the whole most conducive to the happiness, and also to the + moral elevation, of all parties. But beyond this point it would, I + conceive, be impossible to advance, except by the assistance of a + special revelation. It by no means follows that because this should + be the dominant type it should be the only one, <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> or that the interests of society demand + that all connections should be forced into the same die. Connections, + which were confessedly only for a few years, have always subsisted + side by side with permanent marriages; and in periods when public + opinion, acquiescing in their propriety, inflicts no excommunication + on one or both of the partners, when these partners are not living + the demoralising and degrading life which accompanies the + consciousness of guilt, and when proper provision is made for the + children who are born, it would be, I believe, impossible to prove, + by the light of simple and unassisted reason, that such connections + should be invariably condemned. It is extremely important, both for + the happiness and for the moral well-being of men, that lifelong + unions should not be effected simply under the imperious prompting of + a blind appetite. There are always multitudes who, in the period of + their lives when their passions are most strong, are incapable of + supporting children in their own social rank, and who would therefore + injure society by marrying in it, but are nevertheless perfectly + capable of securing an honourable career for their illegitimate + children in the lower social sphere to which these would naturally + belong. Under the conditions I have mentioned, these connections are + not injurious, but beneficial, to the weaker partner; they soften the + differences of rank, they stimulate social habits, and they do not + produce upon character the degrading effect of promiscuous + intercourse, or upon society the injurious effects of imprudent + marriages, one or other of which will multiply in their absence. In + the immense variety of circumstances and characters, cases will + always appear in which, on utilitarian grounds, they might seem + advisable.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It is necessary to + dwell upon such considerations as these, if we would understand the + legislation of the Pagan Empire or the changes that were effected by + Christianity. The legislators of the Empire distinctly recognised + these connections, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg + 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + made it a main object to authorise, dignify, and regulate them. The + unlimited licence of divorce practically included them under the name + of marriage, while that name sheltered them from stigma, and + prevented many of the gravest evils of unauthorised unions. The word + concubine also, which in the Republic had the same signification as + among ourselves, represented in the Empire a strictly legal union—an + innovation which was chiefly due to Augustus, and was doubtless + intended as part of the legislation against celibacy, and also, it + may be, as a corrective of the licentious habits that were general. + This union was in essentials merely a form of marriage, for he who, + having a concubine, took to himself either a wife or another + concubine, was legally guilty of adultery. Like the commonest form of + marriage, it was consummated without any ceremony, and was dissoluble + at will. Its peculiarities were that it was contracted between men of + patrician rank and freedwomen, who were forbidden by law to + intermarry; that the concubine, though her position was perfectly + recognised and honourable, did not share the rank of her partner, + that she brought no dowry, and that her children followed her rank, + and were excluded from the rank and the inheritance of their + father.<a id="noteref_761" name="noteref_761" href= + "#note_761"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">761</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Against these + notions Christianity declared a direct and implacable warfare, which + was imperfectly reflected in the civil legislation, but appeared + unequivocally in the writings of the Fathers, and in most of the + decrees of the Councils.<a id="noteref_762" name="noteref_762" href= + "#note_762"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">762</span></span></a> + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" + id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It taught, as a religious + dogma, invariable, inflexible, and independent of all utilitarian + calculations, that all forms of intercourse of the sexes, other than + lifelong unions, were criminal. By teaching men to regard this + doctrine as axiomatic, and therefore inflicting severe social + penalties and deep degradation on transient connections, it has + profoundly modified even their utilitarian aspect, and has rendered + them in most countries furtive and disguised. There is probably no + other branch of ethics which has been so largely determined by + special dogmatic theology, and there is none which would be so deeply + affected by its decay.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">As a part of the + same movement, the purely civil marriage of the later Pagan Empire + was gradually replaced by religious marriages. There is a manifest + propriety in invoking a divine benediction upon an act which forms so + important an epoch in life, and the mingling of a religious ceremony + impresses a deeper sense of the solemnity of the contract. The + essentially religious and even mystical character imparted by + Christianity to marriage rendered the consecration peculiarly + natural, but it was only very gradually that it came to be looked + upon as absolutely necessary. As I have already noticed, it was long + dispensed with in the marriage of slaves; and even in the case of + freemen, though generally performed, it was not made compulsory till + the tenth century.<a id="noteref_763" name="noteref_763" href= + "#note_763"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">763</span></span></a> In + addition to its primary object of sanctifying marriage, it became in + time a powerful <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg + 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + instrument in securing the authority of the priesthood, who were able + to compel men to submit to the conditions they imposed in the + formation of the most important contract of life; and the modern + authorisation of civil marriages, by diminishing greatly the power of + the Catholic priesthood over domestic life, has been one of the most + severe blows ecclesiastical influence has undergone.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The absolute + sinfulness of divorce was at the same time strenuously maintained by + the Councils, which in this, as in many other points, differed widely + from the civil law. Constantine restricted it to three cases of crime + on the part of the husband, and three on the part of the wife; but + the habits of the people were too strong for his enactments, and, + after one or two changes in the law, the full latitude of divorce + reappeared in the Justinian Code. The Fathers, on the other hand, + though they hesitated a little about the case of a divorce which + followed an act of adultery on the part of the wife,<a id= + "noteref_764" name="noteref_764" href="#note_764"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">764</span></span></a> had no + hesitation whatever in pronouncing all other divorces to be criminal, + and periods of penitential discipline were imposed upon Christians + who availed themselves of the privileges of the civil law.<a id= + "noteref_765" name="noteref_765" href="#note_765"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">765</span></span></a> For + many centuries this duality of legislation continued. The barbarian + laws restricted divorce by imposing severe fines on those who + repudiated their wives. Charlemagne pronounced divorce to be + criminal, but did not venture to make it penal, and he practised it + himself. On the other hand, the Church threatened with + excommunication, and in some cases actually launched its thunders + against, those who were guilty of it. It was only in the twelfth + century that the victory was <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> definitely achieved, and the civil law, + adopting the principle of the canon law, prohibited all + divorce.<a id="noteref_766" name="noteref_766" href= + "#note_766"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">766</span></span></a></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">I do not propose + in the present work to examine how far this total prohibition has + been for the happiness or the moral well-being of men. I will simply + observe that, though it is now often defended, it was not originally + imposed in Christian nations, upon utilitarian grounds, but was based + upon the sacramental character of marriage, upon the belief that + marriage is the special symbol of the perpetual union of Christ with + His Church, and upon a well-known passage in the Gospels. The + stringency of the Catholic doctrine, which forbids the dissolution of + marriage even in the case of adultery, has been considerably relaxed + by modern legislation, and there can, I think, be little doubt that + further steps will yet be taken in the same direction; but the vast + change that was effected in both practice and theory since the + unlimited licence of the Pagan Empire must be manifest to all.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was essential, + or at least very important, that a union which was so solemn and so + irrevocable should be freely contracted. The sentiment of the Roman + patriots towards the close of the Republic was that marriage should + be regarded as a means of providing children for the State, and + should be entered into as a matter of duty with that view, and the + laws of Augustus had imposed many disqualifications on those who + abstained from it. Both of these inducements to marriage passed away + under the influence of Christianity. The popular sentiment + disappeared with the decline of civic virtues. The laws were + rescinded under the influence of the ascetic enthusiasm which made + men regard the state of celibacy as pre-eminently holy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There was still + one other important condition to be attained by theologians in order + to realise their ideal type of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> marriage. It was to prevent the members of the + Church from intermarrying with those whose religious opinions + differed from their own. Mixed marriages, it has been truly said, may + do more than almost any other influence to assuage the rancour and + the asperity of sects, but it must be added that a considerable + measure of tolerance must have been already attained before they + become possible. In a union in which each partner believes and + realises that the other is doomed to an eternity of misery there can + be no real happiness, no sympathy, no trust; and a domestic agreement + that some of the children should be educated in one religion and some + in the other would be impossible when each parent believed it to be + an agreement that some children should be doomed to hell.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The domestic + unhappiness arising from differences of belief was probably almost or + altogether unknown in the world before the introduction of + Christianity; for, although differences of opinion may have before + existed, the same momentous consequences were not attached to them. + It has been the especial bane of periods of great religious change, + such as the conversion of the Roman Empire, or the Reformation, or + our own day when far more serious questions than those which agitated + the sixteenth century are occupying the attention of a large + proportion of thinkers and scholars, and when the deep and widening + chasm between the religious opinions of most highly educated men, and + of the immense majority of women, is painfully apparent. While a + multitude of scientific discoveries, critical and historical + researches, and educational reforms have brought thinking men face to + face with religious problems of extreme importance, women have been + almost absolutely excluded from their influence. Their minds are + usually by nature less capable than those of men of impartiality and + suspense, and the almost complete omission from female education of + those studies which most discipline and strengthen the intellect + increases the difference, while at <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> the same time it has been usually made a main + object to imbue them with a passionate faith in traditional opinions, + and to preserve them from all contact with opposing views. But + contracted knowledge and imperfect sympathy are not the sole fruits + of this education. It has always been the peculiarity of a certain + kind of theological teaching that it inverts all the normal + principles of judgment, and absolutely destroys intellectual + diffidence. On other subjects we find, if not a respect for honest + conviction, at least some sense of the amount of knowledge that is + requisite to entitle men to express an opinion on grave + controversies. A complete ignorance of the subject-matter of a + dispute restrains the confidence of dogmatism; and an ignorant + person, who is aware that, by much reading and thinking in spheres of + which he has himself no knowledge, his educated neighbour has + modified or rejected opinions which that ignorant person had been + taught, will, at least if he is a man of sense or modesty, abstain + from compassionating the benighted condition of his more instructed + friend. But on theological questions this has never been so. + Unfaltering belief being taught as the first of duties, and all doubt + being usually stigmatised as criminal or damnable, a state of mind is + formed to which we find no parallel in other fields. Many men and + most women, though completely ignorant of the very rudiments of + biblical criticism, historical research, or scientific discoveries, + though they have never read a single page, or understood a single + proposition of the writings of those whom they condemn, and have + absolutely no rational knowledge either of the arguments by which + their faith is defended, or of those by which it has been impugned, + will nevertheless adjudicate with the utmost confidence upon every + polemical question; denounce, hate, pity, or pray for the conversion + of all who dissent from what they have been taught; assume, as a + matter beyond the faintest possibility of doubt, that the opinions + they have received without enquiry <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> must be true, and that the opinions which + others have arrived at by enquiry must be false, and make it a main + object of their lives to assail what they call heresy in every way in + their power, except by examining the grounds on which it rests. It is + probable that the great majority of voices that swell the clamour + against every book which is regarded as heretical are the voices of + those who would deem it criminal even to open that book, or to enter + into any real, searching, and impartial investigation of the subject + to which it relates. Innumerable pulpits support this tone of + thought, and represent, with a fervid rhetoric well fitted to excite + the nerves and imaginations of women, the deplorable condition of all + who deviate from a certain type of opinions or of emotions; a blind + propagandism or a secret wretchedness penetrates into countless + households, poisoning the peace of families, chilling the mutual + confidence of husband and wife, adding immeasurably to the + difficulties which every searcher into truth has to encounter, and + diffusing far and wide intellectual timidity, disingenuousness, and + hypocrisy.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These domestic + divisions became very apparent in the period of the conversion of the + Roman Empire; and a natural desire to guard intact the orthodoxy and + zeal of the converts, and to prevent a continual discordance, + stimulated the Fathers in their very vehement denunciations of all + mixed marriages. We may also trace in these denunciations the outline + of a very singular doctrine, which was afterwards suffered to fall + into obscurity, but was revived in the last century in England in a + curious and learned work of the nonjuror Dodwell.<a id="noteref_767" + name="noteref_767" href="#note_767"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">767</span></span></a> The + union of Christ and His Church <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> had been represented as a marriage; and this + image was not regarded as a mere metaphor or comparison, but as + intimating a mysterious unity, which, though not susceptible of any + very clear definition, was not on that account the less real. + Christians were the <span class="tei tei-q">“limbs of Christ,”</span> + and for them to join themselves in marriage with those who were not + of the Christian fold was literally, it was said, a species of + adultery or fornication. The intermarriage of the Israelites, the + chosen seed of the ancient world, with the Gentiles, had been + described in the Old Testament as an act of impurity;<a id= + "noteref_768" name="noteref_768" href="#note_768"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">768</span></span></a> and in + the opinion of some, at least, of the Fathers, the Christian + community occupied towards the unbelievers a position analogous to + that which the Jews had occupied towards the Gentiles. St. Cyprian + denounced the crime of those <span class="tei tei-q">“who prostitute + the limbs of Christ in marriage with the Gentiles.”</span><a id= + "noteref_769" name="noteref_769" href="#note_769"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">769</span></span></a> + Tertullian described the intermarriage as fornication;<a id= + "noteref_770" name="noteref_770" href="#note_770"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">770</span></span></a> and + after the triumph of the Church, the intermarriage of Jews and + Christians was made a capital offence, and was stigmatised by the law + as adultery.<a id="noteref_771" name="noteref_771" href= + "#note_771"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">771</span></span></a> The + civil law did not prohibit the orthodox from intermarrying with + heretics, but many councils in strong terms denounced such marriages + as criminal.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The extreme + sanctity attributed to virginity, the absolute condemnation of all + forms of sexual connection other than marriage, and the formation and + gradual realisation of the Christian conception of marriage as a + permanent union of a <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg + 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> man + and woman of the same religious opinions, consecrated by solemn + religious services, carrying with it a deep religious signification, + and dissoluble only by death, were the most obvious signs of + Christian influence in the sphere of ethics we are examining. Another + very important result of the new religion was to raise to a far + greater honour than they had previously possessed, the qualities in + which women peculiarly excel.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are few more + curious subjects of enquiry than the distinctive differences between + the sexes, and the manner in which those differences have affected + the ideal types of different ages, nations, philosophies, and + religions. Physically, men have the indisputable superiority in + strength, and women in beauty. Intellectually, a certain inferiority + of the female sex can hardly be denied when we remember how almost + exclusively the foremost places in every department of science, + literature, and art have been occupied by men, how infinitesimally + small is the number of women who have shown in any form the very + highest order of genius, how many of the greatest men have achieved + their greatness in defiance of the most adverse circumstances, and + how completely women have failed in obtaining the first position, + even in music or painting, for the cultivation of which their + circumstances would appear most propitious. It is as impossible to + find a female Raphael, or a female Handel, as a female Shakspeare or + Newton. Women are intellectually more desultory and volatile than + men; they are more occupied with particular instances than with + general principles; they judge rather by intuitive perceptions than + by deliberate reasoning or past experience. They are, however, + usually superior to men in nimbleness and rapidity of thought, and in + the gift of tact or the power of seizing speedily and faithfully the + finer inflexions of feeling, and they have therefore often attained + very great eminence in conversation, as letter-writers, as actresses, + and as novelists.</p><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg + 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Morally, the + general superiority of women over men, is, I think, unquestionable. + If we take the somewhat coarse and inadequate criterion of police + statistics, we find that, while the male and female populations are + nearly the same in number, the crimes committed by men are usually + rather more than five times as numerous as those committed by + women;<a id="noteref_772" name="noteref_772" href= + "#note_772"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">772</span></span></a> and + although it may be justly observed that men, as the stronger sex, and + the sex upon whom the burden of supporting the family is thrown, have + more temptations than women, it must be remembered, on the other + hand, that extreme poverty which verges upon starvation is most + common among women, whose means of livelihood are most restricted, + and whose earnings are smallest and most precarious. Self-sacrifice + is the most conspicuous element of a virtuous and religious + character, and it is certainly far less common among men than among + women, whose whole lives are usually spent in yielding to the will + and consulting the pleasures of another. There are two great + departments of virtue: the impulsive, or that which springs + spontaneously from the emotions; and the deliberative, or that which + is performed in obedience to the sense of duty; and in both of these + I imagine women are superior to men. Their sensibility is greater, + they are more chaste both in thought and act, more tender to the + erring, more compassionate to the suffering, more affectionate to all + about them. On the other hand, those who have traced the course of + the wives of the poor, and of many who, though in narrow + circumstances, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg + 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> can + hardly be called poor, will probably admit that in no other class do + we so often find entire lives spent in daily persistent self-denial, + in the patient endurance of countless trials, in the ceaseless and + deliberate sacrifice of their own enjoyments to the well-being or the + prospects of others. Women, however, though less prone than men to + intemperance and brutality, are in general more addicted to the petty + forms of vanity, jealousy, spitefulness, and ambition, and they are + also inferior to men in active courage. In the courage of endurance + they are commonly superior; but their passive courage is not so much + fortitude which bears and defies, as resignation which bears and + bends. In the ethics of intellect they are decidedly inferior. To + repeat an expression I have already employed, women very rarely love + truth, though they love passionately what they call <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the truth,”</span> or opinions they have received from + others, and hate vehemently those who differ from them. They are + little capable of impartiality or of doubt; their thinking is chiefly + a mode of feeling; though very generous in their acts, they are + rarely generous in their opinions or in their judgments. They + persuade rather than convince, and value belief rather as a source of + consolation than as a faithful expression of the reality of things. + They are less capable than men of perceiving qualifying + circumstances, of admitting the existence of elements of good in + systems to which they are opposed, of distinguishing the personal + character of an opponent from the opinions he maintains. Men lean + most to justice and women to mercy. Men excel in energy, + self-reliance, perseverance, and magnanimity; women in humility, + gentleness, modesty, and endurance. The realising imagination which + causes us to pity and to love is more sensitive in women than in men, + and it is especially more capable of dwelling on the unseen. Their + religious or devotional realisations are incontestably more vivid; + and it is probable that, while a father is most moved by the death of + a child in his presence, a mother <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> generally feels most the death of a child in + some distant land. But, though more intense, the sympathies of women + are commonly less wide than those of men. Their imaginations + individualise more; their affections are, in consequence, + concentrated rather on leaders than on causes; and if they care for a + great cause, it is generally because it is represented by a great + man, or connected with some one whom they love. In politics, their + enthusiasm is more naturally loyalty than patriotism. In history, + they are even more inclined than men to dwell exclusively upon + biographical incidents or characteristics as distinguished from the + march of general causes. In benevolence, they excel in charity, which + alleviates individual suffering, rather than in philanthropy, which + deals with large masses and is more frequently employed in preventing + than in allaying calamity.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It was a remark of + Winckelmann that <span class="tei tei-q">“the supreme beauty of Greek + art is rather male than female;”</span> and the justice of this + remark has been amply corroborated by the greater knowledge we have + of late years attained of the works of the Phidian period, in which + art achieved its highest perfection, and in which, at the same time, + force and freedom, and masculine grandeur, were its pre-eminent + characteristics. A similar observation may be made of the moral ideal + of which ancient art was simply the expression. In antiquity the + virtues that were most admired were almost exclusively those which + are distinctively masculine. Courage, self-assertion, magnanimity, + and, above all, patriotism, were the leading features of the ideal + type; and chastity, modesty, and charity, the gentler and the + domestic virtues, which are especially feminine, were greatly + undervalued. With the single exception of conjugal fidelity, none of + the virtues that were very highly prized were virtues distinctively + or pre-eminently feminine. With this exception, nearly all the most + illustrious women of antiquity were illustrious chiefly because they + overcame the natural conditions of their sex. <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It is a characteristic fact that the + favourite female ideal of the artists appears to have been the + Amazon.<a id="noteref_773" name="noteref_773" href= + "#note_773"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">773</span></span></a> We may + admire the Spartan mother, and the mother of the Gracchi, repressing + every sign of grief when their children were sacrificed upon the + altar of their country, we may wonder at the majestic courage of a + Porcia and an Arria; but we extol them chiefly because, being women, + they emancipated themselves from the frailty of their sex, and + displayed an heroic fortitude worthy of the strongest and the bravest + of men. We may bestow an equal admiration upon the noble devotion and + charity of a St. Elizabeth of Hungary, or of a Mrs. Fry, but we do + not admire them because they displayed these virtues, although they + were women, for we feel that their virtues were of the kind which the + female nature is most fitted to produce. The change from the heroic + to the saintly ideal, from the ideal of Paganism to the ideal of + Christianity, was a change from a type which was essentially male to + one which was essentially feminine. Of all the great schools of + philosophy no other reflected so faithfully the Roman conception of + moral excellence as Stoicism, and the greatest Roman exponent of + Stoicism summed up its character in a single sentence when he + pronounced it to be beyond all other sects the most emphatically + masculine.<a id="noteref_774" name="noteref_774" href= + "#note_774"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">774</span></span></a> On the + other hand, an ideal type in which meekness, gentleness, patience, + humility, faith, and love are the most prominent features, is not + naturally male but female. A reason probably deeper than the + historical ones which are commonly alleged, why sculpture has always + been peculiarly Pagan and painting peculiarly Christian, may be found + in the fact, that sculpture is especially suited to represent male + beauty, or the beauty of strength, and painting female beauty, or the + beauty of softness; <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg + 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> and + that Pagan sentiment was chiefly a glorification of the masculine + qualities of strength, and courage, and conscious virtue, while + Christian sentiment is chiefly a glorification of the feminine + qualities of gentleness, humility, and love. The painters whom the + religious feeling of Christendom has recognised as the most faithful + exponents of Christian sentiment have always been those who infused a + large measure of feminine beauty even into their male characters; and + we never, or scarcely ever, find that the same artist has been + conspicuously successful in delineating both Christian and Pagan + types. Michael Angelo, whose genius loved to expatiate on the + sublimity of strength and defiance, failed signally in his + representations of the Christian ideal; and Perugino was equally + unsuccessful when he sought to pourtray the features of the heroes of + antiquity.<a id="noteref_775" name="noteref_775" href= + "#note_775"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">775</span></span></a> The + position that was gradually assigned to the Virgin as the female + ideal in the belief and the devotion of Christendom, was a + consecration or an expression of the new value that was attached to + the feminine virtues.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The general + superiority of women to men in the strength of their religious + emotions, and their natural attraction to a religion which made + personal attachment to its Founder its central duty, and which + imparted an unprecedented dignity and afforded an unprecedented scope + to their characteristic virtues, account for the very conspicuous + position that female influence assumed in the great work of the + conversion of the Roman Empire. In no other important movement of + thought was it so powerful or so acknowledged. In the ages of + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" + id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> persecution female figures + occupy many of the foremost places in the ranks of martyrdom, and + Pagan and Christian writers alike attest the alacrity with which + women flocked to the Church, and the influence they exercised in its + favour over the male members of their families. The mothers of St. + Augustine, St. Chrysostom, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, and + Theodoret, had all a leading part in the conversion of their sons. + St. Helena, the mother of Constantine, Flacilla, the wife of + Theodosius the Great, St. Pulcheria, the sister of Theodosius the + Younger, and Placidia, the mother of Valentinian III., were among the + most conspicuous defenders of the faith. In the heretical sects the + same zeal was manifested, and Arius, Priscillian, and Montanus were + all supported by troops of zealous female devotees. In the career of + asceticism women took a part little if at all inferior to men, while + in the organisation of the great work of charity they were + pre-eminent. For no other field of active labour are women so + admirably suited as for this; and although we may trace from the + earliest period, in many creeds and ages, individual instances of + their influence in allaying the sufferings of the distressed,<a id= + "noteref_776" name="noteref_776" href="#note_776"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">776</span></span></a> it may + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" + id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> be truly said that their + instinct and genius of charity had never before the dawn of + Christianity obtained full scope for action. Fabiola, Paula, Melania, + and a host of other noble ladies devoted their time and fortunes + mainly to founding and extending vast institutions of charity, some + of them of a kind before unknown in the world. The Empress Flacilla + was accustomed to tend with her own hands the sick in the + hospitals,<a id="noteref_777" name="noteref_777" href= + "#note_777"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">777</span></span></a> and a + readiness to discharge such offices was deemed the first duty of a + Christian wife.<a id="noteref_778" name="noteref_778" href= + "#note_778"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">778</span></span></a> From + age to age the impulse thus communicated has been felt. There has + been no period, however corrupt, there has been no Church, however + superstitious, that has not been adorned by many Christian women + devoting their entire lives to assuaging the sufferings of men; and + the mission of charity thus instituted has not been more efficacious + in diminishing the sum of human wretchedness, than in promoting the + moral dignity of those by whom it was conducted.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Among the + Collyridian heretics, women were admitted to the priesthood. Among + the orthodox, although this honour was not bestowed upon them, they + received a religious consecration, and discharged some minor + ecclesiastical functions under the name of deaconesses.<a id= + "noteref_779" name="noteref_779" href="#note_779"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">779</span></span></a> This + order may be traced to the Apostolic period.<a id="noteref_780" name= + "noteref_780" href="#note_780"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">780</span></span></a> It + consisted of elderly virgins, who were set apart by a formal + ordination, and were employed in assisting as catechists and + attendants at the baptism of women, in visiting the sick, ministering + to martyrs <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg + 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> in + prison, preserving order in the congregations, and accompanying and + presenting women who desired an interview with the bishop. It would + appear, from the evidence of some councils, that abuses gradually + crept into this institution, and the deaconesses at last faded into + simple nuns, but they were still in existence in the East in the + twelfth century. Besides these, widows, when they had been but once + married, were treated with peculiar honour, and were made the special + recipients of the charity of the Church. Women advanced in years, + who, either from their single life or from bereavement, have been + left without any male protector in the world, have always been + peculiarly deserving of commiseration. With less strength, and + commonly with less means, and less knowledge of the world than men, + they are liable to contract certain peculiarities of mind and manner + to which an excessive amount of ridicule has been attached, and age + in most cases furnishes them with very little to compensate for the + charms of which it has deprived them. The weight and dignity of + matured wisdom, which make the old age of one sex so venerable, are + more rarely found in that of the other, and even physical beauty is + more frequently the characteristic of an old man than of an old + woman. The Church laboured steadily to cast a halo of reverence + around this period of woman's life, and its religious exercises have + done very much to console and to occupy it.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In accordance with + these ideas, the Christian legislators contributed largely to improve + the legal position of widows in respect to property,<a id= + "noteref_781" name="noteref_781" href="#note_781"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">781</span></span></a> and + Justinian gave mothers the guardianship <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> of their children, destroying the Pagan rule + that guardianship could only be legally exercised by men.<a id= + "noteref_782" name="noteref_782" href="#note_782"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">782</span></span></a> The + usual subservience of the sex to ecclesiastical influence, the + numerous instances of rich widows devoting their fortunes, and + mothers their sons, to the Church, had no doubt some influence in + securing the advocacy of the clergy; but these measures had a + manifest importance in elevating the position of women who have had, + in Christian lands, a great, though not, I think, altogether a + beneficial influence, in the early education of their sons.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Independently of + all legal enactments, the simple change of the ideal type by bringing + specially feminine virtues into the forefront was sufficient to + elevate and ennoble the sex. The commanding position of the mediæval + abbesses, the great number of female saints, and especially the + reverence bestowed upon the Virgin, had a similar effect. It is + remarkable that the Jews, who, of the three great nations of + antiquity, certainly produced in history and poetry the smallest + number of illustrious women, should have furnished the world with its + supreme female ideal, and it is also a striking illustration of the + qualities which prove most attractive in woman that one of whom we + know nothing except her gentleness and her sorrow should have + exercised a magnetic power upon the world incomparably greater than + was exercised by the most majestic female patriots of Paganism. + Whatever may be thought of its theological propriety, there can be + little doubt that the Catholic reverence for the Virgin has done much + to elevate and purify the ideal of woman, and to soften the manners + of men. It has had an influence which the worship of the Pagan + goddesses could never possess, for these had been almost destitute of + moral beauty, and especially of that kind of moral beauty which is + peculiarly feminine. <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg + 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> It + supplied in a great measure the redeeming and ennobling element in + that strange amalgam of religious, licentious, and military feeling + which was formed around women in the age of chivalry, and which no + succeeding change of habit or belief has wholly destroyed.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">It can hardly, I + think, be questioned that in the great religious convulsions of the + sixteenth century the feminine type followed Catholicism, while + Protestantism inclined more to the masculine type. Catholicism alone + retained the Virgin worship, which at once reflected and sustained + the first. The skill with which it acts upon the emotions by music, + and painting, and solemn architecture, and imposing pageantry, its + tendency to appeal to the imagination rather than to the reason, and + to foster modes of feeling rather than modes of thought, its + assertion of absolute and infallible certainty, above all, the manner + in which it teaches its votary to throw himself perpetually on + authority, all tended in the same direction. It is the part of a + woman to lean, it is the part of a man to stand. A religion which + prescribes to the distracted mind unreasoning faith in an infallible + Church, and to the troubled conscience an implicit trust in an + absolving priesthood, has ever had an especial attraction to a + feminine mind. A religion which recognises no authority between man + and his Creator, which asserts at once the dignity and the duty of + private judgment, and which, while deepening immeasurably the sense + of individual responsibility, denudes religion of meretricious + ornaments, and of most æsthetic aids, is pre-eminently a religion of + men. Puritanism is the most masculine form that Christianity has yet + assumed. Its most illustrious teachers differed from the Catholic + saints as much in the moral type they displayed as in the system of + doctrines they held. Catholicism commonly softens, while + Protestantism strengthens, the character; but the softness of the + first often degenerates into weakness, and the strength of the second + into hardness. Sincerely Catholic nations are <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" + class="tei tei-anchor"></a> distinguished for their reverence, for + their habitual and vivid perceptions of religious things, for the + warmth of their emotions, for a certain amiability of disposition, + and a certain natural courtesy and refinement of manner that are + inexpressibly winning. Sincerely Protestant nations are distinguished + for their love of truth, for their firm sense of duty, for the + strength and the dignity of their character. Loyalty and humility, + which are especially feminine, flourish chiefly in the first; liberty + and self-assertion in the second. The first are most prone to + superstition, and the second to fanaticism. Protestantism, by + purifying and dignifying marriage, conferred a great benefit upon + women; but it must be owned that neither in its ideal type, nor in + the general tenor of its doctrines or devotions, is it as congenial + to their nature as the religion it superseded.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Its complete + suppression of the conventual system was also, I think, very far from + a benefit to women or to the world. It would be impossible to + conceive any institution more needed than one which would furnish a + shelter for the many women who, from poverty, or domestic + unhappiness, or other causes, find themselves cast alone and + unprotected into the battle of life, which would secure them from the + temptations to gross vice, and from the extremities of suffering, and + would convert them into agents of active, organised, and intelligent + charity. Such an institution would be almost free from the objections + that may justly be urged against monasteries, which withdraw strong + men from manual labour, and it would largely mitigate the difficulty + of providing labour and means of livelihood for single women, which + is one of the most pressing, in our own day one of the most + appalling, of social problems. Most unhappily for mankind, this noble + conception was from the first perverted. Institutions that might have + had an incalculable philanthropic value were based upon the principle + of asceticism, which makes the sacrifice, not the promotion, of + earthly happiness its aim, and <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> binding vows produced much misery and not a + little vice. The convent became the perpetual prison of the daughter + whom a father was disinclined to endow, or of young girls who, under + the impulse of a transient enthusiasm, or of a transient sorrow, took + a step which they never could retrace, and useless penances and + contemptible superstitions wasted the energies that might have been + most beneficially employed. Still it is very doubtful whether, even + in the most degraded period, the convents did not prevent more misery + than they inflicted, and in the Sisters of Charity the religious + orders of Catholicism have produced one of the most perfect of all + the types of womanhood. There is, as I conceive, no fact in modern + history more deeply to be deplored than that the Reformers, who in + matters of doctrinal innovations were often so timid, should have + levelled to the dust, instead of attempting to regenerate, the whole + conventual system of Catholicism.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The course of + these observations has led me to transgress the limits assigned to + this history. It has been, however, my object through this entire + work to exhibit not only the nature but also the significance of the + moral facts I have recorded, by showing how they have affected the + subsequent changes of society. I will conclude this chapter, and this + work, by observing that of all the departments of ethics the + questions concerning the relations of the sexes and the proper + position of women are those upon the future of which there rests the + greatest uncertainty. History tells us that, as civilisation + advances, the charity of men becomes at once warmer and more + expansive, their habitual conduct both more gentle and more + temperate, and their love of truth more sincere; but it also warns us + that in periods of great intellectual enlightenment, and of great + social refinement, the relations of the sexes have often been most + anarchical. It is impossible to deny that the form which these + relations at present assume has been very largely affected by special + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" + id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> religious teaching, which, for + good or for ill, is rapidly waning in the sphere of government, and + also, that certain recent revolutions in economical opinion and + industrial enterprise have a most profound bearing upon the subject. + The belief that a rapid increase of population is always eminently + beneficial, which was long accepted as an axiom by both statesmen and + moralists, and was made the basis of a large part of the legislation + of the first and of the decisions of the second, has now been + replaced by the directly opposite doctrine, that the very highest + interest of society is not to stimulate but to restrain + multiplication, diminishing the number of marriages and of children. + In consequence of this belief, and of the many factitious wants that + accompany a luxurious civilisation, a very large and increasing + proportion of women are left to make their way in life without any + male protector, and the difficulties they have to encounter through + physical weakness have been most unnaturally and most fearfully + aggravated by laws and customs which, resting on the old assumption + that every woman should be a wife, habitually deprive them of the + pecuniary and educational advantages of men, exclude them absolutely + from very many of the employments in which they might earn a + subsistence, encumber their course in others by a heartless ridicule + or by a steady disapprobation, and consign, in consequence, many + thousands to the most extreme and agonising poverty, and perhaps a + still larger number to the paths of vice. At the same time a + momentous revolution, the effects of which can as yet be but + imperfectly descried, has taken place in the chief spheres of female + industry that remain. The progress of machinery has destroyed its + domestic character. The distaff has fallen from the hand. The needle + is being rapidly superseded, and the work which, from the days of + Homer to the present century, was accomplished in the centre of the + family, has been transferred to the crowded manufactory.<a id= + "noteref_783" name="noteref_783" href="#note_783"><span class= + "tei tei-noteref"><span style= + "font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">783</span></span></a></p><span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The probable + consequences of these things are among the most important questions + that can occupy the moralist or the philanthropist, but they do not + fall within the province of the historian. That the pursuits and + education of women will be considerably altered, that these + alterations will bring with them some modifications of the type of + character, and that the prevailing moral notions concerning the + relations of the sexes will be subjected in many quarters to a severe + and hostile criticism, may safely be predicted. Many wild theories + will doubtless be propounded. Some real ethical changes may perhaps + be effected, but these, if I mistake not, can only be within definite + and narrow limits. He who will seriously reflect upon our clear + perceptions of the difference between purity and impurity, upon the + laws that govern our affections, and upon the interests of the + children who are born, may easily convince himself that in this, as + in all other spheres, there are certain eternal moral landmarks which + never can be removed.</p> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name= + "Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + <hr class="page" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> <a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Abortion, diversities of moral judgment respecting, i. 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the practice of, ii. <a href="#Pg020" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>, <a href="#Pg024" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Abraham the Hermit, St., ii. <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Acacius, his ransom of Persian slaves, ii. <a href="#Pg072" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Adultery, laws concerning, ii. <a href="#Pg313" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Æschylus, his views of human nature, i. 196. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His violation of dramatic probabilities, 229 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Affections, the, all forms of self-love, according to some + Utilitarians, i. 9. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Subjugation of the, to the reason, taught by the Stoics, &c., + 177, 187. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Considered by the Stoics as a disease, 188. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Evil consequences of their suppression, 191 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Africa, sacrifices of children to Saturn in, ii. <a href="#Pg031" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the conquest of Genseric of, <a href="#Pg082" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Agapæ, or love feasts, of the Christians, how regarded by the + pagans, i. 415; ii. <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Excesses of the, and their suppression, <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Agnes, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">319</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Agricultural pursuits, history of the decline of, in Italy, i. + 266. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Efforts to relieve the agriculturists, 267 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Albigenses, their slow suicides, ii. <a href="#Pg049" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexander the Great: effect of his career on Greek + cosmopolitanism, i. 229 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexandria, foundation of, i. 230. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the increasing importance of, on Roman thought, 319. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Decian persecution at, 451. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Excesses of the Christian sects of, ii. <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>, <a href="#Pg197" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alexis, St., his legend, ii. <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Alimentus, Cincius, his work written in Greek, i. 230 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Almsgiving, effects of indiscriminate, ii. <a href="#Pg090" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href= + "#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amafanius, wrote the first Latin work on philosophy, i. 175, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ambrose, St., his miraculous dream, i. 379. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His dissection of the pagan theory of the decline of the Roman + empire, 409. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His ransom of Italians from the Goths, ii. <a href="#Pg072" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His commendation of disobedience to parents, <a href="#Pg132" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + American Indians, suicide of the, ii. <a href="#Pg054" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ammon, St., his refusal to wash himself, ii. <a href="#Pg110" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Deserts his wife, <a href="#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amour, William de St., his denunciation of the mendicant orders, + ii. <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">96</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Amphitheatres, history and remains of Roman, i. 273 + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name= + "Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anaxagoras, on the death of his son, i. 191. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On his true country, 201 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anchorites. <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Ascetics" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ascetics</a>; + <a href="#Index-Monastic" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Monasticism</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Angelo, Michael, in what he failed, ii. <a href="#Pg363" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Anglo-Saxon nations, their virtues and vices, i. 153 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Animals, lower, Egyptian worship of, i. 166, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Humanity to animals probably first advocated by Plutarch, 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Animals employed in the arena at Rome, 280. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instances of kindness to, 288, 307. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends of the connection of the saints and the animal world, ii. + <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">161</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pagan legends of the intelligence of animals, <a href="#Pg161" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>, <a href= + "#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legislative protection of them, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views as to the souls of animals, <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral duty of kindness to animals taught by pagans, <a href= + "#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends in the lives of the saints in connection with animals, + <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">168</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Progress in modern times of humanity to animals, <a href="#Pg172" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antigonus of Socho, his doctrine of virtue, i. 183, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antioch, charities of, ii. <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">80</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its extreme vice and asceticism, <a href="#Pg153" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antisthenes, his scepticism, i. 162 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antoninus, the philosopher, his prediction, i. 427 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antoninus the Pious, his death, i. 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His leniency towards the Christians, 438, 439. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Forged letter of, 439, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His charity, ii. 77 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Antony, St., his flight into the desert, ii. <a href="#Pg103" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His mode of life, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">110</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His dislike to knowledge, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">115</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of his visit to Paul the hermit, <a href="#Pg157" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>, <a href="#Pg158" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aphrodite, the celestial and earthly, i. 106 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Apollonius of Tyana, his conversation with an Egyptian priest + respecting the Greek and Egyptian modes of worshipping the deity, + i. 166, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miracles attributed to him, 372. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His humanity to animals, ii. <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Apollonius, the merchant, his dispensary for monks, ii. <a href= + "#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Apuleius, his condemnation of suicide, i. 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His disquisition on the doctrine of dæmons, 323. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical form of his philosophy, 329. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miracles attributed to him, 372. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His defence of tooth-powder, ii. <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Archytas of Tarentum, his speech on the evils of sensuality, i. + 200, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Argos, story of the sons of the priestess of Juno at, i. 206 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arians, their charges against the Catholics, i. 418, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aristides, his gentleness, i. 228 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aristotle, his admission of the practice of abortion, i. 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Emphasis with which he dwelt upon the utility of virtue, 124. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His patriotism, 200. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of suicide, 212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opinions as to the duties of Greeks to barbarians, 229 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arius, death of, ii. <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arnobius, on the miracles of Christ, i. 375 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arrian, his humanity to animals, ii. <a href="#Pg164" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Arsenius, St., his penances, ii. <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <a href="#Pg114" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His anxiety to avoid distractions, 125, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Ascetics" id="Index-Ascetics" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ascetics, their estimate of the dreadful nature of sin, i. 113. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decline of asceticism and evanescence of the moral notions of + which it was the expression, 113. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of society to which it belongs, 130. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decline of the ascetic and saintly qualities with civilisation, + 130. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the ascetic movement, ii. <a href="#Pg102" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its rapid extension, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">103-105</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Penances attributed to the saints of <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> the desert, + <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">107-109</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miseries and joys of the hermit life, <a href="#Pg113" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Dislike of the monks to knowledge, <a href="#Pg115" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their hallucinations, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">116</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relations of female devotees with the anchorites, <a href= + "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ways in which the ascetic life affected both the ideal type and + realised condition of morals, <a href="#Pg122" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Extreme animosity of the ascetics to everything pagan, <a href= + "#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, + <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">137</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decline of the civic virtues caused by asceticism, <a href= + "#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral effects of asceticism on self-sacrifice, <a href="#Pg154" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>, <a href= + "#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral beauty of some of the legends of the ascetics, <a href= + "#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends of the connection between the saints and the animal + world, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">161</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical form of asceticism in the West, <a href="#Pg177" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of asceticism on chastity, <a href="#Pg319" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>, <a href="#Pg320" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On marriage, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">320</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the estimate of women, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">337</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Asella, story of her asceticism, ii. <a href="#Pg133" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Asia Minor, destruction of the churches of, ii. <a href="#Pg014" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aspasia, the Athenian courtesan, ii. <a href="#Pg293" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Asses, feast of, ii. <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">173</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Association, Hartley's doctrine of, i. 22. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Partly anticipated by Hutcheson and Gay, 23. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Illustrations of the system of association, 26-30. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The theory, how far selfish, 30. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The essential and characteristic feature of conscience wholly + unaccounted for by the association of ideas, 66 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Astrology, belief in, rapidly gaining ground in the time of the + elder Pliny, i. 171, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Atticus, his suicide, i. 215, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Augustine, St., on original sin, i. 209. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His belief in contemporary miracles, 378. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the decline of the Roman empire, 410. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of virgin suicides, ii. <a href="#Pg047" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Augustus, his solemn degradation of the statue of Neptune, i. + 169. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His mode of discouraging celibacy, 232. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miraculous stories related of him, 258. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His superstition, 376. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Advice of Mæcenas to him, 399. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His consideration for the religious customs of the Jews, 406 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aulus Gellius, his account of the rhetoricians, i. 313. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared with Helvétius, 313 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Aurelius, Marcus, on a future state, i. 184. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On posthumous fame, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Denied that all vices are the same, 192, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the sacred spirit dwelling in man, 198. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His submissive gratitude, 199. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His practical application of the precepts of the Stoics, 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His wavering views as to suicide, 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His charity to the human race, 241. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Mild and more religious spirit of his stoicism, 245. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His constant practice of self-examination, 249. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His life and character, 249-255. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared and contrasted with Plutarch, 253. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His discouragement of the games of the arena, 286. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His humanity, 308. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His disbelief of exorcism, 384. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His law against religious terrorism, 422. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His persecution of the Christians, 439, 440. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His benevolence, ii. <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of war, <a href="#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">258</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Austin, Mr., his view of the foundation of the moral law, i. 17, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His advocacy of the unselfish view of the love we ought to bear + to God, 18, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Character of his <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Lectures on Jurisprudence,”</span> 22, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Avarice, association of ideas to the passion of, i. 25 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Avitus, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">159</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name= + "Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Babylas, St., miracles performed by his bones, i. 382, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His death, ii. <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">9</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bacchus, suppression of the rites of, at Rome, i. 401 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bacon, Lord, great movement of modern thought caused by, i. 125. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His objection to the Stoics' view of death, 202 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bacon, Roger, his life and works, ii. <a href="#Pg210" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bain, Mr., on pleasure, i. 12, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 29, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Balbus, Cornelius, his elevation to the consulate, i. 232 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baltus on the exorcists, i. 381, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Baptism, Augustinian doctrine of, i. 96 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Barbarians, causes of the conversion of the, i. 410 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Basil, St., his hospital, ii. <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His labours for monachism, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">106</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bassus, Ventidius, his elevation to the consulate, i. 232 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bathilda, Queen, her charity, ii. <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bear-gardens in England, ii. <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">175</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Beauty, analogies between virtue and, i. 77. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their difference, 79. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Diversities existing in our judgments of virtue and beauty, 79. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of these diversities, 79. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Virtues to which we can, and to which we cannot, apply the term + beautiful, 82, 83. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pleasure derived from beauty compared with that from the + grotesque, or eccentric, 85. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The prevailing cast of female beauty in the north, contrasted + with the southern type, 144, 145, 152. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Admiration of the Greeks for beauty, ii. <a href="#Pg292" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bees, regarded by the ancients as emblems or models of chastity, + i. 108, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Beggars, causes of vast numbers of, ii. <a href="#Pg094" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Old English laws for the suppression of mendicancy, <a href= + "#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Enactments against them in various parts of Europe, <a href= + "#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Benedict, St., his system, 183 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Benefices, military use of, ii. <a href="#Pg270" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Benevolence; Hutcheson's theory that all virtue is resolved into + benevolence, i. 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Discussions in England, in the sixteenth and seventeenth + centuries, as to the existence of, 20. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Various views of the source from which it springs, 22. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Association of ideas producing the feeling of, 26. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Hartley on benevolence quoted, 27, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Impossibility of benevolence becoming a pleasure if practised + only with a view to that end, 37. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Application to benevolence of the theory, that the moral unity of + different ages is a unity not of standard but of tendency, 100. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influenced by our imaginations, 132, 133. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Imperfectly recognised by the Stoics, 188, 192 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bentham, Jeremy, on the motives of human actions, i. 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the pleasures and pains of piety quoted, 9, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On charity, 10, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On vice, 13, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the sanctions of morality, 19, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 21. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Throws benevolence as much as possible into the background, 21. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Makes no use of the doctrine of association, 25, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 29, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On interest and disinterestedness, 32, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the value and purity of a pleasure, 90, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Besarion, St., his penances, ii. <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Biography, relative importance of, among Christians and Pagans, + i. 174 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Blandina, martyrdom of, i. 442 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Blesilla, story of her slow suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg048" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Blondel, his denunciation of the forgeries of the Sibylline + books, i. 377 + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name= + "Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Boadicea, her suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">53</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bolingbroke's <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Reflections on Exile,”</span> i. 201, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bona Dea, story and worship of, i. 94, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Popularity of her worship among the Romans, 106, 386 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Boniface, St., his missionary labours, ii. <a href="#Pg247" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bonnet, his philosophy, i. 71 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bossuet, on the nature of the love we should bear to God, i. 18, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brephotrophia, in the early church, ii. <a href="#Pg032" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brotherhood, effect of Christianity in promoting, ii. <a href= + "#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brown, on the motive for the practice of virtue, i. 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On theological Utilitarianism, 16, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brunehaut, Queen, her crimes, approved of by the Pope, ii. + <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">237</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Her end, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Brutus, his extortionate usury, i. 193, 194 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Buckle, Thomas, his remarks on morals, i. 74, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the difference between mental and physical pleasures, 90, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His views of the comparative influence of intellectual and moral + agencies in civilisation, 103, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bull-baiting in England, ii. <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">175</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Bulgarians, their conversion to Christianity, ii. <a href= + "#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Butler, Bishop, maintains the reality of the existence of + benevolence in our nature, i. 20, 21, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the pleasure derived from virtue, 32, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His analysis of moral judgments, 76. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 83 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Byzantine Empire, general sketch of the moral condition of the, + ii. <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">13</a>, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">14</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral condition of the empire during the Christian period, 147 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cædmon, story of the origin of his <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Creation of the World,”</span> ii. <a href= + "#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cæsar, Julius, denies the immortality of the soul, i. 182. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of suicide, 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His colonial policy, 233. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His multiplication of gladiatorial shows, 273 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Caligula, his intoxication with his imperial dignity, i. 259. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His superstitious fears, 367 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Calvinists: tendency of the Supralapsarian to deny the existence + of a moral sense, i. 17, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Camma, conjugal fidelity of, ii. <a href="#Pg341" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Capital punishment, aversion to, ii. <a href="#Pg039" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carlyle, Thomas, on self-sacrifice, i. 57, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The influence of conscience on the happiness of men, 62 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carneades, his expulsion from Rome proposed by Cato, i. 399 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carpocrates, licentiousness of the followers of, i. 417 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carthage, effect of the destruction of, on the decadence of Rome, + i. 169. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Decian persecution at, 452 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Carthaginians, the, amongst the most prominent of Latin writers, + i. 235 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cassius, the tyrannicide, his suicide, i. 215 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Castellio, his exposure of the forgeries of the Sibylline books, + i. 377 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catacombs, the, i. 453, 455 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catholicism, Roman, the system of education adopted by, + contrasted with that of the English public schools, i. 114. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conflict of the priests with political economists on the subject + of early marriages, 114, 115. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The teaching of, on many points the extreme antithesis of that of + the pagan philosophers, 208. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its view of death, <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg + 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> 208, 210. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Little done by it for humanity to animals, ii. <a href="#Pg173" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>, <a href= + "#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>, + <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">188</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence on despotism, <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">186</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its total destruction of religious liberty, <a href="#Pg194" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194-199</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the indifference to truth manifested in its literature, + <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">241</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Protestantism contrasted with it, <a href="#Pg368" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cato, his refusal to consult the oracles, i. 165, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His stoicism, 185. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His inhumanity to his slaves, 193. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His study of the <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Phædon”</span> the night he committed + suicide, 212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opposition to Greek philosophy, 231. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of pre-nuptial chastity, ii. 314 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cattle plague, theological notions respecting the, i. 356 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Catullus, on the death of a sparrow, ii. <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cautinus, Bishop, his drunkenness, ii. <a href="#Pg236" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Celibacy among the ancients, i. 106. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Catholic monastic system, 107. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How discouraged by Augustus, 232. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Celibacy the primal virtue of the Christians of the fourth and + fifth centuries, ii. <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">122</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of this upon moral teaching, <a href="#Pg122" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <a href="#Pg123" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the celibacy of the clergy, <a href="#Pg328" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">328</a>, <a href="#Pg336" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">336</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Celsus calls the Christians Sibyllists, i. 376. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And jugglers, 384 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Celts, Spanish, their worship of death, i. 206, 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of their passion for suicide, 207, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their lamentations on the birth of men, 207, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Censors, Roman, minute supervision of the, i. 168 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Character, influence of, on opinion, i. 172. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Governed in a great measure by national circumstances, 172 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chariot races, passion for, at Constantinople, ii. <a href= + "#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charity, a form of self-love, according to the Utilitarians, i. + 9, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Impossibility of charity becoming a pleasure if practised only + with a view to that end, 36. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charity of the Stoics, 191. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cicero's emphatic assertion of the duty, 240. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exertions of the Christians in the cause of charity, ii. <a href= + "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, + <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Inadequate place given to this movement in history, <a href= + "#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, + <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">85</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Christian charity, in what it consists, <a href="#Pg073" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Laws of the Romans, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pagan examples of charity, <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">78</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Noble enthusiasm of the Christians in the cause of charity, + <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a>, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charity enjoined as a matter of justice, <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theological notions of charity, <a href="#Pg085" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>, <a href="#Pg090" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>, <a href= + "#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Evils of Catholic charity, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">93-94</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends respecting the virtue, <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charlemagne, his law respecting Sunday, ii. <a href="#Pg245" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Fascination exercised by him over the popular imagination, + <a href="#Pg271" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">271</a>, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">272</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His polygamy, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">343</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charles V., the Emperor, his law against beggars, ii. <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charles Martel, his defeat of the Mohammedans, at Poictiers, ii. + <a href="#Pg273" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">273</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Charondas, law of, on second marriages, ii. <a href="#Pg325" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">325</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chastity, in Utilitarian systems, i. 12, 49. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Sketch of the history of, 103-107. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Catholic monastic system, 107. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Modern judgments of, ii. <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">282</a>, <a href="#Pg283" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cato's views, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">314</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Mystical views, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">315</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Services of the ascetics in enforcing the duty of chastity, + <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318-320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Children, charge of murdering infants, among the early + Christians, i. 417. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Abortion, ii. <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">20-24</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Infanticide, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">24</a>, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">26</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exposed children, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">32</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Institutions of the <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg + 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> Romans for the benefit of children, + <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chilon, his closing hours, i. 207 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cholera, theological notions respecting the, i. 356 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christian and pagan virtues compared, i. 190 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Christianity; distinctions between the pagan and Christian + conceptions of death, i. 208. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The importance of Christianity not recognised by pagan writers, + 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of this, 338. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Examination of the theory which ascribes part of the teaching of + the later pagan moralists to Christian influence, 340. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theory which attributes the conversion of Rome to evidences of + miracles, 346. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Opinion of the pagans about the credulity of the Christians, 347. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Incapacity of the Christians of the third century for judging + historic miracles, 375. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And for judging prophecies, 376. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contemporary miracles represented as existing among them, 377. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Christian miracles had probably little weight with the pagans, + 385. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Progress of Christianity to what due, 386, 387. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Singular adaptation of it to the wants of the time, 387. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Heroism it inspired, 390. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Explanation of the conversion of the Roman Empire, 393. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Account of the persecutions of the Christians, 395. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why the Christians were more persecuted than the Jews, + 403, 406, 407. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The first cause of the persecution of the Christians, 406. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charges of immorality brought against them, 414. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Due in a great measure to Jews and heretics, 416, 417. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The disturbance of domestic life caused by female conversions, + 418. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Antipathy of the Romans to every system which employed religious + terrorism, 421. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Christian intolerance of pagan worship, 423. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of diversity of belief, 424-427. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the persecutions, 429. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Nero's, 429. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Domitian's, 431. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of the Christians under the Antonines, 434. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Become profoundly obnoxious to the people, 436. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Marcus Aurelius, 439, 440. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Introduction of Christianity into France, 442, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Attitude of the rulers towards it from M. Aurelius to Decius, + 451, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of the Church on the eve of the Decian persecution, + 448. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gallus, 454. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Valerian, 454. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gallienus, 455. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Erection of churches in the Empire, 457. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Persecutions of Diocletian and Galerius, 458. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + End of the persecutions, 463. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Massacre of Christians in Phrygia, 464. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral efficacy of the Christian sense of sin, ii. <a href= + "#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Dark views of human nature not common in the early Church, + <a href="#Pg005" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">5</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The penitential system, <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">6</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Empire Christianity attained in eliciting disinterested + enthusiasm, <a href="#Pg008" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">8</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Great purity of the early Christians, <a href="#Pg010" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>, <a href="#Pg011" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The promise of the Church for many centuries falsified, <a href= + "#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The first consequence of Christianity a new sense of the sanctity + of human life, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">17</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence in the protection of infant life, <a href="#Pg020" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20-32</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + In the suppression of gladiatorial shows, <a href="#Pg034" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its effect upon persecutions, <a href="#Pg040" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The penal code not lightened by it, <a href="#Pg042" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condemnation of suicide, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">43</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Second consequence of Christianity Teaches universal brotherhood, + <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Slavery, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61-66</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ransom of captives, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charity, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exertions of the Christians in the cause of charity, <a href= + "#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>, + <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their exertions when the Empire was <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> subverted, + <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">81</a>, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">82</a>, <a href="#Pg088" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theological notions concerning insanity, <a href="#Pg085" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85-90</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Almsgiving, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90-92</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Beneficial effect of Christianity in supplying pure images to the + imagination, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">99</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Summary of the philanthropic achievements of Christianity, + <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">100</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ways in which the ascetic mode of life affected both the ideal + type and realised condition of morals, <a href="#Pg122" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the relations of Christianity to the civic virtues, + <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">140</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Improvements effected by Christianity in the morals of the + people, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">153</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Attitude of Christianity to the barbarians, <a href="#Pg178" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How it achieved their conversion, <a href="#Pg179" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179-181</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Tendency of the barbarians to adulterate it, <a href="#Pg181" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends of the conflict between the old gods and the new faith, + <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">181</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Fierce hatred of rival sects, and total destruction of religious + liberty, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194</a>, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">200</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Polytheistic and idolatrous form of Christianity in mediæval + times, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">229</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The doctrine of purgatory, <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">232</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Benefits conferred by the monasteries, <a href="#Pg243" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243-245</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The observance of Sunday, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">245</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of Christianity upon war, <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>, <a href="#Pg259" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Upon the consecration of secular rank, <a href="#Pg260" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Upon the condition of women, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">316</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Strong assertion of the equality of obligation in marriage, + <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">345</a>, <a href="#Pg346" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">346</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of Christianity to the female virtues, <a href="#Pg358" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chrysippus on the immortality of the soul, i. 183 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Chrysostom, St., his labours for monachism, ii. <a href="#Pg107" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His treatment of his mother, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">132</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cicero on the evidence of a Divine element within us, i. 56, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 83. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His conception of the Deity, 164. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opinion of the popular beliefs, 165. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instance of his love of truth, 176, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His desire for posthumous reputation, 185, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His declaration as to virtue concealing itself from the world, + 185. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His belief in the immortality of the soul, 204. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of death, 205, 206. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His complacency on the approach of death, 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His conception of suicide, 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His maintenance of the doctrine of universal brotherhood, 240. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How he regarded the games of the arena, 285. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His friendship with his freedman Tiro, 323. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on charity, ii. <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">79</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His rules respecting almsgiving, <a href="#Pg092" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Circumcelliones, atrocities of the, ii. <a href="#Pg041" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their custom of provoking martyrdom, <a href="#Pg049" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Civic virtues, predominance accorded to, in ancient ethics, i. + 200 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Civilisation, refining influence of, on taste, i. 79. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pleasures of a civilised and semi-civilised society compared, 86. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of Mill and Buckle on the comparative influence of + intellectual and moral agencies in, 102, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of education in diminishing cruelty, and producing + charity, 134. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral enthusiasm appropriate to different stages of civilisation, + 136. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increase of veracity with civilisation, 137. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Each stage of civilisation specially appropriate to some virtue, + 147 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clarke, on moral judgments, i. 77 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Classical literature, preservation of, ii. <a href="#Pg199" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Manner in which it was regarded by the Church, <a href="#Pg200" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200-204</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Claudius, his delight in gladiatorial shows, i. 280. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His decree as to slaves, 307 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Claver, Father, his remark on some persons who had delivered a + <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name= + "Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor" style= + "text-align: left"></a> criminal into the hands of justice, i. + 41, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cleanthes, his suicide, i. 212 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clemency, Seneca's distinction between it and pity, i. 189 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clement of Alexandria, on the two sources of all the wisdom of + antiquity, i. 344. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the Sibylline books, 376. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On wigs, ii. <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">149</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clemens, Flavius, put to death, i. 433 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cleombrotus, his suicide, i. 212, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clergy, corruption of the, from the fourth century, ii. <a href= + "#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>, + <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">237</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Submission of the Eastern, but independence of the Western, + clergy to the civil power, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">264-268</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of their celibacy, <a href="#Pg328" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">328</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Climate, effects of, in stimulating or allaying the passions, i. + 144 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clotaire, his treatment of Queen Brunehaut, ii. <a href="#Pg237" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clotilda, her conversion of her husband, i. 410; ii. <a href= + "#Pg180" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Clovis, his conversion, i. 410; ii. <a href="#Pg180" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">180</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gregory of Tours' account of his acts, <a href="#Pg240" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>, <a href="#Pg241" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cock-fighting among the ancients and moderns, ii. <a href= + "#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>, + and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, + <a href="#Pg175" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">175</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cock-throwing, ii. <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">164</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg175" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Coemgenus, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg111" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Coleridge, S. T., his remarks on the practice of virtue as a + pleasure, i. 28, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His admiration for Hartley, 28, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the binding ground of the belief of God and a hereafter, i. + 55, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Colman, St., his animal companions, ii. <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His girdle, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">319</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Colonies, Roman, the cosmopolitan spirit forwarded by the + aggrandisement of the, i. 233 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Colosseum, the, i. 275. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Games at the dedication of the, 280 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Columbanus, St., his missionary labours, ii. <a href="#Pg246" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Comedy, Roman, short period during which it flourished, i. 277 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Comet, a temple erected by the Romans in honour of a, i. 367 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Commodus, his treatment of the Christians, i. 443 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Compassion, theory that it is the cause of our acts of barbarity, + i. 71, 72 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Concubines, Roman, ii. <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">350</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Concupiscence, doctrine of the Fathers respecting, ii. <a href= + "#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Condillac, cause of the attractiveness of utilitarianism to, i. + 71. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Connection with Locke, i. 122, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Confessors, power of the, in the early Church, i. 390, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Congo, Helvétius, on a custom of the people of, i. 102, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Conquerors, causes of the admiration of, i. 94, 95 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Conscience, association of ideas generating, i. 28. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Recognised by the disciples of Hartley, 29. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Definitions of Hobbes, Locke, Bentham, and Bain, 29, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The rewards and punishments of conscience, 60-62. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unique position of, in our nature, 83. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + As defined by Cicero, the Stoics, St. Paul, and Butler, 83 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Consequences, remote, weakness of the utilitarian doctrine of, i. + 42-44 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Consolations,”</span> literature of, leading + topics of, i. 204 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Constantine, the Emperor, his foundation of the empire of the + East, ii. <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">12</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His humane policy towards children, <a href="#Pg029" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>, <a href="#Pg030" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">30</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His sanction of the gladiatorial shows, <a href="#Pg035" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His laws mitigating the severity of punishments, <a href="#Pg042" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His treatment of slaves, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">64</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His law <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg + 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> respecting Sunday, <a href="#Pg244" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Magnificence of his court at Constantinople, <a href="#Pg265" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Conventual system, effect of the suppression of the, on women, + ii. <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">369</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cordeilla, or Cordelia, her suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg053" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Corinth, effect of the conquest of, on the decadence of Rome, i. + 169 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cornelia, a vestal virgin, incident of her execution, ii. + <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">318</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cornelius, the bishop, martyrdom of, i. 454 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cornutus, his disbelief in a future state, i. 183 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Corporations, moral qualities of, i. 152 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Councils of the Church, character of the, ii. <a href="#Pg197" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Courtesans, Greek, ii. <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">287</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of their elevation, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">291-294</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How regarded by the Romans, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">300</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cousin, Victor, his criticism of the Scotch moralists, i. 74, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His objection against Locke, 75, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crantor, originates the literature of <span class="tei tei-q" + style="text-align: left">“Consolations,”</span> i. 204 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cremutius Cordus, trial of, i. 448, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crime, value attached by the monks to pecuniary compensations + for, ii. <a href="#Pg213" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">213</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Catalogue of crimes of the seventh century, <a href="#Pg237" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237-239</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Criminals, causes of our indulgent judgment of, i. 135 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Critical spirit, the, destroyed by Neoplatonism, i. 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cromaziano, his history of suicide, i. 216, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cruelty, origin and varieties of, i. 132, 134. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cruelty to animals, utilitarian doctrine concerning, 46, 47 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Crusius, his adherence to the opinion of Ockham as to the + foundation of the moral law, i. 17, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cudworth, his analysis of moral judgments, i. 76 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Culagium, a tax levied on the clergy, ii. <a href="#Pg330" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">330</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cumberland, Bishop, his unselfish view of virtue, i. 19, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cynics, account of the later, i. 309 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cyprian, St., his evasion of persecution by flight, i. 452. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His exile and martyrdom, 455 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Cyzicus deprived of its freedom, i. 259 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dæmons, Apuleius' disquisition on the doctrine of, i. 323. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The doctrine supersedes the Stoical naturalism, i. 331. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The dæmons of the Greeks and Romans, 380. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of the Christians, 382 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dale, Van, his denial of the supernatural character of the + oracles, i. 374 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dead, Roman worship of the, i. 168 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Death, calmness with which some men of dull and animal natures + can meet, i. 89. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Frame of mind in which a man should approach death, according to + Epictetus, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Preparation for death one of the chief ends of the philosophy of + the ancients, 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Bacon's objection to the Stoics' view of, 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Irish legend of the islands of life and death, 203. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The literature of <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Consolations,”</span> 204. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Death not regarded by the philosophers as penal, 205. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Popular terrors of death, 205, 206. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instances of tranquil pagan deaths, 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinctions between the pagan and Christian conceptions of + death, 208 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Decius, persecution of the Christians under, i. 449, 450 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Defoe, Daniel, his tract against beggars, ii. <a href="#Pg098" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Delphi, oracle of, its description of the best religion, i. 167 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Deogratias, his ransom of prisoners, ii. <a href="#Pg072" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name= + "Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Despotism, Helvétius' remarks on the moral effects of, i. 129, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Diagoras, his denial of the existence of the gods, i. 162 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Diodorus, the philosopher, his suicide, i. 215 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dion Chrysostom, his denunciation of images of the Deity, i. 166, + 167, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His life and works, 312 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on the creed of the Romans, i. 167 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Disinterestedness, Bentham's remarks on, quoted, i. 32, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Disposition, what constitutes, according to the theory of + association, i. 30 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Divination, a favourite subject of Roman ridicule, i. 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief of the ancients in, 363 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Divorce, unbounded liberty of, among the Romans, ii. <a href= + "#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">306-308</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condemned by the Church, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">350</a>, <a href="#Pg351" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Docetæ, their tenets, ii. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">102</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dog-star, legend of the, ii. <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dolphin, legends of the, ii. <a href="#Pg162" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">162</a>, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Domestic laws, Roman, changes in, i. 297, 298 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Domestic virtues, destruction of the, by the ascetics, ii. + <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">125</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Domitian, his law respecting suicide, i. 219. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Anecdote of his cruelty, 289. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His law as to slaves, 307. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His persecution of the Stoics and Christians, 431, 432 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Domitilla, banishment of, i. 433 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Domnina, her suicide with her daughters, ii. <a href="#Pg046" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Donatists, their intolerance, ii. <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dowry of women, rise of the, ii. <a href="#Pg277" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dreams, opinions of the Romans concerning, i. 366, 367, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dumont, M., on vengeance quoted, i. 41, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Duty, theory of morals must explain what is, and the notion of + there being such a thing as, i. 5. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Paley on the difference between it and prudence, 15, 16, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinction between natural duties and those resting on positive + law, 93. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Duty a distinct motive, 180 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Dwarfs, combats of, in the arena, i. 281 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Earthquakes, how regarded by the ancients, i. 369. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cause of persecutions of the Christians, 408 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Easter controversy, bitterness of the, ii. <a href="#Pg198" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eclectic school of philosophy, rise of the, i. 242. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its influence on the Stoics, 245 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eclipses, opinions of the ancients concerning, i. 366 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Education, importance ascribed to, by the theory of the + association of ideas, i. 30. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrast between that adopted by the Catholic priesthood and that + of the English public schools, 114. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its influence on the benevolent feelings, 133, 134. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Two distinct theories of, 187 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Egypt, the cradle of monachism, ii. <a href="#Pg105" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Mohammedan conquest of, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">143</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Triumphs of the Catholics in, <a href="#Pg196" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Egyptians, their reverence for the vulture, i. 108, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their kindness to animals, 289. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrast of the spirit of their religion with that of the Greeks, + 324. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the Stoical and Egyptian pantheism, 325 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Elephants, legends of, ii. <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">161</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Emperors, Roman, apotheosis of, i. 170, 257 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Endura, the Albigensian practice of, ii. <a href="#Pg049" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + England, national virtues and vices <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> of, i. 153. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ancient amusements of, ii. <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">174</a>, <a href="#Pg175" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">175</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ephrem, St., his charity, ii. <a href="#Pg081" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epictetus, his disbelief in a future state, i. 183. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His life and works, 184, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the frame of mind in which a man should approach death, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His views of the natural virtue of man, 198. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On suicide, 214, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 220. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On universal brotherhood, 254. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His stoicism tempered by a milder and more religious spirit, 245, + 246. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on national religious beliefs, 405 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epicureans, their faith preserved unchanged at Athens, i. 128, + and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their scepticism, 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman Epicureans, 162, 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Epicureanism the expression of a type of character different from + Stoicism, 171, 172. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + But never became a school of virtue in Rome, 175. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Destructive nature of its functions, 176. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Esteemed pleasure as the ultimate end of our actions, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Encouraged physical science, 193. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their doctrine as to suicide, 214, 215, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epicurus, the four canons of, i. 14. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Vast place occupied by his system in the moral history of man, + 171. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His character, 175, 176, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Lucretius' praise of him, 197. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of death, 205. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Discovery of one of his treatises at Herculaneum, 205, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epidemics, theological notions respecting, i. 356 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epiphanius, St., his miraculous stories, i. 378. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His charges against the Gnostics, 417. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of him and St. Hilarius, ii. 159 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Epponina, story of her conjugal fidelity, ii. <a href="#Pg342" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Error, the notion of the guilt of, ii. <a href="#Pg190" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190-193</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Essenes, virginity their ideal of sanctity, i. 109, ii. <a href= + "#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euhemerus, his explanation of the legends, i. 163 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euphrates the Stoic, his answer to Pliny the Younger, i. 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Has permission from Hadrian to commit suicide, 218, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euphraxia, St., ii. <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Euripides, beauty of the gentler virtues inculcated in the plays + of, i. 228 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eusebius, on the allegorical and mythical interpretations of + paganism, i. 163, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His account of the Christian persecutions, i. 463 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eusebius, St., his penances, ii. <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Eustathius, condemnation of, by the council of Gangra, ii. + <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">131</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Evagrius, his inhumanity to his parents, ii. <a href="#Pg125" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Evil, views of Hobbes and the Utilitarians of the essence and + origin of, i. 8-10 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Excellence, supreme, how far it is conducive to happiness, i. 56 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Excommunication, penalties of, ii. 7 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Executioners, always regarded as unholy, i. 41 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Exorcism, among the early Christians, i. 378, 380. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Origin of the notions of possession and exorcism, 380. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Jews the principal exorcists, 380. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief of the early Christians in, 382. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contempt of the pagans for it, 384. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ulpian's law against exorcists, 384. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Probable explanation of possession and exorcism, 385. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Speedy decline of exorcism, 385. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The practice probably had no appreciable influence in provoking + persecution of the Christians, 420 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Experience, general statement of the doctrine which bases morals + upon, i. 5 + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name= + "Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fabianus, martyrdom of, i. 446 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fabiola, founded the first public hospital, ii. <a href="#Pg080" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fabius, his self-sacrifice, i. 185 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fabius Pictor, his works written in Greek, i. 230 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Faculty, moral, the term, i. 75 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fairies, belief in, i. 348, 349 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fatalism, Æschylus the poet of, i. 196 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Felicitas, St., her martyrdom, i. 444. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + In prison, ii. 9 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fénelon, on the unselfish love we should bear to God, i. 18, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fetishism, latent, the root of a great part of our opinions, i. + 350 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fidenæ, accident at the amphitheatre at, i. 275 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fights, sham, in Italy in the middle ages, ii. <a href="#Pg037" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>, <a href= + "#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fire, regarded by the ancients as an emblem of virginity, i. 108, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Fish, symbol of the early Christians, i. 376 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Flamens of Jupiter, ii. <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">298</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Flora, games of, i. 276 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Forethought, brought into a new position by industrial habits, i. + 140 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Foundlings, hospitals for, ii. <a href="#Pg023" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg032" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + In ancient times, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">28</a>, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">29</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Adversaries of, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">98</a>, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + France, condition of, under the Merovingian kings, ii. <a href= + "#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Francis of Assisi, St., story of his death from asceticism, ii. + <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His kindness to animals, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Franks, cause of their conversion, i. 410 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Frédégonde, Queen, her crimes, ii. <a href="#Pg236" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, <a href="#Pg237" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Freedmen, influence of, at Rome, i. 233. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of the freedmen of the Romans, 236 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Frenchmen, the chief national virtues and causes of their + influence in Europe, i. 152. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared with Anglo-Saxon nations, 153 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Friendship, Utilitarian view of, i. 10 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Galerius, his persecution of the Christians, i. 458, 461. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His illness, 462. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relents towards the Christians, 462 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Galilæans, their indifference to death, i. 392, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gall, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg182" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">182</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His missionary labours, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">247</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gallienus, proclaims toleration to the Christians, i. 455, 457 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gallus, the Emperor, persecutions of the Christians under, i. 454 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gambling-table, moral influence of the, i. 148 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gaul, introduction of Christianity into, i. 442. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Foundation of the monastic system in, ii. <a href="#Pg106" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Long continuance of polygamy among the kings of, <a href="#Pg343" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gay, his view of the origin of human actions, quoted, i. 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His suggestion of the theory of association, 23, 24 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Genseric, effect of his conquest of Africa upon Italy, ii. + <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">82</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His capture of Rome, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">83</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + George of Cappadocia, his barbarity, ii. <a href="#Pg195" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Germanicus, the Emperor, fury of the populace with the gods, in + consequence of the death of, i. 169 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Germanus, St., his charity, ii. <a href="#Pg245" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Germany, conversion of, to Christianity, ii. <a href="#Pg246" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Marriage customs of the early Germans, <a href="#Pg278" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their chastity, <a href="#Pg340" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">340</a>, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">341</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gervasius, St., recovery of his remains, i. 379. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Girdles of chastity, ii. <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">319</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gladiatorial shows, influence of Christianity on the suppression + of, i. 34. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why the Romans saw nothing criminal in them, 101. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History and effect on the Romans of, 271-283. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How regarded by moralists and historians, 284. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The passion for them not inconsistent <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> with humanity in + other spheres, 288. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gnostics, accusations against the, by the early Fathers, i. 417. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their tenets, ii. 102 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + God, the Utilitarian view of the goodness of, i. 9, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Question of the disinterestedness of the love we should bear to, + 18. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Our knowledge of Him derived from our own moral nature, 55. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Early traces of an all-pervading soul of nature in Greece, 161, + 162, 170. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Philosophic definitions of the Deity, 162, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pantheistic conception of, by the Stoics and Platonists, 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Recognition of Providence by the Roman moralists, 196. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Two aspects under which the Stoics worshipped the + Divinity—providence and moral goodness, 198 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gods, the, of the ancients, i. 161, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Euhemerus' theory of the explanation of the prevailing legends of + the gods, 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of Cicero of the popular beliefs, 165. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Opinions of the Stoics, of Ovid, and of Horace, 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Nature of the gods of the Romans, 167. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decline of Roman reverence for the gods, 168, 169 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Good, pleasure equivalent to, according to the Utilitarians, i. + 8, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 9 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gracchi, colonial policy of the, i. 233 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grazers, sect of, ii. <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">109</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Greeks, ancient, their callous murder of children, i. 45, 46. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Low state of female morality among them. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their enforcement of monogamy, 104. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Celibacy of some of their priests and priestesses, 105. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Early traces of a religion of nature, 161. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Universal providence attributed to Zeus, 161. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Scepticism of the philosophers, 161, 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Importance of biography in the moral teaching of the, i. 74. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the teaching of the Roman moralists and the + Greek poets, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On death, and future punishment, 205, 206. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Greek suicides, 212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gentleness and humanity of the Greek character, 227. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence on Roman character, 227, 228. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Greek spirit at first as far removed from cosmopolitanism as + that of Rome, 228. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of Greek cosmopolitanism, 229. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Extent of Greek influence at Rome, 230. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gladiatorial shows among them, 276. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Spirit of their religion contrasted with that of the Egyptians, + 324. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their intolerance of foreign religions, 406. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition and fall of their empire of the East, ii. <a href= + "#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12-14</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their practice of infanticide, <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25-27</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their treatment of animals, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">164</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their treatment of prisoners taken in war, <a href="#Pg257" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>, <a href= + "#Pg258" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">258</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their marriage customs, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">277</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Women in the poetic age, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Peculiarity of Greek feelings on the position of women, <a href= + "#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>, + <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">281</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unnatural forms assumed by vice amongst them, <a href="#Pg294" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gregory the Great, his contempt for Pagan literature, ii. + <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">201</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His attitude towards Phocas, <a href="#Pg264" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">264</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gregory of Nyssa, St., his eulogy of virginity, ii. <a href= + "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gregory of Tours, manner in which he regarded events, ii. + <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">240-242</a>, <a href="#Pg261" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>, <a href="#Pg277" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Grotesque, or eccentric, pleasure derived from the, compared with + that from beauty, i. 85 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gundebald, his murders approved of by his bishop, ii. <a href= + "#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Gunpowder, importance of the invention of, i. 126 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Guy, Brother, his society for protection and education of + children, ii. <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">33</a>, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name= + "Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hadrian, the Emperor, his view of suicide, i. 219. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gives Euphrates permission to destroy himself, 218, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His laws respecting slaves, 307. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His leniency towards Christianity, 438. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His benevolence, ii. <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hair, false, opinions of the Fathers on, ii. <a href="#Pg149" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hall, Robert, on theological Utilitarianism, i. 15 <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Happiness, the + greatest, for the greatest number,”</span> theory of the, i. 3. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The sole end of human actions, according to the Utilitarians, 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The best man seldom the happiest, 69. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Mental compared with physical happiness, 87. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of health and temperament on happiness, 88, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hartley, his doctrine of association, i. 22. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Coleridge's admiration for him, 28, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On animal food, 48, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His attempt to evade the conclusion to which his view leads, + quoted, 67, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 82 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hegesias, the orator of death, i. 215 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heliogabalus, his blasphemous orgies, i. 260 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hell, monkish visions of, ii. <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Glimpses of the infernal regions furnished by the <span class= + "tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Dialogues”</span> of St. + Gregory, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">221</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Modern publications on this subject, <a href="#Pg223" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Helvétius, on the origin of human actions, i. 8, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On customs of the people of Congo and Siam, 102, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared with Aulus Gellius, 313 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Herbert, of Cherbury, Lord, his profession of the doctrine of + innate ideas, i. 123 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hercules, meaning of, according to the Stoics, i. 163 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hereford, Nicholas of, his opposition to indiscriminate alms, ii. + <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">96</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heresy, punishment of death for, i. 98; ii. <a href="#Pg040" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hermits. <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#Index-Ascetics" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Asceticism</a>; + <a href="#Index-Monastic" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">Monasticism</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Heroism, the Utilitarian theory unfavourable to, i. 66. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + War, the school of heroism, 173 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hilarius, St., legend of him and St. Epiphanius, ii. <a href= + "#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hildebrand, his destruction of priestly marriage, ii. <a href= + "#Pg322" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hippopotamus, legend of the, ii. <a href="#Pg161" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Historical literature, scantiness of, after the fall of the Roman + empire, ii. <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">235</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hobbes, Thomas, his opinions concerning the essence and origin of + virtue, i. 7, 8, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of the origin of human actions, quoted, 8, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on the goodness which we apprehend in God, quoted, 9, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And on reverence, 9, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On charity, 9, 10, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On pity, 10, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Review of the system of morals of his school, 11. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gives the first great impulse to moral philosophy in England, 19, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His denial of the reality of pure benevolence, 20, 21. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 29, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His theory of compassion, 72, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Holidays, importance of, to the servile classes, ii. <a href= + "#Pg244" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Homer, his views of human nature and man's will, i. 196 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Horace, his ridicule of idols, i. 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His description of the just man, 197 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hospitality enjoined by the Romans, ii. <a href="#Pg079" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hospitals, foundation of the first, ii. <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg081" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Human life, its sanctity recognised by Christianity, ii. <a href= + "#Pg018" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gradual acquirement of this sense, <a href="#Pg018" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">18</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name= + "Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Human nature, false estimate of, by the Stoics, i. 192 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hume, David, his theory of virtue, i. 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Misrepresented by many writers, 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His recognition of the reality of benevolence in our nature, 20, + and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His comment on French licentiousness in the eighteenth century, + 50, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His analysis of the moral judgments, 76. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Lays the foundation for a union of the schools of Clarke and + Shaftesbury, 77 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Humility, new value placed upon it by monachism, ii. <a href= + "#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, + <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">187</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hutcheson, Francis, his doctrine of a <span class="tei tei-q" + style="text-align: left">“moral sense,”</span> i. 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Establishes the reality of the existence of benevolence in our + nature, 20. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His analysis of moral judgments, 76 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Hypatia, murder of, ii. <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">196</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Iamblichus, his philosophy, i. 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ideas, confused association of. Question whether our, are derived + exclusively from sensation or whether they spring in part from + the mind itself, 122. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The latter theory represented by the Platonic doctrine of + pre-existence, 122. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Doctrine of innate ideas, 122 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Idols and idolatry, views of the Roman philosophers of, i. 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Discussion between Apollonius of Tyana and an Egyptian priest + respecting, 166, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Idols forbidden by Numa, 166, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plutarch on the vanity of, 166, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ignatius, St., his martyrdom, i. 438 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ignis fatuus, legend of the, ii. <a href="#Pg224" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Imagination, sins of, i. 44. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of the benevolent feelings to it, 132, 133. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Deficiency of imagination the cause of the great majority of + uncharitable judgments, 134-136. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Feebleness of the imagination a source of legends and myths, 347. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Beneficial effects of Christianity in supplying pure images to + the imagination, 299 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Imperial system of the Romans, its effect on their morals, i. + 257. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Apotheosis of the emperors, 257 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + India, ancient, admiration for the schools of, i. 229 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Inductive, ambiguity of the term, as applied to morals, i. 73 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Industrial truth, characteristics of, i. 137. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of the promotion of industrial life upon morals, + 139-140 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Infanticide, history of the practice of, ii. <a href="#Pg024" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Efforts of the Church to suppress it, <a href="#Pg029" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman laws relating to, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">31</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of, in England, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">285</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Infants, Augustinian doctrine of the damnation of unbaptised, i. + 96. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Sacrament given to, in the early Church, ii. <a href="#Pg006" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Insanity, alleged increase of, ii. <a href="#Pg060" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theological notions concerning, <a href="#Pg086" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The first lunatic asylums, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">88</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Insurance societies among the poor of Greece and Rome, ii. + <a href="#Pg078" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">78</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Intellectual progress, its relations to moral progress, i. + 149-151 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Interest, self-, human actions governed exclusively by, according + to the Utilitarians, i. 7, 8, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Summary of the relations of virtue and public and private, 117 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Intuition, rival claims of, and utility to be regarded as the + supreme regulator of moral distinctions, i. 1, 2. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Various names by which the theory of intuition is known, 2, 3. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of the moralists of the school of, 3. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Summary of their objections to the Utilitarian theory, i. 69. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The intuitive school, 74, 75. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Doctrines of Butler, Adam <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> Smith, and others, + 76-77. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Analogies of beauty and virtue, 77. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinction between the higher and lower parts of our nature, 83. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral judgments, and their alleged diversities, 91. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + General moral principles alone revealed by intuition, 99. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Intuitive morals not unprogressive, 102, 103. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difficulty of both the intuitive and utilitarian schools in + finding a fixed frontier line between the lawful and the illicit, + 116, 117. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The intuitive and utilitarian schools each related to the general + condition of society, 122. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their relations to metaphysical schools, 123, 124. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And to the Baconian philosophy, 125. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrasts between ancient and modern civilisations, 126, 127. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical consequences of the opposition between the two schools, + 127 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Inventions, the causes which accelerate the progress of society + in modern times, i. 126 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ireland, why handed over by the Pope to England, ii. <a href= + "#Pg217" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">217</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Irenæus, his belief that all Christians had the power of working + miracles, i. 378 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Irish, characteristics of the, i. 138. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their early marriages and national improvidences, 146. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Absence of moral scandals among the priesthood, 146. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their legend of the islands of life and death, 203. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their missionary labours, ii. <a href="#Pg246" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">246</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their perpendicular burials, <a href="#Pg253" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">253</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isidore, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">205</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Isis, worship of, at Rome, i. 387. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Suppression of the worship, 402 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Italians, characteristics of the, i. 138, 144 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Italy, gigantic development of mendicancy in, ii. <a href= + "#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Introduction of monachism into, <a href="#Pg106" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + James, the Apostle, Eusebius' account of him, ii. <a href= + "#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + James, St., of Venice, his kindness to animals, ii. <a href= + "#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jenyns, Soame, his adherence to the opinion of Ockham, i. 17, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jerome, St., on exorcism, i. 382. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the clean and unclean animals in the ark, ii. <a href="#Pg104" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">115</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Encouraged inhumanity of ascetics to their relations, <a href= + "#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">134</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His legend of SS. Paul and Antony, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jews, their law regulating marriage and permitting polygamy, i. + 103. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their treatment of suicides, 218, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of their manners and creed at Rome, 235, 337. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Became the principal exorcists, 380, 381, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Spread of their creed in Rome, 386. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why they were persecuted less than the Christians, 402, + 407. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How regarded by the pagans, and how the Christians were regarded + by the Jews, 415. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Charges of immorality brought against the Christians by the Jews, + 417. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Domitian's taxation of them, 432. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their views of the position of women, ii. <a href="#Pg337" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Joffre, Juan Gilaberto, his foundation of a lunatic asylum in + Valencia, ii. <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John, St., at Patmos, i. 433 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John, St., of Calama, story of, ii. <a href="#Pg128" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + John XXIII., Pope, his crimes, ii. <a href="#Pg331" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">331</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Johnson, Dr., his adherence to the opinion of Ockham, i. 17, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Julian, the Emperor, his tranquil death, i. 207, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Refuses the language of adulation, 259. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His attempt to resuscitate paganism, 331. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Attitude of the Church towards him, ii. <a href="#Pg261" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">261</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Joy at his death, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">262</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name= + "Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Julien l'Hospitalier, St., legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg084" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Jupiter Ammon, fountain of, deemed miraculous, i. 366, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justinian, his laws respecting slavery, ii. <a href="#Pg065" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Justin Martyr, his recognition of the excellence of many parts of + the pagan writings, i. 344. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“seminal + logos,”</span> 344. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the Sibylline books, 376. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cause of his conversion to Christianity, 415. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His martyrdom, 441 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Juvenal, on the natural virtue of man, i. 197 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Kames, Lord, on our moral judgments, i. 77. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Notices the analogies between our moral and æsthetical judgments, + 77 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + King's evil, ceremony of touching for the, i. 363, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Labienus, his works destroyed, i. 448, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lactantius, character of his treatise, i. 463 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lætorius, story of, i. 259 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Laughing condemned by the monks of the desert, ii. <a href= + "#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Law, Roman, its relation to Stoicism, i. 294, 295. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its golden age not Christian, but pagan, ii. <a href="#Pg042" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lawyers, their position in literature, i. 131, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Legacies forbidden to the clergy, ii. <a href="#Pg151" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Power of making bequests to the clergy enlarged by Constantine, + <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">215</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leibnitz, on the natural or innate powers of man, i. 121, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leo the Isaurian, Pope, his compact with Pepin, ii. <a href= + "#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Leonardo da Vinci, his kindness to animals, ii. <a href="#Pg172" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Licentiousness, French, Hume's comments on, i. 50, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Locke, John, his view of moral good and moral evil, i. 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His theological utilitarianism, 16, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His view of the sanctions of morality, 19. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His invention of the phrase <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“association of ideas,”</span> 23. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His definition of conscience, 29, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cousin's objections against him, 75, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His refutation of the doctrine of a natural moral sense, 123, + 124. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rise of the sensual school out of his philosophy, 123, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Famous formulary of his school, 124 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lombard, Peter, character of his <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Sentences,”</span> ii. <a href="#Pg226" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His visions of heaven and hell, <a href="#Pg228" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Longinus, his suicide, i. 219 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Love terms Greek, in vogue with the Romans, i. 231, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lucan, failure of his courage under torture, i. 194. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His sycophancy, 194. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His cosmopolitanism, 240 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lucius, the bishop, martyrdom of, i. 454 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lucretius, his scepticism, i. 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His disbelief in the immortality of the soul, i. 182, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His praise of Epicurus, 197. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His suicide, 215. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On a bereaved cow, ii. 165 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lunatic asylums, the first, ii. <a href="#Pg089" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Luther's wife, her remark on the sensuous creed she had left, i. + 52 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Lyons, persecution of the Christians at, i. 441 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Macarius, St., miracle attributed to, ii. <a href="#Pg040" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His penances, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">109</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of his visit to an enchanted garden, <a href="#Pg158" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Other legends of him, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">158</a>, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">159</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>, <a href="#Pg220" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Macedonia, effect of the conquest of, on the decadence of Rome, + i. 169 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mackintosh, Sir James, theory of morals advocated by, i. 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Fascination <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg + 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> of Hartley's doctrine of + association over his mind, 29 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Macrianus, persuades the Emperor Valerian to persecute the + Christians, i. 455 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Macrina Cælia, her benevolence to children, ii. <a href="#Pg077" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Magdalen asylums, adversaries of, ii. <a href="#Pg098" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mallonia, virtue of, ii. <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">309</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Malthus, on charity, ii. <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">92</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mandeville, his <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Enquiry into the Origin of Moral + Virtue.”</span> His thesis that <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“private vices are public benefits,”</span> i. + 7. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opposition to charity schools, ii. <a href="#Pg098" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manicheans, their tenets, ii. <a href="#Pg102" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their prohibition of animal food, <a href="#Pg167" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manilius, his conception of the Deity, i. 163 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Manufactures, influence upon morals, i. 139 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcellinus, Tullius, his self-destruction, i. 222 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcia, mistress of Commodus, her influence in behalf of + toleration to the Christians, i. 443 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcian, St., legend of the visit of St. Avitus to him, ii. + <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">159</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marcus, St., story of, and his mother, ii. <a href="#Pg128" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marriage, how regarded by the Jews, Greeks, Romans, and + Catholics, i. 103, 104. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Statius' picture of the first night of marriage, 107, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reason why the ancient Jews attached a certain stigma to + virginity, 109. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conflict of views of the Catholic priest and the political + economist on the subject of early marriages, 114. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Results in some countries of the difficulties with which + legislators surround marriage, 144. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Early marriages the most conspicuous proofs of Irish + improvidence, 144. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of asceticism on, ii. <a href="#Pg320" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Notions of its impurity, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">324</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Second marriages, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Marseilles, law of, respecting suicide, i. 218, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Epidemic of suicide among the women of, ii. <a href="#Pg055" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Martial, sycophancy of his epigrams, i. 194 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Martin of Tours, St., establishes monachism in Gaul, ii. <a href= + "#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Martyrdom, glories of, i. 390. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Festivals of the Martyrs, 390, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Passion for, 391. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Dissipation of the people at the festivals, ii. <a href="#Pg150" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mary, St., of Egypt, ii. <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mary, the Virgin, veneration of, ii. <a href="#Pg367" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>, <a href="#Pg368" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href= + "#Pg390" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">390</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Massilians, wine forbidden to women by the, i. 96, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maternal affection, strength of, ii. <a href="#Pg025" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maurice, on the social penalties of conscience, i. 60, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mauricus, Junius, his refusal to allow gladiatorial shows at + Vienna, i. 286 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maxentius, instance of his tyranny, ii. <a href="#Pg046" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maximilianus, his martyrdom, ii. <a href="#Pg248" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maximinus, Emperor, his persecution of the Christians, i. 446 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Maximus of Tyre, account of him and his discourses, i. 312. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His defence of the ancient creeds, 323. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical form of his philosophy, 329 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Medicine, possible progress of, i. 158, 159 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Melania, St., her bereavement, ii. <a href="#Pg010" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Her pilgrimage through the Syrian and Egyptian hermitages, 120 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Milesians, wine forbidden by the, to women, i. 94, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Military honour pre-eminent among the Romans, i. 172, 173. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the decadence of Roman military virtue, 268 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mill, J., on association, 25, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name= + "Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mill, J. S., quoted, i. 29, 47, 90, 102 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Minerva, meaning of, according to the Stoics, i. 163 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Miracles, general incredulity on the subject of, at the present + time, i. 346, 348. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miracles not impossible, 347. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Established by much evidence, 347. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The histories of them always decline with education, 348. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Illustration of this in the belief in fairies, 348. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conceptions of savages, 349. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legends, formation and decay of, 350-352. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Common errors in reasoning about miracles, 356. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Predisposition to the miraculous in some states of society, 362. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief of the Romans in miracles, 363-367. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Incapacity of the Christians of the third century for judging + historic miracles, 375. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contemporary miracles believed in by the early Christians, 378. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exorcism, 378. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Neither past nor contemporary Christian miracles had much weight + upon the pagans, 378 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Missionary labours, ii. <a href="#Pg246" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">246</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mithra, worship of, in Rome, i. 386 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mohammedans, their condemnation of suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg053" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their lunatic asylums, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">89</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their religion, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">251</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of their military triumphs on Christianity, <a href= + "#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Molinos, his opinion on the love we should bear to God, + condemned, i. 18, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <a name="Index-Monastic" id="Index-Monastic" class= + "tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monastic system, results of the Catholic monastic system, i. 107. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Suicide of monks, ii. 52. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exertions of the monks in the cause of charity, 84. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the monastic movement, 102. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the rapid propagation of it in the West, 183. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + New value placed by it on obedience and humility, 185, 269. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of it to the intellectual virtues, 188. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The monasteries regarded as the receptacles of learning, 199. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Fallacy of attributing to the monasteries the genius that was + displayed in theology, 208. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Other fallacies concerning the services of the monks, 208-212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Value attached by monks to pecuniary compensations for crime, + 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of their corruption, 217. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Benefits conferred by the monasteries, 243 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monica, St., i. 94, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monogamy, establishment of, ii. <a href="#Pg372" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">372</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Monophysites, the cause, to some extent, of the Mohammedan + conquest of Egypt, ii. <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">143</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Montanists, their tenets, ii. <a href="#Pg102" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moral distinctions, rival claims of intuition and utility to be + regarded as the supreme regulators of, i. 1 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moral judgments, alleged diversities of, i. 91. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Are frequently due to intellectual causes, 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instances of this in usury and abortion, 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinction between natural duties and others resting on positive + law, 93. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ancient customs canonised by time, 93. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Anomalies explained by a confused association of ideas, 94, 95. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral perceptions overridden by positive religions, 95. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instances of this in transubstantiation and the Augustinian and + Calvinistic doctrines of damnation, 96, 97. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + General moral principles alone revealed by intuition, 99. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The moral unity of different ages a unity not of standard but of + tendency, 100. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Application of this theory to the history of benevolence, 100. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why acts regarded in one age as criminal are innocent in + another, 101. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of Mill and Buckle on the comparative influence of + intellectual and moral agencies in civilisation, 102, 103, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Intuitive morals not unprogressive, 102, 103. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Answers to miscellaneous <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page393">[pg 393]</span><a name="Pg393" id="Pg393" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> objections against + the theory of natural moral perceptions, 109. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the condition of society on the standard, but not the + essence, of virtue, 110. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Occasional duty of sacrificing higher duties to lower ones, 110, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Summary of the relations of virtue and public and private + interest, 117. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Two senses of the word natural, 119 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moral law, foundation of the, according to Ockham and his + adherents, i. 17, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Various views of the sanctions of morality, 19. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Utilitarian theological sanctions, 53. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The reality of the moral nature the one great question of natural + theology, 56. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Utilitarian secular sanctions, 57. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Utilitarian theory subversive of morality, 66. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plausibility and danger of theories of unification in morals, 72. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Our knowledge of the laws of moral progress nothing more than + approximate or general, 136 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Moral + sense,”</span> Hutcheson's doctrine of a, i. 4 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Moral system, what it should be, to govern society, i. 194 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Morals, each of the two schools of, related to the general + condition of society, i. 122. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their relations to metaphysical schools, 123, 124. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And to the Baconian philosophy, 125. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrast between ancient and modern civilisations, 125-127. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes that lead societies to elevate their moral standard, and + determine their preference of some particular kind of virtues, + 130. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The order in which moral feelings are developed, 130. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Danger in proposing too absolutely a single character as a model + to which all men must conform, 155. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Remarks on moral types, 156. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Results to be expected from the study of the relations between + our physical and moral nature, 158. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Little influence of Pagan religions on morals, 161 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + More, Henry, on the motive of virtue, i. 76 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Musonius, his suicide, i. 220 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mutius, history of him and his son, ii. <a href="#Pg125" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Mysticism of the Romans, causes producing, i. 318 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Myths, formation of, i. 351 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Naples, mania for suicide at, ii. <a href="#Pg055" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Napoleon, the Emperor, his order of the day respecting suicide, + i. 219, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nations, causes of the difficulties of effecting cordial + international friendships, i. 156 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Natural moral perceptions, objections to the theory of, i. 116. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Two senses of the word natural, 118. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reid, Sedgwick, and Leibnitz on the natural or innate powers of + man, 121, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Locke's refutation of the doctrine of a natural moral sense, 124 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Neoplatonism, account of, i. 325. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its destruction of the active duties and critical spirit, 329 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Neptune, views of the Stoics of the meaning of the legends of, i. + 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His statue solemnly degraded by Augustus, 169 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nero, his singing and acting, i. 259. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His law about slaves, 307. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His persecution of the Christians, 429 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Newman, Dr., on venial sin, i. 111, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> on pride, ii. <a href= + "#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">188</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nicodemus, apocryphal gospel of, ii. <a href="#Pg221" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nilus, St., deserts his family, ii. <a href="#Pg322" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">322</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nitria, number of anchorites in the desert of, ii. <a href= + "#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Nolasco, Peter, his works of mercy, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> ii. <a href= + "#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His participation in the Albigensian massacres, <a href="#Pg095" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Novatians, their tenets, ii. <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">102</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Numa, legend of his prohibition of idols, i. 166, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oath, sanctity of an, among the Romans, i. 168 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Obedience, new value placed on it by monachism, ii. <a href= + "#Pg185" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">185</a>, + <a href="#Pg186" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">186</a>, <a href="#Pg269" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">269</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Obligation, nature of, i. 64, 65 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ockham, his opinion of the foundation of the moral law, i. 17, + and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Odin, his suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">53</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + O'Neale, Shane, his charity, ii. <a href="#Pg096" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Opinion, influence of character on, i. 171, 172 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oracles, refuted and ridiculed by Cicero, i. 165. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plutarch's defence of their bad poetry, 165, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Refusal of Cato and the Stoics to consult them, 165. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ridiculed by the Roman wits, 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Answer of the oracle of Delphi as to the best religion, 167. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theory of the oracles in the 'De Divinatione' of Cicero, 368, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Van Dale's denial of their supernatural character, 374. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Books of oracles burnt under the republic and empire, 447, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Origen, his desire for martyrdom, i. 391 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Orphanotrophia, in the early Church, ii. <a href="#Pg032" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Otho, the Emperor, his suicide, i. 219. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Opinion of his contemporaries of his act, 219, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ovid, object of his <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“Metamorphoses,”</span> i. 166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of suicide, 213, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His humanity to animals, ii. 165 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oxen, laws for the protection of, ii. <a href="#Pg162" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">162</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Oxyrinchus, ascetic life in the city of, ii. <a href="#Pg105" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pachomius, St., number of his monks, ii. <a href="#Pg105" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pætus and Arria, history of, ii. <a href="#Pg310" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pagan religions, their feeble influence on morals, i. 161 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pagan virtues, the, compared with Christian, i. 190 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paiderastia, the, of the Greeks, ii. <a href="#Pg294" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">294</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pain, equivalent to evil, according to the Utilitarians, i. 8, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Palestine, foundation of monachism in, ii. <a href="#Pg106" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Becomes a hot-bed of debauchery, <a href="#Pg152" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paley, on the obligation of virtue, i. 14, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the difference between an act of prudence and an act of duty, + 16, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the love we ought to bear to God, 18, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the religious sanctions of morality, 19. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the doctrine of association, 25, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On flesh diet, 49, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the influence of health on happiness, 88, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the difference in pleasures, 90, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pambos, St., story of, ii. <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">116</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pammachus, St., his hospital, ii. <a href="#Pg080" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Panætius, the founder of the Roman Stoics, his disbelief in the + immortality of the soul, i. 183 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pandars, punishment of, ii. <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">316</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Parents, reason why some savages did not regard their murder as + criminal, i. 101 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Parthenon, the, at Athens, i. 105 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pascal, his advocacy of piety as a matter of prudence, i. 17, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His adherence to the opinion of Ockham as to the foundation of + the moral law, 17, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His thought on the humiliation created by deriving pleasure from + certain amusements, i. 86, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Patriotism, period when it flourished, i. 136. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Peculiar characteristic of the virtue, 177, 178. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the predominance occasionally accorded <span class= + "tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id= + "Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> to + civic virtues, 200. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Neglect or discredit into which they have fallen among modern + teachers, 201. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cicero's remarks on the duty of every good man, 201. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unfortunate relations of Christianity to patriotism, ii. <a href= + "#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Repugnance of the theological to the patriotic spirit, <a href= + "#Pg145" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">145</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paul, St., his definition of conscience, i. 83 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paul, the hermit, his flight to the desert, ii. <a href="#Pg102" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of the visit of St. Antony to him, <a href="#Pg158" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paul, St. Vincent de, his foundling hospitals, ii. <a href= + "#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paula, story of her asceticism and inhumanity, ii. <a href= + "#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, + <a href="#Pg134" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">134</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Paulina, her devotion to her husband, ii. <a href="#Pg310" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">310</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pelagia, St., her suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg046" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Her flight to the desert, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">121</a>, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pelagius, ii. <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pelican, legend of the, ii. <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">161</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Penances of the saints of the desert, ii. <a href="#Pg107" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Penitential system, the, of the early church, ii. <a href= + "#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">6</a>, + <a href="#Pg007" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">7</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pepin, his compact with Pope Leo, ii. <a href="#Pg267" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Peregrinus the Cynic, his suicide, i. 220 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pericles, his humanity, i. 228 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Perpetua, St., her martyrdom, i. 391, 444; ii. <a href="#Pg317" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Persecutions, Catholic doctrines justifying, i. 98. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Why Christianity was not crushed by them, 395. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Many causes of persecution, 395-397. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why the Christians were more persecuted than the Jews, + 403, 406, 407. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the persecutions, 406, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the persecutions, 429. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Nero, 429. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Domitian, 431. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Trajan, 437. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Marcus Aurelius, 439, 440. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + From M. Aurelius to Decius, 442, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Gallus, 454. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Valerian, 454. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Diocletian and Galerius, 458-463. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + End of the persecutions, 463. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + General considerations on their history, 463-468 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Petronian law, in favour of slaves, i. 307 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Petronius, his scepticism, i. 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His suicide, 215. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of the show of the arena, 286 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philip the Arab, his favour to Christianity, i. 445 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophers, efforts of some, to restore the moral influence of + religion among the Romans, i. 169. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The true moral teachers, 171 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophical truth, characteristics of, i. 139, 140. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its growth retarded by the opposition of theologians, 140 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Philosophy, causes of the practical character of most ancient, i. + 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its fusion with religion, 352. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Opinions of the early Church concerning the pagan writings, 332. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the moral teaching of a philosophy and that of + a religion, ii. <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">1</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its impotency to restrain vice, <a href="#Pg004" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocas, attitude of the Church towards him, ii. <a href="#Pg263" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">263</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Phocion, his gentleness, i. 228 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Physical science affects the belief in miracles, i. 354, 355 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Piety, utilitarian view of the causes of the pleasures and pains + of, i. 9, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + A matter of prudence, according to theological Utilitarianism, 16 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pilate, Pontius, story of his desire to enrol Christ among the + Roman gods, i. 429 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pilgrimages, evils of, ii. <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">152</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pior, St., story of, ii. <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">129</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pirates, destruction of, by Pompey, i. 234 + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name= + "Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pity, a form of self-love, according to some Utilitarians, i. 9, + 10, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Adam Smith's theory, 10, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Seneca's distinction between it and clemency, 189. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Altar to Pity at Athens, 228. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of Marcus Aurelius' altar to Beneficentia at Rome, 228, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Plato, his admission of the practice of abortion, i. 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Basis of his moral system, 105. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cause of the banishment of the poets from his republic, 161, 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His theory that vice is to virtue what disease is to health, 179, + and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reason for his advocacy of community of wives, 200. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of suicide, 212, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on universal brotherhood, 241. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His inculcation of the practice of self-examination, 248 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Platonic school, its ideal, i. 322 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Platonists, their more or less pantheistic conception of the + Deity, i. 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical nature of their philosophy, 329. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Platonic ethics ascendant in Rome, 331 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pleasure the only good, according to the Utilitarians, i. 7. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Illustrations of the distinction between the higher and lower + parts of our nature in our pleasures, 83-85. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Pleasures of a civilised compared with those of a semi-civilised + society, 86. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Comparison of mental and physical pleasures, 87, 88. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinction in kind of pleasure, and its importance in morals, + 89-91. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Neglected or denied by Utilitarian writers, 89, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pliny, the elder, on the probable happiness of the lower animals, + i. 87, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the Deity, 164. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On astrology, 171, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 164, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His disbelief in the immortality of the soul, 182. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His advocacy of suicide, 215. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Never mentions Christianity, 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opinion of earthquakes, 369. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of comets, 369. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His facility of belief, 370. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His denunciation of finger rings, ii. <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pliny, the younger, his desire for posthumous reputation, i. 185, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His picture of the ideal of Stoicism, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His letter to Trajan respecting the Christians, 437. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His benevolence, 242; ii. <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Plotinus, his condemnation of suicide, i. 214. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His philosophy, 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Plutarch, his defence of the bad poetry of the oracles, 165, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His mode of moral teaching, 175. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Basis of his belief in the immortality of the soul, 204. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On superstitious fear of death, 206. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His letter on the death of his little daughter, 242. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + May justly be regarded as the leader of the eclectic school, 243. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His philosophy and works compared with those of Seneca, 243. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His treatise on <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“The Signs of Moral Progress,”</span> 249. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared and contrasted with Marcus Aurelius, 253. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How he regarded the games of the arena, 286. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His defence of the ancient creeds, 322. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Practical nature of his philosophy, 329. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Never mentions Christianity, 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on the domestic system of the ancients, 419. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On kindness to animals, ii. <a href="#Pg165" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">165</a>, <a href="#Pg166" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His picture of Greek married life, <a href="#Pg289" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pluto, meaning of, according to the Stoics, i. 163 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Po, miracle of the subsidence of the waters of the, i. 382, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pœmen, St., story of, and of his mother, ii. <a href="#Pg129" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of him and the lion, <a href="#Pg169" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">169</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Political economy, what it has accomplished respecting + almsgiving, ii. <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name= + "Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Political judgments, moral standard of most men in, lower than in + private judgments, i. 151 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Political truth, or habit of <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“fair play,”</span> the characteristic of free + communities, i. 139. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Highly civilised form of society to which it belongs, 139. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its growth retarded by the opposition of theologians, 140 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Polybius, his praise of the devotion and purity of creed of the + Romans, i. 167 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Polycarp, St., martyrdom of, i. 441 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Polygamy, long continuance of, among the kings of Gaul, ii. + <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">343</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pompeii, gladiatorial shows at, i. 276, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pompey, his destruction of the pirates, i. 234. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His multiplication of gladiatorial shows, 273 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Poor-law system, elaboration of the, ii. <a href="#Pg096" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its pernicious results, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg099" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>, <a href="#Pg105" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Poppæa, Empress, a Jewish proselyte, i. 386 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Porcia, heroism of, ii. <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">309</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Porphyry, his condemnation of suicides, i. 214. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His description of philosophy, i. 326. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His adoption of Neoplatonism, i. 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Possevin, his exposure of the Sibylline books, i. 377 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pothinus, martyrdom of, i. 442 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Power, origin of the desire of, i. 23, 26 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Praise, association of ideas leading to the desire for even + posthumous, i. 26 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prayer, reflex influence upon the minds of the worshippers, i. 36 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Preachers, Stoic, among the Romans, i. 308, 309 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pride, contrasted with vanity, i. 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The leading moral agent of Stoicism, i. 195 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prometheus, cause of the admiration bestowed upon, i. 35 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prophecies, incapacity of the Christians of the third century for + judging prophecies, i. 376 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prophecy, gift of, attributed to the vestal virgins of Rome, i. + 107. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And in India to virgins, 107, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prosperity, some crimes conducive to national, i. 58 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prostitution, ii. <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">282-286</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How regarded by the Romans, <a href="#Pg314" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">314</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Protagoras, his scepticism, i. 162 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Protasius, St., miraculous discovery of his remains, i. 379 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Prudentius, on the vestal virgins at the gladiatorial shows, i. + 291 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Purgatory, doctrine of, ii. <a href="#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">232-235</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Pythagoras, sayings of, i. 53. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Chastity the leading virtue of his school, 106. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the fables of Hesiod and Homer, 161. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His belief in an all-pervading soul of nature, 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His condemnation of suicide, 212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Tradition of his journey to India, 229, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His inculcation of the practice of self-examination, 248. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His opinion of earthquakes, 369. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His doctrine of kindness to animals, ii. 165 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Quakers, compared with the early Christians, ii. <a href="#Pg012" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Quintilian, his conception of the Deity, i. 164 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rank, secular, consecration of, ii. <a href="#Pg260" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rape, punishment for, ii. <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">316</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Redbreast, legend of the, ii. <a href="#Pg224" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">224</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Regulus, the story of, i. 212 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reid, basis of his ethics, i. 76. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His distinction between innate faculties evolved by experience + and <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name= + "Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor" style= + "text-align: left"></a> innate ideas independent of experience, + 121, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religion, theological utilitarianism subverts natural, i. 54-56. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Answer of the oracle of Delphi as to the best, 167. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the moral teaching of a philosophy and that of + a religion, ii. <a href="#Pg001" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">1</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relations between positive religion and moral enthusiasm, + <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">141</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religions, pagan, their small influence on morals, i. 161. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Oriental, passion for, among the Romans, 318 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Religious liberty totally destroyed by the Catholics, ii. + <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">194-199</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Repentance for past sin, no place for, in the writings of the + ancients, i. 195 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reputation, how valued among the Romans, i. 185, 186 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Resurrection of souls, belief of the Stoics in the, i. 164 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Revenge, Utilitarian notions as to the feeling of, i. 41, and + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Circumstances under which private vengeance is not regarded as + criminal, i. 101 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Reverence, Utilitarian views of, i. 9, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the diminution of the spirit of, among mankind, 141, + 142 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rhetoricians, Stoical, account of the, of Rome, i. 310 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ricci, his work on Mendicancy, ii. <a href="#Pg098" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rochefoucauld La, on pity, quoted, i. 10, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And on friendship, 10, 11, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rogantianus, his passive life, i. 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Roman law, its golden age not Christian, but pagan, ii. <a href= + "#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romans, abortion how regarded by the, i. 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their law forbidding women to taste wine, 93, 94, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons why they did not regard the gladiatorial shows as + criminal, 101. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their law of marriage and ideal of female morality, 104. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their religious reverence for domesticity, 106. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Sanctity of, and gifts attributed to, their vestal virgins, 106. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Character of their cruelty, 134. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared with the modern Italian character in this respect, 134. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Scepticism of their philosophers, 162-167. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The religion of the Romans never a source of moral enthusiasm, + 167. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its characteristics, 168. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the disappearance of the religious reverence of the + people, 169. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Efforts of some philosophers and emperors to restore the moral + influence of religion, 169. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Consummation of Roman degradation, 170. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief in astrological fatalism, 170, 171. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The stoical type of military and patriotic enthusiasm + pre-eminently Roman, 172-174, 178. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Importance of biography in their moral teaching, 178. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Epicureanism never became a school of virtue among them, 175. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unselfish love of country of the Romans, 178. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Character of Stoicism in the worst period of the Roman Empire, + 181. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Main features of their philosophy, 185, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the Roman moralists and the Greek poets, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The doctrine of suicide the culminating point of Roman Stoicism, + 222. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The type of excellence of the Roman people, 224, 225. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrast between the activity of Stoicism and the luxury of Roman + society, 225, 226. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Growth of a gentler and more cosmopolitan spirit in Rome, 227. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of this change, 228, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Extent of Greek influence at Rome, 228. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The cosmopolitan spirit strengthened by the destruction of the + power of the aristocracy, 231, 232. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg + 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> of the influence of freedmen in the + state, 233. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the aggrandisement of the colonies, the attraction of + many foreigners to Rome, and the increased facilities for + travelling, on the cosmopolitan spirit, 233, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Foreigners among the most prominent of Latin writers, 235. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Results of the multitudes of emancipated slaves, 235, 236. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Endeavours of Roman statesmen to consolidate the empire by + admitting the conquered to the privileges of the conquerors, 238. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Stoical philosophy quite capable of representing the + cosmopolitan spirit, 239. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of eclectic philosophy on the Roman Stoics, 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Life and character of Marcus Aurelius, 249-255. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Corruption of the Roman people, 255. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of their depravity, 256. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decadence of all the conditions of republican virtue, 256. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of the Imperial system on morals, 257-261. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Apotheosis of the emperors, 257. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral consequences of slavery, 262. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increase of idleness and demoralising employments, 262. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increase also of sensuality, 263. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Destruction of all public spirit, 264. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The interaction of many states which in new nations sustains + national life prevented by universal empire, 264. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The decline of agricultural pursuits, 265. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of the military virtues, 268. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History and effects of the gladiatorial shows, 271. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Other Roman amusements, 276. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of the arena upon the theatre, 277. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Nobles in the arena, 283. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of Stoicism on the corruption of society, 291. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman law greatly extended by it, 294. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Change in the relation of Romans to provincials, 297. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Changes in domestic legislation, 297. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman slavery, 300-308. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Stoics as consolers, advisers, and preachers, 308. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Cynics and rhetoricians, 309, 310. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decadence of Stoicism in the empire, 317. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the passion for Oriental religions, 318-320. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Neoplatonism, 325. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Review of the history of Roman philosophy, 332-335. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the conversion of Rome to Christianity, 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + State of Roman opinion on the subject of miracles, 365. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Progress of the Jewish and Oriental religions in Rome, 386, 387. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The conversion of the Roman empire easily explicable, 393. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Review of the religious policy of Rome, 397. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its division of religion into three parts, according to Eusebius, + 403. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Persecutions of the Christians, 406, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Antipathy of the Romans to every religious system which employed + religious terrorism, 420. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + History of the persecutions, 429. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + General sketch of the moral condition of the Western Empire, ii. + <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rise and progress of the government of the Church of Rome, + <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a>, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">15</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman practice of infanticide, <a href="#Pg027" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relief of the indigent, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">73</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distribution of corn, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">74</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Exertions of the Christians on the subversion of the empire, + <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">82</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Inadequate place given to this movement, <a href="#Pg085" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Horrors caused by the barbarian invasions prevented to some + extent by Christian charity, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">81-84</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of Christianity in hastening the fall of the empire, + <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">140</a>, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">141</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman treatment of prisoners of war, <a href="#Pg256" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256-258</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Despotism of the pagan empire, <a href="#Pg260" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of women under the Romans, <a href="#Pg297" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their concubines, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">350</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name= + "Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rome, an illustration of crimes conducive to national prosperity, + i. 58, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conversion of, 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Three popular errors concerning its conversion, 339. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Capture of the city by the barbarians, ii. <a href="#Pg082" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Romuald, St., his treatment of his father, ii. <a href="#Pg135" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Rope-dancing of the Romans, i. 291 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sabinus, Saint, his penances, ii. <a href="#Pg108" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sacrament, administration of the, in the early Church, ii. + <a href="#Pg006" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">6</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Salamis, Brutus' treatment of the citizens of, i. 194 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sallust, his stoicism and rapacity, i. 194 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sanctuary, right of, accorded to Christian churches, ii. <a href= + "#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Savage, errors into which the deceptive appearances of nature + doom him, i. 54. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + First conceptions formed of the universe, 349. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The ethics of savages, 120, 121 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scepticism of the Greek and Roman philosophers, i. 162-166. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of, on intellectual progress, ii. <a href="#Pg193" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scholastica, St., the legend of, ii. <a href="#Pg136" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Scifi, Clara, the first Franciscan nun, ii. <a href="#Pg135" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sectarian animosity, chief cause of, i. 134 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sedgwick, Professor, on the expansion of the natural or innate + powers of men, i. 121, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sejanus, treatment of his daughter by the senate, i. 107, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Self-denial, the Utilitarian theory unfavourable to, i. 66 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Self-examination, history of the practice of, i. 247-249 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Self-sacrifice, asceticism the great school of, ii. <a href= + "#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Seneca, his conception of the Deity, i. 163, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 164. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His distinction between the affections and diseases, 189, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And between clemency and pity, 189. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His virtues and vices, i. 194. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the natural virtue of man and power of his will, 197. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On the Sacred Spirit dwelling in man, 198. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On death, 205. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His tranquil end, 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Advocates suicide, 213, 220. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His description of the self-destruction of a friend, 222. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remarks on universal brotherhood, 241. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His stoical hardness tempered by new doctrines, 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His practice of self-examination, 248. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His philosophy and works compared with those of Plutarch, 243, + 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How he regarded the games of the arena, 286. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His exhortations on the treatment of slaves, 306. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Never mentions Christianity, 336. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Regarded in the middle ages as a Christian, 340. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On religious beliefs, 405 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sensuality, why the Mohammedans people Paradise with images of, + i. 108. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Why some pagans deified it, 108. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Fallacy of judging the sensuality of a nation by the statistics + of its illegitimate births, 144. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of climate upon public morals, 144. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Of large towns, 145. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of early marriages, 146. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Absence of moral scandals among the Irish priesthood, 146, 147. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Speech of Archytas of Tarentum on the evils of, 200, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increase of sensuality in Rome, 263. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Abated by Christianity, ii. <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">153</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The doctrine of the Fathers respecting concupiscence, <a href= + "#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Serapion, the anthropomorphite, i. 52. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Number of his monks, ii. <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">105</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His interview with the courtesan, <a href="#Pg320" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name= + "Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sertorius, his forgery of auspicious omens, i. 166. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Severus, Alexander, refuses the language of adulation, i. 259. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His efforts to restore agricultural pursuits, 267. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Murder of, 444. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His leniency towards Christianity, 444. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His benevolence, ii. <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">77</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Severus, Cassius, exile of, i. 448, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Severus, Septimus, his treatment of the Christians, i. 443 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sextius, his practice of self-examination, i. 248 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Shaftesbury, maintains the reality of the existence of + benevolence in our nature, i. 20. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On virtue, 76, 77 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sibylline books, forged by the early Christians, i. 376, 377 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Silius Italicus, his lines commemorating the passion of the + Spanish Celts for suicide, i. 207, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His self-destruction, 221 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Silvia, her filthiness, ii. <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">110</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Simeon, Bishop of Jerusalem, his martyrdom, i. 438 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Simeon Stylites, St., his penance, ii. <a href="#Pg111" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His inhumanity to his parents, ii. <a href="#Pg130" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sin, the theological doctrine on the subject, i. 111, 112. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conception of sin by the ancients, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Original, taught by the Catholic Church, 209, 210. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Examination of the Utilitarian doctrine of the remote + consequences of secret sins, 43, 44 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sisoes, the abbot, stories of, ii. <a href="#Pg126" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>, <a href="#Pg127" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sixtus, Bishop of Rome, his martyrdom, i. 455 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sixtus V., Pope, his efforts to suppress mendicancy, ii. <a href= + "#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Slavery, circumstances under which it has been justified, i. 101. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Origin of the word servus, 102, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Crusade of England against, 153. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Character of that of the Romans, 235. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral consequence of slavery, 262. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Three stages of slavery at Rome, 300. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Review of the condition of slaves, 300-306. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Opinion of philosophers as to slavery, 306. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Laws enacted in favour of slaves, 306. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of Christianity upon the institution of slavery, ii. + <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">61</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Consecration of the servile virtue, <a href="#Pg068" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Impulse given to manumission, <a href="#Pg070" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Serfdom in Europe, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">70</a>, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">71</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Extinction of slavery in Europe, <a href="#Pg071" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Ransom of captives, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">72</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Smith, Adam, his theory of pity, quoted, i. 10, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His recognition of the reality of benevolence in our nature, 20. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His analysis of moral judgment, 76 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Smyrna, persecution of the Christians at, i. 441 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Socrates, his view of death, i. 205. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His closing hours, 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His advice to a courtesan, ii. <a href="#Pg296" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Soul, the immortality of the, resolutely excluded from the + teaching of the Stoics, i. 181. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Character of their first notions on the subject, 182. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The belief in the reabsorption of the soul in the parent Spirit, + 183. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief of Cicero and Plutarch in the immortality of the, 204. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + But never adopted as a motive by the Stoics, 204. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increasing belief in the, 331. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Vague belief of the Romans in the, 168 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sospitra, story of, i. 373 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spain, persecution of the Christians in, i. 461. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Almost complete absence of infanticide in, ii. <a href="#Pg025" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The first lunatic asylums in Europe established in, <a href= + "#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>, + <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">90</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spaniards, among the most prominent of Latin writers, i. 235. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their suicides, ii. <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">54</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spartans, their intense patriotism, i. 178. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their legislature continually extolled as a model, 201. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of their women, ii. <a href="#Pg290" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name= + "Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Spinoza, his remark on death, i. 203 + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Anecdote of him, 289 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Staël, Madame de, on suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg059" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Statius, on the first night of marriage, i. 107, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stewart, Dugald, on the pleasures of virtue, i. 32, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stilpo, his scepticism and banishment, i. 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His remark on his ruin, 191. + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Stoics, their definition of conscience, i. 83. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their view of the animation of the human fœtus, 92. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their system of ethics favourable to the heroic qualities, 128. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Historical fact in favour of the system, 128. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their belief in an all-pervading soul of nature, 162. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their pantheistic conception of the Deity, 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their conception and explanation of the prevailing legends of the + gods, 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their opinion as to the final destruction of the universe by + fire, and the resuscitation of souls, 164. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their refusal to consult the oracles, 165. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Stoicism the expression of a type of character different from + Epicureanism, 172. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rome pre-eminently the home of Stoicism, 172. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Account of the philosophy of the Stoics, 177. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Its two essentials—the unselfish ideal and the subjugation of the + affections to the reason, 177. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The best example of the perfect severance of virtue and interest, + 181. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their views concerning the immortality of the soul, 182-184. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Taught men to sacrifice reputation, and do good in secret, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And distinguished the obligation from the attraction of virtue, + 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Taught also that the affections must be subordinate to the + reason, 187-191. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their false estimate of human nature, 192. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their love of paradox, 192. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Imperfect lives of many eminent Stoics, 193. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their retrospective tendencies, 193. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their system unfitted for the majority of mankind, 194. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Compared with the religious principle, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The central composition of this philosophy, the dignity of man, + 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + High sense of the Stoics of the natural virtue of man, and of the + power of his will, 195, 196. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their recognition of Providence, 196. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The two aspects under which they worshipped God, 198. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Stoics secured from quietism by their habits of public life, + 199-201. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their view of humanity, 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their preparations for, and view of, death, 202. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their teaching as to suicide, 212, 213, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Contrast between Stoicism and Roman luxury, 225, 226. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Stoical philosophy quite capable of representing the + cosmopolitan spirit, 239, 240. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Stoicism not capable of representing the softening movement of + civilisation, 241. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of the eclectic spirit on it, 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Stoicism becomes more essentially religious, 245. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Increasingly introspective character of later Stoicism, 247. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Marcus Aurelius the best example of later Stoicism, 249-255. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of Stoicism on the corruption of Roman Society, 291, 292. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + It raised up many good Emperors, 292. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + It produced a noble opposition under the worst Emperors, 293. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + It greatly extended Roman law, 294. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Stoics considered as the consolers of the suffering, advisers + of the young, and as popular preachers, 308. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rapid decadence of Stoicism, 317, 318. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between the Stoical and Egyptian pantheism, 324. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Stoical naturalism superseded by the theory of dæmons, 331. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theory that the writings of the Stoics <span class="tei tei-pb" + id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> were influenced by + Christianity examined, 332. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Domitian's persecution of them, 432 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Strozzi, Philip, his suicide, ii. <a href="#Pg056" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Suffering, a courageous endurance of, probably the first form of + virtue in savage life, i. 130 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Suicide, attitude adopted by Pagan philosophy and Catholicism + towards, i. 211, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Eminent suicides, 215. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Epidemic of suicides at Alexandria, 216. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of girls at Miletus, 216, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Grandeur of the Stoical ideal of suicide, 216. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influences conspiring towards suicide, 217. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Seneca on self-destruction, 217, 218, 220. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Laws respecting it, 218, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Eminent instances of self-destruction, 219, 221. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The conception of, as an euthanasia, 221. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Neoplatonist doctrine concerning, 331. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the Christian condemnation of the practice of, ii. + <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">43-61</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Theological doctrine on, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">45</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The only form of, permitted in the early Church, <a href="#Pg047" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Slow suicides, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">48</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Circumcelliones, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Albigenses, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">49</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Suicides of the Jews, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">50</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Treatment of corpses of suicides, <a href="#Pg050" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Authorities for the history of suicides, <a href="#Pg050" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reaction against the mediæval laws on the subject, <a href= + "#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Later phases of its history, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">54</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Self-destruction of witches, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">54</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Epidemics of insane suicide, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">55</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cases of legitimate suicide, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">55</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Suicide in England and France, <a href="#Pg058" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sunday, importance of the sanctity of the, ii. <a href="#Pg244" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">244</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Laws respecting it, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Superstition, possibility of adding to the happiness of man by + the diffusion of, i. 50-53. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Natural causes which impel savages to superstition, i. 55. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Signification of the Greek word for, 205 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Swan, the, consecrated to Apollo, i. 206 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Sweden, cause of the great number of illegitimate births in, i. + 144 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Swinburne, Mr., on annihilation, i. 182, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Symmachus, his Saxon prisoners, i. 287 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Synesius, legend of him and Evagrius, ii. <a href="#Pg214" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Refuses to give up his wife, <a href="#Pg332" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">332</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Syracuse, gladiatorial shows at, i. 275 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tacitus, his doubts about the existence of Providence, i. 171, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Telemachus, the monk, his death in the arena, ii. <a href= + "#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Telesphorus, martyrdom of, i. 446, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tertia Æmilia, story of, ii. <a href="#Pg313" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">313</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tertullian, his belief in dæmons, i. 382. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And challenge to the Pagans, 383 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Testament, Old, supposed to have been the source of pagan + writings, i. 344 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thalasius, his hospital for blind beggars, ii. <a href="#Pg081" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theatre, scepticism of the Romans extended by the, i. 170. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of the gladiatorial shows upon the, 277 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theft, reasons why some savages do not regard it as criminal, i. + 102. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Spartan law legalising it, 102 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodebert, his polygamy, ii. <a href="#Pg343" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodoric, his court at Ravenna, ii. <a href="#Pg201" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>, <a href="#Pg202" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodorus, his denial of the existence of the gods, i. 162 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodorus, St., his inhumanity to his mother, ii. <a href= + "#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theodosius the Emperor, his edict forbidding gladiatorial shows, + ii. <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">36</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Denounced by the Ascetics, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">139</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His law respecting Sunday, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">245</a> + </div> + </div><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name= + "Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theological utilitarianism, theories of, i. 14-17 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theology, sphere of inductive reasoning in, 357 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theon, St., legend of, and the wild beasts, ii. <a href="#Pg168" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Theurgy rejected by Plotinus, i. 330. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + All moral discipline resolved into, by Iamblichus, 330 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thrace, celibacy of societies of men in, i. 106 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thrasea, mildness of his Stoicism, i. 245 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thrasea and Aria, history of, ii. <a href="#Pg311" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">311</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Thriftiness created by the industrial spirit, i. 140 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tiberius the Emperor, his images invested with a sacred + character, i. 260. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His superstitions, 367, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Timagenes, exiled from the palace by Tiberius, i. 448, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Titus, the Emperor, his tranquil end, i. 207. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Instance of his amiability, 287 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tooth-powder, Apuleius' defence of, ii. <a href="#Pg148" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Torments, future, the doctrine of, made by the monks a means of + extorting money, ii. <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">216</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Monastic legends of, 220 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tragedy, effects of the gladiatorial shows upon, among the + Romans, i. 277 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Trajan, the Emperor, his gladiatorial shows, i. 287. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Letter of Pliny to, respecting the Christians, 437. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Trajan's answer, 437. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His benevolence to children, ii. <a href="#Pg077" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legend of St. Gregory and the Emperor, <a href="#Pg223" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Transmigration of souls, doctrine of, of the ancients, ii. + <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">166</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Travelling, increased facilities for, of the Romans, i. 234 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Trinitarian monks, their works of mercy, ii. <a href="#Pg073" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Troubadours, one of their services to mankind, ii. <a href= + "#Pg232" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">232</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + 'Truce of God,' importance of the, ii. <a href="#Pg254" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Truth, possibility of adding to the happiness of men by diffusing + abroad, or sustaining, pleasing falsehoods, i. 52. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Saying of Pythagoras, 53. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Growth of, with civilisation, 137. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Industrial, political, and philosophical, 137-140. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of monachism to the abstract love of truth, ii. <a href= + "#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Causes of the mediæval decline of the love of truth, <a href= + "#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Tucker, his adoption of the doctrine of the association of ideas, + i. 25, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Turks, their kindness to animals, i. 289 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Types, moral, i. 156. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + All characters cannot be moulded in one type, 158 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Ulpian on suicide, i. 218, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unselfishness of the Stoics, i. 177 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Usury, diversities of moral judgment respecting, i. 92 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Utilitarian school. <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">See</span></span> Morals; Virtue; Vice + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Utility, rival claims of, and intuition to be regarded as the + supreme regulators of moral distinctions, i. 1, 2. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Various names by which the theory of utility is known, 3. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of the moralists of the school of, 3, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Valerian, his persecutions of the Christians, i. 454 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Valerius Maximus, his mode of moral teaching, i. 174 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vandals, their conquest of Africa, ii. <a href="#Pg150" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Varro, his conception of the Deity, <span class="tei tei-pb" id= + "page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class= + "tei tei-anchor" style="text-align: left"></a> i. 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On popular religious beliefs, 167 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Venus, effect of the Greek worship of, on the condition of women, + ii. <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">291</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vespasian, his dying jest, i. 259. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of his frugality on the habits of the Romans, 292. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Miracle attributed to him, 347. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His treatment of philosophers, 448, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vice, Mandeville's theory of the origin of, i. 7. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And that <span class="tei tei-q" style= + "text-align: left">“private vices were public benefits,”</span> + 7. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of the Utilitarians as to, 12. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The degrees of virtue and vice do not correspond to the degrees + of utility, or the reverse, 40-42. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The suffering caused by vice not proportioned to its criminality, + 57-59. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plato's ethical theory of virtue and vice, 179. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Grote's summary of this theory, 179, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conception of the ancients of sin, 195. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Moral efficacy of the Christian sense of sin, ii. <a href= + "#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">3</a>, + <a href="#Pg004" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">4</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Virgil, his conception of the Deity, i. 163. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His epicurean sentiment, 193, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + On suicide, 213. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His interest in animal life, ii. <a href="#Pg165" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">165</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Virginity, how regarded by the Greeks, i. 105. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Æschylus' prayer to Athene, 105. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Bees and fire emblems of virginity, 108, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reason why the ancient Jews attached a certain stigma to + virginity, 109. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of Essenes, 109 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Virgins, Vestal, sanctity and gifts attributed to the, i. 106, + 107, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Executions of, 407, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reasons for burying them alive, ii. <a href="#Pg041" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + How regarded by the Romans, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">297</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Virtue, Hume's theory of the criterion, essential element, and + object of, i. 4. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Motive to virtue according to the doctrine which bases morals + upon experience, 6. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Mandeville's the lowest and most repulsive form of this theory, + 6, 7. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of the essence and origin of virtue adopted by the school + of Utilitarians, 7-9. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Views of the Utilitarians of, 12. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Association of ideas in which virtue becomes the supreme object + of our affections, 27. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Impossibility of virtue bringing pleasure if practised only with + that end, 35, 36. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The utility of virtue not denied by intuitive moralists, 39. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The degrees of virtue and vice do not correspond to the degrees + of utility, or the reverse, 53. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The rewards and punishments of conscience, 59, 60. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The self-complacency of virtuous men, 64, 65, and <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The motive to virtue, according to Shaftesbury and Henry More, + 76. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Analogies of beauty and virtue, 77. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their difference, 78. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Diversities existing in our judgments of virtue and beauty, 79, + 80. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Virtues to which we can and cannot apply the term beautiful, 82. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The standard, though not the essence, of virtue, determined by + the condition of society, 109. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Summary of the relations of virtue to public and private + interest, 117. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Emphasis with which the utility of virtue was dwelt upon by + Aristotle, 124. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Growth of the gentler virtues, 132. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Forms of the virtue of truth, industrial, political, and + philosophical, 137. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Each stage of civilisation is specially appropriate to some + virtue, 147. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + National virtues, 151. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Virtues, naturally grouped together according to principles of + affinity or congruity, 153. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Distinctive beauty of a moral type, 154. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rudimentary <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg + 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> virtues differing in different + ages, nations, and classes, 154, 155. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Four distinct motives leading men to virtue, 178-180. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plato's fundamental proposition that vice is to virtue what + disease is to health, 179. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Stoicism the best example of the perfect severance of virtue and + self-interest, 181. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Teachings of the Stoics that virtue should conceal itself from + the world, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And that the obligation should be distinguished from the + attraction of virtue, 186. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The eminent characteristics of pagan goodness, 190. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + All virtues are the same, according to the Stoics, 192. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Horace's description of a just man, 197. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Interested and disinterested motives of Christianity to virtue, + ii. <a href="#Pg003" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">3</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Decline of the civic virtues caused by asceticism, <a href= + "#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of this change on moral philosophy, <a href="#Pg146" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The importance of the civic virtues exaggerated by historians, + <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">147</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Intellectual virtues, <a href="#Pg188" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">188</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of monachism to these virtues, <a href="#Pg189" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vitalius, St., legend of, and the courtesan, ii. <a href="#Pg320" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vivisection, ii. <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">176</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Approved by Bacon, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">176</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Volcanoes, how regarded by the early monks, ii. <a href="#Pg221" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Vultures, why made an emblem of nature by the Egyptians, i. 108, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + War, its moral grandeur, i. 95. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The school of the heroic virtues, 173. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Difference between foreign and civil wars, 232. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Antipathy of the early Christians to a military life, ii. + <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">248</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Belief in battle being the special sphere of Providential + interposition, <a href="#Pg249" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">249</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of the military triumphs of the Mohammedans, <a href= + "#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influences of Christianity upon war considered, <a href="#Pg254" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">254</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Improved condition of captives taken in war, <a href="#Pg256" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Warburton, on morals, i. 15, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 17, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Waterland, on the motives to virtue and cause of our love of God, + quoted, i. 9, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>, 15, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wealth, origin of the desire to possess, i. 23. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Associations leading to the desire for, for its own sake, 25 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Western Empire, general sketch of the moral condition of the, ii. + <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">14</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Widows, care of the early Church for, ii. <a href="#Pg366" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Will, freedom of the human, sustained and deepened by the ascetic + life, ii. <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">123</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wine, forbidden to women, i. 93, 94, <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Witchcraft, belief in the reality of, i. 363. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Suicide common among witches, ii. <a href="#Pg054" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Wollaston, his analysis of moral judgments, i. 76 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Women, law of the Romans forbidding women to taste wine, i. 93, + 94, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Standards of female morality of the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, + 103, 104. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Virtues and vices growing out of the relations of the sexes, 143. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Female virtue, 143. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effects of climate on this virtue, 144. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Of large towns, 146. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And of early marriages, 145. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Reason for Plato's advocacy of community of wives, 200. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Plutarch's high sense of female excellence, 244. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Female gladiators at Rome, 281, and <span class="tei tei-hi" + style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relations of female devotees with the anchorites, ii. <a href= + "#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>, + <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">128</a>, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">150</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Their condition in savage life, <a href="#Pg276" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Cessation <span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg + 407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor" + style="text-align: left"></a> of the sale of wives, <a href= + "#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Rise of the dowry, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">277</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Establishment of monogamy, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">278</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Doctrine of the Fathers as to concupiscence, <a href="#Pg281" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Nature of the problem of the relations of the sexes, <a href= + "#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Prostitution, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">282-284</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Recognition in Greece of two distinct orders of womanhood—the + wife and the hetæra, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">287</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condition of Roman women, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">297</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style= + "text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et + seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legal emancipation of women in Rome, <a href="#Pg304" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Unbounded liberty of divorce, <a href="#Pg306" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Amount of female virtue in Imperial Rome, <a href="#Pg308" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308-312</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Legislative measures to repress sensuality, <a href="#Pg312" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + To enforce the reciprocity of obligation in marriage, <a href= + "#Pg312" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">312</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + And to censure prostitution, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">315</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Influence of Christianity on the position of women, <a href= + "#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>, + <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Marriages, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">320</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Second marriages, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">324</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Low opinion of women, produced by asceticism, <a href="#Pg338" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The canon law unfavourable to their proprietary rights, <a href= + "#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>, + <a href="#Pg339" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">339</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Barbarian heroines and laws, <a href="#Pg341" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">341-344</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Doctrine of equality of obligation in marriage, <a href="#Pg346" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">346</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The duty of man towards woman, <a href="#Pg347" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condemnation of transitory connections, <a href="#Pg350" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Roman concubines, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">351</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The sinfulness of divorce maintained by the Church, <a href= + "#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">350-353</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Abolition of compulsory marriages, <a href="#Pg353" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Condemnation of mixed marriages, <a href="#Pg353" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>, <a href="#Pg354" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Education of women, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">355</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Relation of Christianity to the female virtues, <a href="#Pg358" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Comparison of male and female characteristics, <a href="#Pg358" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + The Pagan and Christian ideal of woman contrasted, <a href= + "#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">361-363</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Conspicuous part of woman in the early Church, <a href="#Pg363" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">363-365</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Care of widows, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">367</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Worship of the Virgin, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" + style="text-align: left">368</a>, <a href="#Pg369" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Effect of the suppression of the conventual system on women, + <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style= + "text-align: left">369</a>. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + Revolution going on in the employments of women, <a href="#Pg373" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Xenocrates, his tenderness, ii. <a href="#Pg163" class= + "tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">163</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Xenophanes, his scepticism, i. 162 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Xenophon, his picture of Greek married life, ii. <a href="#Pg288" + class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zadok, the founder of the Sadducees, i. 183, <span class= + "tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style= + "font-style: italic">note</span></span> + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zeno, vast place occupied by his system in the moral history of + man, i. 171. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His suicide, 212. + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-l" style= + "text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"> + His inculcation of the practice of self-examination, 248 + </div> + </div> + + <div class="tei tei-lg" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"> + Zeus, universal providence attributed by the Greeks to, i. 161 + </div> + </div> + </div> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-back" style= + "margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> <a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"> + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href= + "#noteref_1">1.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a remarkable passage of + Celsus, on the impossibility of restoring a nature once thoroughly + depraved, quoted by Origen in his answer to him.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href= + "#noteref_2">2.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is well shown by Pressensé in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Trois premiers Siècles</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href= + "#noteref_3">3.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a great deal of information on + this subject in Bingham's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiquities of the Christian + Church</span></span> (Oxford, 1853), vol. v. pp. 370-378. It is + curious that those very noisy contemporary divines who profess to + resuscitate the manners of the primitive Church, and who lay so + much stress on the minutest ceremonial observances, have left + unpractised what was undoubtedly one of the most universal, and was + believed to be one of the most important, of the institutions of + early Christianity. Bingham shows that the administration of the + Eucharist to infants continued in France till the twelfth + century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href= + "#noteref_4">4.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Cave's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive + Christianity</span></span>, part i. ch. xi. At first the Sacrament + was usually received every day; but this custom soon declined in + the Eastern Church, and at last passed away in the West.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href= + "#noteref_5">5.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> x. + 97.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href= + "#noteref_6">6.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The whole subject of the penitential + discipline is treated minutely in Marshall's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Penitential + Discipline of the Primitive Church</span></span> (first published + in 1714, and reprinted in the library of Anglo-Catholic Theology), + and also in Bingham, vol. vii. Tertullian gives a graphic + description of the public penances, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Pudicit.</span></span> v. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href= + "#noteref_7">7.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> + viii, 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href= + "#noteref_8">8.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Chrysostom tells this of St. + Babylas. See Tillemont, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mém. pour servir à l'Hist. eccl.</span></span> + tome iii. p. 403.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href= + "#noteref_9">9.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the preface to a very ancient + Milanese missal it is said of St. Agatha that as she lay in the + prison cell, torn by the instruments of torture, St. Peter came to + her in the form of a Christian physician, and offered to dress her + wounds; but she refused, saying that she wished for no physician + but Christ. St. Peter, in the name of that Celestial Physician, + commanded her wounds to close, and her body became whole as before. + (Tillemont, tome iii. p. 412.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href= + "#noteref_10">10.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See her acts in Ruinart.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href= + "#noteref_11">11.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Jerome, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xxxix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href= + "#noteref_12">12.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Definitio + brevis et vera virtutis: ordo est amoris.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, xv. 22.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href= + "#noteref_13">13.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Besides the obvious points of + resemblance in the common, though not universal, belief that + Christians should abstain from all weapons and from all oaths, the + whole teaching of the early Christians about the duty of + simplicity, and the wickedness of ornaments in dress (see + especially the writings of Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, and + Chrysostom, on this subject), is exceedingly like that of the + Quakers. The scruple of Tertullian (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Coronâ</span></span>) about Christians wearing laurel wreaths in + the festivals, because laurel was called after Daphne, the lover of + Apollo, was much of the same kind as that which led the Quakers to + refuse to speak of Tuesday or Wednesday, lest they should recognise + the gods Tuesco or Woden. On the other hand, the ecclesiastical + aspects and the sacramental doctrines of the Church were the + extreme opposites of Quakerism.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href= + "#noteref_14">14.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the masterly description of the + relations of the English to the Irish in the reign of Queen + Elizabeth, in Froude's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of England</span></span>, ch. xxiv.; + and also Lord Macaulay's description of the feelings of the Master + of Stair towards the Highlanders. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + England</span></span>, ch. xviii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href= + "#noteref_15">15.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on the views of Aristotle, + Labourt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recherches historiques sur les + Enfanstrouvés</span></span> (Paris, 1848), p. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href= + "#noteref_16">16.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Gravina, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Ortu et Progressu + Juris Civilis</span></span>, lib. i. 44.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href= + "#noteref_17">17.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nunc uterum vitiat quæ vult formosa videci,<br /> + Raraque in hoc ævo est, quæ velit esse parens.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ovid, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Nuce</span></span>, 22-23.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The same + writer has devoted one of his elegies (ii. 14) to reproaching his + mistress Corinna with having been guilty of this act. It was not + without danger, and Ovid says,</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sæpe suos utero quæ necit ipsa perit.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A niece of + Domitian is said to have died in consequence of having, at the + command of the emperor, practised it (Sueton. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Domit.</span></span> xxii.). Plutarch + notices the custom (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Sanitate tuenda</span></span>), and + Seneca eulogises Helvia (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Helv.</span></span> xvi.) for being + exempt from vanity and having never destroyed her unborn + offspring. Favorinus, in a remarkable passage (Aulus Gellius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noct. + Att.</span></span> xii. 1), speaks of the act as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“publica detestatione communique odio dignum,”</span> + and proceeds to argue that it is only a degree less criminal for + mothers to put out their children to nurse. Juvenal has some + well-known and emphatic lines on the subject:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Sed jacet aurato vix ulla puerpera lecto;<br /> + Tantum artes hujus, tantum medicamina possunt,<br /> + Quæ steriles facit, atque homines in ventre necandos<br /> + Conducit.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> + vi. 592-595.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There are also + many allusions to it in the Christian writers. Thus Minucius + Felix (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Octavius</span></span>, xxx.): <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Vos enim video procreatos filios nunc feris et + avibus exponere, nunc adstrangulatos misero mortis genere + elidere. Sunt quæ in ipsis visceribus, medicaminibus epotis, + originem futuri hominis extinguant, et parricidium faciant + antequam pariant.”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href= + "#noteref_18">18.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Labourt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches sur les + Enfans trouvés</span></span>, p. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href= + "#noteref_19">19.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among the barbarian laws there is a + very curious one about a daily compensation for children who had + been killed in the womb on account of the daily suffering of those + children in hell. <span class="tei tei-q">“Propterea diuturnam + judicaverunt antecessores nostri compositionem et judices postquam + religio Christianitatis inolevit in mundo. Quia diuturnam postquam + incarnationem suscepit anima, quamvis ad nativitatis lucem minima + pervenisset, patitur pœnam, quia sine sacramento regenerationis + abortivo modo tradita est ad inferos.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leges + Bajuvariorum</span></span>, tit. vii. cap. xx. in Canciani, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leges + Barbar.</span></span> vol. ii. p. 374. The first foundling hospital + of which we have undoubted record is that founded at Milan, by a + man named Datheus, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 789. Muratori has + preserved (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antich. Ital.</span></span> Diss. xxxvii.) the + charter embodying the motives of the founder, in which the + following sentences occur: <span class="tei tei-q">“Quia frequenter + per luxuriam hominum genus decipitur, et exinde malum homicidii + generatur, dum concipientes ex adulterio, ne prodantur in publico, + fetos teneros necant, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">et absque baptismatis lavacro parvulos ad + Tartara mittunt</span></em>, quia nullum reperiunt locum, quo + servare vivos valeant,”</span> &c. Henry II. of France, 1556, + made a long law against women who, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“advenant le temps de leur part et délivrance de leur + enfant, occultement s'en délivrent, puis le suffoquent et autrement + suppriment <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sans leur avoir fait empartir le Saint + Sacrement du Baptême</span></em>.”</span>—Labourt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches sur les + Enfans trouvés</span></span>, p. 47. There is a story told of a + Queen of Portugal (sister to Henry V. of England, and mother of St. + Ferdinand) that, being in childbirth, her life was despaired of + unless she took a medicine which would accelerate the birth but + probably sacrifice the life of the child. She answered that + <span class="tei tei-q">“she would not purchase her temporal life + by sacrificing the eternal salvation of her + son.”</span>—Bollandists, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Act. Sanctor.</span></span>, June 5th.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href= + "#noteref_20">20.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires pour servir + à l'Histoire ecclésiastique</span></span> (Paris, 1701), tome x. p. + 41. St. Clem. Alexand. says that infants in the womb and exposed + infants have guardian angels to watch over them. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> + v.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href= + "#noteref_21">21.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is an extremely large literature + devoted to the subject of infanticide, exposition, foundlings, + &c. The books I have chiefly followed are Terme et Monfalcon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire + des Enfans trouvés</span></span> (Paris, 1840); Remacle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Des + Hospices d'Enfans trouvés</span></span> (1838); Labourt, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recherches historiques sur les Enfans + trouvés</span></span> (Paris, 1848); Kœnigswarter, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur la + Législation des Peuples anciens et modernes relative aux Enfans nés + hors Mariage</span></span> (Paris, 1842). There are also many + details on the subject in Godefroy's Commentary to the laws about + children in the Theodosian Code, in Malthus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On + Population</span></span>, in Edward's tract <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the State of + Slavery in the Early and Middle Ages of Christianity</span></span>, + and in most ecclesiastical histories.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href= + "#noteref_22">22.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It must not; however, be inferred from + this that infanticide increases in direct proportion to the + unchastity of a nation. Probably the condition of civilised society + in which it is most common, is where a large amount of actual + unchastity coexists with very strong social condemnation of the + sinner, and where, in consequence, there is an intense anxiety to + conceal the fall. A recent writer on Spain has noticed the almost + complete absence of infanticide in that country, and has ascribed + it to the great leniency of public opinion towards female frailty. + Foundling hospitals, also, greatly influence the history of + infanticide; but the mortality in them was long so great that it + may be questioned whether they have diminished the number of the + deaths, though they have, as I believe, greatly diminished the + number of the murders of children. Lord Kames, writing in the last + half of the eighteenth century, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“In + Wales, even at present, and in the Highlands of Scotland, it is + scarce a disgrace for a young woman to have a bastard. In the + country last mentioned, the first instance known of a bastard child + being destroyed by its mother through shame is a late one. The + virtue of chastity appears to be thus gaining ground, as the only + temptation a woman can have to destroy her child is to conceal her + frailty.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sketches of the History of Man—On the Progress + of the Female Sex.</span></span> The last clause is clearly + inaccurate, but there seems reason for believing that maternal + affection is generally stronger than want, but weaker than + shame.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href= + "#noteref_23">23.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Warburton's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Divine + Legation</span></span>, vii. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href= + "#noteref_24">24.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ælian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Varia + Hist.</span></span> ii. 7. Passages from the Greek imaginative + writers, representing exposition as the avowed and habitual + practice of poor parents, are collected by Terme et Monfalcon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Enfans trouvés</span></span>, pp. 39-45. Tacitus notices with + praise (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Germania</span></span>, xix.) that the Germans + did not allow infanticide. He also notices (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + v. 5) the prohibition of infanticide among the Jews, and ascribes + it to their desire to increase the population.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href= + "#noteref_25">25.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dion. Halic. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href= + "#noteref_26">26.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Nat.</span></span> i. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href= + "#noteref_27">27.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The well-known jurisconsult Paulus had + laid down the proposition, <span class="tei tei-q">“Necare videtur + non tantum is qui partum perfocat sed et is qui abjicit et qui + alimonia denegat et qui publicis locis misericordiæ causa exponit + quam ipse non habet.”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dig.</span></span> lib. xxv. tit. iii. 1. 4.) + These words have given rise to a famous controversy between two + Dutch professors, named Noodt and Bynkershoek, conducted on both + sides with great learning, and on the side of Noodt with great + passion. Noodt maintained that these words are simply the + expression of a moral truth, not a judicial decision, and that + exposition was never illegal in Rome till some time after the + establishment of Christianity. His opponent argued that exposition + was legally identical with infanticide, and became, therefore, + illegal when the power of life and death was withdrawn from the + father. (See the works of Noodt (Cologne, 1763) and of Bynkershoek + (Cologne, 1761)). It was at least certain that exposition was + notorious and avowed, and the law against it, if it existed, + inoperative. Gibbon (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, ch. xliv.) + thinks the law censured but did not punish exposition. See, too, + Troplong, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Influence du Christianisme sur le + Droit</span></span>, p. 271.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href= + "#noteref_28">28.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quintilian speaks in a tone of + apology, if not justification, of the exposition of the children of + destitute parents (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decl.</span></span> cccvi.), and even Plutarch + speaks of it without censure. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Amor. + Prolis.</span></span>) There are several curious illustrations in + Latin literature of the different feelings of fathers and mothers + on this matter. Terence (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Heauton.</span></span> Act. iii. Scene 5) + represents Chremes as having, as a matter of course, charged his + pregnant wife to have her child killed provided it was a girl. The + mother, overcome by pity, shrank from doing so, and secretly gave + it to an old woman to expose it, in hopes that it might be + preserved. Chremes, on hearing what had been done, reproached his + wife for her womanly pity, and told her she had been not only + disobedient but irrational, for she was only consigning her + daughter to the life of a prostitute. In Apuleius (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Metam.</span></span> + lib. x.) we have a similar picture of a father starting for a + journey, leaving his wife in childbirth, and giving her his parting + command to kill her child if it should be a girl, which she could + not bring herself to do. The girl was brought up secretly. In the + case of weak or deformed infants infanticide seems to have been + habitual. <span class="tei tei-q">“Portentosos fœtus extinguimus, + liberos quoque, si debiles monstrosique editi sunt, mergimus. Non + ira, sed ratio est, a sanis inutilia secernere.”</span>—Seneca, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Ira</span></span>, i. 15. Terence has introduced a picture of the + exposition of an infant into his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Andria</span></span>, + Act. iv. Scene 5. See, too, Suet. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">August.</span></span> + lxv. According to Suetonius (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Calig.</span></span> v.), on the death of + Germanicus, women exposed their new-born children in sign of grief. + Ovid had dwelt with much feeling on the barbarity of these + practices. It is a very curious fact, which has been noticed by + Warburton, that Chremes, whose sentiments about infants we have + just seen, is the very personage into whose mouth Terence has put + the famous sentiment, <span class="tei tei-q">“Homo sum, humani + nihil a me alienum puto.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href= + "#noteref_29">29.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">That these were the usual fates of + exposed infants is noticed by several writers. Some, too, both + Pagan and Christian (Quintilian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decl.</span></span> + cccvi.; Lactantius, Div. Inst. vi. 20, &c.), speak of the + liability to incestuous marriages resulting from frequent + exposition. In the Greek poets there are several allusions to rich + childless men adopting foundlings, and Juvenal says it was common + for Roman wives to palm off foundlings on their husbands for their + sons. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> vi. 603.) There is an + extremely horrible declamation in Seneca the Rhetorician + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Controvers.</span></span> lib. v. 33) about + exposed children who were said to have been maimed and mutilated, + either to prevent their recognition by their parents, or that they + might gain money as beggars for their masters.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href= + "#noteref_30">30.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See passages on this point cited by + Godefroy in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Commentary to the Law</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q"><span style="font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Expositis,</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span> <span style= + "font-style: italic">Codex Theod.</span></span> lib. v. tit. + 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href= + "#noteref_31">31.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Codex Theod.</span></span> lib. xi. tit. + 27.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href= + "#noteref_32">32.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Codex Theod.</span></span> lib. v. tit. 7, + lex. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href= + "#noteref_33">33.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> lib. v. tit. 8, lex + 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href= + "#noteref_34">34.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Godefroy's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Commentary to the + Law</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href= + "#noteref_35">35.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In a letter to the younger Pliny. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> x. 72.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href= + "#noteref_36">36.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on this point Muratori, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antich. + Ital.</span></span> Diss. xxxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href= + "#noteref_37">37.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on these laws, Wallon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de + l'Esclavage</span></span>, tome iii. pp. 52, 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href= + "#noteref_38">38.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cod. + Theod.</span></span> lib. iii. tit. 3, lex 1, and the + Commentary.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href= + "#noteref_39">39.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the very persistent denunciation of + this practice by the Fathers, see many examples in Terme et + Monfalcon.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href= + "#noteref_40">40.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is a mere question of definition, + upon which lawyers have expended much learning and discussion. + Cujas thought the Romans considered infanticide a crime, but a + crime generically different from homicide. Godefroy maintains that + it was classified as homicide, but that, being esteemed less + heinous than the other forms of homicide, it was only punished by + exile. See the Commentary to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. 14, l. + 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href= + "#noteref_41">41.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. + 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href= + "#noteref_42">42.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. 14, lex + 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href= + "#noteref_43">43.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Corp. Juris</span></span>, lib. viii. tit. 52, + lex 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href= + "#noteref_44">44.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Leges Wisigothorum</span></span> (lib. vi. + tit. 3, lex 7) and other laws (lib. iv. tit. 4) condemned + exposition.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href= + "#noteref_45">45.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Si quis + infantem necaverit ut homicida teneatur.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Capit.</span></span> + vii. 168.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href= + "#noteref_46">46.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It appears, from a passage of St. + Augustine, that Christian virgins were accustomed to collect + exposed children and to have them brought into the church. See + Terme et Monfalcon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. des Enfans trouvés</span></span>, p. + 74.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href= + "#noteref_47">47.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Labourt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rech. sur les Enfans + trouvés</span></span>, pp. 32, 33; Muratori, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antichità + Italiane</span></span>, Dissert. xxxvii. Muratori has also briefly + noticed the history of these charities in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Carità + Christiana</span></span>, cap. xxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href= + "#noteref_48">48.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The first seems to have been the + hospital of Sta. Maria in Sassia, which had existed with various + changes from the eighth century, but was made a foundling hospital + and confided to the care of Guy of Montpellier in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1204. According to + one tradition, Pope Innocent III. had been shocked at hearing of + infants drawn in the nets of fishermen from the Tiber. According to + another, he was inspired by an angel. Compare Remacle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hospices d'Enfans + trouvés</span></span>, pp. 36-37, and Amydemus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pietas + Romana</span></span> (a book written <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1624, and translated + in part into English in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1687), Eng. trans, + pp. 2, 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href= + "#noteref_49">49.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For the little that is known about + this missionary of charity, compare Remacle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hospices d'Enfans + trouvés</span></span>, pp. 34-44; and Labourt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches + historiques sur les Enfans trouvés</span></span>, pp. 38-41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href= + "#noteref_50">50.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. the amphitheatre of Verona was + only built under Diocletian.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href= + "#noteref_51">51.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quid hoc + triumpho pulchrius?... Tantam captivorum multitudinem bestiis + objicit ut ingrati et perfidi non minus doloris ex ludibrio sui + quam ex ipsa morte patiantur.”</span>—Incerti, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Panegyricus + Constant</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-q">“Puberes qui in + manus venerunt, quorum nec perfidia erat apta militiæ nec ferocia + servituti ad pœnas spectaculo dati sævientes bestias multitudine + sua fatigarunt.”</span>—Eumenius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paneg. + Constant.</span></span> xi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href= + "#noteref_52">52.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. xv. tit. 12, + lex 1. Sozomen, i. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href= + "#noteref_53">53.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This, at least, is the opinion of + Godefroy, who has discussed the subject very fully. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cod. + Theod.</span></span> lib. xv. tit. 12.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href= + "#noteref_54">54.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Libanius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Vita + Sua</span></span>, 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href= + "#noteref_55">55.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. xv. tit. 12, l. + 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href= + "#noteref_56">56.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lib. ix. tit. 40, l. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href= + "#noteref_57">57.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lib. ix. tit. 40, l. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href= + "#noteref_58">58.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lib. xv. tit. 12, l. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href= + "#noteref_59">59.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Symmach. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ex.</span></span> x. + 61.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href= + "#noteref_60">60.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Wallon has traced these last shows + with much learning. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de l'Esclavage</span></span>, tome iii. + pp. 421-429.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href= + "#noteref_61">61.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He wavered, however, on the subject, + and on one occasion condemned them. See Wallon, tome iii. p. + 423.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href= + "#noteref_62">62.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret, v. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href= + "#noteref_63">63.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Muller, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Genio Ævi + Theodosiani</span></span> (1797), vol. ii. p. 88; Milman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Early Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. pp. 343-347.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href= + "#noteref_64">64.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on these fights Ozanam's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Civilisation in the Fifth + Century</span></span> (Eng. trans.), vol. i. p. 130.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href= + "#noteref_65">65.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nieupoort, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Ritibus + Romanorum</span></span>, p. 169.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href= + "#noteref_66">66.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a very unequivocal passage, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. + Div.</span></span> vi. 20. Several earlier testimonies on the + subject are given by Barbeyrac, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morale des + Pères</span></span>, and in many other books.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href= + "#noteref_67">67.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See two laws enacted in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 380 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cod. + Theod.</span></span> ix. tit. 35, l. 4) and <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 389 (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cod. + Theod.</span></span> ix. tit. 35, l. 5). Theodosius the Younger + made a law (ix. tit. 35, l. 7) excepting the Isaurian robbers from + the privileges of these laws.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href= + "#noteref_68">68.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are, of course, innumerable + miracles punishing guilty men, but I know none assisting the civil + power in doing so. As an example of the miracles in defence of the + innocent, I may cite one by St. Macarius. An innocent man, accused + of a murder, fled to him. He brought both the accused and accusers + to the tomb of the murdered man, and asked him whether the prisoner + was the murderer. The corpse answered in the negative; the + bystanders implored St. Macarius to ask it to reveal the real + culprit; but St. Macarius refused to do so. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vitæ + Patrum</span></span>, lib. ii. cap. xxviii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href= + "#noteref_69">69.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ut quam + clementissime et ultra sanguinis effusionem puniretur.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href= + "#noteref_70">70.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Quæstœ. Romanæ</span></span>, xcvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href= + "#noteref_71">71.