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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of The Inquisition of The Middle
+Ages; volume II, by Henry Charles Lea
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license
+
+
+Title: A History of The Inquisition of The Middle Ages; volume II
+
+Author: Henry Charles Lea
+
+Release Date: April 16, 2012 [EBook #39458]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HISTORY OF THE INQUISITION 2/3 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Chuck Greif and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at DP Europe
+(http://dp.rastko.net); produced from images of the
+Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Typographical errors were corrected (See note the end of the etext). The
+spelling of names of people or places has not been corrected or
+normalized. (note of etext transcriber.)
+
+
+
+
+A HISTORY OF THE INQUISITION
+
+VOL. II
+
+
+
+
+A HISTORY OF
+
+THE INQUISITION
+
+OF
+
+THE MIDDLE AGES.
+
+BY
+
+HENRY CHARLES LEA,
+
+AUTHOR OF
+
+"AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF SACERDOTAL CELIBACY," "SUPERSTITION AND
+FORCE," "STUDIES IN CHURCH HISTORY."
+
+_IN THREE VOLUMES_.
+
+VOL. II
+
+NEW YORK:
+
+HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE.
+
+1901
+
+Copyright, 1887, by HARPER & BROTHERS
+
+_All rights reserved._
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+BOOK II.--THE INQUISITION IN THE SEVERAL LANDS OF CHRISTENDOM.
+
+
+CHAPTER I.--LANGUEDOC.
+
+                                                                    Page
+Obstacles to Establishing the Inquisition                              1
+
+Progress and Zeal of the Dominicans                                    6
+
+First Appointment of Inquisitors.--Tentative Proceedings               8
+
+Popular Resistance                                                    12
+
+Position of Count Raymond                                             14
+
+Troubles at Toulouse.--Expulsion of the Inquisition                   16
+
+Its Return and Increasing Vigor                                       21
+
+Suspended from 1238 to 1241                                           24
+
+Condition of the Country.--Rising of Trencavel                        25
+
+Connection between Religion and State-craft                           26
+
+Pierre Cella's Activity in 1241-1242                                  30
+
+Heretic Stronghold of Montsegur                                       34
+
+Massacre of Avignonet.--Its Unfortunate Influence                     35
+
+Count Raymond's Last Effort.--Triumph of the Inquisition              38
+
+Raymond Reconciled to the Church                                      40
+
+Fall of Montsegur.--Heresy Defenceless                                42
+
+Increased Activity of the Inquisition                                 44
+
+Raymond's Persecuting Energy.--His Death                              46
+
+Desperation of the Heretics.--Intercourse with Lombardy               49
+
+Supremacy of Inquisition.--It Attacks the Count of Foix               52
+
+Death of Alphonse and Jeanne in 1273                                  56
+
+Rise of the Royal Power.--Appeals to the King                         57
+
+Popular Discontent.--Troubles at Carcassonne                          58
+
+Philippe le Bel Intervenes.--His Fluctuating Policy                   62
+
+Renewed Troubles at Carcassonne.--Submission in 1299                  67
+
+Prosecutions at Albi, 1299-1300                                       71
+
+Inquisitorial Frauds.--Case of Castel Fabri                           72
+
+Frere Bernard Delicieux                                               75
+
+Renewed Troubles.--Philippe Sends Jean de Pequigny                    77
+
+Philippe Tries to Reform the Inquisition                              79
+
+Troubles at Albi.--Conflict between Church and State                  82
+
+Philippe Visits Languedoc.--His Plan of Reform                        86
+
+Despair at Carcassonne.--Treasonable Projects                         88
+
+Appeal to Clement V.--Investigation                                   92
+
+Abuses Recognized.--Reforms of Council of Vienne                      94
+
+Election of John XXII.                                                98
+
+The Inquisition Triumphs.--Fate of Bernard Delicieux                  99
+
+Recrudescence of Heresy.--Pierre Autier                              104
+
+Bernard Gui Extirpates Catharism                                     107
+
+Case of Limoux Noir                                                  108
+
+Results of the Triumph of the Inquisition                            109
+
+Political Effects of Confiscation                                    110
+
+
+CHAPTER II.--FRANCE.
+
+Inquisition Introduced in 1233 by Frere Robert le Bugre              113
+
+Opposed by the Prelates.--Encouraged by St. Louis                    115
+
+Robert's Insane Massacres and Punishment                             116
+
+Inquisition Organized.--Its Activity in 1248                         117
+
+Slender Records of its Proceedings                                   120
+
+Paris _Auto de fe_ in 1310.--Marguerite la Porete                    123
+
+Gradual Decadence.--Case of Hugues Aubriot                           125
+
+The Parlement Assumes Superior Jurisdiction                          130
+
+The University of Paris Supplants the Inquisition                    135
+
+Moribund Activity during the Fifteenth Century                       138
+
+Attempt to Resuscitate it in 1451                                    140
+
+It Falls into utter Discredit                                        144
+
+The French Waldenses.--Their Number and Organization                 145
+
+  Intermittent Persecution.--Their Doctrines                         147
+
+  Francois Borel and Gregory XI.                                     152
+
+  Renewed Persecutions in 1432 and 1441                              157
+
+  Protected by Louis XI.--Humiliation of the Inquisition             158
+
+  Alternations of Toleration and Persecution                         159
+
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE SPANISH PENINSULA.
+
+ARAGON.--Unimportance of Heresy there                                162
+
+  Episcopal and Lay Inquisition Tried in 1233                        163
+
+  Papal Inquisition Introduced.--Navarre Included                    165
+
+  Delay in Organization                                              167
+
+  Greater Vigor in the Fourteenth Century                            169
+
+  Dispute over the Blood of Christ                                   171
+
+  Nicolas Eymerich                                                   174
+
+  Separation of Majorca and Valencia                                 177
+
+  Decline of Inquisition                                             178
+
+  Resuscitation under Ferdinand the Catholic                         179
+
+CASTILE.--Inquisition not Introduced there                           180
+
+  Cathari in Leon                                                    181
+
+  Independent Legislation of Alonso the Wise                         183
+
+  Persecution for Heresy Unknown                                     184
+
+  Case of Pedro of Osma in 1479                                      187
+
+PORTUGAL.--No Effective Inquisition there                            188
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.--ITALY.
+
+Political Conditions Favoring Heresy                                 191
+
+Prevalence of Unconcealed Catharism                                  192
+
+Development of the Waldenses                                         194
+
+Popular Indifference to the Church                                   196
+
+Gregory XI. Undertakes to Suppress Heresy                            199
+
+Gradual Development of Inquisition                                   201
+
+Rolando da Cremona                                                   202
+
+Giovanni Schio da Vicenza                                            203
+
+St. Peter Martyr                                                     207
+
+He Provokes Civil War in Florence                                    210
+
+Death of Frederic II. in 1250.--Chief Obstacle Removed               213
+
+Assassination of St. Peter Martyr.--Use Made of it                   214
+
+Rainerio Saccone                                                     218
+
+Triumph of the Papacy.--Organization of the Inquisition              220
+
+Heresy Protected by Ezzelin and Uberto                               223
+
+Ezzelin Prosecuted as a Heretic.--His Death                          224
+
+Uberto Pallavicino                                                   228
+
+The Angevine Conquest of Naples Revolutionizes Italy                 231
+
+Triumph of Persecution                                               233
+
+Sporadic Popular Opposition                                          237
+
+Secret Strength of Heresy.--Case of Armanno Pongilupo                239
+
+Power of the Inquisition.--Papal Interference                        242
+
+Naples.--Toleration Under Normans and Hohenstaufens                  244
+
+  The Inquisition Under the Angevines                                245
+
+Sicily                                                               248
+
+Venice.--Its Independence                                            249
+
+  Inquisition Introduced in 1288, under State Supervision            251
+
+Decadence of Inquisition in Fourteenth Century                       253
+
+Disappearance of the Cathari.--Persistence of the Waldenses          254
+
+Remnants of Catharism in Corsica and Piedmont                        255
+
+Persecution of the Waldenses of Piedmont                             259
+
+Decline of the Lombard Inquisition                                   269
+
+Venice.--Subjection of Inquisition to the State                      273
+
+Tuscany.--Increasing Insubordination.--Case of Piero di Aquila       275
+
+  Continued Troubles in Florence                                     280
+
+  Tommasino da Foligno                                               281
+
+Decline of Inquisition in Central Italy                              282
+
+The Two Sicilies.--Inquisition Subordinate to the State              284
+
+
+CHAPTER V.--THE SLAVIC CATHARI.
+
+Efforts of Innocent III. and Honorius III. East of the Adriatic      290
+
+The Mendicant Orders Undertake the Task                              293
+
+Bloody Crusades from Hungary                                         294
+
+Revival of Catharism                                                 298
+
+Endeavors of Boniface VIII. and John XXII.                           299
+
+Fruitlessness of the Work                                            301
+
+Reign of Stephen Tvrtko                                              303
+
+Catharism the State Religion                                         305
+
+Advance of the Turks                                                 306
+
+Confusion Aggravated by Persecution                                  307
+
+The Cathari Aid the Turkish Conquest                                 313
+
+Disappearance of Catharism                                           314
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.--GERMANY.
+
+Persecution of Strassburg Waldenses in 1212                          316
+
+Spread of Waldensianism in Germany                                   318
+
+Mystic Pantheism.--The Amaurians and Ortlibenses                     319
+
+Brethren of the Free Spirit or Beghards.--Luciferans                 323
+
+Conrad of Marburg.--His Character and Career                         325
+
+Gregory XI. Vainly Stimulates him to Persecution                     329
+
+Gregory Commissions the Dominicans as Inquisitors                    333
+
+The Luciferan Heresy                                                 334
+
+Conrad's Methods and Massacres                                       336
+
+Antagonism of the Prelates                                           338
+
+Assembly of Mainz.--Conrad's Defeat and Murder                       340
+
+Persecution Ceases.--The German Church Antagonistic to Rome          342
+
+The Reaction Keeps the Inquisition out of Germany                    346
+
+Waldenses and Inquisition in Passau                                  347
+
+Growth of Heresy.--Virtual Toleration                                348
+
+The Beguines, Beghards, and Lollards                                 350
+
+The Brethren of the Free Spirit                                      354
+
+Tendency to Mysticism.--Master Eckart                                358
+
+John of Rysbroek, Gerard Groot, and the Brethren of the Common Life  360
+
+John Tauler and the Friends of God                                   362
+
+Persecution of the Brethren of the Free Spirit                       367
+
+Antagonism between Louis of Bavaria and the Papacy                   377
+
+Subservience of Charles IV.--The Black Death                         378
+
+Gregarious Enthusiasm.--The Flagellants                              380
+
+Clement VI. Condemns Them.--They Become Heretics                     383
+
+Attempts to Introduce the Inquisition.--Successful in 1369           385
+
+Persecution of Flagellants and Beghards.--The Dancing Mania          390
+
+Beghards and Beguines Protected by the Prelates                      394
+
+Speedy Decline of the Inquisition                                    395
+
+The Waldenses.--Their Extension and Persecution                      396
+
+Renewed Persecution of the Beghards                                  401
+
+William of Hilderniss, and the Men of Intelligence                   405
+
+The Flagellants.--The Brethren of the Cross                          406
+
+Triumph of the Beghards at Constance                                 409
+
+Renewed Persecution                                                  411
+
+Hussitism in Germany.--Coalescence with Waldenses                    414
+
+Gregory of Heimburg                                                  417
+
+Hans of Niklaushausen                                                418
+
+John von Ruchrath of Wesel                                           420
+
+Decay of the Inquisition.--John Reuchlin                             423
+
+Its Impotence in the Case of Luther                                  425
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.--BOHEMIA.
+
+Independence of Bohemian Church.--Waldensianism                      427
+
+Inquisition Introduced in 1257.--Revived by John XXII.               428
+
+Growth of Waldensianism.--John of Pirna                              430
+
+Conditions Favoring the Growth of Heresy.--Episcopal Inquisition     433
+
+The Precursors of Huss                                               436
+
+Wickliff and Wickliffitism                                           438
+
+John Huss Becomes the Leader of Reform                               444
+
+Progress of the Revolution.--Rupture with Rome                       445
+
+Convocation of the Council of Constance                              453
+
+Motives Impelling Huss's Presence                                    455
+
+His Reception and Treatment                                          457
+
+His Arrest.--Question of the Safe-conduct                            460
+
+Communion in both Elements                                           471
+
+The Trial of Huss.--Illustration of the Inquisitorial Process        473
+
+Exceptional Audiences Allowed to Huss                                484
+
+Extraordinary Efforts to Procure Recantation                         486
+
+The Inevitable Condemnation and Burning                              490
+
+Indignation in Bohemia                                               494
+
+Jerome of Prague.--His Trial and Execution                           495
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--THE HUSSITES.
+
+Inquisitorial Methods Attempted in Bohemia                           506
+
+Increasing Antagonism.--Fruitless Threats of Force                   508
+
+Parties Form Themselves.--Calixtins and Taborites                    511
+
+Sigismund Succeeds to the Throne.--Failure of Negotiations           514
+
+Crusade Preached in 1420.--Its Repulse                               516
+
+Religious Extravagance.--Pikardi, Chiliasts                          517
+
+The Four Articles of the Calixtins                                   519
+
+Creed of the Taborites                                               522
+
+Failure of Repeated Crusades.--The Hussites Retaliate                525
+
+Efforts to Reform the Church.--Council of Siena                      527
+
+Council of Basle.--Negotiation with the Hussites a Necessity         530
+
+The Four Articles the Basis.--Accepted as the "Compactata"           533
+
+The Taborites Crushed at Lipan                                       535
+
+Difficulties Caused by Rokyzana's Ambition                           536
+
+Insincere Peace.--Sigismund's Reactionary Reign and Death            538
+
+The Calixtins Secure Control under George Podiebrad                  541
+
+Rome Disavows the Compactata.--Giacomo della Marca in Hungary        542
+
+The Use of the Cup the Only Distinction.--Capistrano Sent as
+Inquisitor                                                           545
+
+His Projected Hussite Crusade Impeded by the Capture of
+Constantinople                                                       551
+
+Efforts to Resist the Turks.--Death of Capistrano at Belgrade        552
+
+Steady Estrangement of Bohemia.--Negotiations and Attacks            555
+
+The Compactata Maintained in Spite of Rome                           559
+
+The Bohemian Brethren Arise from the Remains of the Taborites        561
+
+Their Union with the Waldenses                                       564
+
+Their Growth and Constancy under Persecution                         566
+
+APPENDIX OF DOCUMENTS                                                569
+
+
+
+
+THE INQUISITION.
+
+BOOK II.
+
+THE INQUISITION IN THE SEVERAL LANDS OF CHRISTENDOM.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+LANGUEDOC.
+
+
+The men who laid the foundations of the Inquisition in Languedoc had
+before them an apparently hopeless task. The whole organization and
+procedure of the institution were to be developed as experience might
+dictate and without precedents for guidance. Their uncertain and
+undefined powers were to be exercised under peculiar difficulties.
+Heresy was everywhere and all-pervading. An unknown but certainly large
+portion of the population was addicted to Catharism or Waldensianism,
+while even the orthodox could not, for the most part, be relied upon for
+sympathy or aid. Practical toleration had existed for so many
+generations, and so many families had heretic members, that the
+population at large was yet to be educated in the holy horror of
+doctrinal aberrations. National feeling, moreover, and the memory of
+common wrongs suffered during twenty years of bitter contest with
+invading soldiers of the Cross, during which Catholic and Catharan had
+stood side by side in defence of the fatherland, had created the
+strongest bonds of sympathy between the different sects. In the cities
+the magistrates were, if not heretics, inclined to toleration and
+jealous of their municipal rights and liberties. Throughout the country
+many powerful nobles were avowedly or secretly heretics, and Raymond of
+Toulouse himself was regarded as little better than a heretic. The
+Inquisition was the symbol of a hated foreign domination which could
+look for no cordial support from any of these classes. It was welcomed,
+indeed, by such Frenchmen as had succeeded in planting themselves in the
+land, but they were scattered, and were themselves the objects of
+detestation to their neighbors. The popular feeling is voiced by the
+Troubadours, who delight in expressing contempt for the French and
+hostility to the friars and their methods. As Guillem de Montanagout
+says: "Now have the clerks become inquisitors and condemn men at their
+pleasure. I have naught against the inquests if they would but condemn
+errors with soft words, lead the wanderers back to the faith without
+wrath, and allow the penitent to find mercy." The bolder Pierre
+Cardinal describes the Dominicans as disputing after dinner over the
+quality of their wines: "They have created a court of judgment, and
+whoever attacks them they declare to be a Waldensian; they seek to
+penetrate into the secrets of all men, so as to render themselves
+dreaded."[1]
+
+The lands which Raymond had succeeded in retaining were, moreover,
+drained by the enormous sums exacted of him in the pacification. To
+enable him to meet these demands he was authorized to levy taxes on the
+subjects of the Church, in spite of their immunities, and this and the
+other expedients requisite for the discharge of his engagements could
+not fail to excite widespread discontent with the settlement and
+hostility to all that represented it. That it was hard to extort these
+payments from a population exhausted by twenty years of war is manifest
+when, in 1231, two years after the treaty, the Abbey of Citeaux had not
+as yet received any part of the two thousand marks which were its share
+of the plunder, and it was forced to agree to a settlement under which
+Raymond promised to pay in annual instalments of two hundred marks,
+giving as security his revenues from the manor of Marmande.[2]
+
+The Inquisition, it is true, was at first warmly greeted by the Church,
+but the Church had grown so discredited during the events of the past
+half-century that its influence was less than in any other spot in
+Christendom. Even in Aragon the Council of Tarragona, in 1238, felt
+itself compelled to decree excommunication against those who composed or
+applauded lampoons against the clergy. The abuse of the interdict had
+grown to such proportions that Innocent IV., in 1243, and again in 1245,
+was obliged to forbid its employment throughout southern France, in all
+places suspected of heresy, because it afforded to heretics so manifold
+an occasion of asserting that it was used for private interests, and not
+for the salvation of souls. During the troubles which followed after the
+crusade of Louis VIII. the bishops had taken advantage of the confusion
+to seize many lands to which they had no claim, and this involved them
+in endless quarrels with the royal fisc in the territories which fell to
+the king, while in those which remained to Raymond, the pious St. Louis
+was forced to interfere to obtain for him a restoration of what they
+obstinately refused to surrender. The Church itself was so deeply
+tainted with heresy that the faithful were scandalized at seeing the
+practical immunity enjoyed by heretical clerks, owing to the difficulty
+of assembling a sufficient number of bishops to officiate at their
+degradation, and Gregory IX. felt it necessary, in 1233, to decree that
+in such cases a single bishop, with some of his abbots, should have
+power to deprive them of holy orders and deliver them to the secular arm
+to be burned--a provision which he subsequently embodied in the canon
+law. Innocent IV., moreover, in 1245, felt called upon to order his
+legate in Languedoc to see that no one suspected of heresy was elected
+or consecrated as bishop. On the other hand, priests who were zealous in
+aiding the Inquisition sometimes found that the enmities thus excited
+rendered it impossible for them to reside in their parishes, as occurred
+in the case of Guillem Pierre, a priest of Narbonne, in 1246, who on
+this account was allowed to employ a vicar and to hold a plurality of
+benefices. About the same time Innocent IV. felt obliged to express his
+surprise that the prelates disobeyed his repeated commands to assist the
+Inquisition; he has trustworthy information that they neglect to do so,
+and he threatens them roundly with his displeasure unless they manifest
+greater zeal. Bernard Gui, indeed, speaks of the bishops who favored
+Count Raymond as among the craftiest and most dangerous enemies of the
+inquisitors. The natural antagonism between the Mendicants and the
+secular clergy was, moreover, increased by the pretension of the
+inquisitors to supervise the priesthood and see that they performed
+their neglected duty in all that pertained to the extension of the
+faith. That under such circumstances the Dominicans employed in the
+pious work should suffer constant molestation scarce needs the
+explanation given by the pope that it was through the influence of the
+Arch Enemy.[3]
+
+Another serious impediment to the operations of the Inquisition lay in
+the absence of places of detention for those accused and of prisons for
+those condemned. We have already seen how the bishops shirked their duty
+in providing jails for the multitudes of prisoners until St. Louis was
+obliged to step in and construct them, and during this prolonged
+interval the sentences of the inquisitors show, in the number of
+contumacious absentees after a preliminary hearing, how impossible it
+often was to retain hold of heretics who had been arrested.[4]
+
+To undertake, in such an environment, the apparently hopeless task of
+suppressing heresy required men of exceptional character, and they were
+not wanting. Repulsive as their acts must seem to us, we cannot refuse
+to them the tribute due to their fearless fanaticism. No labor was too
+arduous for their unflagging zeal, no danger too great for their
+unshrinking courage. Regarding themselves as elected to perform God's
+work, they set about it with a sublime self-confidence which lifted them
+above the weakness of humanity. As the mouthpiece of God, the mendicant
+friar, who lived on charity, spoke to prince and people with all the
+awful authority of the Church, and exacted obedience or punished
+contumacy unhesitatingly and absolutely. Such men as Pierre Cella,
+Guillem Arnaud, Arnaud Catala, Ferrer the Catalan, Pons de Saint-Gilles,
+Pons de l'Esparre, and Bernard de Caux, bearded prince and prelate, were
+as ready to endure as merciless to inflict, were veritable Maccabees in
+the internecine strife with heresy, and yet were kind and pitiful to the
+miserable and overflowing with tears in their prayers and discourses.
+They were the culminating development of the influences which produced
+the Church Militant of the Middle Ages, and in their hands the
+Inquisition was the most effective instrument whereby it maintained its
+supremacy. A secondary result was the complete subjugation of the South
+to the King of Paris, and its unification with the rest of France.
+
+If the faithful had imagined that the Treaty of 1229 had ended the
+contest with heresy they were quickly undeceived. The blood-money for
+the capture of heretics, promised by Count Raymond, was indeed paid when
+earned, for the Inquisition undertook to see that this was done, but the
+earning of it was dangerous. Nobles and burghers alike protected and
+defended the proscribed class, and those who hunted them were slain
+without mercy when occasion offered. The heretics continued as numerous
+as ever, and we have already seen the fruitless efforts put forth by the
+Cardinal Legate Romano and the Council of Toulouse. Even the university
+which Raymond bound himself to establish in Toulouse for the propagation
+of the faith, though it subsequently performed its work, was at first a
+failure. Learned theologians were brought from Paris to fill its chairs,
+but their scholastic subtleties were laughed at by the mocking Southrons
+as absurd novelties, and the heretics were bold enough to contend with
+them in debate. After a few years Raymond neglected to continue the
+stipends, and for a time the university was suspended.[5]
+
+The most encouraging feature of the situation, one, indeed, full of
+promise, was the steady progress of the Dominican Order. It had outgrown
+the modest Church of St. Romano, bestowed upon it by Bishop Foulques;
+and in 1230 the piety of a prominent burgher of Toulouse, Pons de
+Capdenier, provided for it more commodious quarters in an extensive
+garden, situated partly in the city and partly in the suburbs. The
+inmates of the convent, some forty in number, were always ready to
+furnish champions of the Cross, whose ardent zeal shrank from neither
+toil nor peril; and when, in 1232, the fanatic Bishop Foulques died and
+was succeeded by the yet more fiery fanatic, the Dominican Provincial
+Raymond du Fauga, the Order was fully prepared to enter upon the
+exterminating war with heresy which was to last for a hundred years.[6]
+
+The eager zeal of the friars did not wait to be armed with the organized
+authorization of inquisitorial powers. Their leading duty was to combat
+heresy, and their assaults on it were unintermitting. In 1231 a friar,
+in a sermon, declared that Toulouse was full of heretics, who held their
+assemblies there and disseminated their errors without hindrance.
+Already the magistrates seem to have looked askance on these pious
+efforts, for this assertion was made the occasion of a decided attempt
+at repression. The consuls of the city met and summoned before them, in
+the capitole, or town-hall, the prior, Pierre d'Alais. There they
+roundly scolded and threatened him, declaring that it was false to
+assert the existence of heresy in the town, and forbidding such
+utterances for the future. Trivial as was the occurrence, it has
+interest as the commencement of the ill-will between the authorities of
+Toulouse and the Inquisition, and as illustrating the sense of municipal
+pride and independence still cherished in the cities of the South. It
+required but a few years' struggle to trammel the civic liberties which
+had held their own against feudalism, but which could not stand against
+the subtler despotism of the Church.[7]
+
+Even thus early Dominican ardor refused to be thus restrained. Master
+Roland of Cremona, noted as the first Dominican licentiate of the
+University of Paris, who had been brought to Toulouse to teach theology
+in the infant University, was scandalized when he heard of the insolent
+language of the consuls, and exclaimed that it was only a fresh
+incentive to preach against heresy more bitterly than ever. He set the
+example in this, and was eagerly followed by many of the brethren. He
+soon, too, had an opportunity of proving the falsity of the consuls'
+disclaimer. It transpired that Jean Pierre Donat, a canon of the ancient
+Church of Saint Sernin, who had recently died and been buried in the
+cloister, had been secretly hereticated on his death-bed. Without
+authority, and apparently without legal investigation, Master Roland
+assembled some friars and clerks, exhumed the body from the cloister,
+dragged it through the streets, and publicly burned it. Soon afterwards
+he heard of the death of a prominent Waldensian minister named Galvan.
+After stirring up popular passion in a sermon, he marched at the head of
+a motley mob to the house where the heretic had died and levelled it to
+the ground; then proceeding to the Cemetery of Villeneuve, where the
+body was interred, he dug it up and dragged it through the city,
+accompanied by an immense procession, to the public place of execution
+beyond the walls, where it was solemnly burned.[8]
+
+All this was volunteer persecution. The episcopal court was as yet the
+only tribunal having power to act in such matters, and it, as we have
+seen, could only authorize the secular arm to do its duty in the final
+execution. Yet the episcopal court seems to have been in no way invoked
+in these proceedings, and no protest is recorded as having been uttered
+against such irregular enforcements of the law by the mob. There was, in
+fact, no organization for the steady repression of heresy. Bishop
+Raymond appears to have satisfied himself with an occasional raid
+against heretics outside of the city, and to have allowed those within
+it virtual immunity under the protection of the consuls, though he had,
+in virtue of his office, all the powers requisite for the purpose, and
+the machinery for their effective use could have readily been developed.
+No permanent results were to be expected from fitful bursts of zeal, and
+the suppression of heresy might well seem to be as far off as ever.
+
+Urgent as was evidently the need of some organized body devoted
+exclusively to persecution, the appointment of the first inquisitors,
+in 1233, seems not to have been regarded as possessing any special
+significance. It was merely an experiment, from which no great results
+were anticipated. Frere Guillem Pelisson, who shared in the labors and
+perils of the nascent Inquisition, and who enthusiastically chronicled
+them, evidently does not consider it as an innovation worthy of
+particular attention. It was so natural an evolution from the
+interaction of the forces and materials of the period, and its future
+importance was so little suspected, that he passes over its founding as
+an incident of less moment than the succession to the Priory of
+Toulouse. "Frere Pons de Saint Gilles," he says, "was made Prior of
+Toulouse, who bore himself manfully and effectively for the faith
+against the heretics, together with Frere Pierre Cella of Toulouse and
+Frere Guillem Arnaud of Montpellier, whom the lord pope made inquisitors
+against the heretics in the dioceses of Toulouse and Cahors. Also, the
+Legate Archbishop of Vienne made Frere Arnaud Catala, who was then of
+the Convent of Toulouse, inquisitor against the heretics." Thus
+colorless is the only contemporary account of the establishment of the
+Holy Office.[9]
+
+How little the functions of these new officials were at first understood
+is manifested by an occurrence, which is also highly suggestive of the
+tension of public feeling. In a quarrel between two citizens, one of
+them, Bernard Peitevin, called the other, Bernard de Solier, a heretic.
+This was a dangerous reputation to have, and the offended man summoned
+his antagonist before the consuls. The heretical party, we are told, had
+obtained the upper hand in Toulouse, and the magistrates were all either
+sympathizers with or believers in heresy. Bernard Peitevin was condemned
+to exile for a term of years, to pay a fine both to the complainant and
+to the city, and to swear publicly in the town-hall that he had lied,
+and that de Solier was a good Catholic. The sentence was a trifle
+vindictive, and Peitevin sought counsel of the Dominicans, who
+recommended him to appeal to the bishop. Episcopal jurisdiction in such
+a matter was perhaps doubtful, but Raymond du Fauga entertained the
+appeal. A few years later, if any cognizance had been taken of the case
+it would have been by the Inquisition, but now the inquisitors, Pierre
+Cella and Guillem Arnaud, appeared as advocates of the appellant in the
+bishop's court, and so clearly proved de Solier's heresy that the
+miserable wretch fled to Lombardy.[10]
+
+Similar indefiniteness of procedure is visible in the next attempt. The
+inquisitors, Pierre and Guillem, began to make an inquest through the
+city, and cited numerous suspects, all of whom found defenders among the
+chief citizens. The hearings took place before them, but seem as yet to
+have been in public. One of the accused, named Jean Teisseire, asserted
+himself to be a good Catholic because he had no scruples in maintaining
+marital relations with his wife, in eating flesh, and in lying and
+swearing, and he warned the crowd that they were liable to the same
+charge, and that it would be wiser for them to make common cause than to
+abandon him. When he was condemned, and the viguier, the official
+representative of the count, was about to conduct him to the stake, so
+threatening a clamor arose that the prisoner was hurried to the bishop's
+prison, still proclaiming his orthodoxy. Intense excitement pervaded the
+city, and menaces were freely uttered to destroy the Dominican convent
+and to stone all the friars, who were accused of persecuting the
+innocent. While in prison Teisseire pretended to fall mortally sick, and
+asked for the sacraments; but when the bailli of Lavaur brought to
+Toulouse some perfected heretics and delivered them to the bishop,
+Teisseire allowed himself to be hereticated by them in prison, and grew
+so ardent in the faith under their exhortations that when they were
+taken out for examination he accompanied them, declaring that he would
+share their fate. The bishop assembled the magistrates and many
+citizens, in whose presence he examined the prisoners. They were all
+condemned, including Teisseire, who obstinately refused to recant, and
+no further opposition was offered when they were all duly burned.[11]
+
+Here we see the inquisitorial jurisdiction completely subordinate to
+that of the bishop, but when the inquisitors soon afterwards left
+Toulouse to hold inquests elsewhere they acted with full independence.
+At Cahors we hear nothing of the Bishop of Querci taking part in the
+proceedings under which they condemned a number of the dead, exhuming
+and burning their bodies, and inspiring such fear that a prominent
+believer, Raymond de Broleas, fled to Rome. At Moissac they condemned
+Jean du Gard, who fled to Montsegur, and they cited a certain Folquet,
+who, in terror, entered the convent of Belleperche as a Cistercian monk,
+and, finding that this was of no avail, finally fled to Lombardy.
+Meanwhile Frere Arnaud Catala and our chronicler, Guillem Pelisson,
+descended upon Albi, where they penanced a dozen citizens by ordering
+them to Palestine, and in conjunction with another inquisitor, Guillem
+de Lombers, burned two heretics, Pierre de Puechperdut and Pierre
+Bomassipio.[12]
+
+The absence of the inquisitors from Toulouse made no difference in the
+good work, for their duties were assumed by their prior, Pons de
+Saint-Gilles. Under what authority he acted is not stated, but we find
+him, in conjunction with another friar, trying and condemning a certain
+Arnaud Sancier, who was burned, in spite of his protests to the last
+that he was a good Catholic, causing great agitation in the city, but no
+tumultuous uprising.[13]
+
+The terror which Pelisson boasts that these proceedings spread through
+the land was probably owing not only to the evidence they afforded of an
+organized system of persecution, but also to their introduction of a
+much more effective method of prosecution than had heretofore been
+known. The "heretic," so called, was the perfected teacher who
+disdained to deny his faith, and his burning was accepted by all as a
+matter of course, as also was that of the "credens," or believer, who
+was defiantly contumacious and persisted in admitting and adhering to
+his creed. Hitherto, however, the believer who professed orthodoxy seems
+generally to have escaped, in the imperfection of the judicial means of
+proving his guilt. The friars, trained in the subtleties of disputation
+and learned in both civil and canon law, were specially fitted for the
+detection of this particularly dangerous secret misbelief, and their
+persistence in worrying their victims to the death was well calculated
+to spread alarm, not only among the guilty, but among the innocent.
+
+How reasonable were the fears inspired by the speedy informality of the
+justice accorded to the heretic is well illustrated by a case occurring
+in 1234. When the canonization of St. Dominic was announced in Toulouse
+it was celebrated in a solemn mass performed by Bishop Raymond in the
+Dominican convent. St. Dominic, however, desired to mark the occasion
+with some more edifying manifestation of his peculiar functions, and
+caused word to be brought to the bishop, as the latter was leaving the
+church for the refectory to partake of a meal, that a woman had just
+been hereticated in a house hard by, in the Rue de l'Olmet sec. The
+bishop, with the prior and some others, hurried thither. It was the
+house of Peitavin Borsier, the general messenger of the heretics of
+Toulouse, whose mother-in-law lay dying of fever. So sudden was the
+entrance of the intruders that the woman's friends could only tell her
+"the bishop is coming," and she, who expected a visit from the heretic
+bishop, was easily led on by Raymond to make a full declaration of her
+heresy and to pledge herself to be steadfast in it. Then, revealing
+himself, he ordered her to recant, and, on her refusal, he summoned the
+viguier, condemned her as a heretic, and had the satisfaction of seeing
+the dying creature carried off on her bed and burned at the place of
+execution. Borsier and his colleague, Bernard Aldric of Dremil, were
+captured, and betrayed many of their friends; and then Raymond and the
+friars returned to their neglected dinner, giving thanks to God and to
+St. Dominic for so signal a manifestation in favor of the faith.[14]
+
+The ferocious exultation with which these extra-judicial horrors were
+perpetrated is well reflected in a poem of the period by Isarn, the
+Dominican Prior of Villemier. He represents himself as disputing with
+Sicard de Figueras, a Catharan bishop, and each of his theological
+arguments is clinched with a threat--
+
+    "E' s'aquest no vols creyre vec te 'l foc aizinat
+       Que art tos companhos,
+     Aras vuelh que m'respondas en un mot o en dos,
+     Si cauziras et foc o remanras ab nos."
+
+"If you will not believe this, look at that raging fire which is
+consuming your comrades. Now I wish you to reply to me in one word or
+two, for you will burn in the fire or join us." Or again, "If you do
+not confess at once, the flames are already lighted; your name is
+proclaimed throughout the city with the blast of trumpets, and the
+people are gathering to see you burn." In this terrible poem, Isarn
+only turned into verse what he felt in his own heart, and what he saw
+passing under his eyes almost daily.[15]
+
+As the holy work assumed shape and its prospects of results grew more
+encouraging, the zeal of the hunters of men increased, while the fear
+and hatred of the hunted became more threatening. On both sides passion
+was fanned into flame. Already, in 1233, two Dominicans, sent to Cordes
+to seek out heretics, had been slain by the terrified citizens. At Albi
+the people, excited by the burning of the two heretics already referred
+to, rose, June 14, 1234, when Arnaud Catala ordered the episcopal bailli
+to dig up the bones of a heretic woman named Beissera whom he had
+condemned. The bailli sent back word that he dared not do it. Arnaud
+left the episcopal synod in which he was sitting, coolly went to the
+cemetery, himself gave the first strokes of the mattock, and then,
+ordering the officials to proceed with the work, returned to the synod.
+The officials quickly rushed after him, saying that they had been
+ejected from the burial-ground by the mob. Arnaud returned and found it
+occupied by a crowd of howling sons of Belial, who quickly closed in on
+him, striking him in the face and pummelling him on all sides, with
+shouts of "Kill him! he has no right to live!" Some endeavored to drag
+him into the shops hard by to slay him; others wished to throw him into
+the river Tarn, but he was rescued and taken back to the synod, followed
+by a mass of men fiercely shouting for his death. The whole city,
+indeed, seemed to be of one mind, and many of the principal burghers
+were leaders of the tumult. It is satisfactory to learn that, although
+Arnaud mercifully withdrew the excommunication which he launched at the
+rebellious city, his successor, Frere Ferrer, wrought the judgment of
+God upon the guilty, imprisoning many of them and burning others.[16]
+
+In Narbonne disturbances arose even more serious, although special
+inquisitors had not yet been sent there. In March, 1234, the Dominican
+prior, Francois Ferrer, undertook a volunteer inquisition and threw in
+prison a citizen named Raymond d'Argens. Fifteen years previous the
+artisans of the suburb had organized a confederation for mutual support
+called the Amistance, and this body arose as one man and forcibly
+rescued the prisoner. The archbishop, Pierre Amiel, and the viscount,
+Aimery of Narbonne, undertook to rearrest him, but found his house
+guarded by the Amistance, which rushed upon their followers with shouts
+of "Kill! kill!" and drove them away after a brief skirmish, in which
+the prior was badly handled. The archbishop had recourse to
+excommunication and interdict, but to little purpose, for the Amistance
+seized his domains and drove him from the city. Both sides sought
+allies. Gregory IX. appealed to King Jayme of Aragon, while a complaint
+from the consuls of Narbonne to those of Nimes looks as though they were
+endeavoring to effect a confederation of the cities against the
+Inquisition, of whose arbitrary and illegal methods of procedure they
+give abundant details. A kind of truce was patched up in October, but
+the troubles recommenced when the prior, in obedience to an order from
+his provincial, undertook a fresh inquisition, and made a number of
+arrests. In December a suspension was obtained by the citizens appealing
+to the pope, the king, and the legate, but in 1235 the people rose
+against the Dominicans, drove them from the city, sacked their convent,
+and destroyed all the records of the proceedings against heresy.
+Archbishop Pierre had cunningly separated the city from the suburb,
+about equal in population, by confining the inquisition to the latter,
+and this bore fruit in his securing the armed support of the former. The
+suburb placed itself under the protection of Count Raymond, who, nothing
+loath to aggravate the trouble, came there and gave to the people as
+leaders Olivier de Termes and Guiraud de Niort, two notorious defenders
+of heretics. A bloody civil war broke out between the two sections,
+which lasted until April, 1237, when a truce for a year was agreed upon.
+In the following August the Count of Toulouse and the Seneschal of
+Carcassonne were called in as arbitrators, and in March, 1238, a peace
+was concluded. That the Church triumphed is shown by the conditions
+which imposed upon some of the participators in the troubles a year's
+service in Palestine or against the Moors of Spain.[17]
+
+In Toulouse, the centre both of heresy and persecution, in spite of
+mutterings and menaces, open opposition to the Inquisition was postponed
+longer than elsewhere. Although Count Raymond is constantly represented
+by the Church party as the chief opponent of the Holy Office, it was
+probably his influence that succeeded in staving off so long the
+inevitable rupture. Hard experience from childhood could scarce have
+rendered him a fervent Catholic, yet that experience had shown him that
+the favor and protection of the Church were indispensable if he would
+retain the remnant of territory and power that had been left to him. He
+could not as yet be at heart a persecutor of heresy, yet he could not
+afford to antagonize the Church. It was important for him to retain the
+love and good-will of his subjects and to prevent the desolation of his
+cities and lordships, but it was yet more important for him to escape
+the stigma of favoring heresy, and to avoid calling down upon his head a
+renewal of the storm in which he had been so nearly wrecked. Few princes
+have had a more difficult part to play, with dangers besetting him on
+every side, and if he earned the reputation of a trimmer without
+religious convictions, that reputation and his retention of his position
+till his death are perhaps the best proof of the fundamental wisdom
+which guided his necessarily tortuous course. Pierre Cardinal, the
+Troubadour, describes him as defending himself from the assaults of the
+worst of men, as fearing neither the Frenchman nor the ecclesiastic, and
+as humble only with the good.[18]
+
+He was always at odds with his prelates. Intricate questions with regard
+to the temporalities were a constant source of quarrel, and he lived
+under a perpetual reduplication of excommunications, for he had been so
+long under the ban of the Church that no bishop hesitated for a moment
+in anathematizing him. Then, one of the conditions of the treaty of 1229
+had been that within two years he should proceed to Palestine and wage
+war there with the infidel for five years. The two years had passed away
+without his performing the vow; the state of the country at no time
+seemed to render so prolonged an absence safe, and for years a leading
+object of his policy was to obtain a postponement of his crusade or
+immunity for the non-observance of his vow. Moreover, from the date of
+the peace of Paris until the end of his life he earnestly and vainly
+endeavored to obtain from Rome permission for the sepulture of his
+father's body. These complications crippled him in multitudinous ways
+and exposed him to immense disadvantage in his fencing with the
+hierarchy.
+
+As early as 1230 he was taxed by the legate with inobservance of the
+conditions of the peace, and was forced to promise amendment of his
+ways. In 1232 we see Gregory IX. imperiously ordering him to be
+energetic in the duty of persecution, and, possibly in obedience to
+this, during the same year, we find him personally accompanying Bishop
+Raymond of Toulouse in a nocturnal expedition among the mountains, which
+was rewarded with the capture of nineteen perfected heretics, male and
+female, including one of their most important leaders, Pagan, Seigneur
+de Becede, whose castle we saw captured in 1227. All these expiated
+their errors at the stake. Yet not long afterwards the Bishop of
+Tournay, as papal legate, assembled the prelates of Languedoc and
+formally cited Raymond before King Louis to answer for his slackness in
+carrying out the provisions of the treaty. The result of this was the
+drawing up of severe enactments against heretics, which he was obliged
+to promulgate in February, 1234. In spite of this, and of a letter from
+Gregory to the bishops ordering them no longer to excommunicate him so
+freely as before, he was visited within a twelvemonth with two fresh
+excommunications, for purely temporal causes. Then came fresh urgency
+from the pope for the extirpation of heresy, with which Raymond
+doubtless made a show of compliance, as his heart was bent on obtaining
+from Rome a restoration of the Marquisate of Provence. In this he was
+strongly backed by King Louis, whose brother Alfonse was to be Raymond's
+heir, and towards the close of the year he sought an interview with
+Gregory and succeeded in effecting it. His reconciliation with the
+papacy appeared to be complete. His military reputation stood high, and
+Gregory made use of his visit to confide to him the leadership of the
+papal troops in a campaign against the rebellious citizens of Rome, who
+had expelled the head of the Church from their city. Though he did not
+succeed in restoring the pope, they parted on the best of terms, and he
+returned to Toulouse as a favored son of the Church, ready on all points
+to obey her behests.[19]
+
+There he found matters rapidly approaching a crisis which tested to the
+utmost his skill in temporizing. Passions on both sides were rising to
+an uncontrollable point. At Easter, 1235, the promise of grace for
+voluntary confession brought forward such crowds of penitent heretics
+that the Dominicans were insufficient to take their testimony, and were
+obliged to call in the aid of the Franciscans and of all the parish
+priests of the city. Encouraged by this, the prior, Pons de
+Saint-Gilles, commenced to seize those who had not come forward
+spontaneously. Among these was a certain Arnaud Dominique, who, to save
+his life, promised to betray eleven heretics residing in a house at
+Cassers. This he fulfilled, though four of them escaped through the aid
+of the neighboring peasants, and he was set at liberty. The
+long-suffering of the heretics, however, was at last exhausted, and
+shortly afterwards he was murdered in his bed at Aigrefeuille by the
+friends of those whom he had thus sacrificed. Still more significant of
+the dangerous tension of popular feeling was a mob which, under the
+guidance of two leading citizens, forcibly rescued Pierre-Guillem Delort
+from the hands of the viguier and of the Abbot of Saint-Sernin, who had
+arrested him and were conveying him to prison. The situation was
+becoming unbearable, and soon the ceremony of dragging through the
+streets and burning the bodies of some dead heretics aroused an
+agitation so general and so menacing that Count Raymond was sent for in
+hopes that his interposition might avert the most deplorable
+consequences. Thus far, although perhaps somewhat lacking in alacrity of
+persecution, no serious charges could be laid against him. His
+officials, his baillis and viguiers, had responded to all appeals of the
+inquisitors and had lent the aid of the secular arm in seizing heretics,
+in burning them, and in confiscating their property. Yet when he came to
+Toulouse and begged the inquisitors to suspend for a time the vigor of
+their operations he was not listened to. Then he turned to the papal
+legate, Jean, Archbishop of Vienne, complaining specially of Pierre
+Cella, whom he considered to be inspired with personal enmity to
+himself, and whom he regarded as the chief author of the troubles. His
+request that Cella's operations should be confined to Querci was
+granted. That inquisitor was sent to Cahors, where, with the assistance
+of Pons Delmont and Guillem Pelisson he vigorously traversed the land
+and forced multitudes to confess their guilt.[20]
+
+This expedient was of no avail. Persecution continued as aggressive as
+ever, and popular indignation steadily rose. The inevitable crisis soon
+came which should determine whether the Inquisition should sink into
+insignificance, as had been the case with so many previous efforts, or
+whether it should triumph over all opposition and become the dominating
+power in the land.
+
+Guillem Arnaud was in no way abashed by the banishment of his colleague.
+Returning from a brief absence at Carcassonne, of which more anon, he
+summoned for trial as believers twelve of the leading citizens of
+Toulouse, one of them a consul. They refused to appear, and threatened
+him with violence unless he should desist. On his persisting, word was
+sent him, with the assent of Count Raymond, that he must either leave
+the city or abandon his functions as inquisitor. He took council with
+his Dominican brethren, when it was unanimously agreed that he should
+proceed manfully in his duty. The consuls then ejected him by force from
+the city; he was accompanied to the bridge over the Garonne by all the
+friars, and as he departed the consuls recorded a protest to the effect
+that if he would desist from the inquisition he could remain; otherwise,
+in the name of the count and in their own, they ordered him to leave the
+city. He went to Carcassonne, whence he ordered the Prior of
+Saint-Etienne and the parish priests to repeat the citations to the
+parties already summoned. This order was bravely obeyed in spite of
+threats, when the consuls sent for the prior and priests, and after
+keeping them in the town-hall part of a night, expelled them from the
+town, and publicly proclaimed that any one daring to repeat the
+citations should be put to death, and that any one obeying the summons
+of an inquisitor should answer for it in body and goods. Another
+proclamation followed, in which the name of Count Raymond was used,
+prohibiting that any one should give or sell anything to the bishop, the
+Dominicans, or the canons of Saint-Etienne. This forced the bishop to
+leave the city, as we are told that no one dared even to bake a loaf of
+bread for him, and the populace, moreover, invaded his house, beat his
+clerks, and stole his horses. The Dominicans fared better, for they had
+friends hardy enough to supply them with necessaries, and when the
+consuls posted guards around their house, still bread and cheese and
+other food was thrown over their walls in spite of the arrest of some of
+those engaged in it. Their principal suffering was from lack of water,
+which had to be brought from the Garonne, and as this source of supply
+was cut off, they were unable to boil their vegetables. For three weeks
+they thus exultingly endured their martyrdom in a holy cause. Matters
+became more serious when the indomitable Guillem Arnaud sent from
+Carcassonne a letter to the prior saying, that as no one dared to cite
+the contumacious citizens, he was forced to order two of the friars to
+summon them to appear before him personally in Carcassonne to answer for
+their faith, and that two others must accompany them as witnesses.
+Tolling the convent bell, the prior assembled the brethren, and said to
+them with a joyful countenance: "Brethren, rejoice, for I must send
+four of you through martyrdom to the throne of the Most High. Such are
+the commands of our brother, Guillem the inquisitor, and whoever obeys
+them will be slain on the spot, as threatened by the consuls. Let those
+who are ready to die for Christ ask pardon." With a common impulse the
+whole body cast themselves on the ground, which was the Dominican form
+of asking pardon, and the prior selected four, Raymond de Foix, Jean de
+Saint-Michel, Gui de Navarre, and Guillem Pelisson. These intrepidly
+performed their duty, even penetrating when necessary into the
+bed-chambers of the accused. Only in one house were they ill-treated,
+and even there, when the sons of the person cited drew knives upon them,
+the bystanders interfered.
+
+There was evidently nothing to be done with men who thus courted
+martyrdom. To gratify them would be suicidal, and the consuls decided to
+expel them. On being informed of this the prior distributed among trusty
+friends the books and sacred vessels and vestments of the convent. The
+next day (Nov. 5 or 6, 1235) the friars, after mass, sat down to their
+simple meal, during which the consuls came with a great crowd and
+threatened to break in the door. The friars marched in procession to
+their church, where they took their seats, and when the consuls entered
+and commanded them to depart they refused. Then each was seized and
+violently led forth, two of them who threw themselves on the ground near
+the door being picked up by the hands and feet and carried out. Thus
+they were accompanied through the town, but not otherwise maltreated,
+and they turned the affair into a procession, marching two by two and
+singing Te Deum and Salve Regina. At first they went to a farm belonging
+to the church of Saint-Etienne, but the consuls posted guards to see
+that nothing was furnished to them, and the next day the prior
+distributed them among the convents of the province. That the whole
+affair enlisted for them the sympathies of the faithful was shown by two
+persons of consideration joining them and entering the Order while it
+was going on.[21]
+
+It is significant of the position which Guillem Arnaud's steadfastness
+had already won for his office that to him was conceded the vindication
+of this series of outrages on the immunity of the Church. Bishop Raymond
+had joined him in Carcassonne without anathematizing the authors of his
+exile, but now the anathema promptly went forth, November 10, 1235,
+uttered by the inquisitor with the names of the Bishops of Toulouse and
+Carcassonne appended as assenting witnesses. It was confined to the
+consuls, but Count Raymond was not allowed to escape the responsibility.
+The excommunication was sent to the Franciscans of Toulouse for
+publication, and when they obeyed they too were expelled, in no gentle
+fashion, and the rebellious city was virtually left without
+ecclesiastics. Further excommunications followed, now including the
+count, and Prior Pons de Saint-Gilles hastened to Italy to pour the
+story of his woes into the sympathizing ears of the pope and the sacred
+college. Gregory assailed the count as the chief offender. A minatory
+brief of April 28, 1236, addressed to him, is couched in the severest
+language. He is held responsible for the audacious acts of the consuls;
+he is significantly reminded of the unperformed vow of the crusade; not
+only has he failed to extirpate heresy according to his pledges, but he
+is a manifest fautor and protector of heretics; his favorites and
+officers are suspect of heresy; he protects those who have been
+condemned; his lands are a place of refuge for those flying from
+persecution elsewhere, so that heresy is daily spreading and conversions
+from Catholicism are frequent, while zealous churchmen seeking to
+restrain them are slain and abused with impunity. All this he is
+peremptorily ordered to correct and to sail with his knights to the Holy
+Land in the "general passage" of the following March. It scarcely
+needed the reminder, which the pope did not spare him, of the labors
+which the Church and its Crusaders had undergone to purge his lands of
+heresy. He had too keen a recollection of the abyss from which he had
+escaped to risk another plunge. He had gone as far as he dared in the
+effort to protect his subjects, and it were manifest folly to draw upon
+his head and theirs another inroad of the marauders whom the pope with a
+word could let loose upon him to earn salvation with the sword.[22]
+
+The epistle to Raymond was accompanied with one to the legate,
+instructing him to compel the count to make amends and perform the
+crusade. To Frederic II. he wrote forbidding him to call on Raymond for
+feudal services, as the count was under excommunication and virtually a
+heretic, to which the emperor replied, reasonably enough, that, so long
+as Raymond enjoyed possession of fiefs held under the empire,
+excommunication should not confer on him the advantage of release from
+their burdens. King Louis was also appealed to and was urged to hasten
+the marriage between his brother Alfonse and Raymond's daughter Jeanne.