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. d'Hist. + ecclés</span></span>. tome vi. pp. 88-98. The Donatists after a + time, however, are said to have overcome their scruples, and used + swords.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href= + "#noteref_72">72.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Under the Christian kings, the + barbarians multiplied the number of capital offences, but this has + usually been regarded as an improvement. The Abbé Mably says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Quoiqu'il nous reste peu d'ordonnances + faites sous les premiers Mérovingiens, nous voyons qu'avant la fin + du sixième siècle, les François avoient déjà adopté la doctrine + salutaire des Romains au sujet de la prescription; et que renonçant + à cette humanité cruelle qui les enhardissoit au mal, ils + infligèrent peine de mort contre l'inceste, le vol et le meurtre + qui jusques-là n'avoient été punis que par l'exil, ou dont on se + rachetoit par une composition. Les François, en réformant + quelques-unes de leurs lois civiles, portèrent la sévérité aussi + loin que leurs pères avoient poussé l'indulgence.”</span>—Mably, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Observ. + sur l'Hist. des François</span></span>, liv. i. ch. iii. See, too, + Gibbon's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, ch. + xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href= + "#noteref_73">73.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The whole of the sixth volume of + Godefroy's edition (folio) of the Theodosian code is taken up with + laws of these kinds.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href= + "#noteref_74">74.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mme. de Staël, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Réflexions sur le + Suicide</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href= + "#noteref_75">75.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The following became the theological + doctrine on the subject: <span class="tei tei-q">“Est vere homicida + et reus homicidii qui se interficiendo innocentum hominem + interfecerit.”</span>—Lisle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Du Suicide</span></span>, p. 400. St. + Augustine has much in this strain. Lucretia, he says, either + consented to the act of Sextius, or she did not. In the first case + she was an adulteress, and should therefore not be admired. In the + second case she was a murderess, because in killing herself she + killed an innocent and virtuous woman. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, i. 19.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href= + "#noteref_76">76.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Justin Martyr, Tertullian, and Cyprian + are especially ardent in this respect; but their language is, I + think, in their circumstances, extremely excusable. Compare + Barbeyrac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Morale des Pères</span></span>, ch. ii. § 8; + ch. viii. §§ 34-39. Donne's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biathanatos</span></span> (ed. 1644), pp. + 58-67. Cromaziano, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Istoria critica e filosofica del Suicidio + ragionato</span></span> (Venezia, 1788), pp. 135-140.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href= + "#noteref_77">77.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ambrose, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Virginibus</span></span>, iii. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href= + "#noteref_78">78.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccles. + Hist.</span></span> viii. 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href= + "#noteref_79">79.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eusebius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccles. + Hist.</span></span> viii. 14. Bayle, in his article upon Sophronia, + appears to be greatly scandalised at this act, and it seems that + among the Catholics it is not considered right to admire this poor + lady as much as her sister suicides. Tillemont remarks: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Comme on ne voit pas que l'église romaine + l'ait jamais honorée, nous n'avons pas le mesme droit de justifier + son action.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. ecclés.</span></span> tome v. pp. 404, + 405.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href= + "#noteref_80">80.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Especially Barbeyrac in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Morale + des Pères</span></span>. He was answered by Ceillier, Cromaziano, + and others. Matthew of Westminster relates of Ebba, the abbess of a + Yorkshire convent which was besieged by the Danes, that she and all + the other nuns, to save their chastity, deformed themselves by + cutting off their noses and upper lips. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 870.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href= + "#noteref_81">81.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Civ. Dei</span></span>, i. 22-7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href= + "#noteref_82">82.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This had been suggested by St. + Augustine. In the case of Pelagia, Tillemont finds a strong + argument in support of this view in the astounding, if not + miraculous, fact that, having thrown herself from the top of the + house, she was actually killed by the fall! <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Estant montée tout au haut de sa maison, fortifiée par + le mouvement que J.-C. formoit dans son cœur et par le courage + qu'il luy inspiroit, elle se précipita de là du haut en bas, et + échapa ainsi à tous les piéges de ses ennemis. Son corps en tombant + à terre frapa, dit S. Chrysostome, les yeux du démon plus vivement + qu'un éclair.... Ce qui marque encore que Dieu agissoit en tout + ceci c'est qu'au lieu que ces chutes ne sont pas toujours + mortelles, ou que souvent ne brisant que quelques membres, elles + n'ostent la vie que longtemps après, ni l'un ni l'autre n'arriva en + cette rencontre; mais Dieu retira aussitost l'âme de la sainte, en + sorte que sa mort parut autant l'effet de la volonté divine que de + sa chute.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. ecclés.</span></span> tome v. pp. + 401-402.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href= + "#noteref_83">83.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Et + virginitatis coronam et nuptiarum perdidit + voluptatem.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href= + "#noteref_84">84.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quis enim + siccis oculis recordetur viginti annorum adolescentulam tam ardenti + fide crucis levasse vexillum ut magis amissam virginitatem quam + mariti doleret interitum?”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xxxix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href= + "#noteref_85">85.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">For a description of these penances, + see <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href= + "#noteref_86">86.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxxix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href= + "#noteref_87">87.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Jerome gave some sensible advice + on this point to one of his admirers. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxv.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href= + "#noteref_88">88.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hase, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St. François + d'Assise</span></span>, pp. 137-138. St. Palæmon is said to have + died of his austerities. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. S. Pachomii.</span></span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href= + "#noteref_89">89.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Augustine and St. Optatus have + given accounts of these suicides in their works against the + Donatists.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href= + "#noteref_90">90.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Todd's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of St. + Patrick</span></span>, p. 462.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href= + "#noteref_91">91.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The whole history of suicide in the + dark ages has been most minutely and carefully examined by M. + Bourquelot, in a very interesting series of memoirs in the third + and fourth volumes of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bibliothèque de l'École des + Chartes</span></span>. I am much indebted to these memoirs in the + following pages. See, too, Lisle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du Suicide, + Statistique, Médecine, Histoire, et Législation</span></span>. + (Paris, 1856.) The ferocious laws here recounted contrast + remarkably with a law in the Capitularies (lib. vi. lex 70), which + provides that though mass may not be celebrated for a suicide, any + private person may, through charity, cause prayers to be offered up + for his soul. <span class="tei tei-q">“Quia incomprehensibilia sunt + judicia Dei, et profunditatem consilii ejus nemo potest + investigare.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href= + "#noteref_92">92.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the very interesting work of the + Abbé Bourret, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">l'École chrétienne de Séville sous la + monarchie des Visigoths</span></span> (Paris, 1855), p. 196.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href= + "#noteref_93">93.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Roger of Wendover, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 665.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href= + "#noteref_94">94.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Esquirol, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maladies + mentales</span></span>, tome i. p. 591.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href= + "#noteref_95">95.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lea's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Sacerdotal + Celibacy</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1867), p. 248.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href= + "#noteref_96">96.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Per lo corso + di molti secoli abbiamo questo solo suicidio donnesco, e buona cosa + è non averne più d'uno; perchè io non credo che la impudicizia + istessa sia peggiore di questa disperata + castità.”</span>—Cromaziano, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ist. del. Suicidio</span></span>, p. 126. + Mariana, who, under the frock of a Jesuit, bore the heart of an + ancient Roman, treats the case in a very different manner. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Ejus uxor Maria Coronelia cum mariti + absentiam non ferret, ne pravis cupiditatibus cederet, vitam + posuit, ardentem forte libidinem igne extinguens adacto per + muliebria titione; dignam meliori seculo fœminam, insigne studium + castitatis.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Rebus Hispan.</span></span> xvi. 17.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href= + "#noteref_97">97.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A number of passages are cited by + Bourquelot.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href= + "#noteref_98">98.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is noticed by St. Gregory + Nazianzen in a little poem which is given in Migne's edition of + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Greek + Fathers</span></span>, tome xxxvii. p. 1459. St. Nilus and the + biographer of St. Pachomius speak of these suicides, and St. + Chrysostom wrote a letter of consolation to a young monk, named + Stagirius, which is still extant, encouraging him to resist the + temptation. See Neander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ecclesiastical Hist.</span></span> vol. iii. + pp. 319, 320.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href= + "#noteref_99">99.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bourquelot. Pinel notices + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité + médico-philosophique sur l'Aliénation mentale</span></span> (2nd + ed.), pp. 44-46) the numerous cases of insanity still produced by + strong religious feeling; and the history of the movements called + <span class="tei tei-q">“revivals,”</span> in the present century, + supplies much evidence to the same effect. Pinel says, religious + insanity tends peculiarly to suicide (p. 265).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" + href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Orosius notices (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + v. 14) that of all the Gauls conquered by Q. Marcius, there were + none who did not prefer death to slavery. The Spaniards were famous + for their suicides, to avoid old age as well as slavery. Odin, who, + under different names, was the supreme divinity of most of the + Northern tribes, is said to have ended his earthly life by suicide. + Boadicea, the grandest figure of early British history, and + Cordeilla, or Cordelia, the most pathetic figure of early British + romance, were both suicides. (See on the first, Tacitus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span> xiv. 35-37, and on the + second Geoffrey of Monmouth, ii. 15—a version from which Shakspeare + has considerably diverged, but which is faithfully followed by + Spenser. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Faëry Queen</span></span>, book ii. canto + 10.))</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" + href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In our age, + when the Spaniards extended that law which was made only against + the cannibals, that they who would not accept the Christian + religion should incur bondage, the Indians in infinite numbers + escaped this by killing themselves, and never ceased till the + Spaniards, by some counterfeitings, made them think that they also + would kill themselves, and follow them with the same severity into + the next life.”</span>—Donne's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Biathanatos</span></span>, + p. 56 (ed. 1644). On the evidence of the early travellers on this + point, see the essay on <span class="tei tei-q">“England's + Forgotten Worthies,”</span> in Mr. Froude's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Short + Studies</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" + href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lisle, pp. 427-434. Sprenger has + noticed the same tendency among the witches he tried. See Calmeil, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De la + Folie</span></span> (Paris, 1845), tome i. pp. 161, 303-305.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" + href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On modern suicides the reader may + consult Winslow's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Anatomy of Suicide</span></span>; as well as + the work of M. Lisle, and also Esquirol, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maladies + mentales</span></span> (Paris, 1838), tome i. pp. 526-676.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" + href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hecker's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epidemics of the Middle Ages</span></span> + (London, 1844), p. 121. Hecker in his very curious essay on this + mania, has preserved a verse of their song:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Allu mari mi portati<br /> + Se voleti che mi sanati,<br /> + Allu mari, alla via,<br /> + Così m'ama la donna mia,<br /> + Allu mari, allu mari,<br /> + Mentre campo, t'aggio amari.”</span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" + href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cromaziano, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ist. del + Suicidio</span></span> caps. viii, ix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" + href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cromaziano, pp. 92-93.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" + href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Montesquieu, and many Continental + writers, have noticed this, and most English writers of the + eighteenth century seem to admit the charge. There do not appear, + however, to have been any accurate statistics, and the general + statements are very untrustworthy. Suicides were supposed to be + especially numerous under the depressing influence of English + winter fogs. The statistics made in the present century prove + beyond question that they are most numerous in summer.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" + href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Utopia</span></span>, book ii. ch. vi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" + href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A sketch of his life, which was rather + curious, is given by Cromaziano, pp. 148-151. There is a long note + on the early literature in defence of suicide, in Dumas, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité du + Suicide</span></span> (Amsterdam, 1723), pp. 148-149. Dumas was a + Protestant minister who wrote against suicide. Among the English + apologists for suicide (which he himself committed) was Blount, the + translator of the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Apollonius of Tyana</span></span>, and + Creech, an editor of Lucretius. Concerning the former there is a + note in Bayle's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict.</span></span> art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Apollonius.”</span> The latter is noticed by Voltaire + in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lettres Philos.</span></span> He wrote as a + memorandum on the margin of his <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Lucretius,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“N.B. When + I have finished my Commentary I must kill myself;”</span> which he + accordingly did—Voltaire says to imitate his favourite author. + (Voltaire, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict. phil.</span></span> art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Caton.”</span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" + href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essais</span></span>, liv. ii. ch. xiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" + href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lettres persanes</span></span>, lxxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" + href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nouvelle Héloïse</span></span>, partie iii. + let. 21-22. Esquirol gives a curious illustration of the way the + influence of Rousseau penetrated through all classes. A little + child of thirteen committed suicide, leaving a writing beginning: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Je lègue mon âme a Rousseau, mon corps à + la terre.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Maladies mentales</span></span>, tome i. p. + 588.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" + href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In general, however, Voltaire was + extremely opposed to the philosophy of despair, but he certainly + approved of some forms of suicide. See the articles <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Caton”</span> and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Suicide,”</span> in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dict. + philos.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" + href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lisle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du + Suicide</span></span>, pp. 411, 412.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" + href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Le monde est + vide depuis les Romains.”</span>—St.-Just, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Procés de + Danton</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" + href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This fact has been often noticed. The + reader may find many statistics on the subject in Lisle, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Du + Suicide</span></span>, and Winslow's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anatomy of + Suicide</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" + href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“There seems + good reason to believe, that with the progress of mental + development through the ages, there is, as in the case with other + forms of organic development, a correlative degeneration going on, + and that an increase of insanity is a penalty which an increase of + our present civilisation necessarily pays.”</span>—Maudsley's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Physiology of Mind</span></span>, p. 201.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" + href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. + 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" + href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some commentators imagine (see + Muratori, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antich. Ital. Diss.</span></span> xiv.) that + among the Pagans the murder of a man's own slave was only + assimilated to the crime of murdering the slave of another man, + while in the Christian law it was defined as homicide, equivalent + to the murder of a freeman. I confess, however, this point does not + appear to me at all clear.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" + href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Godefroy's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Commentary</span></span> on these laws.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" + href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Exodus xxi. 21</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" + href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quas vilitates vitæ dignas legum observatione non + credidit.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. 7. + See on this law, Wallon, tome iii. pp. 417, 418.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Dean Milman + observes, <span class="tei tei-q">“In the old Roman society in + the Eastern Empire this distinction between the marriage of the + freeman and the concubinage of the slave was long recognised by + Christianity itself. These unions were not blessed, as the + marriages of their superiors had soon begun to be, by the Church. + Basil the Macedonian (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 867-886) first + enacted that the priestly benediction should hallow the marriage + of the slave; but the authority of the emperor was counteracted + by the deep-rooted prejudices of centuries.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 15.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" + href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ii. tit. + 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" + href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lib. iv. tit. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" + href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lib. ix. tit. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" + href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Corpus Juris</span></span>, vi. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" + href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. vi. tit. + 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" + href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on all this legislation, Wallon, + tome iii.; Champagny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Charité chrétienne</span></span>, pp. + 214-224.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" + href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is worthy of notice, too, that the + justice of slavery was frequently based by the Fathers, as by + modern defenders of slavery, on the curse of Ham. See a number of + passages noticed by Moehler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Christianisme et l'Esclavage</span></span> + (trad. franç.), pp. 151-152.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" + href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The penalty, + however, appears to have been reduced to two years' exclusion + from communion. Muratori says: <span class="tei tei-q">“In più + consili si truova decretato, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘excommunicatione vel pœnitentiæ biennii esse + subjiciendum qui servum proprium sine conscientia judicis + occiderit.’</span> ”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antich. Ital.</span></span> Diss. xiv.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Besides the + works which treat generally of the penitential discipline, the + reader may consult with fruit Wright's letter <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the Political + Condition of the English Peasantry</span></span>, and Moehler, p. + 186.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" + href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the great multitude of emancipated + slaves who entered, and at one time almost monopolised, the + ecclesiastical offices, compare Moehler, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le Christianisme et + l'Esclavage</span></span>, pp. 177-178. Leo the Great tried to + prevent slaves being raised to the priestly office, because it + would degrade the latter.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" + href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a most admirable dissertation on + this subject in Le Blant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inscriptions chrétiennes de la + Gaule</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 284-299; Gibbon's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and + Fall</span></span>, ch. xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" + href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Champagny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Charité + chrétienne</span></span>, p. 210. These numbers are, no doubt, + exaggerated; see Wallon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de l'Esclavage</span></span>, tome iii. + p. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" + href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schmidt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Société civile + dans le Monde romain</span></span>, pp. 246-248.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" + href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Muratori has devoted two valuable + dissertations (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antich. Ital.</span></span> xiv. xv.) to + mediæval slavery.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" + href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ozanam's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Civilisation + in the Fifth Century</span></span> (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. p. 43. + St. Adelbert, Archbishop of Prague at the end of the tenth century, + was especially famous for his opposition to the slave trade. In + Sweden, the abolition of slavery in the thirteenth century was + avowedly accomplished in obedience to Christian principles. + (Moehler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Christianisme et l'Esclavage</span></span>, + pp. 194-196; Ryan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of the Effects of Religion upon + Mankind</span></span>, pp. 142, 143.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" + href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Salvian, in a famous passage + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Gubernatione Dei</span></span>, lib. v.), notices the multitudes of + poor who voluntarily became <span class="tei tei-q">“coloni”</span> + for the sake of protection and a livelihood. The coloni, who were + attached to the soil, were much the same as the mediæval serfs. We + have already noticed them coming into being, apparently when the + Roman emperors settled barbarian prisoners to cultivate the desert + lands of Italy; and before the barbarian invasions their numbers + seem to have much increased. M. Guizot has devoted two chapters to + this subject. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Civilisation en + France</span></span>, vii. viii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" + href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Finlay's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Greece</span></span>, vol. i. p. 241.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" + href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Moehler, p. 181.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" + href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Non v'era + anticamente signor secolare, vescovo, abbate, capitolo di canonici + e monistero che non avesse al suo servigio molti servi. Molto + frequentemente solevano i secolari manometterli. Non cosi le + chiese, e i monisteri, non per altra cagione, a mio credere, se non + perchè la manumissione è una spezie di alienazione, ed era dai + canoni proibito l'alienare i beni delle chiese.”</span>—Muratori, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dissert.</span></span> xv. Some Councils, + however, recognised the right of bishops to emancipate Church + slaves. Moehler, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Le Christianisme et l'Esclavage</span></span>, + p. 187. Many peasants placed themselves under the dominion of the + monks, as being the best masters, and also to obtain the benefit of + their prayers.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" + href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Muratori; Hallam's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle + Ages</span></span>, ch. ii. part ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" + href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on this subject, Ryan, pp. + 151-152; Cibrario, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Economica politica del Medio + Evo</span></span>, lib. iii. cap. ii., and especially Le Blant, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inscriptions chrétiennes de la + Gaule</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 284-299.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" + href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">About 5/6ths of a bushel. See Hume's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essay on + the Populousness of Ancient Nations</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" + href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The history of these distributions is + traced with admirable learning by M. Naudet in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoire sur les + Secours publics dans l'Antiquité</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. de l'Académie + des Inscrip. et Belles-lettres</span></span>, tome xiii.), an essay + to which I am much indebted. See, too, Monnier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de l'Assistance + publique</span></span>; B. Dumas, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Des Secours publics + chez les Anciens</span></span>; and Schmidt, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai sur la Société + civile dans le Monde romain et sur sa Transformation par le + Christianisme</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" + href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, ii. 9; Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxxi. 41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" + href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dion Cassius, xxxviii. 1-7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" + href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xiphilin, lxviii. 2; Pliny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> vii. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" + href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spartian. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sept. + Severus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" + href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suet. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">August.</span></span> + 41; Dion Cassius, li, 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" + href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Afflictos + civitatis relevavit; puellas puerosque natos parentibus egestosis + sumptu publico per Italiæ oppida ali jussit.”</span>—Sext. Aurelius + Victor, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epitome</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Nerva.”</span> This measure of Nerva, though not + mentioned by any other writer, is confirmed by the evidence of + medals. (Naudet, p. 75.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" + href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Panegyr.</span></span> xxvi. xxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" + href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We know of this charity from an extant + bronze tablet. See Schmidt, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essai historique sur la Société + romaine</span></span>, p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" + href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> i. + 8; iv. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" + href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schmidt, p. 428.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" + href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Spartianus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hadrian</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" + href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capitolinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antoninus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" + href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capitolinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Anton.</span></span>, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marc. + Aurel.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" + href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lampridius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Severus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" + href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Friedlænder, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Mœurs + romaines</span></span>, iii. p. 157.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" + href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Seneca (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Ira</span></span>, + lib. i. cap. 16) speaks of institutions called valetudinaria, which + most writers think were private infirmaries in rich men's houses. + The opinion that the Romans had public hospitals is maintained in a + very learned and valuable, but little-known work, called + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Collections relative to the Systematic Relief + of the Poor</span></span>. (London, 1815.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" + href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + xii. 58; Pliny, v. 7; x. 79.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" + href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cornelius Nepos, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epaminondas</span></span>, cap. iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" + href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cimon</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" + href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diog. Laërt. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Bias</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" + href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tac. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + iv. 63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" + href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> x. + 94, and the remarks of Naudet, pp. 38, 39.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" + href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Offic.</span></span> i. 14, 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" + href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lucian describes this in his famous + picture of Peregrinus; and Julian, much later, accused the + Christians of drawing men into the Church by their charities. + Socrates (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Eccl.</span></span> vii. 17) tells a + story of a Jew who, pretending to be a convert to Christianity, had + been often baptised in different sects, and had amassed a + considerable fortune by the gifts he received on those occasions. + He was at last miraculously detected by the Novatian bishop Paul. + There are several instances in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of the + Saints</span></span> of judgments falling on those who duped + benevolent Christians.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" + href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on this subject Chastel, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + historiques sur la Charité</span></span> (Paris, 1853); Martin + Doisy, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Charité pendant les quatre + premiers Siècles</span></span> (Paris, 1848); Champagny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Charité + chrétienne</span></span>; Tollemer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Origines de la + Charité catholique</span></span> (Paris, 1863); Ryan, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Effects of Religion upon Mankind</span></span> (Dublin, 1820); and + the works of Bingham and of Cave. I am also indebted, in this part + of my subject, to Dean Milman's histories, Neander's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ecclesiastical + History</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Private Life of the Early + Christians</span></span>, and to Migne's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Encyclopédie</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" + href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the famous epistle of Julian to + Arsacius, where he declares that it is shameful that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“the Galileans”</span> should support not only their + own, but also the heathen poor; and also the comments of Sozomen, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + eccl.</span></span> v. 16.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" + href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The conduct of the Christians, on the + first of these occasions, is described by Pontius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. + Cypriani</span></span>, ix. 19. St. Cyprian organised their + efforts. On the Alexandrian famines and pestilences, see Eusebius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. + E.</span></span> vii. 22; ix. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" + href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The effects of this conquest have been + well described by Sismondi, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Chute de l'Empire + Romain</span></span>, tome i. pp. 258-260. Theodoric afterwards + made some efforts to re-establish the distribution, but it never + regained its former proportions. The pictures of the starvation and + depopulation of Italy at this time are appalling. Some fearful + facts on the subject are collected by Gibbon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and + Fall</span></span>, ch. xxxvi.; Chateaubriand, vi<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">me</span></span> + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Disc.</span></span> 2<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">de</span></span> + partie.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" + href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> ix. xl. 15-16. The + first of these laws was made by Theodosius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 392; the second by + Honorius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 398.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" + href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cibrario, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Economica politica + del Medio Evo</span></span>, lib. ii. cap. iii. The most remarkable + of these saints was St. Julien l'Hospitalier, who having under a + mistake killed his father and mother, as a penance became a + ferryman of a great river, and having embarked on a very stormy and + dangerous night at the voice of a traveller in distress, received + Christ into his boat. His story is painted on a window of the + thirteenth century, in Rouen Cathedral. See Langlois, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essai historique sur + la Peinture sur verre</span></span>, pp. 32-37.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" + href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The fact of leprosy being taken as the + image of sin gave rise to some curious notions of its supernatural + character, and to many legends of saints curing leprosy by baptism. + See Maury, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Légendes pieuses du Moyen-Age</span></span>, + pp. 64-65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" + href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on these hospitals Cibrario, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Econ. + Politica del Medio Evo</span></span>, lib. iii. cap. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" + href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Calmeil observes: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“On a souvent constaté depuis un demi-siècle que la + folie est sujette à prendre la teinte des croyances religieuses, + des idées philosophiques ou superstitieuses, des préjugés sociaux + qui ont cours, qui sont actuellement en vogue parmi les peuples ou + les nations; que cette teinte varie dans un même pays suivant le + caractère des événements relatifs à la politique extérieure, le + caractère des événements civils, la nature des productions + littéraires, des représentations théâtrales, suivant la tournure, + la direction, le genre d'élan qu'y prennent l'industrie, les arts + et les sciences.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De la Folie</span></span>, tome i. pp. + 122-123.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" + href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Milman's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History + of Latin Christianity</span></span>, vol. vii. pp. 353, 354.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Venit de Anglia virgo decora valde, pariterque + facunda, dicens, Spiritum Sanctum incarnatum in redemptionem + mulierum, et baptizavit mulieres in nomine Patris, Filii et sui. + Quæ mortua ducta fuit in Mediolanum, ibi et + cremata.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Annales Dominicanorum + Colmariensium</span></span> (in the <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Rerum Germanic. Scriptores”</span>).</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" + href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Martin + Gonçalez, du diocèse de Cuenca, disoit qu'il etoit frère de + l'archange S. Michel, la première vérité et l'échelle du ciel; que + c'étoit pour lui que Dieu réservoit la place que Lucifer avoit + perdue; que tous les jours il s'élevoit au plus haut de l'Empirée + et descendoit ensuite au plus profond des enfers; qu'a la fin du + monde, qui étoit proche, il iroit au devant de l'Antichrist et + qu'il le terrasseroit, ayant á sa main la croix de Jésus-Christ et + sa couronne d'épines. L'archevêque de Tolède, n'ayant pu convertir + ce fanatique obstiné, ni l'empêcher de dogmatiser, l'avoit enfin + livré au bras séculier.”</span>—Touron, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Hommes + illustres de l'ordre de St. Dominique</span></span>, Paris, 1745 + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie + d'Eyméricus</span></span>), tome ii. p. 635.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" + href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Calmeil, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De la + Folie</span></span>, tome i. p. 134.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" + href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. tome i. pp. 242-247.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" + href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Calmeil, tome i. p. 247.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" + href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Esquirol, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maladies + mentales</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" + href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and + Fall</span></span>, ch. xxxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" + href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Purchas's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pilgrims</span></span>, ii. 1452.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" + href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Desmaisons' <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Asiles d'Aliénés en + Espagne</span></span>, p. 53.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" + href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leo Africanus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Description of + Africa</span></span>, book iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" + href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have taken these facts from a very + interesting little work, Desmaisons, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Des Asiles d'Aliénés + en Espagne; Recherches historiques et médicales</span></span> + (Paris, 1859). Dr. Desmaisons conjectures that the Spaniards took + their asylums from the Mohammedans; but, as it seems to me, he + altogether fails to prove his point. His work, however, contains + some curious information on the history of lunatic asylums.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" + href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Amydemus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pietas + Romana</span></span> (Oxford, 1687), p. 21; Desmaisons, p. + 108.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" + href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pinel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité + médico-philosophique</span></span>, pp. 241, 242.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" + href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the dreadful description in Pinel, + pp. 200-202.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" + href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Malthus, who is sometimes, though most + unjustly, described as an enemy to all charity, has devoted an + admirable chapter (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">On Population</span></span>, book iv. ch. ix.) + to the <span class="tei tei-q">“direction of our charity;”</span> + but the fullest examination of this subject with which I am + acquainted is the very interesting work of Duchâtel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sur la + Charité</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" + href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is very tersely expressed by a + great Protestant writer: <span class="tei tei-q">“I give no alms to + satisfy the hunger of my brother, but to fulfil and accomplish the + will and command of my God.”</span>—Sir T. Brown, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Religio + Medici</span></span>, part ii. § 2. A saying almost exactly similar + is, if I remember right, ascribed to St. Elizabeth of Hungary.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" + href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Butler's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of the + Saints</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" + href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Campion's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historie of + Ireland</span></span>, book ii. chap. x.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" + href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He wrote his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Perils of the Last + Times</span></span> in the interest of the University of Paris, of + which he was a Professor, and which was at war with the mendicant + orders. See Milman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Latin Christianity</span></span>, vol. vi. pp. + 348-356; Fleury, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eccl. Hist.</span></span> lxxxiv. 57.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" + href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Henry de Knyghton, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Eventibus + Angliæ</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" + href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There was some severe legislation in + England on the subject after the Black Death. Eden's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Working Classes</span></span>, vol. i. p. 34. In France, too, a + royal ordinance of 1350 ordered men who had been convicted of + begging three times to be branded with a hot iron. Monteil, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Français</span></span>, tome i. p. 434.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" + href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eden, vol. i. pp. 83-87.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" + href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 101-103.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" + href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 127-130.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" + href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Morighini, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Institutions pieuses + de Rome</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" + href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eden, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Labouring Classes</span></span>, i. 83.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" + href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Locke discussed the great increase of + poverty, and a bill was brought in suggesting some remedies, but + did not pass. (Eden, vol. i. pp. 243-248.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" + href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In a very forcible letter addressed to + the Irish Catholic clergy.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" + href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This tract, which is extremely + valuable for the light it throws upon the social condition of + England at the time, was written in opposition to a bill providing + that the poor in the poor-houses should do wool, hemp, iron, and + other works. Defoe says that wages in England were higher than + anywhere on the Continent, though the amount of mendicancy was + enormous. <span class="tei tei-q">“The reason why so many pretend + to want work is, that they can live so well with the pretence of + wanting work.... I affirm of my own knowledge, when I have wanted a + man for labouring work, and offered nine shillings per week to + strolling fellows at my door, they have frequently told me to my + face they could get more a-begging.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" + href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Reforma degl' Instituti pii di + Modena</span></span> (published first anonymously at Modena). It + has been reprinted in the library of the Italian economists.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" + href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essay on Charity Schools.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" + href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Magdalen asylums have been very + vehemently assailed by M. Charles Comte, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité de + Législation</span></span>. On the subject of Foundling Hospitals + there is a whole literature. They were violently attacked by, I + believe, Lord Brougham, in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edinburgh + Review</span></span>, in the early part of this century. Writers of + this stamp, and indeed most political economists, greatly + exaggerate the forethought of men and women, especially in matters + where the passions are concerned. It may be questioned whether one + woman in a hundred, who plunges into a career of vice, is in the + smallest degree influenced by a consideration of whether or not + charitable institutions are provided for the support of aged + penitents.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" + href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> ch. xlii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" + href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On these penances, see Bingham, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiq.</span></span> book vii. Bingham, I + think, justly divides the history of asceticism into three periods. + During the first, which extends from the foundation of the Church + to <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 250, there were men + and women who, with a view to spiritual perfection, abstained from + marriage, relinquished amusements, accustomed themselves to severe + fasts, and gave up their property to works of charity; but did this + in the middle of society and without leading the life of either a + hermit or a monk. During the second period, which extended from the + Decian persecution, anchorites were numerous, but the custom of a + common or cœnobitic life was unknown. It was originated in the time + of Constantine by Pachomius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" + href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is expressly stated by St. Jerome + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. + Pauli</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" + href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on this subject some curious + evidence in Neander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Chrysostom</span></span>. St. + Chrysostom wrote a long work to console fathers whose sons were + thus seduced to the desert.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" + href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On this tradition see Champagny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Antonins</span></span>, tome i. p. 193.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" + href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> cxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" + href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euseb. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. + Hist.</span></span> ii. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" + href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Decline and + Fall</span></span>, ch. xxxvii.; a brief but masterly sketch of the + progress of the movement.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" + href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" + href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Jerome, Preface to the Rule of St. + Pachomius, § 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" + href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cassian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Cœnob. + Inst.</span></span> iv. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" + href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span> ch. v. Rufinus visited it himself.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" + href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> lxxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" + href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Mon.</span></span> vii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" + href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a good deal of doubt and + controversy about this. See a note in Mosheim's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. + Hist.</span></span> (Soame's edition), vol. i. p. 354.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" + href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Most of the passages remaining on the + subject of the foundation of monachism are given by Thomassin, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Discipline de l'Église</span></span>, part i. + livre iii. ch. xii. This work contains also much general + information about monachism. A curious collection of statistics of + the numbers of the monks in different localities, additional to + those I have given and gleaned from the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lives of the + Saints</span></span>, may be found in Pitra (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de St. + Léger</span></span>, Introd. p. lix.); 2,100, or, according to + another account, 3,000 monks, lived in the monastery of + Banchor.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" + href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The three + principal are the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historia Monachorum</span></span> of + Rufinus, who visited Egypt <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 373, about + seventeen years after the death of St. Antony; the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Institutiones</span></span> of Cassian, who, + having visited the Eastern monks about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 394, founded vast + monasteries containing, it is said, 5,000 monks, at Marseilles, + and died at a great age about <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 448; and the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historia Lausiaca</span></span> (so called + from Lausus, Governor of Cappadocia) of Palladius, who was + himself a hermit on Mount Nitria, in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 388. The first and + last, as well as many minor works of the same period, are given + in Rosweyde's invaluable collection of the lives of the Fathers, + one of the most fascinating volumes in the whole range of + literature.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The + hospitality of the monks was not without drawbacks. In a church + on Mount Nitria three whips were hung on a palm-tree—one for + chastising monks, another for chastising thieves, and a third for + chastising guests. (Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> vii.)</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" + href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vita Pauli.</span></span> St. Jerome adds, + that some will not believe this, because they have no faith, but + that all things are possible for those that believe.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" + href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vita St. Hilarion.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" + href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a long list of these penances in + Tillemont, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mém. pour servir à l'Hist. + ecclés.</span></span> tome viii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" + href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vitæ Patrum</span></span> (Pachomius). He used + to lean against a wall when overcome by drowsiness.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" + href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vitæ Patrum</span></span>, ix. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" + href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sozomen, vi. 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" + href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g. St. Antony, according to his + biographer St. Athanasius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" + href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Il y eut dans + le désert de Scété des solitaires d'une éminente perfection.... On + prétend que pour l'ordinaire ils passoient des semaines entières + sans manger, mais apparemment cela ne se faisoit que dans des + occasions particulières.”</span>—Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. pour servir à + l'Hist. eccl.</span></span> tome viii. p. 580. Even this, however, + was admirable!</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" + href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> cap. xx.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" + href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Primum cum + accessisset ad eremum tribus continuis annis sub cujusdam saxi rupe + stans, semper oravit, ita ut nunquam omnino resederit neque + Jacuerit. Somni autem tantum caperet, quantum stans capere potuit; + cibum vero nunquam sumpserat nisi die Dominica. Presbyter enim tunc + veniebat ad eum et offerebat pro eo sacrificium idque ei solum + sacramentum erat et victus.”</span>—Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span> cap. xv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" + href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus St. Antony used to live in a + tomb, where he was beaten by the devil. (St. Athanasius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Antony.</span></span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" + href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">βοσκοί. See on these monks Sozomen, + vi. 33; Evagrius, i. 21. It is mentioned of a certain St. Marc of + Athens, that, having lived for thirty years naked in the desert, + his body was covered with hair like that of a wild beast. + (Bollandists, March 29.) St. Mary of Egypt, during part of her + period of penance, lived upon grass. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vitæ + Patrum.</span></span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" + href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Antony.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" + href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“II ne faisoit + pas aussi difficulté dans sa vieillesse de se laver quelquefois les + piez. Et comme on témoignoit s'en étonner et trouver que cela ne + répondoit pas à la vie austère des anciens, il se justifioit par + ces paroles: Nous avons appris à tuer, non pas notre corps mais nos + passions.”</span>—Tillemont, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mém. Hist. eccl.</span></span> tome xv. p. + 148. This saint was so very virtuous, that he sometimes remained + without eating for whole weeks.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" + href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Non + appropinquavit oleum corpusculo ejus. Facies vel etiam pedes a die + conversionis suæ nunquam diluti sunt.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vitæ + Patrum</span></span>, c. xvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" + href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In facie ejus + puritas animi noscebatur.”</span>—Ibid. c. xviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" + href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, iv. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" + href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heraclidis Paradisus (Rosweyde), c. + xlii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" + href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nulla earum + pedes suos abluebat; aliquantæ vero audientes de balneo loqui, + irridentes, confusionem et magnam abominationem se audire + judicabant, quæ neque audi tum suum hoc audire + patiebantur.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. S. Euphrax.</span></span> c. vi. + (Rosweyde.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" + href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See her acts, Bollandists, April 2, + and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vitæ Patrum</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" + href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Patres nostri + nunquam facies suas lavabant, nos autem lavacra publica balneaque + frequentamus.”</span>—Moschus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pratum + Spirituale</span></span>, clxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" + href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pratum + Spirituale</span></span>, lxxx.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">An Irish + saint, named Coemgenus, is said to have shown his devotion in a + way which was directly opposite to that of the other saints I + have mentioned—by his special use of cold water—but the principle + in each case was the same—to mortify nature. St. Coemgenus was + accustomed to pray for an hour every night in a pool of cold + water, while the devil sent a horrible beast to swim round him. + An angel, however, was sent to him for three purposes. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Tribus de causis à Domino missus est + angelus ibi ad S. Coemgenum. Prima ut a diversis suis gravibus + laboribus levius viveret paulisper; secunda ut horridam bestiam + sancto infestam repelleret; tertia <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ut frigiditatem + aquæ calefaceret</span></em>.”</span>—Bollandists, June 3. The + editors say these acts are of doubtful authenticity.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" + href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his Life by his disciple Antony, + in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vitæ Patrum</span></span>, Evagrius, i. 13, + 14. Theodoret, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philotheos</span></span>, cap. xxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" + href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> lxxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" + href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, Hist. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monach.</span></span> + xxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" + href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We have a striking illustration of + this in St. Arsenius. His eyelashes are said to have fallen off + through continual weeping, and he had always, when at work, to put + a cloth on his breast to receive his tears. As he felt his death + approaching, his terror rose to the point of agony. The monks who + were about him said, <span class="tei tei-q">“ <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Quid fles, pater? numquid et tu times?’</span> Ille + respondit, <span class="tei tei-q">‘In veritate timeo et iste timor + qui nunc mecum est, semper in me fuit, ex quo factus sum + monachus.’</span> ”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum</span></span>, Prol. § 163. It + was said of St. Abraham that no day passed after his conversion + without his shedding tears. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. Patrum.</span></span>) St. John the dwarf + once saw a monk laughing immoderately at dinner, and was so + horrified that he at once began to cry. (Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. de l'Hist. + ecclés.</span></span> tome x. p. 430.) St. Basil (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Regulæ</span></span>, + interrog. xvii.) gives a remarkable disquisition on the wickedness + of laughing, and he observes that this was the one bodily affection + which Christ does not seem to have known. Mr. Buckle has collected + a series of passages to precisely the same effect from the writings + of the Scotch divines. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Civilisation</span></span>, vol. ii. + pp. 385-386.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" + href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Monachus + autem non doctoris habet sed plangentis + officium.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contr. Vigilant.</span></span> xv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" + href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As Tillemont puts it: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Il se trouva très-peu de saints en qui Dieu ait joint + les talens extérieurs de l'éloquence et de la science avec la grâce + de la prophétie et des miracles. Ce sont des dons que sa Providence + a presque toujours séparés.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. Hist. + ecclés.</span></span> tome iv. p. 315.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" + href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Athanasius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. + Anton.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" + href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxii. He says his shoulders + were bruised when he awoke.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" + href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> lxx.; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adv. + Rufinum</span></span>, lib. i. ch. xxx. He there speaks of his + vision as a mere dream, not binding. He elsewhere (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxv.) speaks very sensibly of the advantage of hermits occupying + themselves, and says he learnt Hebrew to keep away unholy + thoughts.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" + href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sozomen, vi. 28; Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span> ch. vi. Socrates tells rather a touching + story of one of these illiterate saints, named Pambos. Being unable + to read, he came to some one to be taught a psalm. Having learnt + the single verse, <span class="tei tei-q">“I said I will take heed + to my ways, that I offend not with my tongue,”</span> he went away, + saying that was enough if it were practically acquired. When asked, + six months, and again many years, after, why he did not come to + learn another verse, he answered that he had never been able truly + to master this. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> iv. 23.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" + href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, x. p. 61.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" + href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 490; Socrates, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. + E.</span></span> iv. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" + href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have combined in this passage + incidents from three distinct lives. St. Jerome, in a very famous + and very beautiful passage of his letter to Eustochium + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxii.) describes the manner + in which the forms of dancing-girls appeared to surround him as he + knelt upon the desert sands. St. Mary of Egypt (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vitæ + Patrum</span></span>, ch. xix.) was especially tortured by the + recollection of the songs she had sung when young, which + continually haunted her mind. St. Hilarion (see his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span> by + St. Jerome) thought he saw a gladiatorial show while he was + repeating the psalms. The manner in which the different visions + faded into one another like dissolving views is repeatedly + described in the biographies.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" + href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span>, ch. xi. This saint was St. Helenus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" + href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Life of St. Pachomius (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. + Patrum</span></span>), cap. ix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" + href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span> cap. i. This story was told to Rufinus by St. + John the hermit. The same saint described his own visions very + graphically. <span class="tei tei-q">“Denique etiam me frequenter + dæmones noctibus seduxerunt, et neque orare neque requiescere + permiserunt, phantasias quasdam per noctem totam sensibus meis et + cogitationes suggerentes. Mane vero velut cum quadam illusione + prosternebant se ante me dicentes, Indulge nobis, abbas, quia + laborem tibi incussimus tota nocte.”</span>—Ibid. St. Benedict in + the desert is said to have been tortured by the recollection of a + beautiful girl he had once seen, and only regained his composure by + rolling in thorns. (St. Greg. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> ii. 2.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" + href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">She lived also for some time in a + convent at Jerusalem, which she had founded. Melania (who was one + of St. Jerome's friends) was a lady of rank and fortune, who + devoted her property to the monks. See her journey in Rosweyde, + lib. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" + href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span> in + Tillemont.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" + href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. x. p. 14. A certain Didymus + lived entirely alone till his death, which took place when he was + ninety. (Socrates, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> iv. 23.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" + href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monachorum</span></span>, cap. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" + href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum</span></span>, § 65.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" + href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pelagia was very pretty, and, + according to her own account, <span class="tei tei-q">“her sins + were heavier than the sand.”</span> The people of Antioch, who were + very fond of her, called her Margarita, or the pearl. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Il arriva un jour que divers évesques, appelez par + celui d'Antioche pour quelques affaires, estant ensemble à la porte + de l'eglise de S.-Julien, Pélagie passa devant eux dans tout + l'éclat des pompes du diable, n'ayant pas seulement une coeffe sur + sa teste ni un mouchoir sur ses épaules, ce qu'on remarqua comme le + comble de son impudence. Tous les évesques baissèrent les yeux en + gémissant pour ne pas voir ce dangereux objet de péché, hors Nonne, + très-saint évesque d'Héliople, qui la regarda avec une attention + qui fit peine aux autres.”</span> However, this bishop immediately + began crying a great deal, and reassured his brethren, and a sermon + which he preached led to the conversion of the actress. (Tillemont, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. + d'Hist. ecclés.</span></span> tome xii. pp. 378-380. See, too, on + women, <span class="tei tei-q">“under pretence of religion, + attiring themselves as men,”</span> Sozomen, iii. 14.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" + href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, tome x. pp. 376, 377. Apart + from family affections, there are some curious instances recorded + of the anxiety of the saints to avoid distractions. One monk used + to cover his face when he went into his garden, lest the sight of + the trees should disturb his mind. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verb. + Seniorum.</span></span>) St. Arsenius could not bear the rustling + of the reeds (ibid.); and a saint named Boniface struck dead a man + who went about with an ape and a cymbal, because he had (apparently + quite unintentionally) disturbed him at his prayers. (St. Greg. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> i. 9.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" + href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quemadmodum + se jam divitem non esse sciebat, ita etiam patrem se esse + nesciret.”</span>—Cassian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Cœnobiorum Institutis</span></span>, iv. + 27.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" + href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Cumque + taliter infans sub oculis ejus per dies singulos ageretur, pro + amore nihilominus Christi et obedientiæ virtute, rigida semper + atque immobilia patris viscera permanserunt ... parum cogitans de + lacrymis ejus, sed de propria humilitate ac perfectione + sollicitus.”</span>—Ibid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" + href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" + href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bollandists, July 6; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verba + Seniorum</span></span>, xiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" + href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum</span></span>, xiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" + href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Tartuffe</span></span> (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">tirant un + mouchoir</span><br /> + <span style="font-style: italic">de sa poche</span></span>).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ah, mon Dieu, je vous prie,<br /> + Avant que de parler, prenez-moi ce mouchoir.</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Dorine.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Comment!</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">Tartuffe.</span></span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">Couvrez ce sein que je ne saurois voir;<br /> + Par de pareils objets des âmes sont blessées,<br /> + Et cela fait venir de coupables pensées.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tartuffe</span></span>, Acte iii. scène + 2.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" + href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bollandists, July 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" + href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum</span></span>, iv. The poor + woman, being startled and perplexed at the proceedings of her son, + said, <span class="tei tei-q">“Quid sic operuisti manus tuas, fili? + Ille autem dixit: Quia corpus mulieris ignis est, et ex eo ipso quo + te contingebam veniebat mihi commemoratio aliarum feminarum in + animo.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" + href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mém. de l'Hist. + ecclés.</span></span> tome x. pp. 444, 445.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" + href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. S. Pachomius</span></span>, ch. xxxi.; + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Verba + Seniorum</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" + href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Senorium</span></span>, xiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" + href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> cap. lxxxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" + href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bollandists, June 6. I avail myself + again of the version of Tillemont. <span class="tei tei-q">“Lorsque + S. Pemen demeuroit en Egypte avec ses frères, leur mère, qui avoit + un extrême désir de les voir, venoit souvent au lieu où ils + estoient, sans pouvoir jamais avoir cette satisfaction. Une fois + enfin elle prit si bien son temps qu'elle les rencontra qui + alloient à l'église, mais dès qu'ils la virent ils s'en + retournèrent en haste dans leur cellule et fermèrent la porte sur + eux. Elle les suivit, et trouvant la porte, elle les appeloit avec + des larmes et des cris capables de les toucher de compassion.... + Pemen s'y leva et s'y en alla, et l'entendant pleurer il luy dit, + tenant toujours la porte fermée, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Pourquoi + vous lassez-vous inutilement à pleurer et crier? N'êtes-vous pas + déjà assez abattue par la vieillesse?’</span> Elle reconnut la voix + de Pemen, et s'efforçant encore davantage, elle s'écria, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘Hé, mes enfans, c'est que je voudrais bien + vous voir: et quel mal y a-t-il que je vous voie? Ne suis-je pas + votre mère, et ne vous ai-je pas nourri du lait de mes mammelles? + Je suis déjà toute pleine de rides, et lorsque je vous ay entendu, + l'extrême envie que j'ay de vous voir m'a tellement émue que je + suis presque tombée en défaillance.’</span> ”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mémoires de l'Hist. + ecclès.</span></span> tome xv. pp. 157, 158.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" + href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The original is much more eloquent + than my translation. <span class="tei tei-q">“Fili, quare hoc + fecisti? Pro utero quo te portavi, satiasti me luctu, pro + lactatione qua te lactavi dedisti mihi lacrymas, pro osculo quo te + osculata sum, dedisti mihi amaras cordis angustias; pro dolore et + labore quem passa sum, imposuisti mihi sævissimas + plagas.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vita Simeonis</span></span> (in + Rosweyde).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" + href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bingham, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiquities</span></span>, book vii. ch. + iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" + href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" + href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bingham, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiquities</span></span>, book vii. chap. + 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" + href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Early + Christianity</span></span> (ed. 1867), vol. iii. p. 122.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" + href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vol. iii. p. 153.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" + href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vol. iii. p. 120.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" + href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Virginibus</span></span>, i. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" + href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Early + Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 121.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" + href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Virginibus</span></span>, i. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" + href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> xxiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" + href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Jerome describes the scene at her + departure with admiring eloquence. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Descendit ad portum fratre, cognatis, affinibus et + quod majus est liberis prosequentibus, et elementissimam matrem + pietate vincere cupientibus. Jam carbasa tendebantur, et remorum + ductu navis in altum protrahebatur. Parvus Toxotius supplices manus + tendebat in littore, Ruffina jam nubilis ut suas expectaret nuptias + tacens fletibus obsecrabat. Et tamen illa siccos tendebat ad cælum + oculos, pietatem in filios pietate in Deum superans. Nesciebat se + matrem ut Christi probaret ancillam.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cviii. In another place he says of her: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Testis est Jesus, ne unum quidem nummum ab ea filiæ + derelictum sed, ut ante jam dixi, derelictum magnum æs + alienum.”</span>—Ibid. And again: <span class="tei tei-q">“Vis, + lector, ejus breviter scire virtutes? Omnes suos pauperes, + pauperior ipsa dimisit.”</span>—Ibid.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" + href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Chastel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etudes historiques + sur la Charité</span></span>, p. 231. The parents of St. Gregory + Nazianzen had made this request, which was faithfully + observed.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" + href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chastel, p. 232.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" + href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a characteristic passage from the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + St. Fulgentius</span></span>, quoted by Dean Milman. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Facile potest juvenis tolerare quemcunque imposuerit + laborem qui poterit maternum jam despicere + dolorem.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin Christianity</span></span>, + vol. ii. p. 82.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" + href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xiv. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Heliodorum</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" + href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Greg. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + ii. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" + href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bollandists, May 3 (vol. vii. p. + 561).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" + href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Hospitibus + omni loco ac tempore liberalissimus fuit.... Solis consanguineis + durus erat et inhumanus, tamquam ignotos illos + respiciens.”</span>—Bollandists, May 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" + href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Helyot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dict. des Ordres + religieux</span></span>, art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Camaldules.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" + href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the charming sketch in the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + St. Francis</span></span>, by Hase.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" + href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The legend of St. Scholastica, the + sister of St. Benedict, has been often quoted. He had visited her, + and was about to leave in the evening, when she implored him to + stay. He refused, and she then prayed to God, who sent so violent a + tempest that the saint was unable to depart. (St. Greg. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> ii. 33.) Cassian speaks of + a monk who thought it his duty never to see his mother, but who + laboured for a whole year to pay off a debt she had incurred. + (Cœnob. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inst.</span></span> v. 38.) St. Jerome + mentions the strong natural affection of Paula, though she + considered it a virtue to mortify it. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cviii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" + href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Antony.</span></span> See, too, the + sentiments of St. Pachomius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit.</span></span> cap. xxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" + href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nec ulla res + aliena magis quam publica.”</span>—Tertullian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + ch. xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" + href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quid interest + sub cujus imperio vivat homo moriturus, si illi qui imperant, ad + impia et iniqua non cogant.”</span>—St. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, v. 17.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" + href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Jerome declares that <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Monachum in patria sua perfectum esse non posse, + perfectum autem esse nolle delinquere est.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xiv. Dean Milman well says of a later period: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“According to the monastic view of Christianity, the + total abandonment of the world, with all its ties and duties, as + well as its treasures, its enjoyments, and objects of ambition, + advanced rather than diminished the hopes of salvation. Why should + they fight for a perishing world, from which it was better to be + estranged?... It is singular, indeed, that while we have seen the + Eastern monks turned into fierce undisciplined soldiers, perilling + their own lives and shedding the blood of others without remorse, + in assertion of some shadowy shade of orthodox expression, hardly + anywhere do we find them asserting their liberties or their + religion with intrepid resistance. Hatred of heresy was a more + stirring motive than the dread or the danger of Islamism. After the + first defeats the Christian mind was still further prostrated by + the common notion that the invasion was a just and + heaven-commissioned visitation; ... resistance a vain, almost an + impious struggle to avert inevitable punishment.”</span>—Milman's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 206. Compare Massillon's + famous <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Discours au Régiment de + Catinat</span></span>:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Ce qu'il y a ici de + plus déplorable, c'est que dans une vie rude et pénible, dans des + emplois dont les devoirs passent quelquefois la rigueur des + cloîtres les plus austères, vous souffrez toujours en vain pour + l'autre vie.... Dix ans de services ont plus usé votre corps qu'une + vie entière de pénitence ... un seul jour de ces souffrances, + consacré au Seigneur, vous aurait peut-être valu un bonheur + éternel.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" + href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a very striking passage in + Salvian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Gubern. Div.</span></span> lib. vi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" + href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chateaubriand very truly says, + <span class="tei tei-q">“qu'Orose et saint Augustin étoient plus + occupés du schisme de Pélage que de la désolation de l'Afrique et + des Gaules.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Études histor.</span></span> vi<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">me</span></span> + discours, 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">de</span></span> partie. The remark might + certainly be extended much further.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" + href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zosimus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + v. 41. This was on the first occasion when Rome was menaced by + Alaric.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" + href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Merivale's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conversion of the + Northern Nations</span></span>, pp. 207-210.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" + href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Sismondi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Chute de + l'Empire romain</span></span>, tome i. p. 230.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" + href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eunapius. There is no other authority + for the story of the treachery, which is not believed by + Gibbon.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" + href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sismondi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Chute de + l'Empire romain</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 52-54; Milman, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Latin Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 213. The Monophysites + were greatly afflicted because, after the conquest, the Mohammedans + tolerated the orthodox believers as well as themselves, and were + unable to appreciate the distinction between them. In Gaul, the + orthodox clergy favoured the invasions of the Franks, who, alone of + the barbarian conquerors of Gaul, were Catholics, and St. + Aprunculus was obliged to fly, the Burgundians desiring to kill him + on account of his suspected connivance with the invaders. (Greg. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tur.</span></span> ii. 23.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" + href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dean Milman says of the Church, + <span class="tei tei-q">“if treacherous to the interests of the + Roman Empire, it was true to those of mankind.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 48. So Gibbon: + <span class="tei tei-q">“If the decline of the Roman Empire was + hastened by the conversion of Constantine, the victorious religion + broke the violence of the fall and mollified the ferocious temper + of the conquerors.”</span>—Ch. xxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" + href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Observe with what a fine perception + St. Augustine notices the essentially unchristian character of the + moral dispositions to which the greatness of Rome was due. He + quotes the sentence of Sallust: <span class="tei tei-q">“Civitas, + incredibile memoratu est, adeptâ libertate quantum brevi creverit, + tanta cupido gloriæ incesserat;”</span> and adds: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ista ergo laudis aviditas et cupido gloriæ multa illa + miranda fecit, laudabilia scilicet atque gloriosa secundum hominum + existimationem ... causa honoris, laudis et gloriæ consuluerunt + patriæ, in qua ipsam gloriam requirebant, salutemque ejus saluti + suæ præponere non dubitaverunt, pro isto uno vitio, id est, amore + laudis, pecuniæ cupiditatem et multa alia vitia comprimentes.... + Quid aliud amarent quam gloriam, qua volebant etiam post mortem + tanquam vivere in ore laudantium?”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, v. 12-13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" + href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Præter majorum cineres atque ossa, volucri<br /> + Carpento rapitur pinguis Damasippus et ipse,<br /> + Ipse rotam stringit multo sufflamine consul;<br /> + Nocte quidem; sed luna videt, sed sidera testes<br /> + Intendunt oculos. Finitum tempus honoris<br /> + Quum fuerit, clara Damasippus luce flagellum + Sumet.”</span>—Juvenal, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> viii. 146.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" + href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Nat. Quæst.</span></span> iv. 13. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + 78.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" + href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Pessimum vitæ + scelus fecit, qui id [aurum] primus induit digitis ... quisquis + primus instituit cunctanter id fecit, lævisque manibus, + latentibusque induit.”</span>—Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxxiii. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" + href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a curious passage in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apologia</span></span>. It should be said that + we have only his own account of the charges brought against + him.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" + href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The history of false hair has been + written with much learning by M. Guerle in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Éloge des + Perruques</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" + href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The fullest view of this age is given + in a very learned little work by Peter Erasmus Müller (1797), + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Genio + Ævi Theodosiani</span></span>. Montfaucon has also devoted two + essays to the moral condition of the Eastern world, one of which is + given in Jortin's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Remarks on Ecclesiastical + History</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" + href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on these abuses Mosheim, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eccl. + Hist.</span></span> (Soame's ed.), vol. i. p. 463; Cave's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive + Christianity</span></span>, part i. ch. xi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" + href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cave's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Primitive + Christianity</span></span>, part i. ch. vii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" + href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> lxi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" + href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Evagrius describes with much + admiration how certain monks of Palestine, by <span class= + "tei tei-q">“a life wholly excellent and divine,”</span> had so + overcome their passions that they were accustomed to bathe with + women; for <span class="tei tei-q">“neither sight nor touch, nor a + woman's embrace, could make them relapse into their natural + condition. Among men they desired to be men, and among women, + women.”</span> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> i. 21.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" + href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These <span class= + "tei tei-q">“mulieres subintroductæ,”</span> as they were called, + are continually noticed by Cyprian, Jerome, and Chrysostom. See + Müller, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Genio Ævi Theodosiani</span></span>, and + also the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Codex Theod.</span></span> xvi. tit. ii. lex + 44, with the Comments. Dr. Todd, in his learned <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of St. + Patrick</span></span> (p. 91), quotes (I shall not venture to do + so) from the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lives of the Irish Saints</span></span> an + extremely curious legend of a kind of contest of sanctity between + St. Scuthinus and St. Brendan, in which it was clearly proved that + the former had mastered his passions more completely than the + latter. An enthusiast named Robert d'Arbrisselles is said in the + twelfth century to have revived the custom. (Jortin's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Remarks</span></span>, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1106.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" + href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Jerome gives (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + lii.) an extremely curious picture of these clerical flatterers, + and several examples of the terms of endearment they were + accustomed to employ. The tone of flattery which St. Jerome + himself, though doubtless with the purest motives, employs in his + copious correspondence with his female admirers, is to a modern + layman peculiarly repulsive, and sometimes verges upon blasphemy. + In his letter to Eustochium, whose daughter as a nun had become the + <span class="tei tei-q">“bride of Christ,”</span> he calls the + mother <span class="tei tei-q">“Socrus Dei,”</span> the + mother-in-law of God. See, too, the extravagant flatteries of + Chrysostom in his correspondence with Olympias.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" + href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Pudet dicere + sacerdotes idolorum, mimi et aurigæ et scorta hæreditates capiunt; + solis clericis et monachis hoc lege prohibetur, et prohibetur non a + persecutoribus, sed a principibus Christianis. Nec de lege + conqueror sed doleo cur meruerimus hanc legem.”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + lii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" + href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Early + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 314.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" + href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was one cause of the disputes + between St. Gregory the Great and the Emperor Eustace. St. + Chrysostom frequently notices the opposition of the military and + the monastic spirits.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" + href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hieron. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" + href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Greg. Nyss. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad eund. + Hieros</span></span>. Some Catholic writers have attempted to throw + doubt upon the genuineness of this epistle, but, Dean Milman + thinks, with no sufficient reason. Its account of Jerusalem is to + some extent corroborated by St. Jerome. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Paulinum</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxix.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" + href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Præterea non + taceo charitati vestræ, quia omnibus servis Dei qui hic vel in + Scriptura vel in timore Dei probatissimi esse videntur, displicet + quod bonum et honestas et pudicitia vestræ ecclesiæ illuditur; et + aliquod levamentum turpitudinis esset, si prohiberet synodus et + principes vestri mulieribus et velatis feminis illud iter et + frequentiam, quam ad Romanam civitatem veniendo et redeundo + faciunt, quia magna ex parte pereunt, paucis remeantibus integris. + Perpaucæ enim sunt civitates in Longobardia vel in Francia aut in + Gallia in qua non sit adultera vel meretrix generis Anglorum, quod + scandalum est et turpitudo totius ecclesiæ + vestræ.”</span>—(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 745) <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + lxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" + href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" + href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + eccl.</span></span> tome xi. p. 547.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" + href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was enjoined in the rule of St. + Paphnutius. See Tillemont, tome x. p. 45.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" + href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Omnimodis + monachum fugere debere mulieres et episcopos.”</span>—Cassian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Cœnob. + Inst.</span></span> xi. 17.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" + href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We also find now and then, though I + think very rarely, intellectual flashes of some brilliancy. Two of + them strike me as especially noteworthy. St. Arsenius refused to + separate young criminals from communion though he had no hesitation + about old men; for he had observed that young men speedily get + accustomed and indifferent to the state of excommunication, while + old men feel continually, and acutely, the separation. (Socrates, + iv. 23.) St. Apollonius explained the Egyptian idolatry with the + most intelligent rationalism. The ox, he thought, was in the first + instance worshipped for its domestic uses; the Nile, because it was + the chief cause of the fertility of the soil &c. (Rufinus, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Mon.</span></span> cap. vii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" + href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> cap. xix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" + href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rufinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Monach.</span></span> cap. xxix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" + href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + eccl.</span></span> tome viii. pp. 583, 584.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" + href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 589.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" + href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philoth.</span></span> cap. iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" + href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" + href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Philoth.</span></span> cap. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" + href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, tome viii. pp. + 594-595.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" + href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> viii. 1. Many anecdotes of elephants are + collected viii. 1-12. See, too, Dion Cassius, xxxix. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" + href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, viii. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" + href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Donne's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Biathanatos</span></span>. p. 22. This habit + of bees is mentioned by St. Ambrose. The pelican, as is well known, + afterwards became an emblem of Christ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" + href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> x. 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" + href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A long list of legends about dogs is + given by Legendre, in the very curious chapter on animals, in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité de + l'Opinion</span></span>, tome i. pp. 308-327.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" + href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny tells some extremely pretty + stories of this kind. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Nat.</span></span> ix. 8-9.) See, too, + Aulus Gellius, xvi. 19. The dolphin, on account of its love for its + young, became a common symbol of Christ among the early + Christians.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_357" name="note_357" + href="#noteref_357">357.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A very full account of the opinions, + both of ancient and modern philosophers, concerning the souls of + animals, is given by Bayle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict.</span></span> arts. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pereira E,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Rorarius + K.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_358" name="note_358" + href="#noteref_358">358.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Jewish law did not confine its + care to oxen. The reader will remember the touching provision, + <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt not seethe a kid in his + mother's milk”</span> (Deut. xiv. 21); and the law forbidding men + to take a parent bird that was sitting on its young or on its eggs. + (Deut. xxii. 6, 7.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_359" name="note_359" + href="#noteref_359">359.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Cujus tanta + fuit apud antiquos veneratio, ut tam capital esset bovem necuisse + quam civem.”</span>—Columella, lib. vi. in proœm. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Hic socius hominum in rustico opere et Cereris + minister. Ab hoc antiqui manus ita abstinere voluerunt ut capite + sanxerint si quis occidisset.”</span>—Varro, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Re + Rustic.</span></span> lib. ii. cap. v.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_360" name="note_360" + href="#noteref_360">360.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Legendre, tome ii. p. 338. The + sword with which the priest sacrificed the ox was afterwards + pronounced accursed. (Ælian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Var.</span></span> lib. viii. cap. + iii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_361" name="note_361" + href="#noteref_361">361.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diog. Laërt. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Xenocrates</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_362" name="note_362" + href="#noteref_362">362.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a story told by Herodotus (i. + 157-159) of an ambassador who was sent by his fellow-countrymen to + consult an oracle at Miletus about a suppliant who had taken refuge + with the Cymæans and was demanded with menace by his enemies. The + oracle, being bribed, enjoined the surrender. The ambassador on + leaving, with seeming carelessness disturbed the sparrows under the + portico of the temple, when the voice from behind the altar + denounced his impiety for disturbing the guests of the gods. The + ambassador replied with an obvious and withering retort. Ælian says + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Var.</span></span>) that the Athenians condemned to death a boy for + killing a sparrow that had taken refuge in the temple of + Æsculapius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_363" name="note_363" + href="#noteref_363">363.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quintilian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst.</span></span> + v. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_364" name="note_364" + href="#noteref_364">364.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the same way we find several + chapters in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zendavesta</span></span> about the criminality + of injuring dogs; which is explained by the great importance of + shepherd's dogs to a pastoral people.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_365" name="note_365" + href="#noteref_365">365.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">On the origin + of Greek cock-fighting, see Ælian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Var.</span></span> ii. 28. Many particulars about it are given by + Athenæus. Chrysippus maintained that cock-fighting was the final + cause of cocks, these birds being made by Providence in order to + inspire us by the example of their courage. (Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Repug. Stoic.</span></span>) The Greeks do not, however, appear + to have known <span class="tei tei-q">“cock-throwing,”</span> the + favourite English game of throwing a stick called a <span class= + "tei tei-q">“cock-stick”</span> at cocks. It was a very ancient + and very popular amusement, and was practised especially on + Shrove Tuesday, and by school-boys. Sir Thomas More had been + famous for his skill in it. (Strutt's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sports and + Pastimes</span></span>, p. 283.) Three origins of it have been + given:—1st, that in the Danish wars the Saxons failed to surprise + a certain city in consequence of the crowing of cocks, and had in + consequence a great hatred of that bird; 2nd, that the cocks + (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style= + "font-style: italic">galli</span></span>) were special + representatives of Frenchmen, with whom the English were + constantly at war; and 3rd, that they were connected with the + denial of St. Peter. As Sir Charles Sedley said:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Mayst thou be punished for St. Peter's crime,<br /> + And on Shrove Tuesday perish in thy prime.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Knight's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Old + England</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 126.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_366" name="note_366" + href="#noteref_366">366.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Natura Rerum</span></span>, lib. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_367" name="note_367" + href="#noteref_367">367.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Marc. Cato.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_368" name="note_368" + href="#noteref_368">368.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quid meruere boves, animal sine fraude + dolisque,<br /> + Innocuum, simplex, natum tolerare labores?<br /> + Immemor est demum nec frugum munere dignus.<br /> + Qui potuit curvi dempto modo pondere aratri<br /> + Ruricolam mactare suum.”</span>—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metamorph.</span></span> xv. 120-124.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_369" name="note_369" + href="#noteref_369">369.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Cujus<br /> + Turbavit nitidos extinctus passer ocellos.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Juvenal, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> vi. 7-8.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">There is a + little poem in Catullus (iii.) to console his mistress upon the + death of her favourite sparrow; and Martial more than once + alludes to the pets of the Roman ladies.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Compare the + charming description of the Prioress, in Chaucer:—</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“She was so charitable and so pitous,<br /> + She wolde wepe if that she saw a<br /> + mous Caught in a trappe, if it were ded or bledde.<br /> + Of smale houndes had she that she fedde<br /> + With rosted flesh and milke and wastel brede,<br /> + But sore wept she if one of them were dede,<br /> + Or if men smote it with a yerde smert:<br /> + And all was conscience and tendre herte.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Prologue to + the</span> <span class="tei tei-q"><span style= + "font-style: italic">“</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">Canterbury Tales.</span><span style= + "font-style: italic">”</span></span></span></p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_370" name="note_370" + href="#noteref_370">370.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philost. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + i. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_371" name="note_371" + href="#noteref_371">371.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the curious chapter in his + Κυνηγετικός, xvi. and compare it with No. 116 in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spectator</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_372" name="note_372" + href="#noteref_372">372.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Abstinentia + Carnis</span></span>. The controversy between Origen and Celsus + furnishes us with a very curious illustration of the extravagances + into which some Pagans of the third century fell about animals. + Celsus objected to the Christian doctrine about the position of men + in the universe, that many of the animals were at least the equals + of men both in reason, religious feeling, and knowledge. (Orig. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cont. + Cels.</span></span> lib. iv.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_373" name="note_373" + href="#noteref_373">373.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These views are chiefly defended in + his two tracts on eating flesh. Plutarch has also recurred to the + subject, incidentally, in several other works, especially in a very + beautiful passage in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Marcus Cato</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_374" name="note_374" + href="#noteref_374">374.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for example, a striking passage + in Clem. Alex. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> lib. ii. St. Clement + imagines Pythagoras had borrowed his sentiments on this subject + from Moses.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_375" name="note_375" + href="#noteref_375">375.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is, I believe, no record of any + wild beast combats existing among the Jews, and the rabbinical + writers have been remarkable for the great emphasis with which they + inculcated the duty of kindness to animals. See some passages from + them, cited in Wollaston, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Religion of Nature</span></span>, sec. ii., + note. Maimonides believed in a future life for animals, to + recompense them for their sufferings here. (Bayle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dict.</span></span> + art, <span class="tei tei-q">“Rorarius D.”</span>) There is a + curious collection of the opinions of different writers on this + last point in a little book called the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rights of + Animals</span></span>, by William Drummond (London, 1838), pp. + 197-205.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_376" name="note_376" + href="#noteref_376">376.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus St. Paul (1 Cor. ix. 9) turned + aside the precept, <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou shalt not muzzle + the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn,”</span> from its + natural meaning, with the contemptuous question, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Doth God take care for oxen?”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_377" name="note_377" + href="#noteref_377">377.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have taken these illustrations from + the collection of hermit literature in Rosweyde, from different + volumes of the Bollandists, from the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dialogues</span></span> of Sulpicius Severus, + and from what is perhaps the most interesting of all collections of + saintly legends, Colgan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Acta Sanctorum Hiberniæ</span></span>. M. + Alfred Maury, in his most valuable work, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Légendes pieuses du + Moyen Age</span></span>, has examined minutely the part played by + animals in symbolising virtues and vices, and has shown the way in + which the same incidents were repeated, with slight variations, in + different legends. M. de Montalembert has devoted what is probably + the most beautiful chapter of his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Moines + d'Occident</span></span> (<span class="tei tei-q">“Les Moines et la + Nature”</span>) to the relations of monks to the animal world; but + the numerous legends he cites are all, with one or two exceptions, + different from those I have given.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_378" name="note_378" + href="#noteref_378">378.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Chateaubriand speaks, however + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + historiques</span></span>, étude vi<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">me</span></span>, + 1<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">re</span></span> partie), of an old Gallic + law, forbidding to throw a stone at an ox attached to the plough, + or to make its yoke too tight.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_379" name="note_379" + href="#noteref_379">379.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bollandists, May 31. Leonardo da Vinci + is said to have had the same fondness for buying and releasing + caged birds, and (to go back a long way) Pythagoras to have + purchased one day, near Metapontus, from some fishermen all the + fish in their net, that he might have the pleasure of releasing + them. (Apuleius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apologia</span></span>.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_380" name="note_380" + href="#noteref_380">380.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See these legends collected by Hase + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">St + Francis. Assisi</span></span>). It is said of Cardinal Bellarmine + that he used to allow vermin to bite him, saying, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“We shall have heaven to reward us for our sufferings, + but these poor creatures have nothing but the enjoyment of this + present life.”</span> (Bayle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict. philos.</span></span> art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Bellarmine.”</span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_381" name="note_381" + href="#noteref_381">381.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I have noticed, in my <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Rationalism</span></span>, that, although some Popes did + undoubtedly try to suppress Spanish bull-fights, this was solely on + account of the destruction of human life they caused. Full details + on this subject will be found in Concina, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Spectaculis</span></span> (Romæ, 1752). Bayle says, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Il n'y a point de casuiste qui croie qu'on pèche en + faisant combattre des taureaux contre des dogues,”</span> &c. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dict. + philos.</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Rorarius, + C.”</span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_382" name="note_382" + href="#noteref_382">382.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the ancient amusements of England + the reader may consult Seymour's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Survey of + London</span></span> (1734), vol. i. pp. 227-235; Strutt's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sports + and Pastimes of the English People</span></span>. Cock-fighting was + a favourite children's amusement in England as early as the twelfth + century. (Hampson's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Medii Ævi Kalendarii</span></span>, vol. i. p. + 160.) It was, with foot-ball and several other amusements, for a + time suppressed by Edward III., on the ground that they were + diverting the people from archery, which was necessary to the + military greatness of England.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_383" name="note_383" + href="#noteref_383">383.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The decline of these amusements in + England began with the great development of the theatre under + Elizabeth. An order of the Privy Council in July, 1591, prohibits + the exhibition of plays on Thursday, because on Thursdays + bear-baiting and suchlike pastimes had been usually practised, and + an injunction to the same effect was sent to the Lord Mayor, + wherein it was stated that, <span class="tei tei-q">“in divers + places the players do use to recite their plays, to the great hurt + and destruction of the game of bear-baiting and like pastimes, + which are maintained for Her Majesty's pleasure.”</span>—Nichols, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Progresses of Queen Elizabeth</span></span> + (ed. 1823), vol. i. p. 438. The reader will remember the picture in + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Kenilworth</span></span> of the Earl of Sussex + petitioning Elizabeth against Shakespeare, on the ground of his + plays distracting men from bear-baiting. Elizabeth (see Nichols) + was extremely fond of bear-baiting. James I. especially delighted + in cock-fighting, and in 1610 was present at a great fight between + a lion and a bear. (Hone, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Every Day Book</span></span>, vol. i. pp. + 255-299.) The theatres, however, rapidly multiplied, and a writer + who lived about 1629 said, <span class="tei tei-q">“that no less + than seventeen playhouses had been built in or about London within + threescore years.”</span> (Seymour's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Survey</span></span>, + vol. i. p. 229.) The Rebellion suppressed all public amusements, + and when they were re-established after the Restoration, it was + found that the tastes of the better classes no longer sympathised + with the bear-garden. Pepys (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diary</span></span>, August 14, 1666) speaks + of bull-baiting as <span class="tei tei-q">“a very rude and nasty + pleasure,”</span> and says he had not been in the bear-garden for + many years. Evelyn (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diary</span></span>, June 16, 1670), having + been present at these shows, describes them as <span class= + "tei tei-q">“butcherly sports, or rather barbarous + cruelties,”</span> and says he had not visited them before for + twenty years. A paper in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Spectator</span></span> (No. 141, written in + 1711) talks of those who <span class="tei tei-q">“seek their + diversion at the bear-garden, ... where reason and good manners + have no right to disturb them.”</span> In 1751, however, Lord Kames + was able to say, <span class="tei tei-q">“The bear garden, which is + one of the chief entertainments of the English, is held in + abhorrence by the French and other polite + nations.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Essay on Morals</span></span> (1st ed.), p. 7; + and he warmly defends (p. 30) the English taste. During the latter + half of the last century there was constant controversy on the + subject (which may be traced in the pages of the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annual + Register</span></span>), and several forgotten clergymen published + sermons upon it, and the frequent riots resulting from the fact + that the bear-gardens had become the resort of the worst classes + assisted the movement. The London magistrates took measures to + suppress cock-throwing in 1769 (Hampson's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Med. Æv. + Kalend.</span></span> p. 160); but bull-baiting continued far into + the present century. Windham and Canning strongly defended it; Dr. + Parr is said to have been fond of it (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Southey's Commonplace + Book</span></span>, vol. iv. p. 585); and as late as 1824, Sir + Robert (then Mr) Peel argued strongly against its prohibition. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Parliamentary Debates</span></span>, vol. x. + pp. 132-133, 491-495.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_384" name="note_384" + href="#noteref_384">384.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bacon, in an account of the + deficiencies of medicine, recommends vivisection in terms that seem + to imply that it was not practised in his time. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“As for the passages and pores, it is true, which was + anciently noted, that the more subtle of them appear not in + anatomies, because they are shut and latent in dead bodies, though + they be open and manifest in live; which being supposed, though the + inhumanity of <span lang="la" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang= + "la"><span style="font-style: italic">anatomia + vivorum</span></span> was by Celsus justly reproved, yet, in regard + of the great use of this observation, the enquiry needed not by him + so slightly to have been relinquished altogether, or referred to + the casual practices of surgery; but might have been well diverted + upon the dissection of beasts alive, which, notwithstanding the + dissimilitude of their parts, may sufficiently satisfy this + enquiry.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Advancement of Learning</span></span>, x. 4. + Harvey speaks of vivisections as having contributed to lead him to + the discovery of the circulation of the blood. (Acland's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Harveian + Oration</span></span> (1865), p. 55.) Bayle, describing the + treatment of animals by men, says, <span class="tei tei-q">“Nous + fouillons dans leurs entrailles pendant leur vie afin de satisfaire + notre curiosité.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict. philos.</span></span> art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Rorarius, C.”</span> Public opinion in England was + very strongly directed to the subject in the present century, by + the atrocious cruelties perpetrated by Majendie at his lectures. + See a most frightful account of them in a speech by Mr. Martin (an + eccentric Irish member, who was generally ridiculed during his + life, and has been almost forgotten since his death, but to whose + untiring exertions the legislative protection of animals in England + is due).—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Parliament. Hist.</span></span> vol. xii. p. + 652. Mandeville, in his day, was a very strong advocate of kindness + to animals.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Commentary on the Fable of the + Bees.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_385" name="note_385" + href="#noteref_385">385.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span> by + Sulpicius Severus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_386" name="note_386" + href="#noteref_386">386.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_387" name="note_387" + href="#noteref_387">387.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Turon. ii. 29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_388" name="note_388" + href="#noteref_388">388.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was the first step towards the + conversion of the Bulgarians.—Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 249.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_389" name="note_389" + href="#noteref_389">389.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A remarkable collection of instances + of this kind is given by Ozanam, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Civilisation in the + Fifth Century</span></span> (Eng. trans.), vol. i. pp. + 124-127.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_390" name="note_390" + href="#noteref_390">390.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Gregory, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + iii. 7. The particular temptation the Jew heard discussed was that + of the bishop of the diocese, who, under the instigation of one of + the dæmons, was rapidly falling in love with a nun, and had + proceeded so far as jocosely to stroke her on the back. The Jew, + having related the vision to the bishop, the latter reformed his + manners, the Jew became a Christian, and the temple was turned into + a church.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_391" name="note_391" + href="#noteref_391">391.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">William of Malmesbury, ii. 13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_392" name="note_392" + href="#noteref_392">392.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 293.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_393" name="note_393" + href="#noteref_393">393.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cassian. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cœnob. + Instit.</span></span> v. 4. See, too, some striking instances of + this in the life of St. Antony.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_394" name="note_394" + href="#noteref_394">394.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This spiritual pride is well noticed + by Neander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ecclesiastical History</span></span> (Bohn's + ed.), vol. iii. pp. 321-323. It appears in many traits scattered + through the lives of these saints. I have already cited the visions + telling St. Antony and St. Macarius that they were not the best of + living people; and also the case of the hermit, who was deceived by + a devil in the form of a woman, because he had been exalted by + pride. Another hermit, being very holy, received pure white bread + every day from heaven, but, being extravagantly elated, the bread + got worse and worse till it became perfectly black. (Tillemont, + tome x. pp. 27-28.) A certain Isidore affirmed that he had not been + conscious of sin, even in thought, for forty years. (Socrates, iv. + 23.) It was a saying of St. Antony, that a solitary man in the + desert is free from three wars—of sight, speech, and hearing: he + has to combat only fornication. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apothegmata + Patrum.</span></span>)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_395" name="note_395" + href="#noteref_395">395.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Pride, under + such training [that of modern rationalistic philosophy], instead of + running to waste, is turned to account. It gets a new name; it is + called self-respect.... It is directed into the channel of + industry, frugality, honesty, and obedience, and it becomes the + very staple of the religion and morality held in honour in a day + like our own. It becomes the safeguard of chastity, the guarantee + of veracity, in high and low; it is the very household god of the + Protestant, inspiring neatness and decency in the servant-girl, + propriety of carriage and refined manners in her mistress, + uprightness, manliness, and generosity in the head of the + family.... It is the stimulating principle of providence on the one + hand, and of free expenditure on the other; of an honourable + ambition and of elegant enjoyment.”</span>—Newman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On University + Education</span></span>, Discourse ix. In the same lecture (which + is, perhaps, the most beautiful of the many beautiful productions + of its illustrious author), Dr. Newman describes, with admirable + eloquence, the manner in which modesty has supplanted humility in + the modern type of excellence. It is scarcely necessary to say that + the lecturer strongly disapproves of the movement he + describes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_396" name="note_396" + href="#noteref_396">396.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus <span class= + "tei tei-q">“indagatio veri”</span> was reckoned among the leading + virtues, and the high place given to σοφία and <span class= + "tei tei-q">“prudentia”</span> in ethical writings preserved the + notion of the moral duties connected with the discipline of the + intellect.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_397" name="note_397" + href="#noteref_397">397.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Augustine reckoned eighty-eight + sects as existing in his time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_398" name="note_398" + href="#noteref_398">398.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a full account of these + persecutions in Tillemont, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mém. d'Histoire ecclés.</span></span> tome + vi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_399" name="note_399" + href="#noteref_399">399.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span>, + iv. 16. This anecdote is much doubted by modern historians.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_400" name="note_400" + href="#noteref_400">400.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span> (ed. 1867), vol. ii. p. 422.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_401" name="note_401" + href="#noteref_401">401.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Athanasius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historical + Treatises</span></span> (Library of the Fathers), pp. 192, + 284.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_402" name="note_402" + href="#noteref_402">402.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span>, ii. pp. 436-437.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_403" name="note_403" + href="#noteref_403">403.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The death of Arius, as is well known, + took place suddenly (his bowels, it is said, coming out) when he + was just about to make his triumphal entry into the Cathedral of + Constantinople. The death (though possibly natural) never seems to + have been regarded as such, but it was a matter of controversy + whether it was a miracle or a murder.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_404" name="note_404" + href="#noteref_404">404.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span>, + vii. 13-15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_405" name="note_405" + href="#noteref_405">405.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. i. pp. 214-215.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_406" name="note_406" + href="#noteref_406">406.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 145.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_407" name="note_407" + href="#noteref_407">407.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. i. pp. 290-291.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_408" name="note_408" + href="#noteref_408">408.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vol. i. pp. 310-311.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_409" name="note_409" + href="#noteref_409">409.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. i. pp. 314-318. Dean Milman thus + sums up the history: <span class="tei tei-q">“Monks in Alexandria, + monks in Antioch, monks in Jerusalem, monks in Constantinople, + decide peremptorily on orthodoxy and heterodoxy. The bishops + themselves cower before them. Macedonius in Constantinople, + Flavianus in Antioch, Elias in Jerusalem, condemn themselves and + abdicate, or are driven from their sees. Persecution is + universal—persecution by every means of violence and cruelty; the + only question is, in whose hands is the power to persecute.... + Bloodshed, murder, treachery, assassination, even during the public + worship of God—these are the frightful means by which each party + strives to maintain its opinions and to defeat its + adversary.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_410" name="note_410" + href="#noteref_410">410.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a striking passage from Julianus + of Eclana, cited by Milman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin Christianity</span></span>, + vol. i. p. 164.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_411" name="note_411" + href="#noteref_411">411.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nowhere is + Christianity less attractive than in the Councils of the Church.... + Intrigue, injustice, violence, decisions on authority alone, and + that the authority of a turbulent majority, ... detract from the + reverence and impugn the judgments of at least the later Councils. + The close is almost invariably a terrible anathema, in which it is + impossible not to discern the tones of human hatred, of arrogant + triumph, of rejoicing at the damnation imprecated against the + humiliated adversary.”</span>—Ibid. vol. i. p. 202.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_412" name="note_412" + href="#noteref_412">412.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the account of this scene in + Gibbon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Decline and Fall</span></span>, ch. xlvii.; + Milman, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin Christianity</span></span>, + vol. i. p. 263. There is a conflict of authorities as to whether + the Bishop of Alexandria himself kicked his adversary, or, to speak + more correctly, the act which is charged against him by some + contemporary writers is not charged against him by others. The + violence was certainly done by his followers and in his + presence.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_413" name="note_413" + href="#noteref_413">413.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammianus Marcellinus, xxvii. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_414" name="note_414" + href="#noteref_414">414.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cyprian, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + lxi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_415" name="note_415" + href="#noteref_415">415.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 306.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_416" name="note_416" + href="#noteref_416">416.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iii. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_417" name="note_417" + href="#noteref_417">417.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“By this time + the Old Testament language and sentiment with regard to idolatry + were completely incorporated with the Christian feeling; and when + Ambrose enforced on a Christian Emperor the sacred duty of + intolerance against opinions and practices which scarcely a century + before had been the established religion of the Empire, his zeal + was supported by almost the unanimous applause of the Christian + world.”</span>—Milman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. + p. 159.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_418" name="note_418" + href="#noteref_418">418.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Theodosian laws of + Paganism.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_419" name="note_419" + href="#noteref_419">419.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears from the whole history of + the controversy; but the prevailing feeling is, I think, expressed + with peculiar vividness in the following passage:—<span class= + "tei tei-q">“Eadmer says (following the words of Bede) in Colman's + times there was a sharp controversy about the observing of Easter, + and other rules of life for churchmen; therefore, this question + deservedly excited the minds and feeling of many people, fearing + lest, perhaps, after having received the name of Christians, they + should run, or had run in vain.”</span>—King's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of the Church + of Ireland</span></span>, book ii. ch. vi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_420" name="note_420" + href="#noteref_420">420.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon, chap. lxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_421" name="note_421" + href="#noteref_421">421.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">An interesting sketch of this very + interesting prelate has lately been written by M. Druon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Étude sur + la Vie et les Œuvres de Synésius</span></span> (Paris, 1859).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_422" name="note_422" + href="#noteref_422">422.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tradition has pronounced Gregory the + Great to have been the destroyer of the Palatine library, and to + have been especially zealous in burning the writings of Livy, + because they described the achievements of the Pagan gods. For + these charges, however (which I am sorry to find repeated by so + eminent a writer as Dr. Draper), there is no real evidence, for + they are not found in any writer earlier than the twelfth century. + (See Bayle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dict.</span></span> art. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Greg.”</span>) The extreme contempt of Gregory for + Pagan literature is, however, sufficiently manifested in his famous + and very curious letter to Desiderius, Bishop of Vienne, rebuking + him for having taught certain persons Pagan literature, and thus + mingled <span class="tei tei-q">“the praises of Jupiter with the + praises of Christ;”</span> doing what would be impious even for a + religious layman, <span class="tei tei-q">“polluting the mind with + the blasphemous praises of the wicked.”</span> Some curious + evidence of the feelings of the Christians of the fourth, fifth, + and sixth centuries, about Pagan literature, is given in Guinguené, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + littéraire de l'Italie</span></span>, tome i. p. 29-31, and some + legends of a later period are candidly related by one of the most + enthusiastic English advocates of the Middle Ages. (Maitland, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dark + Ages</span></span>.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_423" name="note_423" + href="#noteref_423">423.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Probably the best account of the + intellectual history of these times is still to be found in the + admirable introductory chapters with which the Benedictines + prefaced each century of their <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. littéraire de + la France</span></span>. The Benedictines think (with Hallam) that + the eighth century was, on the whole, the darkest on the continent, + though England attained its lowest point somewhat later. Of the + great protectors of learning Theodoric was unable to write (see + Guinguené, tome i. p. 31), and Charlemagne (Eginhard) only began to + learn when advanced in life, and was never quite able to master the + accomplishment. Alfred, however, was distinguished in + literature.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_424" name="note_424" + href="#noteref_424">424.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The belief that the world was just + about to end was, as is well known, very general among the early + Christians, and greatly affected their lives. It appears in the New + Testament, and very clearly in the epistle ascribed to Barnabas in + the first century. The persecutions of the second and third + centuries revived it, and both Tertullian and Cyprian (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">in + Demetrianum</span></span>) strongly assert it. With the triumph of + Christianity the apprehension for a time subsided; but it + reappeared with great force when the dissolution of the Empire was + manifestly impending, when it was accomplished, and in the + prolonged anarchy and suffering that ensued. Gregory of Tours, + writing in the latter part of the sixth century, speaks of it as + very prevalent (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Prologue to the First Book</span></span>); and + St. Gregory the Great, about the same time, constantly expresses + it. The panic that filled Europe at the end of the tenth century + has been often described.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_425" name="note_425" + href="#noteref_425">425.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Maitland's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dark + Ages</span></span>, p. 403.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_426" name="note_426" + href="#noteref_426">426.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This passion for scraping MSS. became + common, according to Montfaucon, after the twelfth century. + (Maitland, p. 40.) According to Hallam, however (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle + Ages</span></span>, ch. ix. part i.), it must have begun earlier, + being chiefly caused by the cessation or great diminution of the + supply of Egyptian papyrus, in consequence of the capture of + Alexandria by the Saracens, early in the seventh century.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_427" name="note_427" + href="#noteref_427">427.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bede, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> + iv. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_428" name="note_428" + href="#noteref_428">428.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mariana, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Rebus + Hispaniæ</span></span>, vi. 7. Mariana says the stone was in his + time preserved as a relic.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_429" name="note_429" + href="#noteref_429">429.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Odericus Vitalis, quoted by Maitland + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dark + Ages</span></span>, pp. 268-269). The monk was restored to life + that he might have an opportunity of reformation. The escape was a + narrow one, for there was only one letter against which no sin + could be adduced—a remarkable instance of the advantages of a + diffuse style.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_430" name="note_430" + href="#noteref_430">430.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Digby, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mores + Catholici</span></span>, book x. p. 246. Matthew of Westminster + tells of a certain king who was very charitable, and whose right + hand (which had assuaged many sorrows) remained undecayed after + death (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 644).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_431" name="note_431" + href="#noteref_431">431.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Hauréau, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la + Philosophie scolastique</span></span>, tome i. pp. 24-25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_432" name="note_432" + href="#noteref_432">432.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the progress of Roman civilisation + in Britain, see Tacitus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Agricola</span></span>, xxi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_433" name="note_433" + href="#noteref_433">433.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the Benedictine <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. littér. de la + France</span></span>, tome i. part ii. p. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_434" name="note_434" + href="#noteref_434">434.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A biographer of St. Thomas Aquinas + modestly observes:—<span class="tei tei-q">“L'opinion généralement + répandue parmi les théologiens c'est que la <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Somme de + Théologie</span></span> de St. Thomas est non-seulement son + chef-d'œuvre mais aussi celui de l'esprit humain.”</span> + (!!)—Carle, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de St.-Thomas d'Aquin</span></span>, p. + 140.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_435" name="note_435" + href="#noteref_435">435.