+With the spectre of all Europe in arms looming up before him Raymond
+could do nothing but yield. When, therefore, the legate summoned him to
+meet the inquisitors at Carcassonne he meekly went there and conferred
+with them and the bishops. The conference ended with his promise to
+return the bishop and friars and clergy to Toulouse, and this promise he
+kept. The friars were duly reinstated September 4, after ten months of
+exile. That Guillem Arnaud returned with them is a matter of course.[23]
+
+Pierre Cella was still restricted to his diocese of Querci, and as
+Guillem required a colleague, a concession was made to popular feeling
+by the legate in appointing a Franciscan, it being imagined that the
+comparative mildness of that Order might serve to modify the hatred felt
+towards the Dominicans. The post was conferred on the provincial
+minister, Jean de Notoyra, but his other duties were too engrossing, and
+he substituted Frere Etienne de Saint-Thibery, who had the reputation of
+being a modest and courteous man. If hopes were entertained that thus
+the severity of the Inquisition would be tempered, they were
+disappointed. The two men worked cordially together, with a single
+purpose and perfect unanimity.[24]
+
+Guillem Arnaud's activity was untiring. During his exile in Carcassonne
+he occupied himself with the trial of the Seigneur de Niort, whom he
+sentenced in February or March, 1236.[25] In the early months of 1237 we
+hear of him in Querci, co-operating with Pierre Cella in harrying the
+heretics of Montauban. During his absence there occurred a crowning
+mercy in Toulouse, which threw the heretics into a spasm of terror and
+contributed greatly to their destruction. Raymond Gros, who had been a
+perfected heretic for more than twenty years, one of the most loved and
+trusted leaders of the sect, was suddenly converted. Tradition relates
+that a quarter of a century before he had been seized and consigned to
+the stake, when the prophetic spirit of St. Dominic, foreseeing that he
+would return to the Church and perform shining service in the cause of
+God, rescued him from the flames. On April 2, without heralding, he
+presented himself at the Dominican convent, humbly begged to be received
+into the Church, and promised to do whatever should be required of him.
+With the eagerness of an impassioned convert he proceeded to reveal all
+that lifelong intercourse with the Cathari had brought to his knowledge.
+So full were his recollections that several days were required to write
+down all the names and facts that crowded to his lips. The lists were
+long and embraced prominent nobles and citizens, confirming suspicion in
+many cases, and revealing heresy in other quarters where it was wholly
+unlooked for.
+
+Guillem Arnaud hurried back from Montauban to take full advantage of
+this act of Providence. The heretics were stunned. None of them dared to
+deny the truth of the accusations made by Raymond Gros. Many fled, some
+of whose names reappear in the massacre of Avignonet and the final
+catastrophe of Montsegur. Many recanted and furnished further
+revelations. Long lists were made out of those who had been hereticated
+on their death-beds, and multitudes of corpses were exhumed and burned,
+with the resultant harvest of confiscations. It is difficult to
+exaggerate the severity of the blow thus received by heresy. Toulouse
+was its headquarters. Here were the nobles and knights, the consuls and
+rich burghers who had thus far defied scrutiny and had protected their
+less fortunate comrades. Now scattered and persecuted, forced to recant,
+or burned, the power of the secret organization was broken irrevocably.
+We can well appreciate the pious exultation of the chronicler as he
+winds up his account of the consternation and destruction thus visited
+upon the heretical community--"Their names are not written in the Book
+of Life, but their bodies here were burned and their souls are tortured
+in hell!" A single sentence of February 19, 1238, in which more than
+twenty penitents were consigned _en masse_ to perpetual imprisonment,
+shows the extent of the harvest and the haste of the harvesters.[26]
+
+The Inquisition thus had overcome the popular horror which its
+proceedings had excited; it had braved the shock and triumphed over the
+opposition of the secular authorities, and had planted itself firmly in
+the soil. After the harvest had been gathered in Toulouse it was evident
+to the indefatigable activity of the inquisitors that they could best
+perform their functions by riding circuit and holding assizes in all the
+towns subject to their jurisdiction, and this was represented as a
+concession to avert the complaints of those who deemed it a hardship to
+be summoned to distant places. Their incessant labors began to tell.
+Heretics were leaving the lands of Raymond at last and seeking a refuge
+elsewhere. Possibly some of them found it in the domains which had
+fallen to the crown, for in this year we find Gregory scolding the royal
+officials for their slackness of zeal in executing sentences against
+powerful heretics. Elsewhere, however, there was no rest for them. In
+Provence this year Pons de l'Esparre made himself conspicuous for the
+energy and effectiveness with which he confounded the enemies of the
+faith; while Montpellier, alarmed at the influx of heretics and their
+success in propagating their errors, appealed to Gregory to favor them
+with some assistance that should effectively resist the rising tide, and
+Gregory at once ordered his legate Jean de Vienne to go thither and take
+the necessary measures.[27]
+
+The progress of the Inquisition, however, was not destined to be
+uninterrupted. Count Raymond, apparently reckless of the numerous
+excommunications under which he lay, so far from sailing for Palestine
+in March, had seized Marseilles, which was in rebellion against its
+suzerain, the Count of Provence. This aroused anew the indignation of
+Gregory, not only because of its interference with the war against the
+Saracens in Spain and the Holy Land, but because of the immunity which
+heretics would enjoy during the quarrel of the Christian princes. He
+peremptorily ordered Raymond to desist from his enterprise on
+Marseilles, and to perform his Crusader's vow. An appeal was made to
+King Louis and Queen Blanche, whose intervention procured for Raymond
+not only a postponement of the crusade for another year, but an order to
+the legate empowering him to grant the count's request to take the
+Inquisition entirely out of the hands of the Dominicans, if, on
+investigation, he should find justification for Raymond's assertion that
+they were actuated by hatred towards himself. Fresh troubles had arisen
+at Toulouse. July 24, 1237, the inquisitors had again excommunicated the
+viguier and consuls, because they had not arrested and burned Alaman de
+Roaix and some other heretics, condemned _in absentia_, and Raymond was
+resolved, if possible, to relieve himself and his subjects from the
+cruel oppression to which they were exposed.[28]
+
+In this his efforts were crowned with most unlooked-for success. May 13,
+1238, he obtained a suspension for three months of all inquisitorial
+proceedings, during which time his envoys sent to Gregory were to be
+heard. They seem to have used most persuasive arguments, for Gregory
+wrote to the Bishop of Toulouse to continue the suspension until the new
+legate, the Cardinal-bishop of Palestrina, should examine into the
+complaints against the Dominicans and consider the advisability of
+granting Raymond's request that the business of persecution should be
+confined, as formerly, to the bishops. Raymond's crusade was also
+reduced to three years, to be performed voluntarily, provided he would
+give to King Louis sufficient security that he would sail the following
+year: by performing this, and making amends for the wrongs inflicted on
+the Church, he was to earn absolution from his numerous
+excommunications.[29]
+
+The temporary suspension was unexpectedly prolonged, for, owing to
+hostilities with Frederic II., the cardinal-legate's departure was
+postponed for a year. When at least he came, in 1239, he brought special
+orders to the inquisitors to obey his commands. What investigation he
+made and what were his conclusions we have no means of knowing, but this
+at least is certain, that until late in 1241 the Inquisition was
+effectually muzzled. No traces remain of its activity during these
+years, and Catholic and Catharan alike could draw a freer breath,
+relieved of apprehension from its ever-present supervision and the
+seemingly superhuman energy of the friars.[30]
+
+We can readily conjecture the reasons which impelled its reinstatement.
+Doubtless the bishops were as negligent as of old, and looked after
+their temporalities to the exclusion of their duties in preserving the
+purity of the faith. Doubtless, too, the heretics, encouraged by virtual
+toleration, grew bolder, and cherished hopes of a return to the good old
+times, when, secure under their native princes, they could safely defy
+distant Paris and yet more distant Rome. The condition of the country
+was, in fact, by no means reassuring, especially in the regions which
+had become domains of the crown. The land was full of knights and barons
+who were more or less openly heretics, and who knew not when the blow
+might fall on them; of seigneurs who had been proscribed for heresy; of
+enforced converts who secretly longed to avow their hidden faith, and to
+regain their confiscated lands; of penitents burning to throw off the
+crosses imposed on them, and to avenge the humiliations which they had
+endured. Refugees, _faidits_, and heretic teachers were wandering
+through the mountains, dwelling in caverns and in the recesses of the
+forests. Scarce a family but had some kinsman to avenge, who had fallen
+in the field or had perished at the stake. The lack of prisons and the
+parsimony of the prelates had prevented a general resort to
+imprisonment, and the burnings had not been numerous enough to notably
+reduce the numbers of those who were of necessity bitterly opposed to
+the existing order. Suddenly, in 1240, an insurrection appeared, headed
+by Trencavel, son of that Viscount of Beziers whom we have seen
+entrapped by Simon de Montfort and dying opportunely in his hands, not
+without suspicion of poison. He brought with him from Catalonia troops
+of proscribed knights and gentlemen, and was greeted enthusiastically by
+the vassals and subjects of his house. Count Raymond, his cousin, held
+aloof; but his ambiguous conduct showed plainly that he was prepared to
+act on either side as success or defeat might render advisable. At first
+the rising seemed to prosper. Trencavel laid siege to his ancestral town
+of Carcassonne, and the spirit of his followers was shown when, on the
+surrender of the suburb, they slaughtered in cold blood thirty
+ecclesiastics who had received solemn assurance of free egress to
+Narbonne.[31]
+
+It required but a small force of royal troops under Jean de Beaumont to
+crush the insurrection as quickly as it had arisen, and to inflict a
+vengeance which virtually annihilated the _petite noblesse_ of the
+region; but, nevertheless, the lesson which it taught was not to be
+neglected. The civil order, as now established in the south of France,
+evidently rested in the religious order, and the maintenance of this
+required hands more vigorous and watchful than those of the self-seeking
+prelates. A great assembly of the Cathari held in 1241, on the bank of
+the Larneta, under the presidency of Aymeri de Collet, heretic Bishop of
+Albi, showed how bold they had become, and how confidently they looked
+to the future. Church and State both could see now, if not before, that
+the Inquisition was a necessary factor in securing to both the
+advantages gained in the crusades.[32]
+
+Gregory IX., the founder of the Inquisition, died August 22, 1241. It is
+probable that, before his death, he had put an end to the suspension of
+the Inquisition and slipped the hounds from the leash, for his immediate
+successor, Celestin IV., enjoyed a pontificate of but nineteen
+days--from September 20 to October 8--and then followed an interregnum
+until the election of Innocent IV., June 28, 1243, so that for nearly
+two years the papal throne was practically vacant. Raymond's policy,
+for the moment, had leaned towards gratifying the papacy, for he desired
+from Gregory not only the removal of his four excommunications and
+forbearance in the matter of the crusade, but also a dispensation to
+enable him to carry out a contract of marriage into which he entered
+with Sanche, daughter and heiress of the Count of Provence, not
+foreseeing that Queen Blanche would juggle him in this, and, by securing
+the brilliant match for her son Charles, found the House of
+Anjou-Provence, and win for the royal family another large portion of
+the South. Full of these projects, which promised so well for the
+rehabilitation of his power, he signed, April 18, 1241, with Jayme I. of
+Aragon, a treaty of alliance for the defence of the Holy See and the
+Catholic faith, and against the heretics. Under such influences he was
+not likely to oppose the renewal of active persecution. Besides, he had
+been compromised in Trencavel's insurrection; he had been summoned to
+answer for his conduct before King Louis, when, on March 14, he had been
+forced to take an oath to banish from his lands the _faidits_ and
+enemies of the king, and to capture without delay the castle of
+Montsegur, the last refuge of heresy.[33]
+
+The case of the Seigneurs de Niort, powerful nobles of Fenouilledes, who
+had taken part in Trencavel's insurrection, is interesting from the
+light which it throws upon the connection between the religion and the
+politics of the time, the difficulties which the Inquisition experienced
+in dealing with stubborn heresy and patriotism, and the damage inflicted
+on the heretic cause by the abortive revolt. The three brothers--Guillem
+Guiraud, Bernard Otho, and Guiraud Bernard--with their mother,
+Esclarmonde, had long been a quarry which both the inquisitors and the
+royal seneschal of Carcassonne had been eager to capture. Guillem had
+earned the reputation of a valiant knight in the wars of the crusades,
+and the brothers had managed to hold their castles and their power
+through all the vicissitudes of the time. In the general inquisition
+made by Cardinal Romano in 1229 they were described as among the chief
+leaders of the heretics, and the Council of Toulouse, at the same time,
+denounced two of them as enemies of the faith, and declared them
+excommunicate if they did not submit within fifteen days. In 1233 we
+hear of their having, not long before, laid waste with fire and sword
+the territories of Pierre Amiel, Archbishop of Narbonne, and they had
+assailed and wounded him while on his way to the Holy See, an exploit
+which led Gregory IX. to order the archbishop, in conjunction with the
+Bishop of Toulouse, to proceed against them energetically, while at the
+same time he invoked the secular arm by a pressing command to Count
+Raymond. It was probably under this authority that Bishop Raymond du
+Fauga and the Provost of Toulouse held an inquest on them, in which was
+taken the testimony of Pierre Amiel and of one hundred and seven other
+witnesses. The evidence was conflicting. The archbishop swore at great
+length as to the misdeeds of his enemies. They were all heretics. At one
+time they kept in their Castle of Dourne no less than thirty perfected
+heretics, and they had procured the assassination of Andre Chaulet,
+Seneschal of Carcassonne, because he had endeavored to obtain evidence
+against them. Other witnesses were equally emphatic. Bernard Otho on one
+occasion had silenced a priest in his own church, and had replaced him
+in the pulpit with a heretic, who had preached to the congregation. On
+the other hand, there were not wanting witnesses who boldly defended
+them. The preceptor of the Hospital at Puysegur swore to the orthodoxy
+of Bernard Otho, and declared that what he had done for the faith and
+for peace had caused the death of a thousand heretics. A priest swore to
+having seen him assist in capturing heretics, and an archdeacon declared
+that he would not have remained in the land but for the army which
+Bernard raised after the death of the late king, adding that he believed
+the prosecution arose rather from hate than from charity. Nothing came
+of this attempt, and in 1234 we meet with Bernard Otho as a witness to a
+transaction between the royal Seneschal of Carcassonne and the Monastery
+of Alet; but when the Inquisition was established it was promptly
+brought to bear on the nobles who persisted in maintaining their feudal
+independence in spite of the fact that their immediate suzerain was now
+the king. In 1235 Guillem Arnaud, the inquisitor, while in Carcassonne,
+with the Archdeacon of Carcassonne as assistant, cited the three
+brothers and their mother to answer before him. Bernard Otho and Guillem
+obeyed the summons, but would confess nothing. Then the seneschal seized
+them; under compulsion Guillem made confession ample to warrant the
+inquisitor in sentencing him to perpetual prison (March 2, 1236), while
+Bernard, remaining obdurate, was condemned as a contumacious heretic
+(February 13, 1236), and the seneschal made preparations to burn him.
+Guiraud and his mother, Esclarmonde, were further condemned, March 2,
+for contumacious absence. Guiraud, however, who had wisely kept at
+large, began to fortify his castles and make warlike demonstrations so
+formidable that the Frenchmen scattered through the land took alarm. The
+Marechal de la Foi, Levis of Mirepoix, stood firm, but the rest so
+worked upon the seneschal that the brothers were released, and the
+inquisitors had only the barren satisfaction of condemning the whole
+family on paper--a disappointment alleviated, it is true, by gathering
+for the stake a rich harvest of less formidable heretics, both clerks
+and laymen. Equally vain was an effort made two years later by the
+inquisitors to compel Count Raymond to carry out their sentence by
+confiscating the lands of the contumacious nobles, but the failure of
+Trencavel's revolt forced them to sue for peace. Bernard Otho was again
+brought before the Inquisition, and Guillem de Niort made submission for
+himself and brothers, surrendering their castles to the king on
+condition that he would procure their reconciliation with the Church,
+and that of their mother, nephews, and allies, and, failing to
+accomplish this by the next Pentecost, that he would restore their
+castles and grant them a month of truce to put themselves in defence.
+King Louis ratified the treaty in January, 1241, but refused, when the
+time came, to restore the castles, only agreeing to pay over the
+revenues on consideration that the brothers should reside outside of
+Fenouilledes. Guillem died in 1256, when Louis kept both castles and
+revenues, under pretext that the treaty had been a personal one with
+Guillem. The new order of things by this time had become so firmly
+established that no further resistance was to be dreaded. The extinction
+of this powerful family is a typical example of the manner in which the
+independence of the local seigneurie was gradually broken down by means
+of the Inquisition, and the authority of crown and Church was extended
+over the land.[34]
+
+Under the reaction consequent upon Trencavel's failure, and emboldened
+by the ruin of the local protectors of the people, the inquisitors
+returned to their work with sharpened zeal and redoubled energy. Chance
+has preserved for us a record of sentences pronounced by Pierre Cella,
+during a circuit of a few months in Querci, from Advent, 1241, to
+Ascension, 1242, which affords us a singularly instructive insight into
+one phase of inquisitorial operations. We have seen that, when an
+inquisitor visited a town, he proclaimed a "time of grace," during
+which those who voluntarily came forward and confessed were spared the
+harsher punishments of prison, confiscation, or the stake, and that the
+Inquisition found this expedient exceedingly fruitful, not only in the
+number of penitents which it brought in, but in the testimony which was
+gathered concerning the more contumacious. The record in question
+consists of cases of this kind, and its crowded calendar justifies the
+esteem in which the method was held.[35]
+
+Summarized, the record shows--
+
+    In Gourdon    219  sentences pronounced in Advent, 1241.
+    In Montcucq    84      "          "     "  Lent, 1242.
+    In Sauveterre   5.
+    In Belcayre     7.
+    In Montauban  254  sentences pronounced in week before Ascension
+                                                   (May 21-28, 1242).
+    In Moissac     99      "          "     "  week of Ascension
+                                               (May 28-June 5, 1242).
+    In Montpezat   22      "          "     "  Lent, 1242.
+    In Montaut     23      "          "     "    "     "
+    In Castelnau   11      "          "     "    "     "
+                  ---
+    Total         724
+
+Of these penitents four hundred and twenty-seven were ordered to make
+the distant pilgrimage to Compostella, in the northwestern corner of
+Spain--some four hundred or five hundred miles of mountainous roads. One
+hundred and eight were sent to Canterbury, this pilgrimage, in all but
+three or four cases, being superimposed on that to Compostella. Only two
+penitents were required to visit Rome, but seventy-nine were ordered to
+serve in the crusades for terms varying from one to eight years.
+
+The first thing that impresses one in considering this record is the
+extraordinary speed with which the work was done. The whole was
+despatched in six months, and there is no evidence that the labor was
+continuous--in fact, it could not have been so, for the inquisitor had
+to move from place to place, to grant the necessary delays, and must
+have been frequently interrupted to gather in the results of testimony
+which implicated recusants. With what reckless lack of consideration the
+penances were imposed is shown by the two hundred and nineteen penitents
+of Gourdon, whose confessions were taken down and whose sentences were
+pronounced within the four weeks of Advent; and even this is outstripped
+by the two hundred and fifty-two of Montauban, despatched in the week
+before Ascension, at the rate of forty-two for each working-day. In
+several cases two culprits are included in the same sentence.
+
+Even more significant than this, however, are the enormous numbers--two
+hundred and nineteen for a small town like Gourdon and eighty-four for
+Montcucq. The number of these who were really heretics, both Catharan
+and Waldensian, is large, and shows how thoroughly the population was
+interpenetrated with heresy. Even more, however, were good Catholics
+whose cases prove how amicably the various sects associated together,
+and how impossible it was for the most orthodox to avoid the association
+with heretics which rendered him liable to punishment. This friendly
+intercourse is peculiarly notable in the case of a priest who confessed
+to having gone to some heretics in a vineyard, where he read in their
+books and ate pears with them. He was rudely reminded of his
+indiscretion by being suspended from his functions, sent to Compostella
+and thence to Rome, with letters from the inquisitors which doubtless
+were not for his benefit, for apparently they felt unable to decide what
+ought to be done for an offence so enormous. Even the smallest
+derelictions of this sort were rigorously penanced. A citizen of
+Sauveterre had seen three heretics entering the house of a sick man, and
+heard that they had hereticated him, but knew nothing of his own
+knowledge, yet he was subjected to the disgrace of a penitential
+pilgrimage to Puy. Another, of Belcayre, had carried a message between
+two heretics, and was sent to Puy, St. Gilles, and Compostella. A
+physician of Montauban had bound up the arm of a heretic and was
+subjected to the same three pilgrimages, and the same penance was
+inflicted on a woman who had simply eaten at a table with heretics. The
+same was prescribed in several cases of boatmen who had ignorantly
+transported heretics, without recognizing them until the voyage was
+under way or finished. A woman who had eaten and drunk with another
+woman who she heard was a heretic was sentenced to the pilgrimages of
+Puy and St. Gilles, and the same penance was ordered for a man who had
+once seen heretics, and for a woman who had consulted a Waldensian about
+her sick son. The Waldenses had great reputation as skilful leeches, and
+two men who had called them in for their wives and children were
+penanced with the pilgrimages of Puy, St. Gilles, and Compostella. A man
+who had seen heretics two or three times, and had already purchased
+reconciliation by a gift to a monastery, was sent on a long series of
+pilgrimages, embracing both Compostella and Canterbury, besides wearing
+the yellow cross for a year. Another was sent to Compostella because he
+had once been thrown into company with heretics in a boat, although he
+had left them on hearing their heresies; and yet another because, when a
+boy, he had spent part of a day and night with heretics. One who had
+seen heretics when he was twelve years old was sent to Puy; while a
+woman who had seen them in her father's house was obliged to go to Puy
+and St. Gilles. A man who had seen two heretics leaving a place which he
+had rented was sent to Compostella, and another who had allowed his
+Waldensian mother to visit him and had given her an ell of cloth was
+forced to expiate it with pilgrimages to Puy, St. Gilles, and
+Compostella.[36] The list might be prolonged almost indefinitely, but
+these cases will suffice to show the character of the offence and the
+nature of the grace proffered for voluntary confession. There is no
+pretence that any of these particular culprits themselves were not
+wholly orthodox, but the people were to be taught that the toleration
+which had existed for generations was at an end; that the neighborly
+intercourse which had established itself between Catholic and Catharan
+and Waldensian was in itself a sin; that the heretic was to be tracked
+and captured like a wild beast, or at least to be shunned like a leper.
+
+When such was the measure meted out to spontaneous penitents within the
+time of grace, with harsher measures in reserve for those subsequently
+detected, we can easily imagine the feelings inspired by the Inquisition
+in the whole population, without distinction of creed, and the terror
+common to all when the rumor spread that the inquisitors were coming.
+Scarce any one but was conscious of some act--perhaps of neighborly
+charity--that rendered him a criminal to the awful fanaticism of Pierre
+Cella or Guillem Arnaud. The heretics themselves would look to be
+imprisoned for life, with confiscation, or to be burned, or sent to
+Constantinople to support the tottering Latin Empire; while the
+Catholics were likely to fare little better on the distant pilgrimages
+to which they were sentenced, even though they were spared the sterner
+punishments or the humiliation of the saffron cross. Such a visit would
+bring, even to the faithful, the desolation of a pestilence. The
+inquisitors would pass calmly on, leaving a neighborhood well-nigh
+depopulated--fathers and mothers despatched to distant shrines for
+months or years, leaving dependent families to starve, or harvests
+ungathered to be the prey of the first-comer, all the relations of a
+life, hard enough at the best, disturbed and broken up. Even such a
+record as that of Pierre Cella's sentences rendered within the time of
+grace shows but a portion of the work. A year or two later we find the
+Council of Narbonne beseeching the inquisitors to delay rendering
+sentences of incarceration, because the numbers of those flocking in for
+reconciliation after the expiration of the term of grace were so great
+that it would be impossible to raise funds for their maintenance, or to
+find stones enough, even in that mountainous land, to build prisons to
+contain them.[37] That a whole vicinage, when it had timely notice,
+should bind itself in a league to defeat the purpose of the inquisitors,
+as at Castelnaudary, must have been a frequent experience; that, sooner
+or later, despair should bring about a catastrophe like that of
+Avignonet was inevitable.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Montsegur for years had been the Mount Tabor of the Cathari--the place
+of refuge in which, as its name implies, they could feel secure when
+safety could be hoped for nowhere else. It had been destroyed, but early
+in the century Raymond de Pereille had rebuilt it, and for forty years
+he held it as an asylum for heretics, whom he defended to the utmost of
+his ability. In 1232 the Catharan bishops Tento of Agen and Guillabert
+de Castres of Toulouse, with a number of ministers, foreseeing, in the
+daily increasing pressure of persecution, the necessity of some
+stronghold which should serve as an asylum, arranged with Raymond that
+he should receive and shelter all fugitives of the sect and guard the
+common treasure to be deposited there. His castle, situated in the
+territories of the marshals of Mirepoix, had never opened its gates to
+the Frenchmen. Its almost inaccessible peak had been sedulously
+strengthened with all that military experience could suggest or earnest
+devotion could execute. Ever since the persecutions of the Inquisition
+commenced we hear of those who fled to Montsegur when they found the
+inquisitor's hand descending upon them. Dispossessed knights, _faidits_
+of all kinds, brought their swords to its defence; Catharan bishops and
+ministers sought it when hard pressed, or made it a resting-place in
+their arduous and dangerous mission-work. Raymond de Pereille himself
+sought its shelter when, compromised by the revelations of Raymond Gros,
+he fled from Toulouse, in 1237, with his wife Corba; the devotion of his
+race to heresy being further proved by the fate of his daughter
+Esclarmonde, who perished for her faith at the stake, and by the
+Catharan episcopate of his brother Arnaud Roger. Such a stronghold in
+the hands of desperate men, fired with the fiercest fanaticism, was a
+menace to the stability of the new order in the State; to the Church it
+was an accursed spot whence heresy might at any moment burst forth to
+overspread the land again. Its destruction had long been the desire of
+all good Catholics, and Raymond's pledge to King Louis, March 14, 1241,
+to capture it had been one of the conditions on which his suspicious
+relations with Trencavel had been condoned. In fact, he made some show
+of besieging it during the same year, but success would have been most
+damaging to the plans which he was nursing, and his efforts can scarce
+have been more than a cover for military preparations destined to a far
+different object. The French army, after the suppression of the rising,
+also laid siege to Montsegur, but were unable to effect its
+reduction.[38]
+
+On Ascension night, 1242, while Pierre Cella was tranquilly winding up
+his work at Montauban, the world was startled with the news that a
+holocaust of the terrible inquisitors had been made at Avignonet, a
+little town about twelve leagues from Toulouse. The stern Guillem Arnaud
+and the courteous Etienne de Saint-Thibery were making, like their
+colleague Pierre Cella, a circuit through the district subjected to
+their mercy. Some of their sentences which have been preserved show that
+in November, 1241, they were laboring at Lavaur and at Saint-Paul de
+Caujoux, and in the spring of 1242 they came to Avignonet.[39] Raymond
+d'Alfaro was its bailli for the count, who was his uncle through his
+mother, Guillemetta, a natural daughter of Raymond VI. When he heard
+that the inquisitors and their assistants were coming he lost no time in
+preparing for their destruction. A swift messenger was despatched to the
+heretics of Montsegur, and in answer to his summons Pierre Roger of
+Mirepoix, with a number of knights and their retainers, started at once.