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Viardot, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Arabes en + Espagne</span></span>, ii. 142-166. Prescott's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ferdinand and + Isabella</span></span>, ch. viii. Viardot contends that the + compass—which appears to have been long known in China—was first + introduced into Europe by the Mohammedans; but the evidence of this + appears inconclusive.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_436" name="note_436" + href="#noteref_436">436.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herder.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_437" name="note_437" + href="#noteref_437">437.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Impius ne + audeto placare donis iram Deorum.”</span>—Cicero, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Leg.</span></span> + ii. 9. See, too, Philost. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apoll. Tyan.</span></span> i. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_438" name="note_438" + href="#noteref_438">438.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are three or four instances of + this related by Porphyry, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Abstin. Carnis</span></span>, lib. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_439" name="note_439" + href="#noteref_439">439.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Muratori, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antich. + Italiane</span></span>, diss. lxvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_440" name="note_440" + href="#noteref_440">440.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, on the causes of the wealth of + the monasteries, two admirable dissertations by Muratori, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antich. + Italiane</span></span>, lxvii., lxviii.; Hallam's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle + Ages</span></span>, ch. vii. part i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_441" name="note_441" + href="#noteref_441">441.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Lors de + l'établissement du christianisme la religion avoit essentiellement + consisté dans l'enseignement moral; elle avoit exercé les cœurs et + les âmes par la recherche de ce qui étoit vraiment beau, vraiment + honnête. Au cinquième siècle on l'avoit surtout attachée à + l'orthodoxie, au septième on l'avoit réduite à la bienfaisance + envers les couvens.”</span>—Sismondi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Français</span></span>, tome ii. p. 50.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_442" name="note_442" + href="#noteref_442">442.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mr. Hallam, speaking of the legends of + the miracles of saints, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“It must not + be supposed that these absurdities were produced as well as + nourished by ignorance. In most cases they were the work of + deliberate imposture. Every cathedral or monastery had its tutelar + saint, and every saint his legend, fabricated in order to enrich + the churches under his protection, by exaggerating his virtues, his + miracles, and consequently his power of serving those who paid + liberally for his patronage.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle + Ages</span></span>, ch. ix. part i. I do not think this passage + makes sufficient allowance for the unconscious formation of many + saintly myths, but no impartial person can doubt its substantial + truth.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_443" name="note_443" + href="#noteref_443">443.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sismondi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Français</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 54, 62-63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_444" name="note_444" + href="#noteref_444">444.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 257.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_445" name="note_445" + href="#noteref_445">445.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Durandus, a + French bishop of the thirteenth century, tells how, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“when a certain bishop was consecrating a church + built out of the fruits of usury and pillage, he saw behind the + altar the devil in a pontifical vestment, standing at the + bishop's throne, who said unto the bishop, <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘Cease from consecrating the church; for it + pertaineth to my jurisdiction, since it is built from the fruits + of usuries and robberies.’</span> Then the bishop and the clergy + having fled thence in fear, immediately the devil destroyed that + church with a great noise.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Rationale + Divinorum</span></span>, i. 6 (translated for the Camden + Society).</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">A certain St. + Launomar is said to have refused a gift for his monastery from a + rapacious noble, because he was sure it was derived from pillage. + (Montalembert's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moines d'Occident</span></span>, tome ii. + pp. 350-351.) When prostitutes were converted in the early + Church, it was the rule that the money of which they had become + possessed should never be applied to ecclesiastical purposes, but + should be distributed among the poor.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_446" name="note_446" + href="#noteref_446">446.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verba Seniorum</span></span>, Prol. § + 172.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_447" name="note_447" + href="#noteref_447">447.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This vision is not related by St. + Gregory himself, and some Catholics are perplexed about it, on + account of the vision of another saint, who afterwards asked + whether Trajan was saved, and received for answer, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“I wish men to rest in ignorance of this subject, that + the Catholics may become stronger. For this emperor, though he had + great virtues, was an unbaptised infidel.”</span> The whole subject + of the vision of St. Gregory is discussed by Champagny, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les + Antonins</span></span>, tome i. pp. 372-373. This devout writer + says, <span class="tei tei-q">“Cette légende fut acceptée par tout + le moyen-âge, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">indulgent pour les païens + illustres</span></em> et tout disposé à les supposer chrétiens et + sauvés.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_448" name="note_448" + href="#noteref_448">448.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the solemn asseveration of the + care which he took in going only to the most credible and + authorised sources for his materials, in the Preface to the First + Book of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dialogues</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_449" name="note_449" + href="#noteref_449">449.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> iv. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_450" name="note_450" + href="#noteref_450">450.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 30.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_451" name="note_451" + href="#noteref_451">451.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_452" name="note_452" + href="#noteref_452">452.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The fullest collection of these + visions with which I am acquainted is that made for the + Philobiblion Society (vol. ix.), by M. Delepierre, called + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Enfer + décrit par ceux qui l'ont vu</span></span>, of which I have largely + availed myself. See, too, Rusca <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Inferno</span></span>, Wright's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Purgatory of St. + Patrick</span></span>, and an interesting collection of visions + given by Mr. Longfellow, in his translation of Dante. The Irish + saints were, I am sorry to say, prominent in producing this branch + of literature. St. Fursey, whose vision is one of the earliest, and + Tondale, or Tundale, whose vision is one of the most detailed, were + both Irish. The English historians contain several of these + visions. Bede relates two or three—William of Malmesbury that of + Charles the Fat; Matthew Paris three visions of purgatory.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_453" name="note_453" + href="#noteref_453">453.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The narrow bridge over hell (in some + visions covered with spikes), which is a conspicuous feature in the + Mohammedan pictures of the future world, appears very often in + Catholic visions. See Greg. Tur. iv. 33; St. Greg. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + iv. 36; and the vision of Tundale, in Delepierre.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_454" name="note_454" + href="#noteref_454">454.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Few Englishmen, I imagine, are aware + of the infamous publications written with this object, that are + circulated by the Catholic priests among the poor. I have before me + a tract <span class="tei tei-q">“for children and young + persons,”</span> called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Sight of Hell</span></span>, by the Rev. + J. Furniss, C.S.S.R., published <span class="tei tei-q">“permissu + superiorum,”</span> by Duffy (Dublin and London). It is a detailed + description of the dungeons of hell, and a few sentences may serve + as a sample. <span class="tei tei-q">“See! on the middle of that + red-hot floor stands a girl; she looks about sixteen years old. Her + feet are bare. She has neither shoes nor stockings.... Listen! she + speaks. She says, I have been standing on this red-hot floor for + years. Day and night my only standing-place has been this red-hot + floor.... Look at my burnt and bleeding feet. Let me go off this + burning floor for one moment, only for one single short moment.... + The fourth dungeon is the boiling kettle ... in the middle of it + there is a boy.... His eyes are burning like two burning coals. Two + long flames come out of his ears.... Sometimes he opens his mouth, + and blazing fire rolls out. But listen! there is a sound like a + kettle boiling.... The blood is boiling in the scalded veins of + that boy. The brain is boiling and bubbling in his head. The marrow + is boiling in his bones.... The fifth dungeon is the red-hot + oven.... The little child is in this red-hot oven. Hear how it + screams to come out. See how it turns and twists itself about in + the fire. It beats its head against the roof of the oven. It stamps + its little feet on the floor.... God was very good to this child. + Very likely God saw it would get worse and worse, and would never + repent, and so it would have to be punished much more in hell. So + God in His mercy called it out of the world in its early + childhood.”</span> If the reader desires to follow this subject + further, he may glance over a companion tract by the same reverend + gentleman, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A Terrible Judgment on a Little + Child</span></span>; and also a book on <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hell</span></span>, + translated from the Italian of Pinamonti, and with illustrations + depicting the various tortures.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_455" name="note_455" + href="#noteref_455">455.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Greg. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + iv. 38.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_456" name="note_456" + href="#noteref_456">456.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_457" name="note_457" + href="#noteref_457">457.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Alger's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of the + Doctrine of a Future Life</span></span> (New York, 1866), p. 414. + The ignis fatuus was sometimes supposed to be the soul of an + unbaptised child. There is, I believe, another Catholic legend + about the redbreast, of a very different kind—that its breast was + stained with blood when it was trying to pull out the thorns from + the crown of Christ.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_458" name="note_458" + href="#noteref_458">458.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wright's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Purgatory of St. + Patrick</span></span>, p. 26. M. Delepierre quotes a curious theory + of Father Hardouin (who is chiefly known for his suggestion that + the classics were composed by the mediæval monks) that the rotation + of the earth is caused by the lost souls trying to escape from the + fire that is at the centre of the globe, climbing, in consequence, + on the inner crust of the earth, which is the wall of hell, and + thus making the whole revolve, as the squirrel by climbing turns + its cage! (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Enfer décrit par ceux qui l'ont + vu</span></span>, p. 151.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_459" name="note_459" + href="#noteref_459">459.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Delepierre, p. 70.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_460" name="note_460" + href="#noteref_460">460.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus, in a book which was attributed + (it is said erroneously) to Jeremy Taylor, we find two singularly + unrhetorical and unimpassioned chapters, deliberately enumerating + the most atrocious acts of cruelty in human history, and + maintaining that they are surpassed by the tortures inflicted by + the Deity. A few instances will suffice. Certain persons + <span class="tei tei-q">“put rings of iron, stuck full of sharp + points of needles, about their arms and feet, in such a manner as + the prisoners could not move without wounding themselves; then they + compassed them about with fire, to the end that, standing still, + they might be burnt alive, and if they stirred the sharp points + pierced their flesh.... What, then, shall be the torment of the + damned where they shall burn eternally without dying, and without + possibility of removing?... Alexander, the son of Hyrcanus, caused + eight hundred to be crucified, and whilst they were yet alive + caused their wives and children to be murdered before their eyes, + that so they might not die once, but many deaths. This rigour shall + not be wanting in hell.... Mezentius tied a living body to a dead + until the putrefied exhalations of the dead had killed the + living.... What is this in respect of hell, when each body of the + damned is more loathsome and unsavoury than a million of dead + dogs?... Bonaventure says, if one of the damned were brought into + this world it were sufficient to infect the whole earth.... We are + amazed to think of the inhumanity of Phalaris, who roasted men + alive in his brazen bull. That was a joy in respect of that fire of + hell.... This torment ... comprises as many torments as the body of + man has joints, sinews, arteries, &c., being caused by that + penetrating and real fire, of which this temporal fire is but a + painted fire.... What comparison will there be between burning for + a hundred years' space, and to be burning without interruption as + long as God is God?”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contemplations on the State of + Man</span></span>, book ii. ch. 6-7, in Heber's Edition of the + works of Taylor.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_461" name="note_461" + href="#noteref_461">461.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perrone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historiæ Theologiæ + cum Philosophia comparata Synopsis</span></span>, p. 29. Peter + Lombard's work was published in <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 1160.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_462" name="note_462" + href="#noteref_462">462.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Postremo + quæritur, An pœna reproborum visa decoloret gloriam beatorum? an + eorum beatitudini proficiat? De hoc ita Gregorius ait, Apud animum + justorum non obfuscat beatitudinem aspecta pœna reproborum; quia + ubi jam compassio miseriæ non erit, minuere beatorum lætitiam non + valebit. Et licet justis sua gaudia sufficiant, ad majorem gloriam + vident pœnas malorum quas per gratiam evaserunt.... Egredientur + ergo electi, non loco, sed intelligentia vel visione manifesta ad + videndum impiorum cruciatus; quos videntes non dolore afficientur + sed lætitia satiabuntur, agentes gratias de sua liberatione visa + impiorum ineffabili calamitate. Unde Esaias impiorum tormenta + describens et ex eorum visione lætitiam bonorum exprimens, ait, + Egredientur electi scilicet et videbunt cadavera virorum qui + prævaricati sunt in me. Vermis eorum non morietur et ignis non + extinguetur, et erunt usque ad satietatem visionis omni carni, id + est electis. Lætabitur justus cum viderit vindictam.”</span>—Peter + Lombard, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Senten.</span></span> lib. iv. finis. These + amiable views have often been expressed both by Catholic and by + Puritan divines. See Alger's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Doctrine of a Future Life</span></span>, p. + 541.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_463" name="note_463" + href="#noteref_463">463.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Legenda Aurea.</span></span> There is a + curious fresco representing this transaction, on the portal of the + church of St. Lorenzo, near Rome.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_464" name="note_464" + href="#noteref_464">464.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aimoni, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Gestis Francorum + Hist.</span></span> iv. 34.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_465" name="note_465" + href="#noteref_465">465.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Turpin's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chronicle</span></span>, ch. 32. In the vision + of Watlin, however (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 824), Charlemagne was + seen tortured in purgatory on account of his excessive love of + women. (Delepierre, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">L'Enfer décrit par ceux qui l'ont + vu</span></span>, pp. 27-28.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_466" name="note_466" + href="#noteref_466">466.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As the Abbé Mably observes: + <span class="tei tei-q">“On croyoit en quelque sorte dans ces + siècles grossiers que l'avarice étoit le premier attribut de Dieu, + et que les saints faisoient un commerce de leur crédit et de leur + protection. De-là les richesses immenses données aux églises par + des hommes dont les mœurs déshonoroient la + religion.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Observations sur l'Hist. de + France</span></span>, i. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_467" name="note_467" + href="#noteref_467">467.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many curious examples of the way in + which the Troubadours burlesqued the monkish visions of hell are + given by Delepierre, p. 144.—Wright's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Purgatory of St. + Patrick</span></span>, pp. 47-52.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_468" name="note_468" + href="#noteref_468">468.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Comte, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Philosophie + positive</span></span>, tome v. p. 269.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_469" name="note_469" + href="#noteref_469">469.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Saint-Bernard, dans son sermon <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De obitu + Humberti</span></span>, affirme que tous les tourments de cette vie + sont joies si on les compare à une seconde des peines du + purgatoire. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Imaginez-vous donc, délicates + dames,’</span> dit le père Valladier (1613) dans son sermon du + 3<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">me</span></span> dimanche de l'Avent, + <span class="tei tei-q">‘d'estre au travers de vos chenets, sur + vostre petit feu pour une centaine d'ans: ce n'est rien au respect + d'un moment de purgatoire. Mais si vous vistes jamais tirer + quelqu'un à quatre chevaux, quelqu'un brusler à petit feu, enrager + de faim ou de soif, une heure de purgatoire est pire que tout + cela.’</span> ”</span>—Meray, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Libres Prêcheurs</span></span> (Paris, + 1860), pp. 130-131 (an extremely curious and suggestive book). I + now take up the first contemporary book of popular Catholic + devotion on this subject which is at hand, and read: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Compared with the pains of purgatory, then, all those + wounds and dark prisons, all those wild beasts, hooks of iron, + red-hot plates, &c., which the holy martyrs suffered, are + nothing.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“They (souls in purgatory) + are in a real, though miraculous manner, tortured by fire, which is + of the same kind (says Bellarmine) as our element fire.”</span> + <span class="tei tei-q">“The Angelic Doctor affirms <span class= + "tei tei-q">‘that the fire which torments the damned is like the + fire which purges the elect.’</span> ”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“What agony will not those holy souls suffer when tied + and bound with the most tormenting chains of a living fire like to + that of hell! and we, while able to make them free and happy, shall + we stand like uninterested spectators?”</span> <span class= + "tei tei-q">“St. Austin is of opinion that the pains of a soul in + purgatory during the time required to open and shut one's eye is + more severe than what St. Lawrence suffered on the + gridiron;”</span> and much more to the same effect. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Purgatory opened to + the Piety of the Faithful.</span></span> Richardson, London.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_470" name="note_470" + href="#noteref_470">470.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Delepierre, Wright, and + Alger.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_471" name="note_471" + href="#noteref_471">471.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears from the vision of + Thurcill. (Wright's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Purgatory of St. Patrick</span></span>, p. + 42.) Brompton (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Chronicon</span></span>) tells of an English + landlord who had refused to pay tithes. St. Augustine, having + vainly reasoned with him, at last convinced him by a miracle. + Before celebrating mass he ordered all excommunicated persons to + leave the church, whereupon a corpse got out of a grave and walked + away. The corpse, on being questioned, said it was the body of an + ancient Briton who refused to pay tithes, and had in consequence + been excommunicated and damned.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_472" name="note_472" + href="#noteref_472">472.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + iv. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_473" name="note_473" + href="#noteref_473">473.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">As Sismondi says: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Pendant quatre-vingts ans, tout au moins, il n'y eut + pas un Franc qui songeât à transmettre à la postérité la mémoire + des événements contemporains, et pendant le même espace de temps il + n'y eut pas un personnage puissant qui ne bâtit des temples pour la + postérité la plus reculée.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Français</span></span>, tome ii. p. 46.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_474" name="note_474" + href="#noteref_474">474.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon says of the period during which + the Merovingian dynasty reigned, that <span class="tei tei-q">“it + would be difficult to find anywhere more vice or less + virtue.”</span> Hallam reproduces this observation, and adds: + <span class="tei tei-q">“The facts of these times are of little + other importance than as they impress on the mind a thorough notion + of the extreme wickedness of almost every person concerned in them, + and consequently of the state to which society was + reduced.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of the Middle Ages</span></span>, ch. i. + Dean Milman is equally unfavourable and emphatic in his judgment. + <span class="tei tei-q">“It is difficult to conceive a more dark + and odious state of society than that of France under her + Merovingian kings, the descendants of Clovis, as described by + Gregory of Tours. In the conflict of barbarism with Roman + Christianity, barbarism has introduced into Christianity all its + ferocity with none of its generosity and magnanimity; its energy + shows itself in atrocity of cruelty, and even of sensuality. + Christianity has given to barbarism hardly more than its + superstition and its hatred of heretics and unbelievers. + Throughout, assassinations, parricides, and fratricides intermingle + with adulteries and rapes.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. i. p. 365.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_475" name="note_475" + href="#noteref_475">475.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. iv. 12. Gregory mentions + (v. 41) another bishop who used to become so intoxicated as to be + unable to stand; and St. Boniface, after describing the extreme + sensuality of the clergy of his time, adds that there are some + bishops <span class="tei tei-q">“qui licet dicant se fornicarios + vel adulteros non esse, sed sunt ebriosi et injuriosi,”</span> + &c.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xlix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_476" name="note_476" + href="#noteref_476">476.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. iv. 12.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_477" name="note_477" + href="#noteref_477">477.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 29. She gave them knives + with hollow grooves, filled with poison, in the blades.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_478" name="note_478" + href="#noteref_478">478.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vii. 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_479" name="note_479" + href="#noteref_479">479.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 31-41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_480" name="note_480" + href="#noteref_480">480.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. v. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_481" name="note_481" + href="#noteref_481">481.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his very curious correspondence + with her.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> vi. 5, 50, 59; ix. 11, 117; + xi. 62-63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_482" name="note_482" + href="#noteref_482">482.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Avitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> v. + He adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“Minuebat regni felicitas numerum + regalium personarum.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_483" name="note_483" + href="#noteref_483">483.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the emphatic testimony of St. + Boniface in the eighth century. <span class="tei tei-q">“Modo autem + maxima ex parte per civitates episcopales sedes traditæ sunt laicis + cupidis ad possidendum, vel adulteratis clericis, scortatoribus et + publicanis sæculariter ad perfruendum.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epist.</span></span> + xlix. <span class="tei tei-q">“ad Zachariam.”</span> The whole + epistle contains an appalling picture of the clerical vices of the + times.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_484" name="note_484" + href="#noteref_484">484.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">More than one Council made decrees + about this. See the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vie de St. Léger</span></span>, by Dom Pitra, + pp. 172-177.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_485" name="note_485" + href="#noteref_485">485.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. iv. 43. St. Boniface, at a + much later period (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 742), talks of + bishops <span class="tei tei-q">“Qui pugnant in exercitu armati et + effundunt propria manu sanguinem hominum.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xlix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_486" name="note_486" + href="#noteref_486">486.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. iv. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_487" name="note_487" + href="#noteref_487">487.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 20.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_488" name="note_488" + href="#noteref_488">488.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iii. 26.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_489" name="note_489" + href="#noteref_489">489.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. ix. 34.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_490" name="note_490" + href="#noteref_490">490.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 19. Gregory says this + story should warn clergymen not to meddle with the wives of other + people, but <span class="tei tei-q">“content themselves with those + that they may possess without crime.”</span> The abbot had + previously tried to seduce the husband within the precincts of the + monastery, that he might murder him.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_491" name="note_491" + href="#noteref_491">491.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. v. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_492" name="note_492" + href="#noteref_492">492.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. viii. 39. She was guilty of many + other crimes, which the historian says <span class="tei tei-q">“it + is better to pass in silence.”</span> The bishop himself had been + guilty of outrageous and violent tyranny. The marriage of + ecclesiastics appears at this time to have been common in Gaul, + though the best men commonly deserted their wives when they were + ordained. Another bishop's wife (iv. 36) was notorious for her + tyranny.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_493" name="note_493" + href="#noteref_493">493.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fredigarius, xlii. The historian + describes Clotaire as a perfect paragon of Christian graces.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_494" name="note_494" + href="#noteref_494">494.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Au sixième + siècle on compte 214 établissements religieux des Pyrénées à la + Loire et des bouches du Rhône aux Vosges.”</span>—Ozanam, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + germaniques</span></span>, tome ii. p. 93. In the two following + centuries the ecclesiastical wealth was enormously increased.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_495" name="note_495" + href="#noteref_495">495.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Matthew of Westminster (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 757) speaks of no + less than eight Saxon kings having done this.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_496" name="note_496" + href="#noteref_496">496.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Le septième + siècle est celui peut-être qui a donné le plus de saints au + calendrier.”</span>—Sismondi, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de France</span></span>, tome ii. p. 50. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Le plus beau titre du septième siècle à + une réhabilitation c'est le nombre considérable de saints qu'il a + produits.... Aucun siècle n'a été ainsi glorifié sauf l'âge des + martyrs dont Dieu s'est réservé de compter le nombre. Chaque année + fournit sa moisson, chaque jour a sa gerbe.... Si donc il plaît à + Dieu et au Christ de répandre à pleines mains sur un siècle les + splendeurs des saints, qu'importe que l'histoire et la gloire + humaine en tiennent peu compte?”</span>—Pitra, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de St. + Léger</span></span>, Introd. p. x.-xi. This learned and very + credulous writer (who is now a cardinal) afterwards says that we + have the record of more than eight hundred saints of the seventh + century. (Introd. p. lxxx.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_497" name="note_497" + href="#noteref_497">497.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, e.g., the very touching passage + about the death of his children, v. 35.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_498" name="note_498" + href="#noteref_498">498.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lib. ii. Prologue.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_499" name="note_499" + href="#noteref_499">499.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. ii. 27-43.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_500" name="note_500" + href="#noteref_500">500.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">He observes how impossible it was that + he could be guilty of shedding the blood of a relation: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Sed in his ego nequaquam conscius sum. Nec + enim possum sanguinem parentum meorum effundere.”</span>—Greg. Tur. + ii. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_501" name="note_501" + href="#noteref_501">501.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Prosternebat + enim quotidie Deus hostes ejus sub manu ipsius, et augebat regnum + ejus eo quod ambularet recto corde coram eo, et faceret quæ placita + erant in oculis ejus.”</span>—Greg. Tur. ii. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_502" name="note_502" + href="#noteref_502">502.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lib. iii. Prologue. St. Avitus + enumerates in glowing terms the Christian virtues of Clovis + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xli.), but, as this was in a + letter addressed to the king himself, the eulogy may easily be + explained.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_503" name="note_503" + href="#noteref_503">503.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus Hallam says: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“There are continual proofs of immorality in the + monkish historians. In the history of Rumsey Abbey, one of our best + documents for Anglo-Saxon times, we have an anecdote of a bishop + who made a Danish nobleman drunk, that he might cheat him out of an + estate, which is told with much approbation. Walter de Hemingford + records, with excessive delight, the well-known story of the Jews + who were persuaded by the captain of their vessel to walk on the + sands at low water till the rising tide drowned + them.”</span>—Hallam's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Middle Ages</span></span> (12th ed.), iii. p. + 306.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_504" name="note_504" + href="#noteref_504">504.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Canciani, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leges + Barbarorum</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 64. Canciani notices, that + among the Poles the teeth of the offending persons were pulled out. + The following passage, from Bodin, is, I think, very remarkable: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Les loix et canons veulent qu'on pardonne + aux hérétiques repentis (combien que les magistrats en quelques + lieux par cy-devant, y ont eu tel esgard, que celui qui avoit mangé + de la chair au Vendredy estoit bruslé tout vif, comme il fut faict + en la ville d'Angers l'an mil cinq cens trente-neuf, s'il ne s'en + repentoit: et jaçoit qu'il se repentist si estoit-il pendu par + compassion).”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Démonomanie des Sorciers</span></span>, p. + 216.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_505" name="note_505" + href="#noteref_505">505.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A long list of examples of extreme + maceration, from lives of the saints of the seventh and eighth + centuries is given by Pitra, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vie de St. Léger</span></span>, Introd. pp. + cv.-cvii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_506" name="note_506" + href="#noteref_506">506.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was related of St. + Equitius.—Greg. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dialog.</span></span> i. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_507" name="note_507" + href="#noteref_507">507.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 5. This saint was named + Constantius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_508" name="note_508" + href="#noteref_508">508.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A vast number of miracles of this kind + are recorded. See, e.g., Greg. Tur. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Miraculis</span></span>, i. 61-66; <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + iv. 49. Perhaps the most singular instance of the violation of the + sanctity of the church was that by the nuns of a convent founded by + St. Radegunda. They, having broken into rebellion, four bishops, + with their attendant clergy, went to compose the dispute, and + having failed, excommunicated the rebels, whereupon the nuns almost + beat them to death in the church.—Greg. Tur. ix. 41.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_509" name="note_509" + href="#noteref_509">509.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Canciani, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leges + Barbarorum</span></span>, vol. iii. pp. 19, 151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_510" name="note_510" + href="#noteref_510">510.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Much information about these measures + is given by Dr. Hessey, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bampton Lectures on + Sunday</span></span>. See especially, lect. 3. See, too, Moehler, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Le + Christianisme et l'Esclavage</span></span>, pp. 186-187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_511" name="note_511" + href="#noteref_511">511.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gregory of Tours enumerates some + instances of this in his extravagant book <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Miraculis</span></span>, ii. 11; iv. 57; v. 7. One of these cases, + however, was for having worked on the day of St. John the Baptist. + Some other miracles of the same nature, taken, I believe, from + English sources, are given in Hessey's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sunday</span></span> + (3rd edition), p. 321.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_512" name="note_512" + href="#noteref_512">512.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare Pitra, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vie de + St.-Léger</span></span>, p. 137. Sismondi, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Français</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 62-63.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_513" name="note_513" + href="#noteref_513">513.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See a remarkable passage from his + life, cited by Guizot, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Civilisation en + France</span></span>, xvii<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">me</span></span> leçon. The English + historians contain several instances of the activity of charity in + the darkest period. Alfred and Edward the Confessor were + conspicuous for it. Ethelwolf is said to have provided, + <span class="tei tei-q">“for the good of his soul,”</span> that, + till the day of judgment, one poor man in ten should be provided + with meat, drink, and clothing. (Asser's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Alfred</span></span>.) There was a popular legend that a poor man + having in vain asked alms of some sailors, all the bread in their + vessel was turned into stone. (Roger of Wendover, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 606.) See, too, + another legend of charity in Matthew of Westminster, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 611.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_514" name="note_514" + href="#noteref_514">514.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> + v. 8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_515" name="note_515" + href="#noteref_515">515.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. Guizot has given several specimens + of this (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Civilis.</span></span> + xvii<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">me</span></span> leçon).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_516" name="note_516" + href="#noteref_516">516.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This portion of mediæval history has + lately been well traced by Mr. Maclear, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Christian + Missions in the Middle Ages</span></span> (1863). See, too, + Montalembert's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Moines d'Occident</span></span>; Ozanam's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + germaniques</span></span>. The original materials are to be found + in Bede, and in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lives of the Saints</span></span>—especially + that of St. Columba, by Adamnan. On the French missionaries, see + the Benedictine <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. lit. de la France</span></span>, tome + iv. p. 5; and on the English missionaries, Sharon Turner's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + England</span></span>, book x. ch. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_517" name="note_517" + href="#noteref_517">517.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dion Chrysostom, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Or.</span></span> ii. + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Regno</span></span>).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_518" name="note_518" + href="#noteref_518">518.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gibbon, ch. xvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_519" name="note_519" + href="#noteref_519">519.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Origen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cels.</span></span> + lib. viii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_520" name="note_520" + href="#noteref_520">520.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Navigamus et + nos vobiscum et militamus.”</span>—Tert. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + xlii. See, too, Grotius <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Jure</span></span>, i. cap. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_521" name="note_521" + href="#noteref_521">521.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See an admirable dissertation on the + opinions of the early Christians about military service, in Le + Blant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inscriptions chrétiennes de la + Gaule</span></span>, tome i. pp. 81-87. The subject is frequently + referred to by Barbeyrac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Morale des Pères</span></span>, and Grotius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Jure</span></span>, lib. i. cap. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_522" name="note_522" + href="#noteref_522">522.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philostorgius, ii. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_523" name="note_523" + href="#noteref_523">523.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See some excellent remarks on this + change, in Milman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of Christianity</span></span>, vol. + ii. pp. 287-288.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_524" name="note_524" + href="#noteref_524">524.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mably, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Observations sur + l'Histoire de France</span></span>, i. 6; Hallam's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Middle + Ages</span></span>, ch. ii. part ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_525" name="note_525" + href="#noteref_525">525.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Wakeman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Archæologia + Hibernica</span></span>, p. 21. However, Giraldus Cambrensis + observes that the Irish saints were peculiarly vindictive, and St. + Columba and St. Comgall are said to have been leaders in a + sanguinary conflict about a church near Coleraine. See Reeve's + edition of Adamnan's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of St. Columba</span></span>, pp. lxxvii. + 253.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_526" name="note_526" + href="#noteref_526">526.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Campion's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Historie of + Ireland</span></span> (1571), book i. ch. vi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_527" name="note_527" + href="#noteref_527">527.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">It seems curious to find in so calm + and unfanatical a writer as Justus Lipsius the following passage: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Jam et invasio quædam legitima videtur + etiam sine injuria, ut in barbaros et moribus aut <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">religione</span></em> prorsum a nobis + abhorrentes.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Politicorum sive Civilis Doctrinæ + libri</span></span> (Paris, 1594), lib. iv. ch. ii. cap. iv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_528" name="note_528" + href="#noteref_528">528.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Con + l'occasione di queste cose Plutarco nel <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Teseo</span></span> + dice che gli eroi si recavano a grande onore e si reputavano in + pregio d'armi con l'esser chiamati ladroni; siccome a' tempi + barbari ritornati quello di Corsale era titolo riputato di + signoria; d'intorno a' quali tempi venuto Solone, si dice aver + permesso nelle sue leggi le società per cagion di prede; tanto + Solone ben intese questa nostra compiuta Umanità, nella quale + costoro non godono del diritto natural delle genti! Ma quel che fa + più maraviglia è che Platone ed Aristotile posero il ladroneccio + fralle spezie della caccia e con tali e tanti filosofi d'una gente + umanissima convengono con la loro barbarie i Germani antichi; appo + i quali al referire di Cesare ì ladronecci non solo non eran + infami, ma si tenevano tra gli esercizi della virtù siccome tra + quelli che per costume non applicando ad arte alcuna così fuggivano + l'ozio.”</span>—Vico, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Scienza Nuova</span></span>, ii. 6. See, too, + Whewell's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Elements of Morality</span></span>, book vi. + ch. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_529" name="note_529" + href="#noteref_529">529.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ancient right of war is fully + discussed by Grotius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Jure</span></span>, lib. iii. See, + especially, the horrible catalogue of tragedies in cap. 4. The + military feeling that regards capture as disgraceful, had probably + some, though only a very subordinate, influence in producing + cruelty to the prisoners.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_530" name="note_530" + href="#noteref_530">530.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Le jour où + Athènes décréta que tous les Mityléniens, sans distinction de sexe + ni d'âge, seraient exterminés, elle ne croyait pas dépasser son + droit; quand le lendemain elle revint sur son décret et se contenta + de mettre à mort mille citoyens et de confisquer toutes les terres, + elle se crut humaine et indulgente. Après la prise de Platée les + hommes furent égorgés, les femmes vendues, et personne n'accusa les + vainqueurs d'avoir violé le droit.... C'est en vertu de ce droit de + la guerre que Rome a étendu la solitude autour d'elle; du + territoire où les Volsques avaient vingt-trois cités elle a fait + les marais pontins; les cinquante-trois villes du Latium ont + disparu; dans le Samnium on put longtemps reconnaître les lieux où + les armées romaines avaient passé, moins aux vestiges de leurs + camps qu'à la solitude qui règnait aux environs.”</span>—Fustel de + Coulanges, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Cité antique</span></span>, pp. + 263-264.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_531" name="note_531" + href="#noteref_531">531.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plato, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Republic</span></span>, lib. v.; Bodin, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">République</span></span>, liv. i. cap. 5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_532" name="note_532" + href="#noteref_532">532.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grote, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Greece</span></span>, vol. viii. p. 224. Agesilaus was also very + humane to captives.—Ibid. pp. 365-6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_533" name="note_533" + href="#noteref_533">533.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears continually in Livy, but + most of all, I think, in the Gaulish historian, Florus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_534" name="note_534" + href="#noteref_534">534.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Scipio and Trajan.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_535" name="note_535" + href="#noteref_535">535.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See some very remarkable passages in + Grotius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Jure Bell</span></span>. lib. iii. cap. 4, + § 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_536" name="note_536" + href="#noteref_536">536.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These mitigations are fully enumerated + by Ayala, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Jure et Officiis Bellicis</span></span> + (Antwerp, 1597), Grotius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Jure</span></span>. It is remarkable that + both Ayala and Grotius base their attempts to mitigate the severity + of war chiefly upon the writings and examples of the Pagans. The + limits of the right of conquerors and the just causes of war are + discussed by Cicero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Offic.</span></span> lib. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_537" name="note_537" + href="#noteref_537">537.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In England the change seems to have + immediately followed conversion. <span class="tei tei-q">“The + evangelical precepts of peace and love,”</span> says a very learned + historian, <span class="tei tei-q">“did not put an end to war, they + did not put an end to aggressive conquests, but they distinctly + humanised the way in which war was carried on. From this time forth + the never-ending wars with the Welsh cease to be wars of + extermination. The heathen English had been satisfied with nothing + short of the destruction and expulsion of their enemies; the + Christian English thought it enough to reduce them to political + subjection.... The Christian Welsh could now sit down as subjects + of the Christian Saxon. The Welshman was acknowledged as a man and + a citizen, and was put under the protection of the + law.”</span>—Freeman's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of the Norman Conquest</span></span>, + vol. i. pp. 33-34. Christians who assisted infidels in wars were + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ipso + facto</span></span> excommunicated, and might therefore be + enslaved, but all others were free from slavery. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Et quidem inter Christianos laudabili et antiqua + consuetudine introductum est, ut capti hinc inde, utcunque justo + bello, non fierent servi, sed liberi servarentur donec solvant + precium redemptionis.”</span>—Ayala, lib. i. cap. 5. <span class= + "tei tei-q">“This rule, at least,”</span> says Grotius, + <span class="tei tei-q">“(though but a small matter) the reverence + for the Christian law has enforced, which Socrates vainly sought to + have established among the Greeks.”</span> The Mohammedans also + made it a rule not to enslave their co-religionists.—Grotius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Jure</span></span>, iii. 7, § 9. Pagan and barbarian prisoners + were, however, sold as slaves (especially by the Spaniards) till + very recently.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_538" name="note_538" + href="#noteref_538">538.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The character of Constantine, and the + estimate of it in Eusebius, are well treated by Dean Stanley, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures + on the Eastern Church</span></span> (Lect. vi.).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_539" name="note_539" + href="#noteref_539">539.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret, iii. 28.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_540" name="note_540" + href="#noteref_540">540.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">They are collected by Chateaubriand, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + hist.</span></span> 2<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "vertical-align: super">me</span></span> disc. 2<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">me</span></span> + partie.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_541" name="note_541" + href="#noteref_541">541.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See St. Gregory's oration on + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cesarius</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_542" name="note_542" + href="#noteref_542">542.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sozomen, vi. 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_543" name="note_543" + href="#noteref_543">543.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xiii. 31-39. In the second + of these letters (which is addressed to Leontia), he says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Rogare forsitan debui ut ecclesiam beati + Petri apostoli quæ nunc usque gravibus insidiis laboravit, haberet + Vestra Tranquillitas specialiter commendatam. Sed qui scio quia + omnipotentem Deum diligitis, non debeo petere quod sponte ex + benignitate vestræ pietatis exhibetis.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_544" name="note_544" + href="#noteref_544">544.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the graphic description in Gibbon, + ch. liii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_545" name="note_545" + href="#noteref_545">545.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Baronius.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_546" name="note_546" + href="#noteref_546">546.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mably, ii. 1; Gibbon, ch. xlix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_547" name="note_547" + href="#noteref_547">547.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There are some good remarks upon the + way in which, among the free Franks, the bishops taught the duty of + passive obedience, in Mably, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Obs. sur l'Histoire de France</span></span>, + livre i. ch. iii. Gregory of Tours, in his address to Chilperic, + had said: <span class="tei tei-q">“If any of us, O king, transgress + the boundaries of justice, thou art at hand to correct us; but if + thou shouldest exceed them, who is to condemn thee? We address + thee, and if it please thee thou listenest to us; but if it please + thee not, who is to condemn thee save He who has proclaimed Himself + Justice.”</span>—Greg. Tur. v. 19. On the other hand, Hincmar, + Archbishop of Rheims, strongly asserted the obligation of kings to + observe the law, and denounced as diabolical the doctrine that they + are subject to none but God. (Allen, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On the Royal + Prerogative</span></span> (1849), pp. 171-172.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_548" name="note_548" + href="#noteref_548">548.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The exact degree of the authority of + the barbarian kings, and the different stages by which their power + was increased, are matters of great controversy. The reader may + consult Thierry's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lettres sur l'Hist. de France</span></span> + (let. 9); Guizot's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de la Civilisation</span></span>; Mably, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Observ. + sur l'Hist. de France</span></span>; Freeman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of the Norman + Conquest</span></span>, vol. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_549" name="note_549" + href="#noteref_549">549.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fauriel, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. de la Poésie + provençale</span></span>, tome ii. p. 252.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_550" name="note_550" + href="#noteref_550">550.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid, p. 258.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_551" name="note_551" + href="#noteref_551">551.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Le Grand D'Aussy, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Fabliaux</span></span>, préf. p. xxiv. These + romances were accounts of his expeditions to Spain, to Languedoc, + and to Palestine.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_552" name="note_552" + href="#noteref_552">552.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ἕδνα of the Greeks.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_553" name="note_553" + href="#noteref_553">553.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Legouvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Histoire morale des + Femmes</span></span>, pp. 95-96.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_554" name="note_554" + href="#noteref_554">554.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gen. xxix., xxxiv. 12; Deut. xxii. 29; + 1 Sam. xviii. 25.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_555" name="note_555" + href="#noteref_555">555.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The history of dowries is briefly + noticed by Grote, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of Greece</span></span>, vol. ii. pp. + 112-113; and more fully by Lord Kames, in the admirable chapter + <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Progress of the Female Sex,”</span> + in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sketches of the History of Man</span></span>, + a book less read than it deserves to be. M. Legouvé has also + devoted a chapter to it in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. morale des + Femmes</span></span>. See, too, Legendre, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Traité de + l'Opinion</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 329-330. We find traces of + the dowry, as well as of the ἕδνα, in Homer. Penelope had received + a dowry from Icarus, her father. M. Michelet, in one of those + fanciful books which he has recently published, maintains a view of + the object of the ἕδνα which I do not remember to have seen + elsewhere, and which I do not believe. He says: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ce prix n'est point un achat de la femme, mais une + indemnité qui dédommage la famille du père pour les enfants futurs, + qui ne profiteront pas à cette famille mais à celle où la femme va + entrer.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Femme</span></span>, p. 166.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_556" name="note_556" + href="#noteref_556">556.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In Rome, when the separation was due + to the misconduct of the wife, the dowry belonged to her + husband.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_557" name="note_557" + href="#noteref_557">557.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Dotem non + uxor marito sed uxori maritus offert.”</span>—Tac. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Germ.</span></span> + xviii. On the Morgengab, see Canciani, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Leges + Barbarorum</span></span> (Venetiis, 1781), vol. i. pp. 102-104; ii. + pp. 230-231. Muratori, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antich. Ital.</span></span> diss. xx. + Luitprand enacted that no Longobard should give more than + one-fourth of his substance as a Morgengab. In Gregory of Tours + (ix. 20) we have an example of the gift of some cities as a + Morgengab.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_558" name="note_558" + href="#noteref_558">558.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, on this point, Aul. Gellius, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noct. + Att.</span></span> xv. 20. Euripides is said to have had two + wives.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_559" name="note_559" + href="#noteref_559">559.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristotle said that Homer never gives + a concubine to Menelaus, in order to intimate his respect for + Helen—though false. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Athenæus</span></span>, xiii. 3.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_560" name="note_560" + href="#noteref_560">560.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Æschylus has put this curious notion + into the mouth of Apollo, in a speech in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Eumenides</span></span>. It has, however, been + very widely diffused, and may be found in Indian, Greek, Roman, and + even Christian writers. M. Legouvé, who has devoted a very curious + chapter to the subject, quotes a passage from St. Thomas Aquinas, + accepting it, and arguing from it, that a father should be more + loved than a mother. M. Legouvé says that when the male of one + animal and the female of another are crossed, the type of the + female usually predominates in the offspring. See Legouvé, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + morale des Femmes</span></span>, pp. 216-228; Fustel de Coulanges, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Cité + antique</span></span>, pp. 39-40; and also a curious note by + Boswell, in Croker's edition of Boswell's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Johnson</span></span> (1847), p. 472.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_561" name="note_561" + href="#noteref_561">561.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Vintras, in a remarkable pamphlet + (London, 1867) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">On the Repression of + Prostitution</span></span>, shows from the police statistics that + the number of prostitutes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">known to the police</span></em> in England and + Wales, in 1864, was 49,370; and this is certainly much below the + entire number. These, it will be observed, comprise only the + habitual, professional prostitutes.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_562" name="note_562" + href="#noteref_562">562.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some measures have recently been taken + in a few garrison towns. The moral sentiment of the community, it + appears, would be shocked if Liverpool were treated on the same + principles as Portsmouth. This very painful and revolting, but most + important, subject has been treated with great knowledge, + impartiality, and ability, by Parent-Duchâtelet, in his famous + work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La + Prostitution dans la ville de Paris</span></span>. The third + edition contains very copious supplementary accounts, furnished by + different doctors in different countries.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_563" name="note_563" + href="#noteref_563">563.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Parent-Duchâtelet has given many + statistics, showing the very large extent to which the French + system of supervision deters those who were about to enter into + prostitution, and reclaims those who had entered into it. He and + Dr. Vintras concur in representing English prostitution as about + the most degraded, and at the same time the most irrevocable.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_564" name="note_564" + href="#noteref_564">564.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Miss Mulock, in her amiable but rather + feeble book, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A Woman's Thoughts about Women</span></span>, + has some good remarks on this point (pp. 291-293), which are all + the more valuable, as the authoress has not the faintest sympathy + with any opinions concerning the character and position of women + which are not strictly conventional. She notices the experience of + Sunday school mistresses, that, of their pupils who are seduced, an + extremely large proportion are <span class="tei tei-q">“of the very + best, refined, intelligent, truthful, and + affectionate.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_565" name="note_565" + href="#noteref_565">565.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the very singular and painful + chapter in Parent-Duchâtelet, called <span class="tei tei-q">“Mœurs + et Habitudes des Prostituées.”</span> He observes that they are + remarkable for their kindness to one another in sickness or in + distress; that they are not unfrequently charitable to poor people + who do not belong to their class; that when one of them has a + child, it becomes the object of very general interest and + affection; that most of them have lovers, to whom they are + sincerely attached; that they rarely fail to show in the hospitals + a very real sense of shame; and that many of them entered into + their mode of life for the purpose of supporting aged parents. One + anecdote is worth giving in the words of the author: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Un médecin n'entrant jamais dans leurs salles sans + ôter légèrement son chapeau, par cette seule politesse il sut + tellement conquérir leur confiance qu'il leur faisait faire tout ce + qu'il voulait.”</span> This writer, I may observe, is not a romance + writer or a theorist of any description. He is simply a physician + who describes the results of a very large official experience.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_566" name="note_566" + href="#noteref_566">566.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Parent-Duchâtelet atteste que sur trois mille + créatures perdues trente cinq seulement avaient un état qui pouvait + les nourrir, et que quatorze cents avaient été précipitées dans + cette horrible vie par la misère. Une d'elles, quand elle s'y + résolut, n'avait pas mangé depuis trois jours.”</span>—Legouvé, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + morale des Femmes</span></span>, pp. 322-323.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_567" name="note_567" + href="#noteref_567">567.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Concerning the position and character + of Greek women, the reader may obtain ample information by + consulting Becker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Charicles</span></span> (translated by + Metcalfe, 1845); Rainneville, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">La Femme dans l'Antiquité</span></span> + (Paris, 1865); and an article <span class="tei tei-q">“On Female + Society in Greece,”</span> in the twenty-second volume of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Quarterly + Review</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_568" name="note_568" + href="#noteref_568">568.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conj. + Præc.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_569" name="note_569" + href="#noteref_569">569.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xenophon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Econ.</span></span> + ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_570" name="note_570" + href="#noteref_570">570.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plut. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conj. + Præc.</span></span> There is also an extremely beautiful picture of + the character of a good wife in Aristotle. (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Economics</span></span>, book i. cap. + vii.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_571" name="note_571" + href="#noteref_571">571.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Alexander's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of + Women</span></span> (London, 1783), vol. i. p. 201.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_572" name="note_572" + href="#noteref_572">572.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Phocion</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_573" name="note_573" + href="#noteref_573">573.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Our information concerning the Greek + courtesans is chiefly derived from the thirteenth book of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Deipnosophists</span></span> of Athenæus, from + the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Letters</span></span> of Alciphron, from the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dialogues</span></span> of Lucian on + courtesans, and from the oration of Demosthenes against Neæra. See, + too, Xenophon, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memorabilia</span></span>, iii. 11; and among + modern books, Becker's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Charicles</span></span>. Athenæus was an + Egyptian, whose exact date is unknown but who appears to have + survived Ulpian, who died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 228. He had access + to, and gave extracts from, many works on this subject, which have + now perished. Alciphron is believed to have lived near the time of + Lucian.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_574" name="note_574" + href="#noteref_574">574.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to some writers the word + <span class="tei tei-q">“venerari”</span> comes from <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Venerem exercere,”</span> on account of the devotions + in the temple of Venus. See Vossius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Etymologicon Linguæ + Latinæ</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“veneror;”</span> + also La Mothe le Vayer, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Lettre</span></span> xc.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_575" name="note_575" + href="#noteref_575">575.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the connection of the courtesans + with the artistic enthusiasm, see Raoul Rochette, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cours + d'Archéologie</span></span>, pp. 278-279. See, too, Athenæus, xiii. + 59; Pliny, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Nat.</span></span> xxxv. 40.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_576" name="note_576" + href="#noteref_576">576.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the very curious little work of + Ménage, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Historia Mulierum Philosopharum</span></span> + (Lugduni, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">mdxc.</span></span>); also Rainneville, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">La Femme + dans l'Antiquite</span></span>, p. 244. At a much later date Lucian + described the beauty, accomplishments, generosity, and even + modesty, of Panthea of Smyrna, the favourite mistress of Lucius + Verus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_577" name="note_577" + href="#noteref_577">577.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The ζῶμα, which was at first in use, + was discarded by the Lacedæmonians, and afterwards by the other + Greeks. There are three curious memoirs tracing the history of the + change, by M. Burette, in the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. de l'Académie royale des + Inscriptions</span></span>, tome i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_578" name="note_578" + href="#noteref_578">578.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the causes of paiderastia in + Greece, see the remarks of Mr. Grote in the review of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Symposium</span></span>, in his great work on + Plato. The whole subject is very ably treated by M. Maury, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Religions de la Gréce antique</span></span>, tome iii. pp. 35-39. + Many facts connected with it are collected by Döllinger, in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Jew and + Gentile</span></span>, and by Chateaubriand, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Études + historiques</span></span>. The chief original authority is the + thirteenth book of Athenæus, a book of very painful interest in the + history of morals.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_579" name="note_579" + href="#noteref_579">579.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life of + Agesilaus</span></span>, dwells on the intense self-control + manifested by that great man, in refraining from gratifying a + passion he had conceived for a boy named Megabetes, and Maximus + Tyrius says it deserved greater praise than the heroism of + Leonidas. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Diss.</span></span> xxv.) Diogenes Laërtius, + in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Life of Zeno</span></span>, the founder of + Stoicism, the most austere of all ancient sects, praises that + philosopher for being but little addicted to this vice. Sophocles + is said to have been much addicted to it.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_580" name="note_580" + href="#noteref_580">580.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some examples of the ascription of + this vice to the divinities are given by Clem. Alex. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Admonitio ad + Gentes</span></span>. Socrates is said to have maintained that + Jupiter loved Ganymede for his wisdom, as his name is derived from + γάνυμαι and μῆδος, to be delighted with prudence. (Xenophon, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Banquet</span></span>.) The disaster of Cannæ + was ascribed to the jealousy of Juno because a beautiful boy was + introduced into the temple of Jupiter. (Lactantius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Inst. + Div.</span></span> ii. 17.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_581" name="note_581" + href="#noteref_581">581.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Athenæus, xiii. 78. See, too, the very + revolting book on different kinds of love, ascribed (it is said + falsely) to Lucian.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_582" name="note_582" + href="#noteref_582">582.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxxiv. 9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_583" name="note_583" + href="#noteref_583">583.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is ample evidence of this in + Athenæus, and in the Dialogues of Lucian on the courtesans. See, + too, Terence, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">The Eunuch</span></span>, act v. scene 4, + which is copied from the Greek. The majority of the class were not + called hetæræ, but πόρναι.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_584" name="note_584" + href="#noteref_584">584.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Garrulitate</span></span>; Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxxiv. 19. The feat of biting out their tongues + rather than reveal secrets, or yield to passion, is ascribed to a + suspiciously large number of persons. Ménage cites five besides + Leæna. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Mulier. Philos.</span></span> pp. + 104-108.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_585" name="note_585" + href="#noteref_585">585.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, upon Bacchis, several of the + letters of Alciphron, especially the very touching letter (x.) on + her death, describing her kindness and disinterestedness. Athenæus + (xiii. 66) relates a curious anecdote illustrating these aspects of + her character.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_586" name="note_586" + href="#noteref_586">586.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Xenophon, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Memorab.</span></span> iii. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_587" name="note_587" + href="#noteref_587">587.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the Flamens, see Aulus Gell. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Noct.</span></span> x. 15.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_588" name="note_588" + href="#noteref_588">588.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capitolinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Maximinus + Junior</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_589" name="note_589" + href="#noteref_589">589.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> vii. 36. There is (as is well known) a similar + legend of a daughter thus feeding her father. Val. Max. Lib. v. + cap. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_590" name="note_590" + href="#noteref_590">590.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This appears from the first act of the + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Stichus</span></span> of Plautus. The power + appears to have become quite obsolete during the Empire but the + first legal act (which was rather of the nature of an exhortation + than of a command) against it was issued by Antoninus Pius, and it + was only definitely abolished under Diocletian. (Laboulaye, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Recherches sur la condition civile et + politique des femmes</span></span>, pp. 16-17.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_591" name="note_591" + href="#noteref_591">591.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aul. Gell. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noct.</span></span> + x. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_592" name="note_592" + href="#noteref_592">592.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Val. Maximus, ii. 1, § 4; Aul. + Gellius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Noct.</span></span> iv. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_593" name="note_593" + href="#noteref_593">593.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ammianus Marcellinus, xxviii. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_594" name="note_594" + href="#noteref_594">594.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Oratoribus</span></span>, xxviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_595" name="note_595" + href="#noteref_595">595.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Aulus Gellius, Noct. ii. 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_596" name="note_596" + href="#noteref_596">596.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“More inter + veteres recepto, qui satis pœnarum adversum impudicas in ipsa + professione flagitii credebant.”</span>—Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + ii. 85.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_597" name="note_597" + href="#noteref_597">597.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aul. Gell. iv. 3. Juno was the goddess + of marriage.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_598" name="note_598" + href="#noteref_598">598.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iv. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_599" name="note_599" + href="#noteref_599">599.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The well-known superstition about the + lion, &c., becoming docile before a virgin is, I believe, as + old as Roman times. St. Isidore mentions that rhinoceroses were + said to be captured by young girls being put in their way to + fascinate them. (Legendre, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Traité de l'Opinion</span></span>, tome ii. p. + 35.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_600" name="note_600" + href="#noteref_600">600.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxviii. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_601" name="note_601" + href="#noteref_601">601.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. vii. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_602" name="note_602" + href="#noteref_602">602.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quem enim + Romanorum pudet uxorem ducere in convivium? aut cujus materfamilias + non primum locum tenet ædium, atque in celebritate versatur? quod + multo fit aliter in Græcia. Nam neque in convivium adhibetur, nisi + propinquorum, neque sedet nisi in interiore parte ædium quæ + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">gynæcontis</span></em> appellatur, quo nemo + accedit, nisi propinqua cognatione conjunctus.”</span>—Corn. Nepos. + præfat.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_603" name="note_603" + href="#noteref_603">603.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Val. Max. ii. 1, § 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_604" name="note_604" + href="#noteref_604">604.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Liv. viii. 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_605" name="note_605" + href="#noteref_605">605.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Val. Max. ii. 1.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_606" name="note_606" + href="#noteref_606">606.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Nuptiæ sunt + conjunctio maris et feminæ, et consortium omnis vitæ, divini et + humani juris communicatio.”</span>—Modestinus.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_607" name="note_607" + href="#noteref_607">607.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Livy, xxxiv. 5. There is a fine + collection of legends or histories of heroic women (but chiefly + Greek) in Clem. Alexand. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> iv. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_608" name="note_608" + href="#noteref_608">608.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + ii. 85. This decree was on account of a patrician lady named + Vistilia having so enrolled herself.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_609" name="note_609" + href="#noteref_609">609.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dion Cassius, liv. 16, lvi. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_610" name="note_610" + href="#noteref_610">610.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Si sine uxore + possemus, Quirites, esse, omnes ea molestia careremus; sed quoniam + ita natura tradidit, ut nec cum illis satis commode nec sine illis + ullo modo vivi possit, saluti perpetuæ potius quam brevi voluptati + consulendum.”</span>—Aulus Gellius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Noct.</span></span> + i. 6. Some of the audience, we are told, thought that, in exhorting + to matrimony, the speaker should have concealed its undoubted + evils. It was decided, however, that it was more honourable to tell + the whole truth. Stobæus (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sententiæ</span></span>) has preserved a + number of harsh and often heartless sayings about wives, that were + popular among the Greeks. It was a saying of a Greek poet, that + <span class="tei tei-q">“marriage brings only two happy days—the + day when the husband first clasps his wife to his breast, and the + day when he lays her in the tomb;”</span> and in Rome it became a + proverbial saying, that a wife was only good <span class= + "tei tei-q">“in thalamo vel in tumulo.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_611" name="note_611" + href="#noteref_611">611.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Friedländer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Mœurs + romaines</span></span>, tome i. pp. 360-364. On the great influence + exercised by Roman ladies on political affairs some remarkable + passages are collected in Denis, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Idées + Morales</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 98-99. This author is + particularly valuable in all that relates to the history of + domestic morals. The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Asinaria</span></span> of Plautus, and some of + the epigrams of Martial, throw much light upon this subject.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_612" name="note_612" + href="#noteref_612">612.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the very remarkable discussion + about this repeal in Livy, lib. xxxiv. cap. 1-8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_613" name="note_613" + href="#noteref_613">613.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Legouvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Morale des + Femmes</span></span>, pp. 23-26. St. Augustine denounced this law + as the most unjust that could be mentioned or even conceived. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Qua lege quid iniquius dici aut cogitari + possit, ignoro.”</span>—St. Aug. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Civ. + Dei</span></span>, iii. 21—a curious illustration of the difference + between the habits of thought of his time and those of the middle + ages, when daughters were habitually sacrificed, without a protest, + by the feudal laws.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_614" name="note_614" + href="#noteref_614">614.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cicero</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_615" name="note_615" + href="#noteref_615">615.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span> i. + 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_616" name="note_616" + href="#noteref_616">616.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Cato</span></span>; + Lucan, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pharsal</span></span>. ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_617" name="note_617" + href="#noteref_617">617.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Senec. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxiv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_618" name="note_618" + href="#noteref_618">618.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Val. Max. vi. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_619" name="note_619" + href="#noteref_619">619.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Paul. + Æmil.</span></span> It is not quite clear whether this remark was + made by Paulus himself.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_620" name="note_620" + href="#noteref_620">620.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sen. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Benef.</span></span> iii. 16. See, too, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xcv. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Helv.</span></span> xvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_621" name="note_621" + href="#noteref_621">621.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_622" name="note_622" + href="#noteref_622">622.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Epig.</span></span> vi. 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_623" name="note_623" + href="#noteref_623">623.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Juv. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> + vi. 230.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_624" name="note_624" + href="#noteref_624">624.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_625" name="note_625" + href="#noteref_625">625.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sueton. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aug.</span></span> + Charlemagne, in like manner, made his daughters work in wool. + (Eginhardus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. Car. Mag.</span></span> xix.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_626" name="note_626" + href="#noteref_626">626.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Friedländer, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mœurs romaines du + règne d'Auguste à la fin des Antonins</span></span> (trad. franç.), + tome i. p. 414.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_627" name="note_627" + href="#noteref_627">627.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Much evidence of this is collected by + Friedländer, tome i. pp. 387-395.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_628" name="note_628" + href="#noteref_628">628.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pompeius</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_629" name="note_629" + href="#noteref_629">629.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Martial, xi. 16. Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> i. + 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_630" name="note_630" + href="#noteref_630">630.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suet. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Tiberius</span></span>, xlv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_631" name="note_631" + href="#noteref_631">631.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Brutus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_632" name="note_632" + href="#noteref_632">632.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + xv. 63, 64.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_633" name="note_633" + href="#noteref_633">633.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Pæte, non + dolet.”</span>—Plin. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> iii. 16; Martial, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> i. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_634" name="note_634" + href="#noteref_634">634.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Annal.</span></span> + xvi. 10-11; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> i. 3. See, too, + Friedländer, tome i. p. 406.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_635" name="note_635" + href="#noteref_635">635.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ann.</span></span> + xvi. 34.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_636" name="note_636" + href="#noteref_636">636.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny mentions her return after the + death of the tyrant (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> iii. 11).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_637" name="note_637" + href="#noteref_637">637.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quod paucis + datum est, non minus amabilis quam veneranda.”</span>—Plin. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> vii. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_638" name="note_638" + href="#noteref_638">638.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Plin. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + vii. 19. Dion Cassius and Tacitus relate the exiles of Helvidius, + who appears to have been rather intemperate and unreasonable.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_639" name="note_639" + href="#noteref_639">639.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Friedländer gives many and most + touching examples, tome i. pp. 410-414.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_640" name="note_640" + href="#noteref_640">640.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suet. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dom.</span></span> + viii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_641" name="note_641" + href="#noteref_641">641.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capitolinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Macrinus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_642" name="note_642" + href="#noteref_642">642.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lampridius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">A. + Severus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_643" name="note_643" + href="#noteref_643">643.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the oration against Neæra, which is + ascribed to Demosthenes, but is of doubtful genuineness, the + licence accorded to husbands is spoken of as a matter of course: + <span class="tei tei-q">“We keep mistresses for our pleasures, + concubines for constant attendance, and wives to bear us legitimate + children, and to be our faithful housekeepers.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_644" name="note_644" + href="#noteref_644">644.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">There is a remarkable passage on the + feelings of wives, in different nations, upon this point, in + Athenæus, xiii. 3. See, too, Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Conj. + Præc.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_645" name="note_645" + href="#noteref_645">645.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Euripid. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Andromache</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_646" name="note_646" + href="#noteref_646">646.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Valer. Max. vi. 7, § 1. Some very + scandalous instances of cynicism on the part of Roman husbands are + recorded. Thus, Augustus had many mistresses, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Quæ [virgines] sibi undique etiam <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ab + uxore</span></em> conquirerentur.”</span>—Sueton. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Aug.</span></span> + lxxi. When the wife of Verus, the colleague of Marcus Aurelius, + complained of the tastes of her husband, he answered, <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Uxor enim dignitatis nomen est, non + voluptatis.”</span>—Spartian. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Verus</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_647" name="note_647" + href="#noteref_647">647.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Aristotle, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Econom.</span></span> + i. 4-8-9.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_648" name="note_648" + href="#noteref_648">648.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch enforces the duty at length, + in his very beautiful work on marriage. In case husbands are guilty + of infidelity, he recommends their wives to preserve a prudent + blindness, reflecting that it is out of respect for them that they + choose another woman as the companion of their intemperance. Seneca + touches briefly, but unequivocally, on the subject: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Scis improbum esse qui ab uxore pudicitiam exigit, + ipse alienarum corruptor uxorum. Scis ut illi nil cum adultero, sic + nihil tibi esse debere cum pellice.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xciv. <span class="tei tei-q">“Sciet in uxorem gravissimum esse + genus injuriæ, habere pellicem.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + xcv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_649" name="note_649" + href="#noteref_649">649.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Periniquum + enim videtur esse, ut pudicitiam vir ab uxore exigat, quam ipse non + exhibeat.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Just. Dig.</span></span> xlviii. + 5-13.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_650" name="note_650" + href="#noteref_650">650.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quoted by St. Augustine, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Conj. + Adult.</span></span> ii. 19. Plautus, long before, had made one of + his characters complain of the injustice of the laws which punished + unchaste wives but not unchaste husbands, and ask why, since every + honest woman is contented with one husband, every honest man should + not be contented with one wife? (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Mercator</span></span>, Act iv. scene 5.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_651" name="note_651" + href="#noteref_651">651.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Horace, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Sat.</span></span> i. + 2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_652" name="note_652" + href="#noteref_652">652.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Verum si quis + est qui etiam meretriciis amoribus interdictum juventuti putet, est + ille quidem valde severus; negare non possum; sed abhorret non modo + ab hujus sæculi licentia, verum etiam a majorum consuetudine atque + concessis. Quando enim hoc factum non est? Quando reprehensum? + Quando non permissum? Quando denique fuit ut quod licet non + liceret?”</span>—Cicero, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Pro Cælio</span></span>, cap. xx. The whole + speech is well worthy of the attention of those who would + understand Roman feelings on these matters; but it should be + remembered that it is the speech of a lawyer defending a dissolute + client.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_653" name="note_653" + href="#noteref_653">653.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Περί ἀφροδίσια, εἰς δύναμιν πρὸ γάμου + καθαρευτέον. ἁπτομένῳ δέ, ὢν νομιμόν ἐστι, μεταληπτέον, μὴ μέν τοι + ἐπαχθὴς γίνου τοῖς χρωμένοις, μηδὲ ἐλεγκτικός, μηδὲ πολλαχοῦ τό, + Ὅτι αὐτὸς οὐ χρῇ, παράφερε.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Enchir.</span></span> xxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_654" name="note_654" + href="#noteref_654">654.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Et si uxores + non haberent, singulas concubinas, quod sine his esse non + possent.”</span>—Lampridius, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">A. Severus</span></span>. We have an amusing + picture of the common tone of people of the world on this matter, + in the speech Apuleius puts into the mouth of the gods, + remonstrating with Venus for being angry because her son formed a + connection with Psyche. (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Metam.</span></span> lib. v.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_655" name="note_655" + href="#noteref_655">655.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Preserved by Stobæus. See Denis, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des + Idées morales dans l'Antiquité</span></span>, tome ii. pp. 134-136, + 149-150.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_656" name="note_656" + href="#noteref_656">656.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Philos. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apol.</span></span> + i. 13. When a saying of Pythagoras, <span class="tei tei-q">“that a + man should only have commerce with his own wife,”</span> was + quoted, he said that this concerned others.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_657" name="note_657" + href="#noteref_657">657.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Trebellius Pollio, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Zenobia</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_658" name="note_658" + href="#noteref_658">658.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is asserted by an anonymous + writer quoted by Suidas. See Ménage, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Mulierum + Philosopharum</span></span>, p. 58.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_659" name="note_659" + href="#noteref_659">659.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, e.g., Plotinus, 1st Eun. vi. + 6.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_660" name="note_660" + href="#noteref_660">660.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Capitolinus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">M. + Aurelius</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_661" name="note_661" + href="#noteref_661">661.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Amm. Marcell. xxv. 4.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_662" name="note_662" + href="#noteref_662">662.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. ix. tit. + 24.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_663" name="note_663" + href="#noteref_663">663.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> lib. xv. tit. + 7.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_664" name="note_664" + href="#noteref_664">664.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Fidicinam + nulli liceat vel emere vel docere vel vendere, vel conviviis aut + spectaculis adhibere. Nec cuiquam aut delectationis desiderio + erudita feminea aut musicæ artis studio liceat habere + mancipia.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Cod. Theod.</span></span> xv. 7, 10. This + curious law was issued in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 385. St. Jerome said + these musicians were the chorus of the devil, and quite as + dangerous as the sirens. See the comments on the law.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_665" name="note_665" + href="#noteref_665">665.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Ruinart, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Act. S. + Perpetuæ</span></span>. These acts, are, I believe, generally + regarded as authentic. There is nothing more instructive in + history than to trace the same moral feelings through different + ages and religions; and I am able in this case to present the + reader with an illustration of their permanence, which I think + somewhat remarkable. The younger Pliny gives in one of his + letters a pathetic account of the execution of Cornelia, a vestal + virgin, by the order of Domitian. She was buried alive for + incest; but her innocence appears to have been generally + believed; and she had been condemned unheard, and in her absence. + As she was being lowered into the subterranean cell her dress was + caught and deranged in the descent. She turned round and drew it + to her, and when the executioner stretched out his hand to assist + her, she started back lest he should touch her, for this, + according to the received opinion, was a pollution; and even in + the supreme moment of her agony her vestal purity shrank from the + unholy contact. (Plin. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> iv. 11.) If we now pass + back several centuries, we find Euripides attributing to Polyxena + a trait precisely similar to that which was attributed to + Perpetua. As she fell beneath the sword of the executioner, it + was observed that her last care was that she might fall with + decency.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">ἡ δὲ και + θνήσκουσ᾽ ὅμως πολλὴν πρόνοιαν εἶχεν εὐσχήμως πεσεῖν,<br /> + κρύπτουσ᾽ ἂ κρύπτειν ὄμματ᾽ ἀρσένων χρεών.</p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Euripides, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hec.</span></span> 566-68.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_666" name="note_666" + href="#noteref_666">666.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vita Pauli.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_667" name="note_667" + href="#noteref_667">667.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Ambrose relates an instance of + this, which he says occurred at Antioch (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Virginibus</span></span>, lib. ii. cap. iv.). When the Christian + youth was being led to execution, the girl whom he had saved + reappeared and died with him. Eusebius tells a very similar story, + but places the scene at Alexandria.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_668" name="note_668" + href="#noteref_668">668.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Ceillier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des Auteurs + ecclés.</span></span> tome iii. p. 523.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_669" name="note_669" + href="#noteref_669">669.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. tome viii. pp. 204-207.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_670" name="note_670" + href="#noteref_670">670.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among the Irish saints St. Colman is + said to have had a girdle which would only meet around the chaste, + and which was long preserved in Ireland as a relic (Colgan, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Acta + Sanctorum Hiberniæ</span></span>, Louvain, 1645, vol. i. p. 246); + and St. Fursæus a girdle that extinguished lust. (Ibid. p. 292.) + The girdle of St. Thomas Aquinas seems to have had some miraculous + properties of this kind. (See his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span> in + the Bollandists, Sept. 29.) Among both the Greeks and Romans it was + customary for the bride to be girt with a girdle which the + bridegroom unloosed in the nuptial bed, and hence <span class= + "tei tei-q">“zonam solvere”</span> became a proverbial expression + for <span class="tei tei-q">“pudicitiam mulieris imminuere.”</span> + (Nieupoort, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Ritibus Romanorum</span></span>, p. 479; + Alexander's <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">History of Women</span></span>, vol. ii. p. + 300.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_671" name="note_671" + href="#noteref_671">671.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. St. Pachom.</span></span> + (Rosweyde).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_672" name="note_672" + href="#noteref_672">672.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Life</span></span>, + by Gregory of Nyssa.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_673" name="note_673" + href="#noteref_673">673.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A little book has been written on + these legends by M. Charles de Bussy, called <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Courtisanes + saintes</span></span>. There is said to be some doubt about St. + Afra, for, while her acts represent her as a reformed courtesan, + St. Fortunatus, in two lines he has devoted to her, calls her a + virgin. (Ozanam, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Études german.</span></span> tome ii. p. + 8.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_674" name="note_674" + href="#noteref_674">674.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. Sancti Joannis + Eleemosynarii</span></span> (Rosweyde).</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_675" name="note_675" + href="#noteref_675">675.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tillemont, tome x. pp. 61-62. There is + also a very picturesque legend of the manner in which St. + Paphnutius converted the courtesan Thais.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_676" name="note_676" + href="#noteref_676">676.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See especially, Tertullian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Uxorem</span></span>. It was beautifully said, at a later period, + that woman was not taken from the head of man, for she was not + intended to be his ruler, nor from his feet, for she was not + intended to be his slave, but from his side, for she was to be his + companion and his comfort. (Peter Lombard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Senten.</span></span> + lib. ii. dis. 18.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_677" name="note_677" + href="#noteref_677">677.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The reader may find many passages on + this subject in Barbeyrac, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Morale des Pères</span></span>, ii. § 7; iii. + § 8; iv. § 31-35; vi. § 31; xiii. § 2-8.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_678" name="note_678" + href="#noteref_678">678.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“It is + remarkable how rarely, if ever (I cannot call to mind an instance), + in the discussions of the comparative merits of marriage and + celibacy, the social advantages appear to have occurred to the + mind.... It is always argued with relation to the interests and the + perfection of the individual soul; and, even with regard to that, + the writers seem almost unconscious of the softening and humanising + effect of the natural affections, the beauty of parental tenderness + and filial love.”</span>—Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. p. 196.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_679" name="note_679" + href="#noteref_679">679.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Tempus breve + est, et jam securis ad radices arborum posita est, quæ silvam legis + et nuptiarum evangelica castitate succidat.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_680" name="note_680" + href="#noteref_680">680.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Laudo + nuptias, laudo conjugium, sed quia mihi virgines + generant.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> xxii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_681" name="note_681" + href="#noteref_681">681.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Ceillier, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Auteurs + ecclés.</span></span> xiii. p. 147.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_682" name="note_682" + href="#noteref_682">682.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, iv. 23.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_683" name="note_683" + href="#noteref_683">683.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Palladius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Laus.</span></span> cxix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_684" name="note_684" + href="#noteref_684">684.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Vit. S. Abr.</span></span> (Rosweyde), cap. + i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_685" name="note_685" + href="#noteref_685">685.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">I do not know when this legend first + appeared. M. Littré mentions having found it in a French MS. of the + eleventh century (Littré, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Les Barbares</span></span>, pp. 123-124); and + it also forms the subject of a very curious fresco, I imagine of a + somewhat earlier date, which was discovered, within the last few + years, in the subterranean church of St. Clement at Rome. An + account of it is given by Father Mullooly, in his interesting + little book about that Church.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_686" name="note_686" + href="#noteref_686">686.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Virgin.</span></span> cap. iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_687" name="note_687" + href="#noteref_687">687.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. i. 42.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_688" name="note_688" + href="#noteref_688">688.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The regulations on this point are + given at length in Bingham.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_689" name="note_689" + href="#noteref_689">689.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Muratori, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Antich. + Ital.</span></span> diss. xx.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_690" name="note_690" + href="#noteref_690">690.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Greg. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dial.</span></span> + i. 10.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_691" name="note_691" + href="#noteref_691">691.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Delepierre, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">L'Enfer décrit par + ceux qui l'ont vu</span></span>, pp. 44-56.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_692" name="note_692" + href="#noteref_692">692.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Val. Max. ii. 1. § 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_693" name="note_693" + href="#noteref_693">693.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Ille meos, primus qui me sibi junxit, amores<br /> + Abstulit; ille habeat secum, servetque sepulchro.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Æn.</span></span> + iv. 28.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_694" name="note_694" + href="#noteref_694">694.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">E.g., the wives of Lucan, Drusus, and + Pompey.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_695" name="note_695" + href="#noteref_695">695.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacit. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">German.</span></span> + xix.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_696" name="note_696" + href="#noteref_696">696.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Friedländer, tome i. p. 411.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_697" name="note_697" + href="#noteref_697">697.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hieron. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + liv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_698" name="note_698" + href="#noteref_698">698.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class= + "tei tei-q">“Uxorem vivam amare voluptas;<br /> + Defunctam religio.”</span></p> + + <p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Statius. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sylv.</span></span> v. in proœmio.</p> + </dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_699" name="note_699" + href="#noteref_699">699.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">By one of the laws of Charondas it was + ordained that those who cared so little for the happiness of their + children as to place a stepmother over them, should be excluded + from the councils of the State. (Diod. Sic. xii. 12.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_700" name="note_700" + href="#noteref_700">700.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tertullian expounded the Montanist + view in his treatise, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Monogamia</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_701" name="note_701" + href="#noteref_701">701.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A full collection of the statements of + the Fathers on this subject is given by Perrone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Matrimonio</span></span>, lib. iii. Sect. I.; and by Natalis + Alexander, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. Eccles.</span></span> Sæc. II. dissert. + 18.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_702" name="note_702" + href="#noteref_702">702.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Thus, to give but a single instance, + St. Jerome, who was one of their strongest opponents, says: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Quid igitur? damnamus secunda matrimonia? + Minime, sed prima laudamus. Abjicimus de ecclesia digamos? absit; + sed monogamos ad continentiam provocamus. In arca Noe non solum + munda sed et immunda fuerunt animalia.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_703" name="note_703" + href="#noteref_703">703.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">In Legat.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_704" name="note_704" + href="#noteref_704">704.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Strom.</span></span> lib. iii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_705" name="note_705" + href="#noteref_705">705.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Contra Jovin.</span></span> i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_706" name="note_706" + href="#noteref_706">706.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. See, too, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_707" name="note_707" + href="#noteref_707">707.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hom. xvii. in Luc.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_708" name="note_708" + href="#noteref_708">708.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Orat.</span></span> xxxi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_709" name="note_709" + href="#noteref_709">709.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perrone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Matr.</span></span> iii. § 1, art. 1; Natalis Alexander, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Eccles.</span></span> II. dissert. 18. The penances are said not to + imply that the second marriage was a sin, but that the moral + condition that made it necessary was a bad one.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_710" name="note_710" + href="#noteref_710">710.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Stephen's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of English + Criminal Law</span></span>, i. p. 461.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_711" name="note_711" + href="#noteref_711">711.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Conc. Illib. can. xxxviii. Bingham + thinks the feeling of the Council to have been, that if baptism was + not administered by a priest, it should at all events be + administered by one who might have been a priest.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_712" name="note_712" + href="#noteref_712">712.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Perrone, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De + Matrimonio</span></span>, tome iii. p. 102.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_713" name="note_713" + href="#noteref_713">713.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This subject has recently been treated + with very great learning and with admirable impartiality by an + American author, Mr. Henry C. Lea, in his <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History of Sacerdotal + Celibacy</span></span> (Philadelphia, 1867), which is certainly one + of the most valuable works that America has produced. Since the + great history of Dean Milman, I know no work in English which has + thrown more light on the moral condition of the middle ages, and + none which is more fitted to dispel the gross illusions concerning + that period which High Church writers, and writers of the positive + school, have conspired to sustain.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_714" name="note_714" + href="#noteref_714">714.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Lea, p. 36. The command of St. + Paul, that a bishop or deacon should be the husband of <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> + wife (1 Tim. iii. 2-12) was believed by all ancient and by many + modern commentators to be prohibitory of second marriages; and this + view is somewhat confirmed by the widows who were to be honoured + and supported by the Church, being only those who had been but once + married (1 Tim. v. 9). See Pressensé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. des trois + premiers Siècles</span></span> (1<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="vertical-align: super">re</span></span> + série), tome ii. p. 233. Among the Jews it was ordained that the + high priest should not marry a widow. (Levit. xxi. 13-14.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_715" name="note_715" + href="#noteref_715">715.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Socrates, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">H. E.</span></span> + i. 11. The Council of Illiberis (can. xxxiii.) had ordained this, + but both the precepts and the practice of divines varied greatly. A + brilliant summary of the chief facts is given in Milman's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">History + of Early Christianity</span></span>, vol. iii. pp. 277-282.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_716" name="note_716" + href="#noteref_716">716.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, on the state of things in the + tenth and eleventh centuries, Lea, pp. 162-192.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_717" name="note_717" + href="#noteref_717">717.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ratherius, quoted by Lea, p. 151.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_718" name="note_718" + href="#noteref_718">718.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See some curious evidence of the + extent to which the practice of the hereditary transmission of + ecclesiastical offices was carried, in Lea, pp. 149, 150, 266, 299, + 339.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_719" name="note_719" + href="#noteref_719">719.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lea, pp. 271, 292, 422.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_720" name="note_720" + href="#noteref_720">720.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. 186-187.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_721" name="note_721" + href="#noteref_721">721.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lea, p. 358.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_722" name="note_722" + href="#noteref_722">722.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 296.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_723" name="note_723" + href="#noteref_723">723.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 322.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_724" name="note_724" + href="#noteref_724">724.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 349.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_725" name="note_725" + href="#noteref_725">725.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The reader may find the most ample + evidence of these positions in Lea. See especially pp. 138, 141, + 153, 155, 260, 344.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_726" name="note_726" + href="#noteref_726">726.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Synesius, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + cv.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_727" name="note_727" + href="#noteref_727">727.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lea, p. 122. St. Augustine had named + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style= + "font-style: italic">his</span></em> illegitimate son Adeodatus, or + the Gift of God, and had made him a principal interlocutor in one + of his religious dialogues.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_728" name="note_728" + href="#noteref_728">728.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Dialog.</span></span> iv. 11.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_729" name="note_729" + href="#noteref_729">729.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is mentioned by Henry of + Huntingdon, who was a contemporary. (Lea, p. 293.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_730" name="note_730" + href="#noteref_730">730.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The first notice of this very + remarkable precaution is in a canon of the Council of Palencia (in + Spain) held in 1322, which anathematises laymen who compel their + pastors to take concubines. (Lea, p. 324.) Sleidan mentions that it + was customary in some of the Swiss cantons for the parishioners to + oblige the priest to select a concubine as a necessary precaution + for the protection of his female parishioners. (Ibid. p. 355.) + Sarpi, in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist. of the Council of Trent</span></span>, + mentions (on the authority of Zuinglius) this Swiss custom. Nicolas + of Clemangis, a leading member of the Council of Constance, + declared that this custom had become very common, that the laity + were firmly persuaded that priests <em class= + "tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">never</span></em> + lived a life of real celibacy, and that, where no proofs of + concubinage were found, they always assumed the existence of more + serious vice. The passage (which is quoted by Bayle) is too + remarkable to be omitted. <span class="tei tei-q">“Taceo de + fornicationibus et adulteriis a quibus qui alieni sunt probro + cæteris ac ludibrio esse solent, spadonesque aut sodomitæ + appellantur; denique laici usque adeo persuasum habent nullos + cælibes esse, ut in plerisque parochiis non aliter velint + presbyterum tolerare nisi concubinam habeat, quo vel sic suis sit + consultum uxoribus, quæ nec sic quidem usquequaque sunt extra + periculum.”</span> Nic. de Clem. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Præsul. + Simoniac.</span></span> (Lea, p. 386.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_731" name="note_731" + href="#noteref_731">731.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This was energetically noticed by + Luther, in his famous sermon <span class="tei tei-q">“De + Matrimonio,”</span> and some of the Catholic preachers of an + earlier period had made the same complaint. See a curious passage + from a contemporary of Boccaccio, quoted by Meray, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Les Libres + prêcheurs</span></span>, p. 155. <span class="tei tei-q">“Vast + numbers of laymen separated from their wives under the influence of + the ascetic enthusiasm which Hildebrand created.”</span>—Lea, p. + 254.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_732" name="note_732" + href="#noteref_732">732.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Quando enim + servata fide thori causa prolis conjuges conveniunt sic excusatur + coitus ut culpam non habeat. Quando vero deficiente bono prolis + fide tamen servata conveniunt causa incontinentiæ non sic excusatur + ut non habeat culpam, sed venialem.... Item hoc quod conjugati + victi concupiscentia utuntur invicem, ultra necessitatem liberos + procreandi, ponam in his pro quibus quotidie dicimus Dimitte nobis + debita nostra.... Unde in sententiolis Sexti Pythagorici legitur + <span class="tei tei-q">‘omnis ardentior amator propriæ uxoris + adulter est.’</span> ”</span>—Peter Lombard, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Sentent.</span></span> lib. iv. dist. 31.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_733" name="note_733" + href="#noteref_733">733.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many wives, however, were forbidden. + (Deut. xvii. 17.) Polygamy is said to have ceased among the Jews + after the return from the Babylonish captivity.—Whewell's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Elements + of Morality</span></span>, book iv. ch. v.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_734" name="note_734" + href="#noteref_734">734.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Levit. xii. 1-5.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_735" name="note_735" + href="#noteref_735">735.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ecclesiasticus, xiii. 14. I believe, + however, the passage has been translated <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Better the badness of a man than the blandishments of + a woman.”</span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_736" name="note_736" + href="#noteref_736">736.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This curious fact is noticed by Le + Blant, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Inscriptions chrétiennes de la + Gaule</span></span>, pp. xcvii.-xcviii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_737" name="note_737" + href="#noteref_737">737.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the decree of a Council of Auxerre + (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 578), can. 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_738" name="note_738" + href="#noteref_738">738.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the last two chapters of Troplong, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Influences du Christianisme sur le + Droit</span></span> (a work, however, which is written much more in + the spirit of an apologist than in that of an historian), and + Legouvé, pp. 27-29.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_739" name="note_739" + href="#noteref_739">739.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Even in matters not relating to + property, the position of women in feudalism was a low one. + <span class="tei tei-q">“Tout mari,”</span> says Beaumanoir, + <span class="tei tei-q">“peut battre sa femme quand elle ne veut + pas obéir à son commandement, ou quand elle le maudit, ou quand + elle le dément, pourvu que ce soit modérément et sans que mort + s'ensuive,”</span> quoted by Legouvé, p. 148. Contrast with this + the saying of the elder Cato: <span class="tei tei-q">“A man who + beats his wife or his children lays impious hands on that which is + most holy and most sacred in the world.”</span>—Plutarch, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marcus + Cato</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_740" name="note_740" + href="#noteref_740">740.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Legouvé, pp. 29-38; Maine's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient + Law</span></span>, pp. 154-159.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_741" name="note_741" + href="#noteref_741">741.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“No society + which preserves any tincture of Christian institutions is likely to + restore to married women the personal liberty conferred on them by + the middle Roman law: but the proprietary disabilities of married + females stand on quite a different basis from their personal + incapacities, and it is by keeping alive and consolidating the + former that the expositors of the canon law have deeply injured + civilisation. There are many vestiges of a struggle between the + secular and ecclesiastical principles; but the canon law nearly + everywhere prevailed.”</span>—Maine's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient + Law</span></span>, p. 158. I may observe that the Russian law was + early very favourable to the proprietary rights of married women. + See a remarkable letter in the <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Memoirs of the + Princess Daschkaw</span></span> (edited by Mrs. Bradford: London, + 1840), vol. ii. p. 404.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_742" name="note_742" + href="#noteref_742">742.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Germania</span></span>, cap. ix. + xviii.-xx.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_743" name="note_743" + href="#noteref_743">743.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Gubernatione Dei.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_744" name="note_744" + href="#noteref_744">744.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, for these legends, Mallet's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern + Antiquities</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_745" name="note_745" + href="#noteref_745">745.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Tacitus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Germ.</span></span> + 9; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> iv. 18; Xiphilin. lxxi. 3; + Amm. Marcellinus, xv. 12; Vopiscus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Aurelianus</span></span>; Floras, iii. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_746" name="note_746" + href="#noteref_746">746.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Valer. Max. vi. 1; Hieron. + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> cxxiii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_747" name="note_747" + href="#noteref_747">747.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Mulier. + Virt.</span></span></dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_748" name="note_748" + href="#noteref_748">748.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plutarch, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Amatorius</span></span>; Xiphilin. lxvi. 16; + Tacit. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Hist.</span></span> iv. 67. The name of this + heroic wife is given in three different forms.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_749" name="note_749" + href="#noteref_749">749.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">On the polygamy of the first, see + Greg. Tur. iv. 26; on the polygamy of Chilperic, Greg. Tur. iv. 28; + v. 14.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_750" name="note_750" + href="#noteref_750">750.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greg. Tur. iv. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_751" name="note_751" + href="#noteref_751">751.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. iii. 25-27, 36.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_752" name="note_752" + href="#noteref_752">752.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fredegarius, xxxvi.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_753" name="note_753" + href="#noteref_753">753.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. lx.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_754" name="note_754" + href="#noteref_754">754.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Eginhardus, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vit. Kar. + Mag.</span></span> xviii. Charlemagne had, according to Eginhard, + four wives, but, as far as I can understand, only two at the same + time.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_755" name="note_755" + href="#noteref_755">755.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Smyth's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lectures on Modern + History</span></span>, vol. i. pp. 61-62.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_756" name="note_756" + href="#noteref_756">756.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Milman's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Latin + Christianity</span></span>, vol. i. p. 363; Legouvé, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. Morale des + Femmes</span></span>, p. 57.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_757" name="note_757" + href="#noteref_757">757.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, on these laws, Lord Kames + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">On + Women</span></span>; Legouvé, p. 57.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_758" name="note_758" + href="#noteref_758">758.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Favorinus had strongly urged it. (Aul. + Gell. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Noct.</span></span> xii. 1.)</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_759" name="note_759" + href="#noteref_759">759.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">These are the reasons given by + Malthus, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">On Population</span></span>, book iii. ch. + ii.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_760" name="note_760" + href="#noteref_760">760.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. Augustine (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Conj. + Adult.</span></span> ii. 19) maintains that adultery is even more + criminal in the man than in the woman. St. Jerome has an impressive + passage on the subject: <span class="tei tei-q">“Aliæ sunt leges + Cæsarum, aliæ Christi; aliud Papianus, aliud Paulus nostri + præcepit. Apud illos viris impudicitiæ fræna laxantur et solo + stupro atque adulterio condemnato passim per lupanaria et + ancillulas libido permittitur, quasi culpam dignitas faciat non + voluntas. Apud nos quod non licet feminis æque non licet viris; et + eadem servitus pari conditione censetur.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ep.</span></span> + lxxvii. St. Chrysostom writes in a similar strain.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_761" name="note_761" + href="#noteref_761">761.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Troplong, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Influence du + Christianisme sur le Droit</span></span>, pp. 239-251.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_762" name="note_762" + href="#noteref_762">762.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">We find, however, traces of a + toleration of the Roman type of concubine in Christianity for some + time. Thus, a Council of Toledo decreed: <span class= + "tei tei-q">“Si quis habens uxorem fidelis concubinam habeat non + communicet. Cæterum is qui non habet uxorem et pro uxore concubinam + habet a communione non repellatur, tantum ut unius mulieris, aut + uxoris aut concubinæ ut ei placuerit, sit conjunctione + contentus.”</span>—1 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Can.</span></span> 17. St. Isidore said: + <span class="tei tei-q">“Christiano non dicam plurimas sed nec duas + simul habere licitum est, nisi unam tantum aut uxorem, aut certo + loco uxoris, si conjux deest, concubinam.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Apud + Gratianum</span></span>, diss. 4. Quoted by Natalis Alexander, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Eccles.</span></span> Sæc. I. diss. 29. Mr. Lea (<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of Sacerdotal + Celibacy</span></span>, pp. 203-205) has devoted an extremely + interesting note to tracing the history of the word concubine + through the middle ages. He shows that even up to the thirteenth + century a concubine was not necessarily an abandoned woman. The + term was applied to marriages that were real, but not officially + recognised. Coleridge notices a remarkable instance of the revival + of this custom in German history.—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Notes on English + Divines</span></span> (ed. 1853), vol. i. p. 221.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_763" name="note_763" + href="#noteref_763">763.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Legouvé, p. 199.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_764" name="note_764" + href="#noteref_764">764.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See some curious passages in Troplong, + pp. 222-223. The Fathers seem to have thought dissolution of + marriage was not lawful on account of the adultery of the husband, + but that it was not absolutely unlawful, though not commendable, + for a husband whose wife had committed adultery to re-marry.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_765" name="note_765" + href="#noteref_765">765.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some of the great charities of Fabiola + were performed as penances, on account of her crime in availing + herself of the legislative permission of divorce.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_766" name="note_766" + href="#noteref_766">766.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Laboulaye, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Recherches sur la + Condition civile et politique des Femmes</span></span>, pp. + 152-158.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_767" name="note_767" + href="#noteref_767">767.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“A discourse + concerning the obligation to marry within the true communion, + following from their style (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">sic</span></span>) of being called a holy + seed.”</span> This rare discourse is appended to a sermon against + mixed marriages by Leslie. (London, 1702.) The reader may find + something about Dodwell in Macaulay's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. of + England</span></span>, ch. xiv.; but Macaulay, who does not appear + to have known Dodwell's masterpiece—his dissertation <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Paucitate + Marturum</span></span>, which is one of the finest specimens of + criticism of his time—and who only knew the discourse on marriages + by extracts, has, I think, done him considerable injustice.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_768" name="note_768" + href="#noteref_768">768.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dodwell relies mainly upon this fact, + and especially upon Ezra's having treated these marriages as + essentially null.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_769" name="note_769" + href="#noteref_769">769.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Jungere cum + infidelibus vinculum matrimonii, prostituere gentilibus membra + Christi.”</span>—Cyprian, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">De Lapsis</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_770" name="note_770" + href="#noteref_770">770.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Hæc cum ita + sint, fideles Gentilium matrimonia subeuntes stupri reos esse + constat, et arcendos ab omni communicatione + fraternitatis.”</span>—Tert. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Ad Uxor.</span></span> ii. 3.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_771" name="note_771" + href="#noteref_771">771.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See on this law, and on the many + councils which condemned the marriage of orthodox with heretics, + Bingham, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Antiq.</span></span> xxii. 2, §§ 1-2.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_772" name="note_772" + href="#noteref_772">772.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many curious statistics illustrating + this fact are given by M. Bonneville de Marsangy—a Portuguese + writer who was counsellor of the Imperial Court at Paris—in his + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Étude sur + la Moralité comparée de la Femme et de l'Homme</span></span>. + (Paris, 1862.) The writer would have done better if he had not + maintained, in lawyer fashion, that the statistics of crime are + absolutely decisive on the question of the comparative morality of + the sexes, and also, if he had not thought it due to his official + position to talk in a rather grotesque strain about the + regeneration and glorification of the sex in the person of the + Empress Eugénie.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_773" name="note_773" + href="#noteref_773">773.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Pliny, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hist. + Nat.</span></span> xxxiv. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_774" name="note_774" + href="#noteref_774">774.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Tantum inter + Stoicos, Serene, et ceteros sapientiam professos interesse, quantum + inter fœminas et mares non immerito dixerim.”</span>—<span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De Const. + Sapientis</span></span>, cap. i.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_775" name="note_775" + href="#noteref_775">775.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is well illustrated, on the one + side, by the most repulsive representations of Christ, by Michael + Angelo, in the great fresco in the Sistine Chapel (so inferior to + the Christ of Orgagna, at Pisa, from which it was partly imitated), + and in marble in the Minerva Church at Rome; and, on the other + side, by the frescoes of Perugino, at Perugia, representing the + great sages of Paganism. The figure of Cato, in the latter, almost + approaches, as well as I remember, the type of St. John.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_776" name="note_776" + href="#noteref_776">776.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">In that fine description of a virtuous + woman which is ascribed to the mother of King Lemuel, we read: + <span class="tei tei-q">“She stretcheth out her hand to the poor; + yea, she reacheth forth her hands to the needy.”</span> (Proverbs + xxxi. 20.) I have already quoted from Xenophon the beautiful + description of the Greek wife tending her sick slaves. So, too, + Euripides represents the slaves of Alcestis gathering with tears + around the bed of their dying mistress, who, even then, found some + kind word for each, and, when she died, lamenting her as their + second mother. (Eurip. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style= + "font-style: italic">Alcest.</span></span>) In the servile war + which desolated Sicily at the time of the Punic wars, we find a + touching trait of the same kind. The revolt was provoked by the + cruelties of a rich man, named Damophilus, and his wife, who were + massacred with circumstances of great atrocity; but the slaves + preserved their daughter entirely unharmed, for she had always made + it her business to console them in their sorrow, and she had won + the love of all. (Diodor. Sic. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Frag.</span></span> + xxxiv.) So, too, Marcia, the wife of Cato, used to suckle her young + slaves from her breast. (Plut. <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marc. + Cato</span></span>.) I may add the well-known sentiment which + Virgil puts in the mouth of Dido: <span class="tei tei-q">“Haud + ignara mali miseris succurrere disco.”</span> There are, doubtless, + many other touches of the same kind in ancient literature, some of + which may occur to my readers.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_777" name="note_777" + href="#noteref_777">777.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret, v. 19.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_778" name="note_778" + href="#noteref_778">778.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See the beautiful description of the + functions of a Christian woman in the second book of Tertullian, + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ad + Uxorem</span></span>.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_779" name="note_779" + href="#noteref_779">779.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See, upon the deaconesses, Bingham's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Christian + Antiquities</span></span>, book ii. ch. 22, and Ludlow's + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Woman's + Work in the Church</span></span>. The latter author argues + elaborately that the <span class="tei tei-q">“widows”</span> were + not the same as the deaconesses.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_780" name="note_780" + href="#noteref_780">780.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">Phœbe (Rom. xvi. 1) is described as a + διάκονος.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_781" name="note_781" + href="#noteref_781">781.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">A very able writer, who takes on the + whole an unfavourable view of the influence of Christianity on + legislation, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“The provision for the + widow was attributable to the exertions of the Church, which never + relaxed its solicitude for the interests of wives surviving their + husbands, winning, perhaps, one of the most arduous of its triumphs + when, after exacting for two or three centuries an express promise + from the husband at marriage to endow his wife, it at last + succeeded in engrafting the principle of dower on the customary law + of all Western Europe.”</span>—Maine's <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ancient + Law</span></span>, p. 224.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_782" name="note_782" + href="#noteref_782">782.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Troplong, <span class= + "tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Influence du + Christianisme sur le Droit</span></span>, pp. 308-310.</dd> + + <dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_783" name="note_783" + href="#noteref_783">783.</a></dt> + + <dd class="tei tei-notetext">The results of this change have been + treated by Miss Parkes in her truly admirable little book called + <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Essays on + Woman's Work</span></span>, better than by any other writer with + whom I am acquainted.</dd> + </dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"> + <pre class="pre tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EUROPEAN MORALS FROM AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE (VOL. 2 OF 2)*** +</pre> + <hr class="doublepage" /> + + <div class="tei tei-div" style= + "margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"> + <a name="rightpageheader9" id="rightpageheader9"></a><a name= + "pgtoc10" id="pgtoc10"></a><a name="pdf11" id="pdf11"></a> + + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style= + "text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"> + <span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1> + + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style= + "margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> + <tbody> + <tr> + <th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">April 15, + 2012 </th> + </tr> + + <tr> + <td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"> + <table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" + style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; 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