+They halted in the forest of Gaiac, near Avignonet, where food was
+brought them, and they were joined by about thirty armed men of the
+vicinage, who waited with them till after nightfall. Had this plot
+failed, d'Alfaro had arranged another for an ambuscade on the road to
+Castelnaudary, and the fact that so extensive a conspiracy could be
+organized on the spot, without finding a traitor to betray it, shows how
+general was the hate that had been earned by the cruel work of the
+Inquisition. Not less significant is the fact that on their return to
+Montsegur the murderers were hospitably entertained at the Chateau de
+Saint-Felix by a priest who was cognizant of their bloody deed.
+
+The victims came unsuspectingly to the trap. There were eleven in all.
+The two inquisitors, with two Dominican friars, and one Franciscan, the
+Benedictine Prior of Avignonet, Raymond de Costiran, Archdeacon of
+Lezat, a former troubadour, of whose verses only a single obscene song
+remains, a clerk of the archdeacon, a notary, and two apparitors--in all
+a court fully furnished for the despatch of business. They were
+hospitably received and housed in the castle of the count, where on the
+morrow they were to open their dread tribunal for the trembling
+inhabitants. When darkness came a selected band of twelve, armed with
+axes, left the forest and stole cautiously to a postern of the castle,
+where they were met by Golairan, a comrade of d'Alfaro, who assured
+himself that all was right, and returned to see what the inquisitors
+were doing. Coming back, he reported that they were drinking; but a
+second visit, after an interval, brought the welcome news that they were
+going to bed. As though apprehensive of danger, they had remained
+together in the great hall, and had barricaded the door. The gate was
+opened, the men of Montsegur were admitted and were joined by d'Alfaro,
+armed with a mace, and twenty-five men of Avignonet, and the fact that
+an esquire in the service of the inquisitors was with him indicates that
+there was treachery at work. The hall-door was quickly broken down, the
+wild band of assassins rushed in, and, after despatching their victims,
+there was a fierce chorus of gratified vengeance, each man boasting of
+his share in the bloody deed--d'Alfaro especially, who shouted "_Va be,
+esta be_," and claimed that his mace had done its full duty in the
+murderous work. Its crushing of Guillem Arnaud's skull had deprived
+Pierre Roger de Mirepoix, the second in command at Montsegur, of the
+drinking-cup which he had demanded as his reward for the assistance
+furnished. The plunder of the victims was eagerly shared between the
+assassins--their horses, books, garments--even to their scapulars. When
+the news reached Rome, the College of Cardinals made haste to express
+their belief that the victims had become blessed martyrs of Jesus
+Christ, and one of the first acts of Innocent IV., after his
+installation in June, 1243, was to repeat this declaration; but they
+never were canonized, in spite of frequent requests to the Holy See, and
+of the numerous miracles which attested their sanctity in the popular
+cult, until, in 1866, Pius IX. gave them tardy recognition.[40]
+
+Like the murder of the legate Pierre de Castelnau, in 1208, the massacre
+of Avignonet was a fatal error. Its violation of the traditional
+sanctity of the ecclesiastic sent a thrill of horror even among those
+who had small sympathy with the cruelty of the Inquisition, while the
+deliberateness of its planning and its unsparing ferocity gave color to
+the belief that heresy was only to be extirpated by force. Sympathy,
+indeed, for a time might well change sides, for the massacre was
+practically unavenged. Frere Ferrer, the Inquisitor of Carcassonne, made
+due inquest into the affair, and after the capture of Montsegur, in
+1244, some of the participants confessed all the details, but the real
+culprits escaped. Count Raymond, it is true, when he had leisure from
+pressing business, hanged a few of the underlings, but we find Raymond
+d'Alfaro, in 1247, promoted to be Viguier of Toulouse, and representing
+his master in the proceedings with regard to the burial of the old
+count, and, finally, he was one of the nine witnesses to Raymond's last
+will. Another ringleader, Guillem du Mas-Saintes-Puelles, is recorded as
+taking the oath of allegiance to Count Alfonse, in 1249, after the death
+of Raymond. Guillem's participation in the murders has special interest,
+as showing the antagonism created by the violence of the Inquisition,
+for in 1233, as Bailli of Lavaur, he had dutifully seized a number of
+heretics and carried them to Toulouse, where they were promptly
+burned.[41]
+
+The massacre of Avignonet came at a time peculiarly unfortunate for
+Count Raymond, who was nursing comprehensive and far-reaching plans,
+then ripe for execution, for the rehabilitation of his house and the
+independence of his land. He could not escape the responsibility for the
+catastrophe which public opinion everywhere attached to him. Although
+he had recently, on March 14, solemnly sworn to persecute heresy with
+his whole strength when, apparently sick unto death, he had sought
+absolution at the hands of the episcopal official of Agen, yet he was
+known to be hostile to the Dominicans as inquisitors, and had bitterly
+opposed the restoration of their functions. On May 1, just four weeks
+before the event, he had made a solemn declaration in the presence of
+numerous prelates and nobles to the effect that he had appealed to Rome
+against the commission of Dominican inquisitors by the provincial in his
+territories, and that he intended to prosecute that appeal. He protested
+that he earnestly desired the eradication of heresy, and urged the
+bishops to exercise energetically their ordinary power to that end,
+promising his full support to them and the execution of the law both as
+to confiscation and the death-penalty. He would even accept the friars
+as inquisitors provided they acted independently of their Orders, and
+not under the authority of their provincials. One of his baillis even
+threatened, in the church of Moissac, seizure of person and property for
+all who should submit to the penalties imposed by the inquisitors, as
+they were not authorized by the count to administer justice. Such being
+his position, it was inevitable that he should be regarded as an
+accomplice in the murders, and that the cause which he represented
+should suffer greatly in the revulsion of public feeling which it
+occasioned.[42]
+
+Raymond had been busy in effecting a widespread alliance which should
+wring from the House of Capet its conquests of the last quarter of a
+century. He had been joined by the Kings of England, Castile, and
+Aragon, and the Count de la Marche, and everything bid fair for his
+reconquest of his old domains. The massacre of Avignonet was a most
+untoward precursor of the revolt which burst forth immediately
+afterwards. It shook the fidelity of some of his vassals, who withdrew
+their support; and, to counteract its impression, he felt obliged to
+convert his sham siege of Montsegur into an active one, thus employing
+troops which he could ill spare. Yet the rising, for a while, promised
+success, and Raymond even reassumed his old title of Duke of Narbonne.
+King Louis, however, was equal to the occasion, and allowed the allies
+no time to concentrate their forces. His victories over the English and
+Gascons at Taillebourg and Saintes, July 19 and 23, deprived Raymond of
+all hope of assistance from that quarter. Pestilence forced the
+withdrawal of the main army of Louis, but a force under the veteran
+Imbert de Beaujeu operated actively against Raymond, who, without help
+from his allies and deserted by many of his vassals, was obliged to lay
+down his arms, December 22. When suing for peace he pledged himself to
+extirpate heresy and to punish the assassins of Avignonet with an
+effusiveness which shows the importance attached to these conditions.
+The sagacity and moderation of King Louis granted him easy terms, but
+one of the stipulations of settlement was that every male inhabitant
+over the age of fifteen should take an oath to assist the Church against
+heresy, and the king against Raymond, in case of another revolt. Thus
+the purity of the faith and the supremacy of the foreign domination were
+once again recognized as inseparably allied.[43]
+
+The triumph of both had been secured. This ended the last serious effort
+of the South to recover its independence. Henceforth, under the treaty
+of Paris, it was to pass irrevocably into the hands of the stranger, and
+the Inquisition was to have unrestricted opportunity to enforce
+conformity in religion. It was in vain that Raymond again, at the
+Council of Beziers, April 20, 1243, summoned the bishops of his
+dominions--those of Toulouse, Agen, Cahors, Albi, and Rodez--urging them
+personally or through proper deputies, whether Cistercians, Dominicans,
+or Franciscans, to make diligent inquisition after heresy, and pledged
+the assistance of the secular arm for its extirpation. It was equally in
+vain that, immediately on the accession of Innocent IV., in June, a
+deputation of Dominicans, frightened by the warning of Avignonet,
+earnestly alleged many reasons why the dangerous burden should be lifted
+from their shoulders. The pope peremptorily refused, and ordered them to
+continue their holy labors, even at the risk of martyrdom.[44]
+
+Despite this single exhibition of hesitation and weakness, the Order was
+not lacking in men whose eager fanaticism rendered them fully prepared
+to accept the perilous post. The peril, indeed, was apparent rather than
+real--it had passed away in the revulsion which followed the useless
+bloodshed of Avignonet and the failure of Raymond's rebellion. There was
+a rising tide in favor of orthodoxy. A confraternity organized in
+October, 1243, by Durand, Bishop of Albi, is probably only the
+expression of what was going on in many places. Organized under the
+protection of St. Cecilia, the members of the association pledged
+themselves not only to mutual protection, but to aid the bishop to
+execute justice on heretics, Vaudois and their fautors, and to defend
+inquisitors as they would their own bodies. Any member suspected of
+heresy was to be incontinently ejected, and a reward of a silver mark
+was offered for every heretic captured and delivered to the association.
+The new pope had, moreover, spoken in no uncertain tone. His refusal to
+relieve the Dominicans was accompanied with a peremptory command to all
+the prelates of the region to extend favor, assistance, and protection
+to the inquisitors in their toils and tribulations. Any slackness in
+this was freely threatened with the papal vengeance, while favor was
+significantly promised as the reward of zeal. The Dominicans were urged
+to fresh exertion to overcome the threatened recrudescence of heresy. A
+new legate, Zoen, Bishop-elect of Avignon, was also despatched to
+Languedoc, with instructions to act vigorously. His predecessor had been
+complained of by the inquisitors for having, in spite of their
+remonstrances, released many of their prisoners and remitted penances
+indiscriminately. All such acts of misplaced mercy were pronounced void,
+and Zoen was ordered to reimpose all such penalties without appeal.[45]
+
+Still more menacing to the heretic cause was the reconciliation at last
+effected between Raymond and the papacy. In September, 1243, the count
+visited Italy, where he had an interview with Frederic II. in Apulia,
+and with Innocent in Rome. For ten years he had been under
+excommunication, and had carried on an unavailing struggle. He could no
+longer cherish illusions, and was doubtless ready to give whatever
+assurances might be required of him. On the other hand, the new pope was
+free from the predispositions which the long strife had engendered in
+Gregory IX. There seems to have been little difficulty in reaching an
+understanding, to which the good offices of Louis IX. powerfully
+contributed. December 2, Raymond was released from his various
+excommunications; January 1, 1244, the absolution was announced to King
+Louis and the prelates of the kingdom, who were ordered to publish it in
+all the churches, and January 7 the Legate Zoen was instructed to treat
+him with fatherly affection and not permit him to be molested. In all
+this absolution had only been given _ad cautelam_, or provisionally, for
+a special excommunication had been decreed against him as a fautor of
+heretics, after the massacre of Avignonet, by the inquisitors Ferrer and
+Guillem Raymond. Against this he had made a special appeal to the Holy
+See in April, 1243, and a special bull of May 16, 1244, was required for
+its abrogation. No conditions seem to have been imposed respecting the
+long-deferred crusade, and thenceforth Raymond lived in perfect harmony
+with the Holy See. Indeed, he was the recipient of many favors. A bull
+of March 18, 1244, granted him the privilege that for five years he
+should not be forced by apostolic letters to answer in judgment outside
+of his own dominions; another of April 27, 1245, took him, his family,
+and lands under the special protection of St. Peter and the papacy; and
+yet another of May 12, 1245, provided that no delegate of the Apostolic
+See should have power to utter excommunication or any other sentence
+against him without a special mandate. Besides this, one of April 21,
+1245, imposed some limitations on the power of inquisitors, limitations
+which they seem never to have observed. Raymond was fairly won over. He
+had evidently resolved to accommodate himself to the necessities of the
+time, and the heretic had nothing further to hope or the inquisitor to
+fear from him. The preparation for increased and systematic vigor of
+operations is seen in the elaborate provisions, so often referred to
+above, of the Council of Narbonne, held at this period.[46]
+
+Yet so long as heresy retained the stronghold of Montsegur as a refuge
+and rallying-point its secret and powerful organization could not be
+broken. The capture of that den of outlaws was a necessity of the first
+order, and as soon as the confusion of the rebellion of 1242 had
+subsided it was undertaken as a crusade, not by Raymond, but by the
+Archbishop of Narbonne, the Bishop of Albi, the Seneschal of
+Carcassonne, and some nobles, either led by zeal or by the hope of
+salvation. The heretics, on their side, were not idle. Some baillis of
+Count Raymond sent them Bertrand de la Bacalairia, a skilful maker of
+military engines, to aid them in the defence, who made no scruple in
+affirming that he came with the assent of the count, and from every side
+money, provisions, arms, and munitions of war were poured into the
+stronghold. In the spring of 1243 the siege began, prosecuted with
+indefatigable ardor by the besiegers, and resisted with desperate
+resolution by the besieged. As in the old combats at Toulouse, the women
+assisted their warriors, and the venerable Catharan bishop, Bertrand
+Martin, animated their devoted courage with promises of eternal bliss.
+It is significant of the public temper that sympathizers in the
+besiegers' camp permitted tolerably free communication between the
+besieged and their friends, and gave them warning of the plans of
+attack. Even the treasure which had been stored up in Montsegur was
+conveyed away safely through the investing lines, about Christmas, 1243,
+to Pons Arnaud de Chateauverdun in the Savartes. Secret relations were
+maintained with Count Raymond, and the besieged were buoyed up with
+promises that if they would hold out until Easter, 1244, he would march
+to their relief with forces supplied by the Emperor Frederic II. It was
+all in vain. The siege dragged on its weary length for nearly a year,
+till, on the night of March 1, 1244, guided by some shepherds who
+betrayed their fellow-countrymen, by almost inaccessible paths among the
+cliffs, the crusaders surprised and carried one of the outworks. The
+castle was no longer tenable. A brief parley ensued, and the garrison
+agreed to surrender at dawn, delivering up to the archbishop all the
+perfected heretics among them, on condition that the lives of the rest
+should be spared. Although a few were let down from the walls with ropes
+and thus escaped, the capitulation was carried out, and the archbishop's
+shrift was short. At the foot of the mountain-peak an enclosure of
+stakes was formed, piled high with wood, and set on fire. The Perfect
+were asked to renounce their faith, and on their refusal were cast into
+the flames. Thus perished two hundred and five men and women. The
+conquerors might well write exultingly to the pope, "We have crushed
+the head of the dragon!"[47]
+
+Although the lives of the rest of the captives were guaranteed, they
+were utilized to the utmost. For months the inquisitors Ferrer and P.
+Durant devoted themselves to the examinations to secure evidence against
+heretics far and near, dead and alive. From the aged Raymond de Pereille
+to a child ten years of age, they were forced, under repeated
+interrogatories, to recall every case of adoration and heretication that
+they could remember, and page after page was covered with interminable
+lists of names of those present at sermons and _consolamenta_ through a
+period extending back to thirty or forty years before, and embracing the
+whole land as far as Catalonia. Even those who had brought victual to
+Montsegur and sold it were carefully looked after and set down. It can
+readily be conceived what an accession was made to the terrible records
+of the Inquisition, and how valuable was the insight obtained into the
+ramifications of heresy throughout the land during more than a
+generation--what digging up of bones would follow with confiscation of
+estates, and with what unerring certainty the inquisitors would be able
+to seize their victims and confound their denials. We can only guess at
+the means by which this information was extracted from the prisoners.
+Torture had not yet been introduced; life had been promised, and
+perpetual imprisonment was inevitable for such pronounced heretics; and
+when we see Raymond de Pereille himself, who had endured unflinchingly
+the vicissitudes of the crusades, and had bravely held out to the last,
+ransacking his memory to betray all whom he had ever seen adore a
+minister, we can imagine the horrors of the two months' preliminary
+captivity which had so broken his spirit as to bring him to this depth
+of degradation. Even a perfected heretic, Arnaud de Bretos, captured
+while flying to Lombardy, was induced to reveal the names of all who had
+given him shelter and attended his ministrations during his missionary
+wanderings.[48]
+
+Henceforth the Cathari could hope only in God. All chance of resistance
+was over. One by one their supports had broken, and there was only left
+the passive resistance of martyrdom. The Inquisition could track and
+seize its victims at leisure, and king and count could follow with
+decrees of confiscation which were gradually to transfer the lands of
+the South to orthodox and loyal subjects. The strongest testimony that
+can be given to the living earnestness of the Catharan faith is to be
+found in the prolongation of this struggle yet through three hopeless
+generations. It is no wonder, however, if the immediate effect of these
+crowding events was to fill the heretics with despair. In the poem of
+Isarn de Villemur, written about this period, the heretic, Sicard de
+Figueras is represented as saying that their best and most trusted
+friends are turning against them and betraying them. How many believers
+at this juncture abandoned their religion, even at the cost of lifelong
+imprisonment, we have no means of accurately estimating, but the number
+must have been enormous, to judge from the request, already alluded to,
+of the Council of Narbonne about this time to the inquisitors to
+postpone their sentences in view of the impossibility of building
+prisons sufficient to contain the crowds who hurried in to accuse
+themselves and seek reconciliation, after the expiration of the time of
+grace, which Innocent IV., in December, 1243, had ordered to be
+designated afresh.[49]
+
+Yet, in a population so thoroughly leavened with heresy, these thousands
+of voluntary penitents still left an ample field of activity for the
+zeal of the inquisitors. Each one who confessed was bound to give the
+names of all whom he had seen engaged in heretical acts, and of all who
+had been hereticated on the death-bed. Innumerable clews were thus
+obtained to bring to trial those who failed to accuse themselves, and to
+exhume and burn the bones of those who were beyond the ability to
+recant. For the next few years the life of the inquisitors was a busy
+one. The stunned populations no longer offered resistance, and grew used
+to the despair of the penitents sentenced to perpetual prison, the
+dragging of decomposed corpses through the streets, and the horror of
+the Tophets where the victims passed through temporal to eternal flame.
+Still there is a slight indication that the service was not wholly
+without danger from the goadings of vengeance or the courage of despair,
+when the Council of Beziers, in 1246, ordering travelling inquests,
+makes exception in the cases when it may not be safe for the inquisitors
+to personally visit the places where the inquisition should be held; and
+Innocent IV., in 1247, authorizes the inquisitors to cite the accused to
+come to them, in view of the perils arising from the ambushes of
+heretics.[50]
+
+The fearless and indefatigable men who now performed the functions of
+inquisitor in Languedoc can rarely have taken advantage of this
+concession to weakness. Bernard de Caux, who so well earned the title of
+the hammer of heretics, was at this time the leading spirit of the
+Inquisition of Toulouse, after a term of service in Montpellier and
+Agen, and he had for colleague a kindred spirit in Jean de Saint-Pierre.
+Together they made a thorough inquest over the whole province, passing
+the population through a sieve with a completeness which must have left
+few guilty consciences unexamined. There is extant a fragmentary record
+of this inquest, covering the years 1245 and 1246, during which no less
+than six hundred places were investigated, embracing about one half of
+Languedoc. The magnitude of the work thus undertaken, and the incredible
+energy with which it was pushed, is seen in the enormous number of
+interrogatories recorded in petty towns. Thus at Avignonet there are two
+hundred and thirty; at Fanjoux, one hundred; at Mas-Saintes-Puelles,
+four hundred and twenty. M. Molinier, to whom we are indebted for an
+account of this interesting document, has not made an accurate count of
+the whole number of cases, but estimates that the total cannot fall far
+short of eight thousand to ten thousand. When we consider what all this
+involved in the duty of examination and comparison we may well feel
+wonder at the superhuman energy of these founders of the Inquisition;
+but we may also assume, as with the sentences of Pierre Cella, that the
+fate of the victims who were sifted out of this mass of testimony must
+have been passed upon with no proper or conscientious scrutiny. At
+least, however, they must have escaped the long and torturing delays
+customary in the later and more leisurely stages of the Inquisition.
+With such a record before us it is not easy to understand the complaint
+of the bishops of Languedoc, in 1245, that the Inquisition was too
+merciful, that heresy was increasing, and that the inquisitors ought to
+be urged to greater exertions. It was possibly in consequence of the
+lack of harmony thus revealed between the episcopate and the Inquisition
+that Innocent, in April of the same year, ordered the Inquisitors of
+Languedoc to proceed as usual in cases of manifest heresy, and in those
+involving slight punishment, while he directed them to suspend
+proceedings in matters requiring imprisonment, crosses, long
+pilgrimages, and confiscation until definite rules should be laid down
+in the Council of Lyons, which he was about to open. These questions,
+however, were settled in that of Beziers, which met in 1246, and issued
+a new code of procedure.[51]
+
+In all this Count Raymond, now thoroughly fitted in the Catholic groove,
+was an earnest participant. As his stormy life drew to its close,
+harmony with the Church was too great an element of comfort and
+prosperity for him to hesitate in purchasing it with the blood of a few
+of his subjects, whom, indeed, he could scarce have saved had he so
+willed. He gave conspicuous evidence of his hatred of heresy. In 1247 he
+ordered his officials to compel the attendance of the inhabitants at the
+sermons of the friars in all towns and villages through which they
+passed, and in 1249, at Berlaiges, near Agen, he coldly ordered the
+burning of eighty believers who had confessed their errors in his
+presence--a piece of cruelty far transcending that habitual with the
+inquisitors. About the same time King Jayme of Aragon effected a change
+in the Inquisition in the territories of Narbonne. Possibly this may
+have had some connection with the murder by the citizens of two
+officials of the Inquisition and the destruction of its records, giving
+endless trouble in the effort to reconstruct the lists of sentences and
+the invaluable accumulation of evidence against suspects. Be this as it
+may, Innocent IV., at the request of the king, forbade the archbishop
+and inquisitors from further proceedings against heresy, and then
+empowered the Dominican Provincial of Spain and Raymond of Pennaforte to
+appoint new ones for the French possessions of Aragon.[52]
+
+When St. Louis undertook his disastrous crusade to Damietta he was
+unwilling to leave behind him so dangerous a vassal as Raymond. The vow
+of service to Palestine had long since been remitted by Innocent IV.,
+but the count was open to persuasion, and the bribes offered show at
+once the importance attached to his presence with the host and to his
+absence from home. The king promised him twenty thousand to thirty
+thousand livres for his expenses and the restitution of the duchy of
+Narbonne on his return. The pope agreed to pay him two thousand marks on
+his arrival beyond seas, and that he should have during his absence all
+the proceeds of the redemption of vows and all legacies bequeathed to
+the crusade. The prohibition of imposing penitential crusades on
+converted heretics was also suspended for his benefit, while the other
+long pilgrimages customarily employed as penances were not to be
+enjoined while he was in service. Stimulated by these dazzling rewards,
+he assumed the cross in earnest, and his ardor for the purity of the
+faith grew stronger. Even the tireless activity of Bernard de Caux was
+insufficient to satisfy him. While that incomparable persecutor was
+devoting all his energies to working up the results of his tremendous
+inquests, Raymond, early in 1248, complained to Innocent that the
+Inquisition was neglecting its duty; that heretics, both living and
+dead, remained uncondemned; that others from abroad were coming into his
+own and neighboring territories and spreading their pestilence, so that
+the land which had been well-nigh purified was again filled with
+heresy.[53]
+
+Death spared Raymond the misfortunes of the ill-starred Egyptian
+crusade. When his preparations were almost complete he was seized with
+mortal illness and died, September 27, 1249, with his latest breath
+ordering his heirs to restore the sums which he had received for the
+expedition, and to send fifty knights to serve in Palestine for a year.
+That his death was generally regretted by his subjects we can readily
+believe. Not only was it the extinction of the great house which had
+bravely held its own from Carlovingian times, but the people felt that
+the last barrier between them and the hated Frenchmen was removed. The
+heiress Jeanne had been educated at the royal court, and was French in
+all but birth. Moreover, she seems to have been a nonentity whose
+influence is imperceptible, and the sceptre of the South passed into the
+hands of Alphonse of Poitiers, an avaricious and politic prince, whose
+zeal for orthodoxy was greatly stimulated by the profitable
+confiscations resulting from persecution. Raymond had required repeated
+urging to induce him to employ this dreaded penalty with the needful
+severity. No such watchfulness was necessary in the case of Alphonse.
+When the rich heritage fell in, he and his wife were with his brother,
+King Louis, in Egypt, but the vigilant regent, Queen Blanche, promptly
+took possession in their name, and on their return, in 1251, they
+personally received the homage of their subjects. By a legal subtlety
+Alphonse evaded the payment of the pious legacies of Raymond's will, and
+compounded for it by leaving, on his departure for the North, a large
+sum to provide for the expenses of the Inquisition, and to furnish wood
+for the execution of its sentences. Not long afterwards we find him
+urging his bishops to render more efficient support to the labors of the
+inquisitors; in his chancery there was a regular formula of a commission
+for inquisitors, to be sent to Rome for the papal signature; and
+throughout his twenty years of reign he pursued the same policy without
+deviation. The urgency with which, in December, 1268, he wrote to Pons
+de Poyet and Etienne de Gatine, stimulating them to redoubled activity
+in clearing his dominions of heretics, was wholly superfluous, but it is
+characteristic of the line of action which he carried out consistently
+to the end.[54]
+
+The fate of Languedoc was now irrevocably sealed. Hitherto there had
+been hopes that perhaps Raymond's inconstancy might lead him to retrace
+the steps of the last few years. Moreover, his subjects had shared in
+the desire, manifested in his repeated marriage projects, that he should
+have an heir to inherit the lands not pledged in succession to his
+daughter. He was but in his fifty-first year, and the expectation was
+not unreasonable that his line might be perpetuated and the southern
+nationality be preserved. All this was now seen to be a delusion, and
+the most sanguine Catharan could look forward to nothing but a life of
+concealment ending in prison or fire. Yet the heretic Church stubbornly
+held its own, though with greatly diminished numbers. Many of its
+members fled to Lombardy, where, even after the death of Frederic II.,
+the civic troubles and the policy of local despots, such as Ezzelin da
+Romano, afforded some shelter from the Inquisition. Yet many remained
+and pursued their wandering missions among the faithful, perpetually
+tracked by inquisitorial spies, but rarely betrayed. These humble and
+forgotten men, hopelessly braving hardship, toil, and peril in what they
+deemed the cause of God, were true martyrs, and their steadfast heroism
+shows how little relation the truth of a religion bears to the
+self-devotion of its followers. Rainerio Saccone, the converted
+Catharan, who had the best means of ascertaining the facts, computes,
+about this time, that there were in Lombardy one hundred and fifty
+"perfected" refugees from France, while the churches of Toulouse,
+Carcassonne, and Albi, including that of Agen, then nearly destroyed,
+numbered two hundred more. These figures would indicate that a very
+considerable congregation of believers still existed in spite of the
+systematic and ruthless proscription of the past twenty years. Their
+earnestness was kept alive, not only by the occasional and dearly-prized
+visits of the travelling ministers, but by the frequent intercourse
+which was maintained with Lombardy. Until the disappearance of the sect
+on this side of the Alps, there is, in the confessions of penitents,
+perpetual allusion to these pilgrimages back and forth, which kept up
+the relations between the refugees and those left at home. Thus, in
+1254, Guillem Fournier, in an interrogatory before the Inquisition of
+Toulouse, relates that he started for Italy with five companions,
+including two women. His first resting-place was at Coni, where he met
+many heretics; then at Pavia, where he was hereticated by Raymond
+Mercier, former deacon of Toulouse. At Cremona he lived for a year with
+Vivien, the much-loved Bishop of Toulouse, with whom he found a number
+of noble refugees. At Pisa he stayed for eight months; at Piacenza he
+again met Vivien, and he finally returned to Languedoc with messages
+from the refugees to their friends at home. In 1300, at Albi, Etienne
+Mascot confesses that he had been sent to Lombardy by Master Raymond
+Calverie to bring back Raymond Andre, or some other perfected heretic.
+At Genoa he met Bertrand Fabri, who had been sent on the same errand by
+Guillem Golfier. They proceeded together and met other old
+acquaintances, now refugees, who conducted them to a spot where, in a
+wood, were several houses of refuge for heretics. The lord of the place
+gave them a Lombard, Guglielmo Pagani, who returned with them. In 1309
+Guillem Falquet confessed at Toulouse to having been four times to Como,
+and even to Sicily, organizing the Church. He was caught while visiting
+a sick believer, and condemned to imprisonment in chains, but managed to
+escape in 1313. At the same time was sentenced Raymond de Verdun, who
+had likewise been four times to Lombardy.[55]
+
+The proscribed heretics, thus nursing their faith in secret, gave the
+inquisitors ample occupation. As their ranks were thinned by persecution
+and flight, and as their skill in concealment increased with experience,
+there could no longer be the immense harvests of penitents reaped by
+Pierre Gella and Bernard de Caux, but there were enough to reward the
+energies of the friars and to tax the adroitness of their spies. The
+organization of the Inquisition, moreover, was gradually perfected. In
+1254 the Council of Albi carefully revised the regulations concerning
+it. Fixed tribunals were established, and the limitations of the
+inquisitorial districts were strictly defined. For Provence and the
+territories east of the Rhone, Marseilles was the headquarters,
+eventually confided to the Franciscans. The rest of the infected regions
+were left to the Dominicans, with tribunals at Toulouse, Carcassonne,
+and Narbonne; and, from such fragmentary documents as have reached us,
+at this time the Inquisition at Carcassonne rivalled that of Toulouse in
+energy and effectiveness. For a while safety was sought by heretics in
+northern France, but the increasing vigor of the Inquisition established
+there drove the unfortunate refugees back, and in 1255 a bull of
+Alexander IV. authorized the Provincial of Paris and his inquisitors to
+pursue the fugitives in the territories of the Count of Toulouse. At the
+same time the special functions of the inquisitors were jealously
+guarded against all encroachments. We have seen how, in its early days,
+it was subjected to the control of papal legates, but now that it was
+firmly established and thoroughly organized it was held independent; and
+when the legate Zoen, Bishop of Avignon, in 1257, endeavored, in virtue
+of his legatine authority, which fourteen years before had been so
+absolute, to perform inquisitorial work, he was rudely reminded by
+Alexander IV. that he could do so if he pleased in his own diocese, but
+that outside of it he must not interfere with the Inquisition. To this
+period is also to be ascribed the complete subjection of all secular
+officials to the behests of the inquisitors. The piety of St. Louis and
+the greed of Alphonse of Poitiers and Charles of Anjou rivalled each
+other in placing all the powers of the State at the disposal of the Holy
+Office, and in providing for its expenses. It was virtually supreme in
+the land, and, as we have seen, it was a law unto itself.[56]
+
+The last shadow of open resistance was dissipated in the year 1255.
+After the fall of Montsegur the proscribed and disinherited knights,
+the _faidits_, and the heretics had sought to establish among the
+mountains some stronghold where they could feel safe for a moment.
+Driven from one retreat after another, they finally took possession of
+the castle of Queribus, in the Pyrenees of Fenouilledes. In the early
+spring of 1255 this last refuge was besieged by Pierre d'Auteuil, the
+royal Seneschal of Carcassonne. The defence was stubborn. May 5 the
+seneschal appealed to the bishops sitting in council at Beziers to give
+him assistance, as they had done so energetically at Montsegur. The
+reply of the prelates was commendably cautious. They were not bound,
+they said, to render military service to the king, and when they had
+joined his armies it had been by command of a legate or of their
+primate, the Archbishop of Narbonne. Nevertheless, as common report
+described Queribus as a receptacle of heretics, thieves, and robbers,
+and its reduction was a good work for the faith and for peace, they
+would each one, without derogating from his rights, furnish such
+assistance as seemed to him fitting. It may be assumed from this that
+the seneschal had to do the work unaided; in fact, he complained to the
+king that the prelates rather impeded than assisted him, but by August
+the place was in his hands, and nothing remained for the outlaws but the
+forest and the caverns. In that savage region the dense undergrowth
+afforded many a hiding-place, and an attempt was made to cut away the
+briers and thorns which served as shelter for ruined noble and hunted
+Catharan. The work was undertaken by a certain Bernard, who thence
+acquired the name of Espinasser or thorn-cutter. Popular hatred has
+preserved his remembrance, and expresses its sentiment in a myth which
+gibbets him in the moon.[57]
+
+With the land at its feet, the Inquisition, in the plenitude of its
+power, had no hesitation in attacking the loftiest nobles, for all men
+were on a level in the eyes of the Most High, and the Holy Office was
+the avenger of God. The most powerful vassal of the houses of Toulouse
+and Aragon was the Count of Foix, whose extensive territories on both
+sides of the Pyrenees rendered him almost independent in his mountain
+fastnesses. Count Roger Bernard II., known as the Great, had been one of
+the bravest and most obstinate defenders of the land, and, after the
+pacification of 1229, Raymond had been obliged to threaten him with war
+to force him to submit. His memory was proudly treasured in the land as
+"_Rogier Bernat lo pros et sens dengun reproche_." His family was
+deeply tinctured with heresy. His wife and one of his sisters were
+Waldenses, another sister was a Catharan, and the monk of Vaux-Cernay
+describes him as an enemy of God and a cruel persecutor of the Church.
+Yet, when he yielded in 1229, although he does not seem to have
+energetically fulfilled his oath to persecute heresy in his domains, for
+in 1233 we hear of his holding a personal conference at Aix with the
+heretic bishop Bertrand Martin, he was in other respects a loyal subject
+and faithful son of the Church. In 1237 he counselled his son, then
+Vizconde de Castelbo in Aragon, to allow the Inquisition in his lands,
+which resulted in the condemnation of many heretics, although Ponce,
+Bishop of Urgel, his personal enemy, had refused to relieve him of
+excommunication as a fautor of heresy until 1240, when he submitted to
+the conditions imposed, abjured heresy, and was reconciled. At his
+death, in 1241, he left liberal bequests to the Church, and especially
+to his ancestral Cistercian Abbey of Bolbonne, in which he died in
+monkish habit, after duly receiving the sacraments. His son, Roger IV.,
+gave the _coup de grace_ to the rising of 1242, by placing himself under
+the immediate sovereignty of the crown, and defeating Raymond after the
+victories of St. Louis had driven back the English and Gascons. He had
+some troubles with the Inquisition, but a bull of Innocent IV., in 1248,
+eulogizes his devotion to the Holy See, and rewards him with the power
+to release from the saffron crosses six penitents of his choice; and in
+1261 he issued an edict commanding the enforcement of the rule that no
+office within his domains should be held by any one condemned to wear
+crosses, any one suspected of heresy, or the son of any one similarly
+defamed.[58]
+
+All this would seem to give ample guarantee of the orthodoxy and loyalty
+of the House of Foix, but the Inquisition could not condone its ancient
+patriotism and tolerance. Besides, if Roger Bernard the Great could be
+convicted of heresy, the confiscation of the broad inheritance would
+effect a great political object and afford ample spoils for all
+concerned. Twenty-two years after his death, therefore, in 1263,
+proceedings were commenced against his memory. A faithful servitor of
+the old count still survived, Raymond Bernard de Flascan, bailli of
+Mazeres, who had attended his lord day and night during his last
+sickness. If he could be brought to swear that he had seen heretication
+performed on the death-bed, the desirable object would be attained.
+Frere Pons, the Inquisitor of Carcassonne, came to Mazeres, found the
+old man an unsatisfactory witness, and threw him into a dungeon.
+Suffering under a severe strangury, he was starved and tormented with
+all the cruel ingenuity of the Inquisition, and interrogated at
+intervals, without his resolution giving way. This was continued for
+thirty-two days, when Pons resolved to carry him back to Carcassonne,
+where possibly the appliances for bringing refractory witnesses to terms
+were more efficacious. Before the journey, which he expected to be his
+last, the faithful bailli was given a day's respite at the Abbey of
+Bolbonne, which he utilized by executing a notarial instrument, November
+26, 1263, attested by two abbots and a number of monks, in which he
+recited the trials already endured, solemnly declared that he had never
+seen the old count do anything contrary to the faith of Rome, but that
+he had died as a good Catholic, and that if, under the severe torture to
+which he expected to be subjected, human weakness should lead him to
+assert anything else, he would be a liar and a traitor, and no credence
+should be given to his words. It would be difficult to conceive of a
+more damning revelation of inquisitorial methods; yet fifty years later,
+when those methods had been perfected, all concerned in the preparation
+of the instrument, whether as notary or witnesses, would have been
+prosecuted as impeders of the Inquisition, to be severely punished as
+fautors of heresy.[59]
+
+What became of the poor wretch does not appear. Doubtless he perished in
+the terrible Mura of Carcassonne under the combination of disease,
+torture, and starvation. His judicial murder, however, was gratuitous,
+for the old count's memory remained uncondemned. Yet Roger Bernard
+III., despite the papal favor and the proofs he had given of adhesion to
+the new order of things, was a perpetual target for inquisitorial
+malice. When lying in mortal illness at Mazeres, in December, 1264, he
+received from Etienne de Gatine, then Inquisitor of Narbonne, an
+imperious order, with threats of prosecution in case of failure, to
+capture and deliver up his bailli of Foix, Pierre Andre, who was suspect
+of heresy and had fled on being cited to appear. The count dared only in
+reply to express surprise that no notice had been given him that his
+bailli was wanted, adding that he had issued orders for his arrest, and
+would have personally joined in the pursuit had not sickness rendered
+him incapable. At the same time he requested "Apostoli," and appealed
+to the pope, to whom he retailed his grievances. The inquisitors, he
+said, had never ceased persecuting him; at the head of armed forces they
+were in the habit of devastating his lands under pretext of searching
+for heretics, and they would bring in their train and under their
+protection his special enemies, until his territories were nearly ruined
+and his jurisdiction set at naught. He, therefore, placed himself and
+his dominions under the protection of the Holy See. He probably escaped
+further personal troubles, for he died two months later, in February,
+1265, like his father, in the Cistercian habit, and in the Abbey of
+Bolbonne; but in 1292 his memory was assailed before Bertrand de
+Clermont, Inquisitor of Carcassonne. The effort was fruitless, for in
+1297 Bertrand gave to his son, Roger Bernard IV., a declaration that the
+accusation had been disproved, and that neither he nor his father should
+suffer in person or property in consequence of it.[60]
+
+When such were the persecutions to which the greatest were exposed it is
+easy to understand the tyranny exercised over the whole land by the
+irresponsible power of the inquisitors. No one was so loftily placed as
+to be beyond their reach, no one so humble as to escape their spies.
+When once they had cause of enmity with a man there was no further peace
+for him. The only appeal from them was to the pope, and not only was
+Rome distant, but the avenue to it lay, as we have seen, in their own
+hands. Human wickedness and folly have erected, in the world's history,
+more violent despotisms, but never one more cruel, more benumbing, or
+more all-pervading.
+
+For the next twenty years there is little worthy of special note in the
+operations of the Inquisition of Languedoc. It pursued its work
+continuously with occasional outbursts of energy. Etienne de Gatine, and
+Pons de Poyet, who presided over its tribunals for many years, were no
+sluggards, and the period from 1373 to 1375 rewarded their industry with
+an abundant harvest. Though heretics naturally grew scarcer with the
+unintermitting pursuit of so many years, there was still the exhaustless
+catalogue of the dead, whose exhumation furnished an impressive
+spectacle for the mob, while their confiscations were welcome to the
+pious princes, and contributed largely to the change of ownership of
+land which was a political consummation so desirable. Yet heresy with
+incredible stubbornness maintained itself, though its concealment grew
+ever more difficult, and Italy grew less safe as a refuge and less
+prolific as a source of inspiration.[61]
+
+In 1271 Alphonse and Jeanne, who had accompanied St. Louis in his
+unlucky crusade to Tunis, died without issue, during the homeward
+journey. The line of Raymond was thus extinct, and the land passed
+irrevocably to the crown. Philippe le Hardi took possession even of the
+territories which Jeanne had endeavored, as was her right, to alienate
+by will, and though he surrendered the Agenois to Henry III., he
+succeeded in retaining Querci. No opposition was made to the change of
+masters. When, October 8, 1271, Guillaume de Cobardon, royal Seneschal
+of Carcassonne, issued his orders regulating the new _regime_, one of
+the first things thought of was the confiscations. All castles and
+villages which had been forfeited for heresy were taken into the king's
+hand, without prejudice to the right of those to whom they might belong,
+thus throwing the burden of proof upon all claimants, and cutting out
+assigns under alienations. In 1272 Philippe paid a visit to his new
+territories; it was designed to be peaceful, but some violences
+committed by Roger Bernard IV. of Foix caused him to come at the head of
+an army, with which he easily overcame the resistance of the count,
+occupied his lands, and threw him into a dungeon. Released in 1273, the
+count in 1276 rendered such assistance in the invasion of Navarre that
+Philippe took him into favor and restored his castles, on his renouncing
+all allegiance to Aragon. Thus the last show of independence in the
+South was broken down, and the monarchy was securely planted on its
+ruins.[62]
+
+This consolidation of the south of France under the kings of Paris was
+not without compensating advantages. The monarch was rapidly acquiring a
+centralized power, which was very different from the overlordship of a
+feudal suzerain. The study of the Roman law was beginning to bear fruit
+in the State as well as in the Church, and the imperial theories of
+absolutism as inherent in kingship were gradually altering all the old
+relations. The king's court was expanding into the Parlement, and was
+training a school of subtle and resolute civil lawyers who lost no
+opportunity of extending the royal jurisdiction, and of legislating for
+the whole land in the guise of rendering judgments. In the appeals which
+came ever more thickly crowding into the Parlement from every quarter,
+the mailed baron found himself hopelessly entangled in the legal
+intricacies which were robbing him of his seignorial rights almost
+without his knowledge; and the Ordonnances, or general laws, which
+emanated from the throne, were constantly encroaching on old privileges,
+weakening local jurisdictions, and giving to the whole country a body of
+jurisprudence in which the crown combined both the legislative and the
+executive functions. If it thus was enabled to oppress, it was likewise
+stronger to defend, while the immense extension of the royal domains
+since the beginning of the century gave it the physical ability to
+enforce its growing prerogatives.
+
+It was impossible that this metamorphosis in the national institutions
+could be effected without greatly modifying the relations between Church
+and State. Thus even the saintliness of Louis IX. did not prevent him
+from defending himself and his subjects from ecclesiastical domination
+in a spirit very different from that which any French monarch had
+ventured to exhibit since the days of Charlemagne. The change became
+still more manifest under his grandson, Philippe le Bel. Though but
+seventeen years of age when he succeeded to the throne in 1286, his rare
+ability and vigorous temper soon led him to assert the royal power in
+incisive fashion. He recognized, within the boundaries of his kingdom,
+no superior, secular or spiritual. Had he entertained any scruples of
+conscience, his legal counsellors could easily remove them. To such men
+as Pierre Flotte and Guillaume de Nogaret the true position of the
+Church was that of subjection to the State, as it had been under the
+successors of Constantine, and in their eyes Boniface VIII. was to their
+master scarce more than Pope Vigilius had been to Justinian. Few among
+the revenges of time are more satisfying than the catastrophe of Anagni,
+in 1303, when Nogaret and Sciarra Colonna laid hands on the vicegerent
+of God, and Boniface passionately replied to Nogaret's reproaches, "I
+can patiently endure to be condemned and deposed by a Patarin"--for
+Nogaret was born at St. Felix de Caraman, and his ancestors were said to
+have been burned as Cathari. If this be true he must have been more than
+human if he did not feel special gratification when, at command of his
+master, he appeared before Clement V. with a formal accusation of heresy
+against Boniface, and demanded that the dead pope's bones be dug up and
+burned. The citizens of Toulouse recognized him as an avenger of their
+wrongs when they placed his bust in the gallery of their illustrious men
+in the Hotel-de-ville.[63]
+
+It was to the royal power, thus rising to supremacy, that the people
+instinctively turned for relief from the inquisitorial tyranny which was
+becoming insupportable. The authority lodged in the hands of the
+inquisitor was so arbitrary and irresponsible that even with the purest
+intentions it could not but be unpopular, while to the unworthy it
+afforded unlimited opportunity for oppression and the gratification of
+the basest passions. Dangerous as was any manifestation of discontent,
+the people of Albi and Carcassonne, reduced to despair by the cruelty of
+the inquisitors, Jean Galande and Jean Vigoureux, mustered courage, and
+in 1280 presented their complaints to Philippe le Hardi. It was
+difficult to sustain their charges with specific proofs, and after a
+brief investigation their reiterated requests for relief were dismissed
+as frivolous. In the agitation against the Inquisition thus commenced,
+it must be borne in mind that heretics had little to do. By this time
+they were completely cowed and were quite satisfied if they could enjoy
+their faith in secret. The opposition arose from good Catholics, the
+magistrates of cities and substantial burghers, who saw the prosperity
+of the land withering under the deadly grasp of the Holy Office, and who
+felt that no man was safe whose wealth might arouse cupidity or whose
+independence might provoke revenge. The introduction of the use of
+torture impressed the popular imagination with special horror, and it
+was widely believed that confessions were habitually extorted by
+insufferable torment from rich men whose faith was unblemished. The
+cruel provisions which brought confiscation on the descendants of
+heretics, moreover, were peculiarly hard to endure, for ruin impended
+over every one against whom the inquisitor might see fit to produce from
+his records evidence of ancestral heresy. It was against these records
+that the next attempt was directed. Foiled in their appeal to the
+throne, the consuls of Carcassonne and some of its prominent
+ecclesiastics, in 1283 or 1284, formed a conspiracy to destroy the books
+of the Inquisition containing the confessions and depositions. How far
+this was organized it would be difficult now to say. The statements of
+the witnesses conflict so hopelessly on material points, even as to
+dates, that there is little dependence to be placed on them. They were
+evidently extracted under torture, and if they are credible the consuls
+of the city and the archdeacon, Sanche Morlana, the episcopal Ordinary,
+Guillem Brunet, other episcopal officials and many of the secular clergy
+were not only implicated in the plot, but were heretics in full
+affiliation with the Cathari. Whether true or false they show that there
+was the sharpest antagonism between the Inquisition and the local
+Church. The whole has an air of unreality which renders one doubtful
+about accepting any portion, but there must have been some foundation
+for the story. According to the evidence Bernard Garric, who had been a
+perfected heretic and a _filius major_, but had been converted and was
+now a familiar of the Inquisition, was selected as the instrument. He
+was approached, and after some bargaining he agreed to deliver the
+books for two hundred livres Tournois, for the payment of which the
+consuls went security. How the attempt failed and how it was discovered
+does not appear, but probably Bernard at the first overtures confided
+the plot to his superiors and led on the conspirators to their ruin.[64]
+
+The whole community was now at the mercy of the Inquisition, and it was
+not disposed to be lenient in its triumph. While the trials were yet
+going on, the citizens made a fresh appeal to Pierre Chalus, the royal
+chancellor, who was passing through Toulouse on a mission from the court
+of Paris to that of Aragon. This was easily disposed of, for on
+September 13, 1285, the inquisitors triumphantly brought before him
+Bernard Garric to repeat the confession made a week previous. He had
+thoroughly learned his lesson, and the only conclusion which the royal
+representative could reach was that Carcassonne was a hopeless nest of
+heretics, deserving the severest measures of repression. As a last
+resort recourse was had to Honorius IV., but the only result was a brief
+from him to the inquisitors expressing his grief that the people of
+Carcassonne should be impeding the Inquisition with all their strength,
+and ordering the punishment of the recalcitrants irrespective of their
+station, order, or condition, an expression which shows that the
+opposition had not arisen from heretics.[65]
+
+In reply to these complaints the inquisitors could urge with some truth
+that heresy, though hidden, was still busy. Although heretic seigneurs
+and nobles had been by this time well-nigh destroyed and their lands had
+passed to others, there was still infection among the bourgeoisie of the
+cities and the peasantry. It is one of the noteworthy features of
+Catharism, moreover, that at no time during its existence were lacking
+earnest and devoted ministers, who took their lives in their hands and
+wandered around in secret among the faithful, administering spiritual
+comfort and instruction, making converts where they could, exhorting the
+young and hereticating the old. In toil and hardship and peril they
+pursued their work, gliding by night from one place of concealment to
+another, and their self-devotion was rivalled by that of their
+disciples. Few more touching narratives can be conceived than those
+which could be constructed from the artless confessions extorted from
+the peasant-folk who fell into the hands of the inquisitors--the humble
+alms which they gave, pieces of bread, fish, scraps of cloth, or small
+coins, the hiding-places which they constructed in their cabins, the
+guidance given by night through places of danger, and, more than all,
+the steadfast fidelity which refused to betray their pastors when the
+inquisitor suddenly appeared and offered the alternative of free pardon
+or the dungeon and confiscation. The self-devotion of the minister was
+well matched with the quiet heroism of the believer. To this fidelity
+and the complete network of secret organization which extended over the
+land may be attributed the marvellously long exemption which many of
+these ministers enjoyed in their proselyting missions. Two of the most
+prominent of them at this period, Raymond Delboc and Raymond Godayl, or
+Didier, had already, in 1276, been condemned by the Inquisition of
+Carcassonne as perfected heretics and fugitives, but they kept at their
+work until the explosion of 1300, incessantly active, with the
+inquisitors always in pursuit but unable to overtake them. Guillem Pages
+is another whose name constantly recurs in the confessions of
+heretications during an almost equally long period. The inquisitors
+might well urge that their utmost efforts were needed, but their methods
+were such that even the best intentions would not have saved the
+innocent from suffering with the guilty.[66]
+
+The secretly guilty were quite sufficiently influential, and the
+innocent sufficiently apprehensive, to keep up the agitation which had
+been commenced, and at last it began to bear fruit. A new inquisitor of
+Carcassonne, Nicholas d'Abbeville, was quite as cruel and arbitrary as
+his predecessors, and when the people prepared an appeal to the king he
+promptly threw into jail the notary who drew up the paper. In their
+desperation they disregarded this warning; a deputation was sent to the
+court, and this time they were listened to. May 13, 1291, Philippe
+addressed a letter to his Seneschal of Carcassonne reciting the injuries
+inflicted by the Inquisition on the innocent through the newly-invented
+system of torture, by means of which the living and the dead were
+fraudulently convicted and the whole land scandalized and rendered
+desolate. The royal officials were therefore ordered no longer to obey
+the commands of the inquisitors in making arrests, unless the accused be
+a confessed heretic or persons worthy of faith vouch for his being
+publicly defamed for heresy. A month later he reiterated these orders
+even more precisely, and announced his intention of sending deputies to
+Languedoc armed with full authority to make permanent provision in the
+matter. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of these
+manifestoes as marking a new era in the relations between the temporal
+and spiritual authorities. For far less than this all the chivalry and
+scum of Europe had been promised salvation if they would drive Raymond
+of Toulouse from his inheritance.[67]
+
+It was probably to break in some degree the force of this unheard-of
+interference with inquisitorial supremacy that in September, 1292,
+Guillem de Saint-Seine, Inquisitor of Carcassonne, ordered all the
+parish priests in his district for three weeks on Sundays and
+feast-days to denounce as excommunicate all who should impede the
+business of the Inquisition and all notaries who should wickedly draw up
+revocations of confessions for heretics. This could not effect much, nor
+was anything accomplished by a Parlement held April 14, 1293, at
+Montpellier, by the royal chamberlain, Alphonse de Ronceyrac, of all the
+royal officials and inquisitors of Toulouse and Carcassonne to reform
+the abuses of all jurisdictions.[68]
+
+Shortly after this, in September, 1293, Philippe went a step further and
+threw his aegis over the unfortunate Jew. Although Jews as a class were
+not liable to persecution by the Inquisition, still, if after being once
+converted they reverted to Judaism, or if they proselyted among
+Christians to obtain converts, or if they were themselves converts from
+Christianity, they were heretics in the eyes of the Church, they fell
+under inquisitorial jurisdiction, and were liable to be abandoned to the
+secular arm. All these classes were a source of endless trouble to the
+Church, especially the "neophytes" or converted Jews, for feigned
+conversions were frequent, either for worldly advantage or to escape the
+incessant persecution visited upon the unlucky children of Israel.[69]
+The bull _Turbato corde_, ordering the inquisitors to be active and
+vigilant in prosecuting all who were guilty of these offences, issued in
+1268 by Clement IV., was reissued by successive popes with a pertinacity
+showing the importance attached to it, and when we see Frere Bertrand de
+la Roche, in 1274, officially described as inquisitor in Provence
+against heretics and wicked Christians who embrace Judaism, and Frere
+Guillaume d'Auxerre, in 1285, qualified as "Inquisitor of Heretics and
+Apostate Jews in France," it is evident that these cases formed a large
+portion of inquisitorial business. As the Jews were peculiarly
+defenceless, this jurisdiction gave wide opportunity for abuse and
+extortion which was doubtless turned fully to account. Philippe owed
+them protection, for in 1291 he had deprived them of their own judges
+and ordered them to plead in the royal courts, and now he proceeded to
+protect them in the most emphatic manner. To Simon Brisetete, Seneschal
+of Carcassonne, he sent a copy of the bull _Turbato corde_, with
+instructions that while this was to be implicitly obeyed, no Jew was to
+be arrested for any cause not specified therein, and, if there was any
+doubt, the matter was to be referred to the royal council. He further
+enclosed an Ordonnance directing that no Jew in France was to be
+arrested on the requisition of any person or friar of any Order, no
+matter what his office might be, without notifying the seneschal or
+bailli, who was to decide whether the case was sufficiently clear to be
+acted upon without reference to the royal council. Simon Brisetete
+thereupon ordered all officials to defend the Jews, not to allow any
+exactions to be imposed on them whereby their ability to pay their taxes
+might be impaired, and not to arrest them at the mandate of any one
+without informing him of the cause. It would not have been easy to limit
+more skilfully the inquisitorial power to oppress a despised class.[70]
+
+Philippe had thus intervened in the most decided manner, and the
+oppressed populations of Languedoc might reasonably hope for permanent
+relief, but his subsequent policy belied their hopes. It vacillated in a
+manner which is only partially explicable by the shifting political
+exigencies of the times so far as we can penetrate them. In this same
+year, 1293, the Seneschal of Carcassonne is found instructing Aimeric,
+the Viscount of Narbonne, to execute royal letters ordering aid to be
+rendered to the inquisitors there. This may have been a mere local
+matter, and Philippe, for a while at least, adhered to his position.
+Towards the end of 1295 there was issued an Ordonnance of the royal
+court, applicable to the whole kingdom, forbidding the arrest of any one
+on the demand of a friar of any Order, no matter what his position might
+be, unless the seneschal or bailli of the jurisdiction was satisfied
+that the arrest should be made, and the person asking it showed a
+commission from the pope. This was sent to all the royal officials with
+strict injunctions to obey it, although, if the accused were likely to
+fly, he might be detained, but not surrendered until the decision of the
+court could be had. Moreover, if any persons were then in durance
+contrary to the provisions of the Ordonnance, they were to be set at
+liberty. Even this did not effect its object sufficiently, and a few
+months later, in 1296, Philippe complained to his Seneschal of
+Carcassonne of the numbers who were arrested by the royal officers, and
+confined in the royal prisons on insufficient grounds, causing scandal
+and the heavy infliction of infamy on the innocent. To prevent this
+arrests were forbidden except in cases of such violent presumption of
+heresy that they could not be postponed, and the officials were
+instructed, when called upon by the inquisitors, to make such excuses as
+they could. These orders were obeyed, for when, about this time,
+Foulques de Saint-Georges, Vice-inquisitor of Carcassonne, ordered the
+arrest of sundry suspects by Adam de Marolles, the deputy seneschal, the
+latter referred the matter to his principal, Henri de Elisia, who, after
+consultation with Robert d'Artois, lieutenant of the king in Languedoc
+and Gascony, refused the demand.[71]
+
+No previous sovereign had ventured thus to trammel the Inquisition.
+These regulations, in fact, rendered it virtually powerless, for it had
+no organization of its own; even its prisons were the king's and might
+be withdrawn at any time, and it depended wholly upon the secular arm
+for physical force. In some places, as at Albi, it might rely upon
+episcopal assistance, but elsewhere it could do nothing of itself.
+Philippe had, moreover, been careful not to excite the ill-will of his
+bishops, for his Ordonnances and instructions alluded simply to the
+friars, thus excluding the Inquisition from royal aid without
+specifically naming it. His quarrel with Boniface VIII. was now
+beginning. Between January, 1296, and February, 1297, appeared the
+celebrated bulls _Clericis laicos_, _Ineffabilis amoris_, _Excitat nos_,
+and _Exiit a te_, whose arrogant encroachments on the secular power
+aroused him to resistance, and this doubtless gave a sharper zest to his
+desire to diminish in his dominions the authority of so purely papal an
+institution as the Inquisition. So shrewd a prince could readily see its
+effectiveness as an instrument of papal aggression, for the Church could
+make what definition it pleased of heresy; and Boniface did not hesitate
+to give him fair warning, when, in October, 1297, he ordered the
+Inquisitor of Carcassonne to proceed against certain officials of
+Beziers who had rendered themselves in the papal eyes suspect of heresy
+because they remained under excommunication, incurred for imposing taxes
+on the clergy, boasting that food had not lost its savor to them nor
+sleep its sweetness, and who, moreover, dared with polluted lips to
+revile the Holy See itself. Under such an extension of jurisdiction
+Philippe himself might not be safe, and it is no wonder that tentative
+efforts made in 1296 and 1297 to find some method of reconciling the
+recent royal Ordonnances with the time-honored absolutism of the
+Inquisition proved failures.[72]
+
+Meanwhile, the exigencies of Italian politics caused Boniface suddenly
+to retrace his steps. His quarrel with the Cardinals Giacomo and Pietro
+Colonna rendered it advisable to propitiate Philippe. In May, 1297, he
+assented to a tithe conceded to the king by his bishops, and in the bull
+_Noveritis_ (July, 1297) he exempted France from the operation of the
+_Clericis laicos_, while in _Licet per speciales_ (July, 1298) he
+withdrew his arrogant pretension imperatively to prolong the armistice
+between France and England. A truce was thus patched up with Philippe,
+who hastened to manifest his good-will to the Holy See by abandoning his
+subjects again to the inquisitors. In the Liber Sextus of the Decretals,
+published by Boniface March 3, 1298, the pope included, with customary
+imperiousness, a canon commanding the absolute obedience of all secular
+officials to the orders of inquisitors under penalty of excommunication,
+which if endured for a year carried with it condemnation for heresy.
+This was his answer to the French monarch's insubordinate legislation,
+and Philippe at the moment was not inclined to contest the matter. In
+September he meekly enclosed the canon to his officials with
+instructions to obey it in every point, arresting and imprisoning all
+whom inquisitors or bishops might designate, and punishing all whom they
+might condemn. A letter of Frere Arnaud Jean, Inquisitor of Pamiers,
+dated March 2, of the same year, assuring the Jews that they need dread
+no novel measures of severity, would seem to indicate that the royal
+protection had been previously withdrawn from them. The good
+understanding between king and pope lasted until 1300, when the quarrel
+broke out afresh with greater acrimony than ever. In December of that
+year the provisions of _Clericis laicos_ were renewed by the bull _Nuper
+ex rationalibus_, followed by the short one, of which the authenticity
+is disputed, _Scire te volumus_, asserting Philippe's subjection in
+temporal affairs and calling forth his celebrated rejoinder, _Sciat tua
+maxima fatuitas_. The strife continued with increasing violence till the
+seizure of Boniface at Anagni, September 8, 1303, and his death in the
+following month.[73]
+
+Under this varying policy the fate of the people of Languedoc was hard.
+Nicholas d'Abbeville, the Inquisitor of Carcassonne, was a man of
+inflexible severity, arrogantly bent on pushing his prerogatives to the
+utmost. He had an assistant worthy of him in Foulques de Saint-Georges,
+the Prior of the Convent of Albi, which was under his jurisdiction. He
+had virtually another assistant in the bishop, Bernard de Castanet, who
+delighted to act as inquisitor, impelled alike by fanaticism and by
+greed, for, as we have seen, the bishops of Albi, by a special
+transaction with St. Louis, enjoyed a half of the confiscations. Prior
+to his elevation in 1276 Bernard had been auditor of the papal camera,
+which shows him to have been an accomplished legist, and he was also a
+patron of art and literature, but he was ever in trouble with his
+people. Already, in 1277, he had succeeded in so exasperating them that
+his palace was swept by a howling mob, and he barely escaped with his
+life. In 1282 he commenced the erection of the cathedral of St. Cecilia,
+a gigantic building, half church, half fortress, which swallowed
+enormous sums, and stimulated his hatred of heresy by supplying a pious
+use for the estates of heretics.[74]
+
+To such men the protection granted to his subjects by Philippe was most
+distasteful, and not without reason. Heretics naturally took advantage
+of the restrictions imposed on the Inquisition and redoubled their
+activity. It might seem, indeed, to them that the day of supremacy of
+the Church was past, and that the rising independence of the secular
+power might usher in an era of comparative toleration, in which their
+persecuted religion would at length find its oft-deferred opportunity of
+converting mankind--a dream in which they indulged to the last. More
+demonstrative, if not more earnest, was the feeling which the royal
+policy aroused in Carcassonne. The Ordonnances had not only crippled the
+Inquisition, but had shown the disfavor with which it was regarded by
+the king, and in 1295 some of the leading citizens, who had been
+compromised in the trials of 1285, found no difficulty in arousing the
+people to open resistance. For a while they controlled the city, and
+inflicted no little injury on the Dominicans, and on all who ventured to
+support them. Nicholas d'Abbeville was driven from the pulpit when
+preaching, pelted with stones and pursued with drawn swords, and the
+judges of the royal court on one occasion were glad to escape with their
+lives, while the friars were beaten and insulted when they appeared in
+public and were practically segregated as excommunicates. Bernard Gui,
+an eye-witness, naturally attributes this to the influence of heresy,
+but it is impossible for us now to conjecture how much may have been due
+to religious antagonism, and how much to the natural reaction among the
+orthodox against the intolerable oppression of the inquisitorial
+methods.[75]
+
+For some years the Inquisition of Carcassonne was suspended. As soon as
+secular support was withdrawn public opinion was too strong, and it
+succumbed. This lasted until the truce between king and pope again
+placed the royal power at the disposal of the inquisitors. In their
+despair the citizens then sent envoys to Boniface VIII., with Aimeric
+Castel at their head, supported by a number of Franciscans. Boniface
+listened to their complaints and proposed to depute the Bishop of
+Vicenza as commissioner to examine and report, but the papal
+referendary, afterwards Cardinal of S. Sabina, required a bribe of ten
+thousand florins as a preliminary. It was promised him, but Aimeric,
+having secured the good offices of Pierre Flotte and the Duke of
+Burgundy, thought he could obtain his purpose for less, and refused to
+pay it. When Boniface heard of the refusal he angrily exclaimed, "We
+know in whom they trust, but by God all the kings in Christendom shall
+not save the people of Carcassonne from being burned, and specially the
+father of that Aimeric Castel!" The negotiation fell through, and
+Nicholas d'Abbeville had his triumph. A large portion of the citizens
+were wearied with the disturbances, and were impatient under the
+excommunication which rested on the community. The prosperity of the
+town was declining, and there were not wanting those who predicted its
+ruin. The hopelessness of further resistance was apparent, and matters
+being thus ripe for a settlement, a solemn assembly was held, April 27,
+1299, when the civic magistrates met the inquisitor in the presence of
+the Bishops of Albi and Beziers, Bertrand de Clermont, Inquisitor of
+Toulouse, the royal officials, sundry abbots and other notables.
+Nicholas dictated his own terms for the absolution asked at his hands,
+nor were they seemingly harsh. Those who were manifest heretics, or
+specially defamed, or convicted by legal proof must take their chance.
+The rest were to be penanced as the bishops and the Abbot of Fontfroide
+might advise, excluding confiscation and personal or humiliating
+penalties. All this was reasonable enough from an ecclesiastical point
+of view, but so deep-seated was the distrust, or so strong the heretical
+influence, that the people asked twenty-four hours for consideration,
+and on reassembling the next day refused the terms. Six months passed,
+their helplessness and isolation each day becoming more apparent, until,
+October 8, they reassembled, and the consuls asked for absolution in the
+name of the community. Nicholas was not severe. The penance imposed on
+the town was the building of a chapel in honor of St. Louis, which was
+accomplished in the year 1300 at the cost of ninety livres Tournois. The
+consuls, in the name of the community, secretly abjured heresy. Twelve
+of the most guilty citizens were reserved for special penances, viz.,
+four of the old consuls, four councillors, two advocates, and two
+notaries. Of these the fate was doubtless deplorable. Chance has
+preserved to us the sentence passed on one of the authors of the
+troubles, Guillem Garric, by which we find that he rotted in the
+horrible dungeon of Carcassonne for twenty-two years before he was
+brought forward for judgment in 1321, when in consideration of his long
+confinement he was given the choice between the crusade and exile, and
+the crushed old man fell on his knees and gave thanks to Jesus Christ
+and to the inquisitors for the mercy vouchsafed him. Some years later
+intense excitement was created when Frere Bernard Delicieux obtained
+sight of the agreement, and discovered that the consuls had been
+represented in it as confessing that the whole community had given aid
+to manifest heretics, that they had abjured in the name of all, and thus
+that all citizens were incapacitated for office and were exposed to the
+penalties of relapse in case of further trouble. This excited the people
+to such a point that the inquisitor, Geoffroi d'Ablis, was obliged to
+issue a solemn declaration, August 10, 1303, disclaiming any intention
+of thus taking advantage of the settlement; and notwithstanding this,
+when King Philippe came to Carcassonne in 1305 the agreement was
+pronounced fraudulent, the seneschal Gui Caprier was dismissed for
+having affixed his seal to it, and confessed that he had been bribed to
+do so by Nicholas d'Abbeville with a thousand livres Tournois.[76]
+
+Encouraged by the crippling and suspension of the Inquisition, the
+Catharan propaganda had been at work with renewed vigor. In 1299 the
+Council of Beziers sounded the alarm by announcing that perfected
+heretics had made their appearance in the land, and ordering close
+search made after them. At Albi, Bishop Bernard was, as usual, at
+variance with his flock, who were pleading against him in the royal
+court to preserve their jurisdiction. The occasion was opportune. He
+called to his assistance the inquisitors Nicholas d'Abbeville and
+Bertrand de Clermont, and towards the close of the year 1299 the town
+was startled by the arrest of twenty-five of the wealthiest and most
+respected citizens, whose regular attendance at mass and observance of
+all religious duties had rendered them above suspicion. The trials were
+pushed with unusual celerity, and, from the manner in which those who at
+first denied were speedily brought to confession and to revealing the
+names of their associates, there was doubtless good ground for the
+popular belief that torture was ruthlessly and unsparingly used; in
+fact, allusions to it in the final sentence of Guillem Calverie, one of
+the victims, leave no doubt on the subject. Abjuration saved them from
+the stake, but the sentence of perpetual imprisonment in chains was a
+doubtful mercy for those who were sentenced, while a number were kept
+interminably in jail awaiting judgment.[77]
+
+The whole country was ripe for revolt. The revival of Philippe's quarrel
+with Boniface soon gave assurance that help might be expected from the
+throne; but if this should fail there would be scant hesitation on the
+part of desperate men in looking for some other sovereign who would lend
+an ear to their complaints. The arrest and trial for treason of the
+Bishop of Pamiers, in 1301, shows us what was then the undercurrent of
+popular feeling in Languedoc, where the Frenchman was still a hated
+stranger, the king a foreign despot, and the people discontented and
+ready to shift their allegiance to either England or Aragon whenever
+they could see their advantage in it. The fragile tenure with which the
+land was still held by the Kings of Paris must be kept in view if we
+would understand Philippe's shifting policy.[78]
+
+The prosecutions of Albi caused general terror, for the victims were
+universally thought to be good Catholics, selected for spoliation on
+account of their wealth. The conviction was widespread that such
+inquisitors as Jean de Faugoux, Guillem de Mulceone, Jean de
+Saint-Seine, Jean Galande, Nicholas d'Abbeville, and Foulques de
+Saint-Georges had long had no scruple in obtaining, by threats and
+torture, such testimony as they might desire against any one whom they
+might wish to ruin, and that their records were falsified, and filled
+with fictitious entries for that purpose. Some years before, Frere Jean
+Martin, a Dominican, had invoked the interposition of Pierre de
+Montbrun, Archbishop of Narbonne (died 1286), to put a stop to this
+iniquity. Some investigation was made, and the truth of the charges was
+established. The dead were found to be the special prey of these
+vultures, who had prepared their frauds in advance. Even the fierce
+orthodoxy of the Marechaux de la Foi could not save Gui de Levis of
+Mirepoix from this posthumous attack; and, when Gautier de Montbrun,
+Bishop of Carcassonne, died, they produced from their records proof that
+he had adored heretics and had been hereticated on his death-bed. In
+this latter case, fortunately, the archbishop happened to know that one
+of the witnesses, Jourdain Ferrolh, had been absent at the time when, by
+his alleged testimony, he had seen the act of adoration. Frere Jean
+Martin urged the archbishop to destroy all the records and cause the
+Dominicans to be deprived of their functions, and the prelate made some
+attempt at Rome to effect this, contenting himself meanwhile with
+issuing some regulations and sequestrating some of the books. It was
+probably during this flurry that the Inquisitors of Carcassonne and
+Toulouse, Nicholas d'Abbeville and Pierre de Mulceone, hearing that they
+were likely to be convicted of fraud, retired with their records to the
+safe retreat of Prouille and busied themselves in making a transcript,
+with the compromising entries omitted, which they ingeniously bound in
+the covers stripped from the old volumes.[79]
+
+About this time occurred a case which confirms the popular belief in
+inquisitorial iniquity, and which had results of vastly greater
+importance than its promoters anticipated. When the disappointed
+Boniface VIII. swore that he would cause the burning of Aimeric Castel's
+father, he uttered no idle threat. Nicholas d'Abbeville, a fitting
+instrument, was at hand, and to him he privately gave the necessary
+verbal instructions. Castel Fabri, the father, had been a citizen of
+Carcassonne distinguished for piety and benevolence no less than for
+wealth. A friend of the Franciscan Order, after duly receiving the
+sacraments, he had died, in 1278, in the hands of its friars, six of
+whom kept watch in the sick-room until his death, and he had been buried
+in the Franciscan cemetery. We have seen in the case of the Count of
+Foix how easily all these precautions could be brushed aside, and
+Nicholas found no difficulty in discovering or making the evidence he
+required.[80] Suddenly, in 1300, the people of Carcassonne were startled
+by a notice, read in all the parish churches, summoning those wishing to
+defend the memory of Castel Fabri to appear before the Inquisition on a
+day named, as the deceased was proved to have been hereticated on his
+death-bed. The moment was well chosen, as Aimeric Castel, the son, was
+absent. The Franciscans, for whom the accused had doubtless provided
+liberally in his will, felt themselves called upon to assume his
+defence. Hastily consulting, they determined to send their lector,
+Bernard de Liegossi, or Delicieux, to the General Chapter then
+assembling at Marseilles, for instructions, as, in the chronic
+antagonism between the Mendicants, the matter seemed to be regarded as
+an assault on the Order. The wife of Aimeric Castel provided for the
+expenses of the journey, and Bernard returned with instructions from the
+provincial to defend the memory of the deceased, while Eleazar de
+Clermont, the syndic of the convent, was deputed by the Guardian of
+Narbonne to co-operate with him. Meanwhile Nicholas had proceeded to
+condemnation, and when, July 4, 1300, Bernard and Eleazar presented
+themselves to offer the testimony of the friars who had watched the
+dying man, Nicholas received them standing, refused to listen to them,
+and on their urging their evidence left the room in the most
+contemptuous manner. In the afternoon they returned to ask for a
+certificate of their offer and its refusal, but found the door of the
+Inquisition closed, and could not effect an entrance.
+
+The next step was to take an appeal to the Holy See and ask for
+"Apostoli," but this was no easy matter. So general was the terror
+inspired by Nicholas that the doctor of decretals, Jean de Penne, to
+whom they applied to draw the paper, refused unless his name should be
+kept inviolably secret, and nineteen years afterwards Bernard when on
+trial refused to reveal it until compelled to do so. To obtain a notary
+to authenticate the appeal was still harder. All those in Carcassonne
+absolutely refused, and it was found necessary to bring one from a
+distance, so that it was not until July 16 that the document was ready
+for service. How seriously, indeed, all parties regarded what should
+have been a very simple business is shown by the winding-up of the
+appeal, which places, until the case is decided, not only the body of
+Castel Fabri, but the appellants and the whole Franciscan convent, under
+the protection of the Holy See. When they went to serve the instrument
+on Nicholas the doors, as before, were found closed and entrance could
+not be effected. It was therefore read in the street and left tacked on
+the door, to be taken down and treasured and brought forward in evidence
+against Bernard in 1319. We have no further records of the case, but
+that the appeal was ineffectual is visible in the fact that in 1322-3
+the accounts of Arnaud Assalit show that the royal treasury was still
+receiving an income from the confiscated estates of Castel Fabri; while
+in 1329 the still unsatisfied vengeance of the Inquisition ordered the
+bones of his wife Rixende to be exhumed.[81]
+
+The case of Castel Fabri might have passed unnoticed, like thousands of
+others, had it not chanced to bring into collision with the Inquisition
+the lector of the convent of Carcassonne. Bernard Delicieux was no
+ordinary man, in fact a contemporary assures us that in the whole
+Franciscan Order there were few who were his equals. Entering the Order
+about 1284, his position of lector or teacher shows the esteem felt for
+his learning, for the Mendicants were ever careful in selecting those to
+whom they confided such functions; and, moreover, we find him in
+relations with the leading minds of the age, such as Raymond Lully and
+Arnaldo de Vilanova. His eloquence made him much in request as preacher;
+his persuasiveness enabled him to control those with whom he came in
+contact, while his enthusiastic ardor prompted him to make any
+sacrifices necessary to a cause which had once enlisted his sympathies.
+He was no latitudinarian or time-server, for when the split came in his
+own Order he embraced, to his ruin, the side of the Spiritual
+Franciscans, with the same disregard of self as he had manifested in his
+dealings with the Inquisition. He was no admirer of toleration, for he
+devoutly wished the extermination of heresy, but experience and
+observation had convinced him that in Dominican hands the Inquisition
+was merely an instrument of oppression and extortion, and he imagined
+that by transferring it to the Franciscans its usefulness would be
+preserved while its evils would be removed. Boniface VIII., as we have
+seen, about this time replaced the Franciscan inquisitors of Padua and
+Vicenza with Dominicans for the purpose of repressing similar evils, and
+in the jealousy and antagonism between the two orders the converse
+operation might seem worth attempting in Languedoc. In the hope of
+alleviating the sufferings of the people, Bernard devoted himself to the
+cause for years, incurring obloquy, persecution, and ingratitude. Those
+whom he sought to serve allowed him to sell his books in their service,
+and to cripple himself with debt, while the enmities which he excited
+hounded him relentlessly to the death. Yet in the struggle he had the
+sympathies of his own Order which everywhere throughout Languedoc
+manifested itself the enemy of the Dominican Inquisition. Already, in
+1291, Franciscans in Carcassonne had endeavored to intervene in cases of
+heresy, and had been sharply reproved by Philippe le Bel at the instance
+of the Inquisitor Guillaume de Saint-Seine. In 1298 they had supported
+the appeal of the men of Carcassonne to Boniface VIII., and throughout
+the whole of Bernard's agitation the Franciscan convents are seen to be
+rallying-points of the opposition. It is there that Bernard preaches his
+fiery sermons; it is there that meetings are held to plan resistance.
+During the troubles in Carcassonne Foulques de Saint-Georges went with
+twenty-five men to the Franciscan convent to cite the opponents of the
+Inquisition. The friars would not admit them, but tolled the bell and an
+angry crowd assembled, while those inside the convent assailed them with
+stones and quarrels, and they were glad to escape with their lives.[82]
+
+Vainly the inquisitors complained to the Franciscan prelates of Bernard
+as an impeder of the Holy Office. The form of a trial would be gone
+through, and the offender would be furnished with letters attesting his
+innocence. The Dominicans asserted that Franciscan zeal was solely
+caused by jealousy; the Franciscans retorted that their friends were the
+special objects of inquisitorial persecution. King Philippe's confessor
+was a Dominican, Queen Joanna's a Franciscan, and the two courtly friars
+took part, for and against the Inquisition, with a zeal which rendered
+them important factors in the struggle. The undying hostility between
+the two Orders always led them to opposite sides in every question of
+dogma or practice, and this was one which afforded the amplest scope to
+bitterness.[83]
+
+The _coup-de-main_ executed on the so-called heretics of Albi, in
+December, 1299, and the early months of 1300, had excited consternation
+too general for the matter to be passed over. King Philippe's quarrel
+with Boniface was breaking out afresh, and he might not be averse to
+making his subjects feel that they had a protector in the throne. With
+the advice of his council an investigation was ordered, and confided to
+the Bishops of Beziers and Maguelonne, but the inquisitors arrogantly
+and persistently refused to allow the secrets of their office to be
+invaded. This was not calculated to remove popular disquiet, and in 1301
+Philippe sent to Languedoc two officials armed with supreme powers,
+under the name of Reformers. As the royal authority extended and
+established itself, special deputies for the investigation and
+correction of abuses were frequently despatched to the provinces. In the
+present case those who came to Languedoc perhaps had for their chief
+business the arrest of the Bishop of Pamiers, accused of treasonable
+practices, but the colorable pretext for their mission was the
+correction of inquisitorial abuses. One of them, Jean de Pequigny,
+Vidame of Amiens, was a man of high character for probity and sagacity;
+the other was Richard Nepveu, Archdeacon of Lisieux, of whom we hear
+little in the following years, except that he quietly slipped into the
+vacant episcopate of Beziers. He must have done his duty to some extent,
+however, for Bernard Gui tells us that he died in 1309 of leprosy, as a
+judgment of God for his hostility to the Inquisition.[84]
+
+The Reformers established themselves at Toulouse, where Foulques de
+Saint-Georges had been inquisitor since Michaelmas, 1300, and speedily
+gathered much damaging testimony against him, for he was accused not
+only of unduly torturing persons for purposes of extortion, but of
+gratifying his lusts by arresting women whose virtue he failed otherwise
+to overcome. Thither flocked representatives of Albi, with the wives and
+children of the prisoners, beseeching and imploring the representatives
+of the king for justice, and promising revelations if they would issue
+letters of safety to those who would give information--for the terror
+inspired by the Inquisition was such that no one dared to testify
+concerning it unless he was assured of protection against its vengeance.
+The Bishop of Albi came also to justify himself, and on his return to
+his episcopal seat he was welcomed with a manifestation of the feeling
+entertained for him by his flock, whom the coming of the Reformers
+encouraged in the expression or their sentiments. When his approach was
+announced a crowd of men and women rushed forth from the gates to meet
+him with shouts of "Death, death, death to the traitor!" It may
+perhaps be doubted whether, as reported, he bore the threats and insults
+with patience akin to that of Christ, ordering his followers to keep
+their weapons down; certain it is that he was roughly handled, and had
+difficulty in safely reaching his palace. A conspiracy was formed to
+burn the palace, in order, during the confusion, to liberate the
+prisoners, but the hearts of the conspirators failed them and the
+project was abandoned. Even more menacing was the action of a number of
+the chief citizens, who bound themselves by a notarial instrument to
+prosecute him and Nicholas d'Abbeville in the king's court. As a
+consequence, the bishop's temporalities were sequestrated, and
+eventually the enormous fine of twenty thousand livres stripped him of a
+portion of his ill-gotten gains for the benefit of the king, who was
+bitterly reproached by Bernard Delicieux for thus preferring money to
+justice. Bernard de Castanet retained his uneasy seat until 1308, when,
+seeing under Clement V. no prospect of better times, he procured a
+transfer to the quieter see of Puy. One of the earliest signs of the
+revulsion under John XXII. was his advancement, in December, 1316, to
+the Cardinalate of Porto, which he held for only eight months, his death
+occurring in August, 1317.[85]
+
+The Reformers, meanwhile, had sent for Bernard Delicieux, who was then
+quietly performing his duties as lector in the convent of Narbonne. He
+must already have made himself conspicuous in the affair of Castel
+Fabri, and was evidently regarded as a desirable ally in the impending
+struggle. According to his own story he advised Pequigny to let the
+Inquisition alone, as experience had shown that effort was useless; but
+on being called again to Toulouse on some business connected with the
+Priory of la Daurade, and having to visit Paris in connection with the
+will of Louis, Bishop of Toulouse, it was arranged, at Pequigny's
+suggestion, that he should accompany a deputation which the citizens of
+Albi were sending to the king to invoke his active intervention. The
+court was at Senlis, whither they repaired, and there came also Pequigny
+to justify himself, and Frere Foulques with several Dominicans, eager to
+establish the innocence of the Inquisition.[86]
+
+The battle was fought out before the king. Bernard urged the suspension
+of the inquisitors during an investigation, or that the Dominicans
+should be permanently declared ineligible while awaiting final action by
+the Holy See. Supported by Frere Guillaume, the king's Dominican
+confessor, Foulques preferred charges against Pequigny, but could
+furnish no proofs. Pequigny retorted with accusations against Foulques,
+and a commission, consisting of the Archbishop of Narbonne and the
+Constable of France, was appointed to hear both sides. After due
+deliberation, it reported in favor of Pequigny, and the king took the
+unheard-of step of removing the inquisitor. He at first requested this
+of the Dominican Provincial of Paris, who possessed the power to do so,
+but that official called together a chapter, which contented itself with
+appointing an adjunct, and ordering Foulques to retain office till the
+middle of the following Lent, in order to complete the trials which he
+had already commenced. This gave Philippe great offence, which he
+expressed in the most outspoken terms in letters to his chaplain and to
+the Bishop of Toulouse, whom he bitterly reproached for advising
+acceptance of the terms. He did not content himself with words, for
+simultaneously, December 8, 1301, he wrote to the bishop, the Inquisitor
+of Toulouse, and the seneschals of Toulouse and Albi, stating that the
+imploring cries of his subjects, including prelates and ecclesiastics,
+counts, barons, and other distinguished men, convinced him that Foulques
+was guilty of the charges preferred against him, including crimes
+abhorrent to the human mind. He afflicted the people with numerous
+exactions and oppressions; he was accustomed to commence proceedings
+with torture inconceivable and incredible, and thus compel confession
+from those whom he suspected, and when this failed he suborned witnesses
+to testify falsely. His detestable excesses had created such general
+terror that a rising of the people was to be apprehended unless some
+speedy remedy was had. Some further unavailing opposition was made to
+Foulques's removal, but not much was gained by the appointment of his
+successor, Guillaume de Morieres, who had previously succeeded him in
+the Priory of Albi. Foulques was gratified with the important Priory of
+Avignon, and when he subsequently died in poverty at Lyons he was
+regarded by his Order almost in the light of a martyr.[87]
+
+Philippe had not contented himself with getting rid of Foulques, but had
+endeavored to introduce reforms which are interesting not only as a
+manifestation of the royal supremacy which he assumed, but also as the
+model of all subsequent endeavors to curb the abuses of the Inquisition.
+It was natural that this should take the shape of reviving the episcopal
+power which had become so completely suppressed. Firstly, the prison
+which the crown had built on its own land in Toulouse for the use of the
+Inquisition was to be placed under the charge of some one selected by
+both bishop and inquisitor, and in case of their disagreement by the
+royal seneschal. The inquisitor was deprived of the power of arbitrary
+arrest. He was obliged to consult the bishop, and when they could not
+agree the question was to be decided by a majority vote in an assemblage
+consisting of certain officials of the cathedral and of the Franciscan
+and Dominican convents. Arrests were only to be made by the seneschal,
+after these preliminaries had been observed, except in case of foreign
+heretics who might escape. The question of bail was to be settled in the
+same way as that of arrest. In no case was either bishop or inquisitor
+entitled to obedience when acting individually, for, as the king
+declared, "We cannot endure that the life and death of our subjects
+shall be abandoned to the discretion of a single individual, who, even
+if not actuated by cupidity, may be insufficiently informed."
+Inadequate as these reforms eventually proved, they had an excellent
+temporary effect. For a time the Inquisition was paralyzed, and arrests
+which had been taking place every week were suddenly brought to an end,
+for during 1302 these provisions were embodied in a general Ordonnance,
+and the legislation of 1293 protecting the Jews was repeated. At the
+same time Philippe was careful to manifest due solicitude for the
+suppression of heresy, for he published anew the severe edict of St.
+Louis; and on the appointment of Guillaume de Morieres to the
+Inquisition of Toulouse he wrote to the seneschal instructing him to
+place the royal prisons at the inquisitor's disposal, to pay him the
+customary stipend, and to aid him in every way until further orders.[88]
+
+While the new regulations may have promised relief elsewhere, they gave
+little comfort at Albi, the inquisitorial proceedings of whose bishop
+had given rise to the whole disturbance. Its citizens were still
+languishing in the prison of the Inquisition of Carcassonne, and a
+numerous deputation of both sexes was sent to the king, accompanied by
+two Franciscans, Jean Hector and Bertrand de Villedelle. Again Bernard
+Delicieux was present, having this time been opportunely chosen to
+represent the Order on a summons from Philippe for consultation on the
+subject of his quarrel with Pope Boniface. They all followed the king to
+Pierrefonds and then to Compiegne. He gave them fair words, promised a
+speedy visit to Languedoc, when he would settle matters, and consoled
+them with a donation of one thousand livres, which he could well afford
+to do, for the confiscated estates of the prisoners were in his hands,
+and were never released.[89]
+
+All this, of course, gave little satisfaction; nor were the people
+placated by the removal of Nicholas d'Abbeville, for he was succeeded in
+the Inquisition of Carcassonne by Geoffroi d'Ablis, who was as
+energetic and unsparing as his predecessor, and who brought royal
+letters, dated January 1, 1303, ordering all officials to render him the
+customary obedience. Popular excitement grew more and more threatening,
+and as Albi had no local inquisitors of its own, being within the
+jurisdiction of the tribunal of Carcassonne, the discontent vented
+itself on the Dominicans, who were regarded as the representatives of
+the hated tribunal. On the first Sunday in Advent, December 2, 1302,
+when the friars went as usual to preach in the churches they were
+violently ejected and assailed with cries of "Death to the traitors!"
+and deemed themselves at length fortunate in being able to regain their
+convent. This state of things continued for several years, during which
+they scarce dared to show themselves in the streets, and were never
+secure from insult. All alms and burial-fees were withdrawn, and the
+people refused even to attend mass in their church. The names of Dominic
+and Peter Martyr were erased from the crucifix at the principal gate of
+the town, and were replaced with those of Pequigny and Nepveu, and of
+two citizens who were leaders in the disturbances--Arnaud Garsia and
+Pierre Probi of Castres.[90]
+
+The prisoners of Albi were still as far as ever from liberation, and
+Bernard Delicieux urged Pequigny to come to Carcassonne and consider
+their case on the spot. In the summer of 1303 he did so, and was met by
+a large number of the people of Albi, men and women, praying him to
+liberate them. While he was investigating the subject he came upon the
+instrument of pacification between Nicholas d'Abbeville and the consuls
+of Carcassonne in 1299. This was communicated to the people by Frere
+Bernard in a fiery sermon, and a knowledge of its conditions aroused
+them almost to frenzy. Riots ensued in which the houses of some of the
+old consuls and of those who were regarded as friends of the Inquisition
+were destroyed; the Dominican church was assailed, its windows broken,
+the statues in its porch overthrown, and the friars maltreated. To
+violate the prisons of the Inquisition was so serious a matter that
+Pequigny seems to have wished the backing of an enraged populace before
+he would venture on the step: and when he resolved upon it he
+anticipated resistance so confidently that with his privity Bernard
+assembled fourscore men, with skilled mechanics, in the Franciscan
+convent, ready to break open the jails in case of necessity. Their
+services were not needed. Geoffroi d'Ablis yielded, and in August, 1303,
+Pequigny removed the prisoners of Albi. He did not discharge them,
+however, but merely transferred them to the royal prisons, and refused
+to carry them to the king as Bernard advised. Possibly their treatment
+for a while may have been gentler, but they derived no permanent
+advantage from the movement. The grasp of the Inquisition was
+unrelaxing. It obtained possession of them again, and we shall see that
+it held them to the last.[91]
+
+Meanwhile advantage was taken of the access obtained to them to procure
+from them statements of the tortures which they had endured, and lists
+were made of the names of those whom they had been forced to accuse as
+heretics. These were circulated throughout the land and excited general
+alarm, the Franciscans being especially active in giving them publicity.
+On the other hand, the inquisitor Geoffroi d'Ablis was equal to the
+emergency. He cited Pequigny to appear and stand trial for impeding the
+Inquisition, and on his refusal excommunicated him, September 29; and as
+soon as word could be carried to Paris he was published as excommunicate
+by the Dominicans there. This audacious act brought all parties to a
+sense of the nature of the conflict which had sprung up between Church
+and State. The consuls and people of Albi addressed to the queen an
+earnest petition beseeching her to prevail upon the king not to abandon
+them by withdrawing the Reformers, who had already done so much good and
+on whom depended their last hope. A fruitless effort also was made to
+prevent the publication of the excommunication. At Castres, October 13,
+Jean Ricoles, stipendiary priest of the Church of St. Mary, published it
+from the pulpit, as he was bound to do, and was promptly arrested by the
+deputy of the royal viguier of Albi and carried to the Franciscan
+convent, where he was threatened and maltreated, and the friars used
+every effort to persuade him to withdraw it. This in itself was a grave
+violation of clerical immunity, and it was soon recognized that such
+proceedings were worse than useless. Pequigny's authority was paralyzed
+until the excommunication should be removed, and this could only be done
+by the man who had uttered it, or by the pope himself.[92]
+
+The prospect of relief was darkened by the election, October 21, of
+Benedict XI., himself a Dominican and necessarily pre-disposed in favor
+of the Inquisition. Special exertions evidently were required unless all
+that had been gained was to be lost, and, at the best, litigation in the
+Roman court was a costly business. Pequigny had appealed to the pope,
+and, October 29, he wrote from Paris to the cities of Languedoc asking
+for their aid in the persecution which he had brought upon himself in
+their cause. Bernard Delicieux promptly busied himself to obtain the
+required assistance. By his exertions the three cities of Carcassonne,
+Albi, and Cordes entered into an alliance and pledged themselves to
+furnish the sum of three thousand livres, one half by Carcassonne and
+the rest by the other two, and to continue in the same proportions as
+long as the affair should last. After Pequigny's death they renewed
+their obligation to his oldest son Renaud; but as the matter was much
+protracted, they grew tired, and Bernard, who had raised some of the
+money on his own responsibility, was left with heavy obligations, of
+which he vainly sought restitution at the hands of the ungrateful
+cities.[93]
+
+The quarrel was thus for a time transferred to Rome. Pequigny went to
+Italy with envoys from the king and from Carcassonne and Albi to plead
+his cause, and was opposed by Guillaume de Morieres, the Inquisitor of
+Toulouse, sent thither to manage the case against him. Benedict was not
+slow in showing on which side his sympathies lay. At Perugia, while the
+pope was conducting the solemnities of Pentecost, May 17, 1304, Pequigny
+ventured to enter the church. Benedict saw him, and, pointing to him,
+said to his marshal, P. de Brayda, "Turn out that Patarin!" an order
+which the marshal zealously obeyed. The significance of the incident was
+not small, and after the death of both Benedict and Pequigny, Geoffroi
+d'Ablis caused a notarial instrument recounting it to be drawn up and
+duly authenticated as one of the documents of the process. The climate
+of Italy was very unhealthy for Transmontanes. Morieres died at Perugia,
+and Pequigny followed him at Abruzzo, September 29, 1304, the
+anniversary of his excommunication. Having remained for a year under the
+ban for impeding the Inquisition, he was legally a heretic, and his
+burial in consecrated ground is only to be explained by the death of
+Benedict a short time before. Geoffroi d'Ablis demanded that his bones
+be exhumed and burned, while Pequigny's sons carried on the appeal for
+the rehabilitation of his memory. The matter dragged on till Clement V.
+referred it to a commission of three cardinals. These gave a patient
+hearing to both sides, who argued the matter exhaustively, and submitted
+all the necessary documents and papers. At last, July 23, 1308, they
+rendered their decision to the effect that the sentence of
+excommunication had been unjust and iniquitous, and that its revocation
+should be published in all places where it had been announced. Geoffroi
+fruitlessly endeavored to appeal from this, which was the most complete
+justification possible of all that had been said and done against the
+Inquisition, emphasized by Clement's cutting refusal to listen to his
+statements--"It is false: the land never wished to rebel, but was in
+evil case in consequence of the doings of the Inquisition," while a
+cardinal told him that for fifty years the people had been goaded to
+resistance by the excesses of his predecessors, and that when a
+corrective was applied they only added evil to evil.[94]
+
+Benedict XI. had given other proofs of partisanship. It is true that in
+answer to the complaints of the oppressed people he appointed a
+commission of cardinals to investigate the matter, but there is no trace
+of their labors, which were probably cut short by his death, July 7,
+1304. No commissioners of his selection would have been likely to report
+adversely to the Inquisition, for he manifested his prejudgment by
+ordering the Minister of Aquitaine, under pain of forfeiture of office
+and future disability, to arrest Frere Bernard without warning and send
+him under sufficient guard to the papal court, as a fautor of heretics
+and presumably a heretic. The leading citizens of Albi, including G. de
+Pesenches the viguier and Gaillard Etienne the royal judge, who had
+sought to aid Pequigny, were also involved in the papal condemnation.
+The Minister of Aquitaine intrusted to Frere Jean Rigaud the execution
+of the arrest, which he duly performed, June, 1304, in the convent of
+Carcassonne, adding an excommunication when Bernard, encouraged by the
+active sympathy of the people, delayed in obeying the papal summons. He
+never went, and it is a curious illustration of Franciscan tendencies to
+see that the minister absolved him from the excommunication, and that
+the provincial chapter of his Order at Albi decided that he had done all
+that was requisite, though perhaps Benedict's death in July had relieved
+them from fears as to the immediate consequences of their contumacy.[95]
+
+Meanwhile Philippe le Bel had at last fulfilled his promise to visit in
+person his southern provinces and rectify on the spot the wrongs of
+which his subjects had so long complained. He was expecting a favorable
+termination to his negotiation with Benedict for the removal of the
+excommunications launched by Boniface VIII. against himself and his
+subjects and chief agents, a result which he obtained May 13, 1304, with
+exception of the censure inflicted on Guillaume de Nogaret and Sciarra
+Colonna. When, therefore, he reached Toulouse on Christmas Day, 1303, he
+was not disposed to excite unnecessarily Benedict's prejudices. From
+Albi and Carcassonne multitudes flocked to him with cries for redress
+and protection, and Pequigny spoke eloquently in their behalf. The
+inquisitors were represented by Guillem Pierre, the Dominican
+provincial, while Bernard Delicieux was foremost in the debate. It was
+on this occasion that he made his celebrated assertion that St. Peter
+and St. Paul would be convicted of heresy if tried with inquisitorial
+methods, and when the scandalized Bishop of Auxerre tartly reproved him,
+he stoutly maintained the truth of what he had said. Friar Nicholas, the
+king's Dominican confessor, was suspected of exercising undue influence
+in favor of the Inquisition, and Bernard endeavored to discredit him by
+accusing him of betraying to the Flemings all the secrets of the royal
+council. Geoffroi d'Ablis, the Inquisitor of Carcassonne, moreover, was
+ingratiating himself with Philippe at the moment by skilful negotiations
+to bring about a reconciliation with Rome.[96]
+
+Philippe patiently heard both sides, and recorded his conclusions in an
+edict of January 13, 1304, which was in the nature of a compromise. It
+recited that the king had come to Languedoc for the purpose of pacifying
+the country excited by the action of the Inquisition, and had had
+prolonged consultation on the subject with all who were entitled to
+express an opinion. The result thus reached was that the prisoners of
+the Inquisition should be visited by royal deputies in company with
+inquisitors; the prisons were to be safe, but not punitive. In the case
+of prisoners not yet sentenced the trials were to be carried to
+conclusion under the conjoined supervision of the bishops and
+inquisitors, and this co-operation was to be observed in the future,
+except at Albi, where the bishop, being suspected, was to be replaced by
+Arnaud Novelli, the Cistercian Abbot of Fontfroide. The royal officials
+were strictly ordered to aid in every way the inquisitors and episcopal
+ordinaries when called upon, and to protect from injury and violence the
+Dominicans, their churches and houses.[97]
+
+At Albi the change had the wished-for effect. No more heretics were
+found and no further prosecutions were required. Yet the refusal of the
+king to entertain any project of reform other than his previous one of
+curbing the Inquisition with an illusory episcopal supervision was a
+grievous disappointment. Men naturally argued that if the Dominicans had
+done right they ought not to be insulted by the proposed episcopal
+co-operation; and if they had done wrong they ought to be replaced. If
+any change was called for, the projected one was insufficient. So many
+hopes had been built upon the royal presence in the land, that the
+result caused universal dismay, which was not relieved by Philippe's
+subsequent action. When he visited Carcassonne he was urged to see the
+unfortunate captives whose persecution had been the prominent cause of
+the troubles, but he refused, and sent his brother Louis to look at
+them. Worse than all, the citizens had designed to propitiate him and
+demonstrate their loyalty by offering him some elaborate silver vessels.
+These were yet in the hands of the gold-smiths of Montpellier when the
+royal party came to Carcassonne, so they were sent after him to Beziers,
+where the presentation was made, a portion to him and the rest to the
+queen. She accepted the offering, but he not only rejected it, but, when
+he learned what the queen had done, forced her to return the present.
+This threw the consuls of Carcassonne into despair. Offerings of this
+kind from municipalities to the sovereign were so customary and their
+gracious acceptance so much a matter of course, that refusal in this
+instance seemed to argue some most unfavorable intentions on the part of
+the king, which was not unlikely, seeing that Elias Patrice, the leading
+citizen of Carcassonne, had plainly told him when there that if he did
+not render them speedy justice against the Inquisition they would be
+forced to seek another lord, and when Philippe ordered him from his
+presence the citizens obeyed Patrice's command to remove the decorations
+from the streets. Imagining that he had been won over by the Dominicans
+and that his protection would be withdrawn, the prospect of being
+abandoned to the mercy of the Inquisition seemed so terrible that they
+wildly declared that if they could not find another lord to protect them
+they would burn the town and with the inhabitants seek some place of
+refuge. In consultation with Frere Bernard it was hastily determined to
+offer their allegiance to Ferrand, son of the King of Majorca.
+
+The younger branch of the House of Aragon, which drew its title from the
+Balearic Isles, held the remnants of the old French possessions of the
+Catalans, including Montpellier and Perpignan. It had old claims to
+much of the land, and its rule might well be hailed by the people as
+much more welcome than the foreign domination to which they had been
+unwillingly subjected. Had the whole region agreed to transfer its
+allegiance, its reduction might have cost Philippe a doubtful struggle,
+embarrassed as he was with the chronic disaffection of the Flemings.
+When, however, the project was broached to the men of Albi, they refused
+peremptorily to embark in it, and there can be no stronger proof of the
+desperation of the Carcassais than their resolution to persist in it
+single-handed. Ferrand and his father were at Montpellier entertaining
+the French court, which they accompanied to Nimes. He eagerly listened
+to the overtures, and asked Frere Bernard to come to him at Perpignan.
+Bernard went thither with a letter of credence from the consuls, which
+he prudently destroyed on the road. The King of Majorca, when he heard
+of the offer, chastened his son's ambition by boxing his ears and
+pulling him around by the hair, and he ingratiated himself with his
+powerful neighbor by communicating the plot to Philippe.[98]
+
+Although there could have been no real danger from so crazy a project,
+the relation of the southern provinces to the crown were too strained
+for the king not to exact a vengeance which should prove a warning. A
+court was assembled at Carcassonne which sat through the summer of 1305
+and made free use of torture in its investigations. Albi, which had
+taken no part in the plot, escaped an investigation by a bribe of one
+thousand livres to the seneschal, Jean d'Alnet, but the damage inflicted
+on the Franciscan convent shows that the Dominicans were keen to make
+reprisals for what they had suffered. The town of Limoux had been
+concerned in the affair; it was fined and disfranchised, and forty of
+its citizens were hanged. As for Carcassonne, all of its eight consuls,
+with Elias Patrice at their head, and seven other citizens were hanged
+in their official robes, the city was deprived of self-government and
+subjected to the enormous fine of sixty thousand livres, a sentence from
+which it vainly appealed to the Parlement. As Bernard Gui observes with
+savage exultation, those who had croaked like ravens against the
+Dominicans were exposed to the ravens. Aimeric Castel, who had sought in
+this way to obtain redress for the wrong done to his father's memory and
+estate, escaped by flight, but was captured and long lay a prisoner,
+finally making his peace with a heavy ransom, and a harvest of fines was
+gathered into the royal exchequer from all who could be accused of
+privity. As for Frere Bernard, he received early intelligence from Frere
+Durand, the queen's confessor, of the discovery of the plot, when he
+boldly headed a delegation of citizens of Albi who went to Paris to
+protest their innocence. There Durand informed them that Albi was not
+implicated, when they returned, leaving Bernard. At the request of the
+king, Clement V. had him arrested and carried to Lyons, whence he was
+taken by the papal court to Bordeaux; and when it went to Poitiers he
+was confined in the convent of St. Junian of Limoges. In May, 1307, at
+the instance of Clement, Philippe issued letters of amnesty to all
+concerned, and remitted to Carcassonne the portion of its fine not yet
+paid, and in Lent, 1308, Bernard was allowed to come to Poitiers. On the
+king's arrival there he boldly complained to him of his arrest and of
+the punishment which had involved the innocent with the guilty. As he
+still had no license to leave the papal court, he accompanied it to
+Avignon, and was at length discharged with the royal assent--the heavy
+bribes paid to three cardinals by his friends of Albi having perhaps
+something to do with his immunity. He returned to Toulouse, and we hear
+of no further activity on his part. His narrow escape probably sobered
+his restless enthusiasm, and as the reform of the Inquisition seemed to
+have been taken resolutely in hand by Clement V. he might well persuade
+himself that there was no further call for self-sacrifice.[99]
+
+The death of Benedict XI., in July, 1304, had given fresh hopes to the
+sufferers from the Inquisition. There was an interregnum of nearly a
+year before the election of his successor, Clement V., June 5, 1305.
+During this period a petition to the College of Cardinals was presented
+by seventeen of the religious bodies of the Albigeois, including the
+canons of the cathedral of Albi, those of the church of St. Salvi, the
+convent of Gaillac, etc., imploring in the most pressing terms the
+Sacred College to intervene and avert the fearful dangers threatening
+the community. The land, they declare, is Catholic, the people are
+faithful, cherishing the religion of Rome in their hearts, and
+professing it with their lips. Yet so fierce are the dissensions between
+them and the inquisitors, that they are aroused to wrath and are eager
+to put to the sword those whom they have learned to regard as enemies.
+Doubtless the inquisitors had taken advantage of the revulsion
+consequent upon the fruitless treason of Carcassonne and of the altered
+attitude of the king. Philippe thenceforth interfered no further, save
+to urge his representatives to renewed vigilance in enforcing the laws
+against heretics and the disabilities inflicted upon their descendants.
+It was not only the treason of Carcassonne which indisposed him to
+interfere; from 1307 onward he needed the indispensable aid of the
+Inquisition to carry out his designs against the Templars, and he could
+afford neither to antagonize it nor to limit its powers.[100]
+
+The Sacred College, monopolized by electioneering intrigues, paid no
+heed to the imploring prayer of the Albigensian clergy, but when the
+year's turmoil was ended by the triumph of the French party in the
+election of Clement V. the hopes raised by the death of his predecessor
+might reasonably seem destined to fruition. Bertrand de Goth,
+Cardinal-Archbishop of Bordeaux, was a Gascon by birth, and, though an
+English subject, was doubtless more familiar than the Italians with the
+miseries and needs of Languedoc. His transfer of the papacy to French
+soil was also of good augury. Hardly had the news of his election
+reached Albi, when Frere Bernard was busy in organizing a mission to
+represent to him in the name of the city the necessity of relief, and
+when he visited Toulouse the wives of the prisoners, still languishing
+in confinement, were taken thither to make their woes emphatically
+known. Hardly had he been consecrated at Lyons when these complaints
+poured in and were substantiated by two Dominicans, Bertrand Blanc and
+Francois Aimeric, who were as emphatic as the representatives of Albi in
+their denunciations of inquisitorial methods and abuses. Geoffroi
+d'Ablis hurried thither from Carcassonne to defend himself in such haste
+that he left no one to take his place, and was obliged to send from
+Lyons, September 29, 1305, a commission to Jean de Faugoux and Gerald de
+Blumac to act in his stead. In this paper his fiery fanaticism breathes
+forth in his denunciations of the horrid beasts, the cruel beasts, who
+are ravaging the vineyard of the Lord, and who are to be tracked to
+their dens and extirpated with unsparing rigor.[101]
+
+His efforts to justify the Inquisition were unavailing, more especially,
+perhaps, because the people of Albi bribed Cardinal Raymond de Goth, the
+pope's nephew, with two thousand livres Tournois, the Cardinal of Santa
+Croce with as much, and the Cardinal Pier Colonna with five hundred.
+March 13, 1306, Clement commissioned two cardinals, Pierre of San Vitale
+(afterwards of Palestrina) and Berenger of SS. Nereo and Achille
+(afterwards of Frascati), who were about to pass through Languedoc on a
+mission, to investigate and make such temporary changes as they should
+find necessary. The people of Carcassonne, Albi, and Cordes had offered
+to prove that good Catholics were forced to confess heresy through the
+stress of torture and the horrors of the prisons, and further that the
+records of the Inquisition were altered and falsified. Until the
+investigation was completed, the inquisitors were not to consign to
+strict prison or to inflict torture on any one except in conjunction
+with the diocesan, and in the place of the Bishop of Albi the Abbot of
+Fontfroide was subrogated.
+
+On April 16, 1306, the cardinals held a public session at Carcassonne in
+presence of all the notables of the place. The consuls of Carcassonne
+and the delegates of Albi preferred their complaints and were supported
+by the two Dominicans, Blanc and Aimeric, who had appeared before the
+pope. On the other hand, Geoffroi d'Ablis and the deputy of the Bishop
+of Albi defended themselves and complained of the popular riots and the
+ill-treatment to which they had been exposed. After hearing both sides
+the cardinals adjourned further proceedings until January 25, at
+Bordeaux, where Carcassonne, Albi, and Cordes were each to send four
+procurators to conduct the matter. As this office was a most dangerous
+one, the cardinals gave security to them against the Inquisition during
+the performance of their duty. This was no idle precaution, and Aimeric
+Castel, one of the representatives of Carcassonne, found himself in such
+danger that in September, 1308, he was obliged to procure from Clement a
+special bull forbidding the inquisitors to assail him until the
+termination of the affair. Even greater danger impended over any
+witnesses called upon to prove the falsification of records, as they
+were bound to silence under oaths which exposed them to the stake as
+relapsed heretics in case they revealed their evidence, and the
+cardinals were asked to absolve them from these oaths.[102]
+
+If there were any further formal proceedings in this matter, which thus
+assumed the shape of a litigation between the people and the
+Inquisition, they have not reached us. Yet the cardinals, before
+continuing their journey, took some steps which showed that they were
+convinced of the truth of the accusations. They visited the prison of
+Carcassonne, and caused the prisoners, forty in number, of whom three
+were women, to be brought before them. Some of these were sick, others
+worn with age, and all tearfully complaining of the horrors of their
+lot, the insufficiency of food and bedding, and the cruelty of their
+keepers. The cardinals were moved to dismiss all the jailers and
+attendants except the chief, and to put the prison under the control of
+the Bishop of Carcassonne. It is significant that the oath imposed on
+the new officials bound them never to speak to a prisoner except in the
+presence of an associate, and not to steal any of the food destined for
+those under their charge. One of the cardinals visited the prison of the
+Bishop of Albi, where he found the jailers well spoken of, but was
+shocked with the condition of the prisoners. Many of them were in chains
+and all in narrow, dark cells, where some of them had been confined for
+five years or more without being yet condemned. He ordered all chains
+removed, that light should be introduced in the cells, and that new and
+less inhuman ones should be built within a month. As regards general
+amelioration in inquisitorial proceedings, the only regulation which
+they issued was a confirmation of Philippe's expedient, requiring the
+co-operation of the diocesan with the inquisitor, and this was withdrawn
+by Clement, August 12, 1308, in an apologetic bull declaring that the
+cardinals had exceeded his intentions.[103]
+
+The existence of the evils complained of was thus admitted, but the
+Church shrank from applying a remedy, and, after the struggle of years,
+relief was as illusory as ever. Even with regard to the crying and
+inexcusable abuse of the detention of prisoners in these fearful
+dungeons for long years without conviction or sentence, Clement found
+himself powerless to effect reform in the most flagrant cases. The
+inquisitors had in their archives a bull of Innocent IV. authorizing
+them to defer indefinitely passing sentence when they deemed that delay
+was in the interest of the faith, and of this they took full advantage.
+Of the captives seized by the Bishop of Albi in 1299, many were still
+unsentenced when the Cardinal of San Vitale examined his prisons. This
+visit passed away without result. Five years afterwards, in 1310,
+Clement wrote to the Bishop of Albi and Geoffroi d'Ablis that the
+citizens of Albi, whom he names, had repeatedly appealed to him, after
+more than eight years of imprisonment, to have their trials completed
+either to condemnation or absolution. He therefore orders the trials
+proceeded with at once and the results submitted for confirmation to the
+Cardinals of Palestrina and Frascati, his former commissioners. Bertrand
+de Bordes, Bishop of Albi, and Geoffroi d'Ablis contemptuously
+disregarded this command, because some of the prisoners named in it had
+died before its date, whence they argued that the papal letter had been
+surreptitiously obtained. When this contumacy reached the ears of
+Clement, some year or two later, he wrote to Geraud, then Bishop of
+Albi, and Geoffroi, peremptorily reiterating his commands and ordering
+them to try both living and dead. In spite of this, Geoffroi maintained
+his sullen contumacy. We have no means of knowing the fate of most of
+these unfortunates, who probably rotted to death in their dungeons
+without their trials being concluded; but of some of them we have
+traces, as related in a former chapter. After Clement and his cardinals
+had passed away, and no further interference was to be dreaded, in 1319
+two surviving ones, Guillem Salavert and Isarn Colli, were brought out
+for further examination, when the former confirmed his confession and
+the latter retracted it as extorted under torture. Six months later,
+Guillem Calverie of Cordes, who had been imprisoned in 1301, was
+abandoned to the secular arm for retracting his confession (probably
+before Clement's cardinals), and Guillem Salavert was allowed to escape
+with wearing crosses, in consideration of his nineteen years'
+imprisonment without conviction. Even as late as 1328 attested copies
+made by order of the royal judge of Carcassonne, of inventories of
+personal property of Raymond Calverie and Jean Baudier, two of the
+prisoners of 1299-1300, show that their cases were still the subject of
+litigation. Even more remarkable as a manifestation of contumacy is the
+case of Guillem Garric, held in prison for complicity in the attempt to
+destroy the records at Carcassonne in 1284. Royal letters of 1312 recite
+that his merits and piety had caused Clement V. to grant him full
+pardon, wherefore the king restores to him and his descendants his
+confiscated castle of Monteirat. Yet the Inquisition did not relax its
+grip, but waited until 1321, when he was brought forth from prison, and
+in consideration of his contrition Bernard Gui mercifully sentenced the
+old man to perpetual banishment from France within thirty days.[104]
+
+Another endeavor was made by Clement to repress the abuses of the
+Inquisition by transferring from its jurisdiction to that of the bishops
+the Jews of the provinces of Toulouse and Narbonne on account of the
+undue molestation to which they were continually subjected. This
+transfer even included cases then pending, but after Clement's death a
+bull was produced in which he annulled the previous one and restored the
+jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[105]
+
+The outcome of all this struggle and investigation is to be found in the
+measures of reform adopted in 1312 by the Council of Vienne at Clement's
+instance. The five books of canon law known as the "Clementines,"
+which were enacted by the council, were retained for revision by
+Clement, who was on the point of publishing them when he died, April 20,
+1314. They were held in suspense during the long interregnum which
+followed, and were not authoritatively given to the world until October
+25, 1317, by John XXII. The canons relating to the Inquisition have been
+alluded to above, and it will be remembered that they only restricted
+the power of the inquisitor by requiring episcopal concurrence in the
+use of torture, or of harsh confinement equivalent to torture, and in
+the custody of prisons. There was a _brutum fulmen_ of excommunication
+denounced against those who should abuse their power for purposes of
+hate, affection, or extortion, and the importance of the whole lies far
+less in the remedies it proposes than in its emphatic testimony of the
+existence of cruelty and corruption in every detail of inquisitorial
+practice. Bernard Gui vainly raised his voice in an earnest and
+elaborate protest against the publication of the new rules, and after
+their promulgation he did not hesitate openly to tell his brethren that
+they required to be modified or rather wholly suspended by the Holy See,
+but his expostulations were totally uncalled for. The closest
+examination of inquisitorial methods before and after the publication of
+the Clementines fails to reveal any influence exercised by them for good
+or for evil. No trace of any practical effort for their enforcement is
+to be found, and inquisitors went on, as was their wont, in the
+arbitrary fashion for which their office gave them such unlimited
+opportunity.[106]
+
+One case may indeed be cited to show a special relaxation of the
+procedure against heretics. Philippe's hatred of Boniface VIII. was
+undying, and could not be quenched even by the miserable end of his
+enemy. Yet the one thing which he failed to wring from his tool in the
+papal chair was the condemnation of the memory of Boniface as a heretic.
+After repeated efforts he compelled Clement to take testimony on the
+subject, and a cloud of witnesses were produced who swore with minute
+detail to the unbelief of the late pope in the immortality of the soul,
+and in all the doctrines of the incarnation and the atonement, and to
+his worship of demons, to his cynical and unnatural lasciviousness, and
+to the common fame which existed in the community as to his evil beliefs
+and habits. The witnesses were reputable churchmen for the most part,
+and their evidence was precise. A tithe of such testimony would have
+sufficed to burn the bones and disinherit the heirs of a score of
+ordinary culprits, but for once the recognized rules of procedure were
+set aside. Philippe was forced to desist from the pursuit, though
+Clement in his final bull of April 27, 1311, declared that the king and
+his witnesses had been actuated solely by zeal for the Church, and the
+affair fell through. The pretensions put forth by Boniface in his
+offensive decretals were formally withdrawn, and Guillaume de Nogaret
+obtained his long-withheld absolution.[107]
+
+Clement died at Carpentras April 20, 1314, carrying with him the shame
+and guilt of the ruin of the Templars, and was followed in about seven
+months (November 29) by his tempter and accomplice, Philippe le Bel. The
+cardinals on whom devolved the choice of a successor to St. Peter were
+torn with dissensions. The Italians demanded that the election should be
+held in the Eternal City. The French, or Gascons, as they were called,
+insisted on the observance of the rule that the selection should be made
+on the spot where the last pontiff had expired, knowing that in Italy
+they would be exposed to the same insults and annoyances as were
+inflicted in France on their Italian brethren. Shut up in the episcopal
+palace of Carpentras, the conclave awaited in vain the inspiration of
+the Holy Ghost, even though those outside tried the gentle expedient of
+cutting off the food of the members and pillaging their houses. The
+situation grew so insupportable that, as a last desperate resort, on
+July 23, 1314, the Gascon faction, under the lead of Clement's nephews,
+set fire to the palace and threatened the Italians with death, so that
+the latter were glad to escape with their lives by breaking a passage
+through the rear wall. Two years passed away without the election of a
+visible head of the Church, and the faithful might well fear that they
+had seen the last of the popes. The French court, however, had found
+itself so well abetted by a French pope that its policy required the
+chair of St. Peter to be filled, and in 1316 Louis Hutin sent his
+brother, Philippe le Long, then Count of Poitiers, to Lyons with orders
+to get the cardinals together. To accomplish this Philippe was obliged
+to swear that he would neither do them violence nor imprison them, and
+they, having thus secured their independence, were no more disposed to
+accord than before. For six months the business thus lagged without
+prospect of result, when Philippe received the news of the sudden death
+of his brother, and that the widowed queen claimed to be pregnant. The
+prospect of a vacant throne, or at least of a regency, awaiting him in
+Paris rendered further dallying in Lyons insupportable, nor could he
+well depart without bringing his errand to a successful issue. Hastily
+counselling with his lawyers, it was discovered that his oath was
+unlawful and therefore not to be observed. Consequently he invited the
+reverend fathers to a colloquy in the Dominican convent, and when they
+were thus safely hived he sternly told them that they should not depart
+till they had chosen a pope. His guards blocked every entrance, and he
+hastened off to Paris, leaving them to deliberate in captivity. Thus
+entrapped they made a merit of necessity, though forty days were still
+required before they proclaimed Jacques d'Ozo, Cardinal of Porto, as the
+Vicar of Christ--the Italians having been won over by his oath that he
+would never mount a horse or mule except to go to Rome. This oath he
+kept during his whole pontificate of eighteen years, for he slipped down
+the Rhone to Avignon by boat, ascended on foot to the palace, and never
+left it except to visit the cathedral which adjoined it. Such a process
+of selection was not likely to result in the evolution of a saint, and
+John XXII. was its natural exponent. His distinguished learning and
+vigorous abilities had elevated him from the humblest origin, while his
+boundless ambition and imperious temper provoked endless quarrels from
+which his daring spirit never shrank.[108]
+
+With his election the troubles of the Inquisition of Languedoc were
+over. Though he published the Clementines, he soon let it be seen that
+the inquisitors had nothing to fear from him, and they made haste to pay
+off the accumulated scores of vengeance. The first victim was Bernard
+Delicieux. During the pontificate of Clement and the interregnum he had
+lived in peace, and might well imagine that his enthusiasm for the
+people of Languedoc had been forgotten. His earnest nature had led him
+to join the section of his order known as the Spirituals, and he had
+been prominent in the movements by which, during the vacancy of the
+Holy See, they had gained possession of the convents of Beziers and
+Narbonne. One of the first cares of John XXII. was to heal this schism
+in the Order, and he promptly summoned before him the friars of Beziers
+and Narbonne. Bernard had not hesitated in signing an appeal to the
+pope, and he now boldly came before him at the head of his brethren.
+When he undertook to argue their cause he was accused of having impeded
+the Inquisition and was promptly arrested. Besides the charge of
+impeding the Inquisition, others of encompassing by magic arts the death
+of Benedict XI., and of treason in the affair of Carcassonne, were
+brought against him. A papal commission was formed to investigate these
+matters, and for more than two years he was held in close prison while
+the examination went slowly on. At length it was ready for trial, and
+September 3, 1319, a court was convened at Castelnaudari consisting of
+the Archbishop of Toulouse and the Bishops of Pamiers and St. Papoul,
+when the archbishop excused himself and left the matter in the hands of
+his associates, who transferred the court to Carcassonne, September 12.
+The importance attached to the trial is shown by the fact that at it the
+Inquisition was represented by the inquisitor Jean de Beaune, and the
+king by his Seneschal of Carcassonne and Toulouse and his "Reformers,"
+Raoul, Bishop of Laon, and Jean, Count of Forez.[109]
+
+The official report of the trial has been preserved in all its immense
+prolixity, and there are few documents of that age more instructive as
+to what was then regarded as justice. Some of Bernard's old accomplices,
+such as Arnaud Garsia, Guillem Fransa, Pierre Probi, and others, who had
+already been seized by the Inquisition, were brought forward to be tried
+with him and were used as witnesses to save their own lives by swearing
+his away. The old man, worn with two years of imprisonment and constant
+examination, was subjected for two months to the sharpest
+cross-questioning on occurrences dating from twelve to eighteen years
+previous, the subjects of the multiform charges being ingeniously
+intermingled in the most confusing manner. Under pretext of seeking the
+salvation of his soul he was solemnly and repeatedly admonished that he
+was legally a heretic for remaining for more than a year under the _ipso
+facto_ excommunication incurred by impeding the Inquisition, and that
+nothing could save him from the stake but absolute submission and full
+confession. Twice he was tortured, the first time, October 3, on the
+charge of treason, and the second, November 20, on that of necromancy;
+and though the torture was ordered to be "moderate," the notaries who
+assisted at it are careful to report that the shrieks of the victim
+attested its sufficiency. In neither case was anything extracted from
+him, but the efficacy of the combined pressure thus brought to bear on a
+man weakened by age and suffering is shown by the manner in which he was
+brought day by day to contradict and criminate himself, until at last he
+threw himself on the mercy of the court, and humbly begged for
+absolution.[110]
+
+In the sentence, rendered December 8, he was acquitted of attempting the
+life of Benedict XI., while on the other charges his guilt was
+aggravated by no less than seventy perjuries committed under
+examination. After abjuration, he was duly absolved and condemned to
+degradation from holy orders and imprisonment for life, in chains and on
+bread and water, in the inquisitorial prison of Carcassonne. Considering
+the amnesty proclaimed in 1307 by Philippe le Bel, and the discharge of
+Frere Bernard in 1308, it seems strange that now the representatives of
+Philippe le Long at once protested against the sentence as too mild, and
+appealed to the pope. The judges themselves did not think so, for in
+delivering the prisoner to Jean de Beaune they humanely ordered that in
+view of his age and debility, and especially the weakness of his hands
+(doubtless crippled in the torture-chamber), the penance of chains and
+bread and water should be omitted. Jean de Beaune may be pardoned if he
+felt a fierce exultation when the ancient enemy of his office was thus
+placed in his hands to expiate the offence which had so harassed his
+predecessors; and that exultation was perhaps increased when, February
+26, 1320, the relentless pope, possibly to gratify the king,
+countermanded the pitying order of the bishops, and required the
+sentence to be executed in all its terrible rigor. Under these hardships
+the frail body which had been animated by so dauntless a spirit soon
+gave way, and in a few months merciful death released the only man who
+had dared to carry on a systematic warfare with the Inquisition.[111]
+
+The progress of reaction had been rapid. In 1315 Louis Hutin had issued
+an edict in which were embodied most of the provisions of the laws of
+Frederic II. This piece of legislation, perfectly superfluous in view of
+the eighty years' career of the Inquisition in his dominions, is only
+of interest as showing the influence already obtained by the Dominicans
+during the papal interregnum. With the election of John XXII.,
+notwithstanding his publication of the Clementines, all fear of
+interference disappeared, and the populations were surrendered again to
+the unchecked authority of the inquisitors. There was a significant
+notice to this effect in the withdrawal by the new pope, March 30, 1318,
+of the security given by Clement's cardinals to Aimeric Castel and the
+other citizens of Carcassonne, Albi, and Cordes, who were deputed to
+carry on the case of those cities against the inquisitors, and the
+latter were directed to prosecute them diligently. The Inquisition
+recognized that its hour of triumph had come, and took in hand the
+survivors of those who had been conspicuous in the disturbances of
+fifteen years before. The unconvicted prisoners of 1299 and 1300, whom
+it had held in defiance of the reiterated orders of Clement--at least
+those who had not rotted to death in its dungeons--were brought forth
+and disposed of. A still more emphatic assertion of its renewed mastery
+was the subjection and "reconciliation" of the rebellious towns. Of
+what took place at Carcassonne we have no record, but it probably was
+the same as the ceremonies performed at Albi. There, March 11, 1319, the
+consuls and councillors and a great crowd of citizens were assembled in
+the cathedral cemetery, before Bishop Bernard and the inquisitor Jean de
+Beaune. There, with uplifted hands, they all professed repentance in the
+most humiliating terms, and swore to accept whatever penance might be
+imposed upon them, and thereafter to obey implicitly the bishop and
+inquisitor. Then those present, together with the dead who had shown
+signs of penitence, were relieved from excommunication, the rest of the
+population being required to apply for absolution within a month. The
+announcement of the penances followed. The town was to make good all
+expenses and losses accruing to the episcopate and Inquisition by reason
+of the troubles; it was to build and complete within two years a chapel
+to the cathedral, and a portal to the Dominican church; to give fifty
+livres to the Carmelites to be expended on their church, and, finally,
+to construct marble tombs for Nicholas d'Abbeville, and Foulques de
+Saint-Georges at Lyons and Carcassonne, where those inquisitors had died
+in poverty and exile by reason of the rebellion of the inhabitants. Ten
+pilgrimages, moreover, were designated for the survivors of those who in
+1301 had bound themselves to prosecute Bishop Bertrand and Nicholas
+d'Abbeville in the royal court, as well as for those who had served as
+consuls and councillors from 1302 to 1304. Jean de Beaune seems to have
+considered it a special grace when, in December, 1320, he postponed the
+performance of their pilgrimages during the year from Easter, 1321, to
+1322. The town of Cordes, June 29, 1321, was "reconciled" with a
+similar humiliating ceremony and pledges of future obedience. Thus the
+Inquisition celebrated its triumph in the long struggle. It had won the
+victory, and its opponents could only save themselves by unconditional
+surrender.[112]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Whether the citizens of Albi whose arrest in 1299 gave rise to so many
+troubles were really heretics or not cannot now be determined. Their
+confessions were precise and detailed, but, as their defenders alleged,
+the Inquisition had ample means of extorting what it pleased from its
+victims, and the long delay in convicting them would seem to argue that
+the tribunal had good reason for not wishing its sentences to see the
+light while there was chance of their being subjected to scrutiny under
+Clement V. The inquisitors urged in justification a single case, that of
+Lambert de Foyssenx, who complained to Clement's cardinals that he had
+been unjustly accused, but who subsequently asserted his heresy
+defiantly, refused to recant, and was burned in 1309. This is the only
+instance of the kind, for the wretched survivors who were led to abjure
+and recant in 1319 were broken by prison and torture, and their evidence
+is worthless.[113]
+
+Yet Bernard Gui was undoubtedly correct when he asserted that the
+troubles and limitations imposed on the Inquisition under Philippe le
+Bel led to the recrudescence of a heresy which had been nearly
+extinguished. In the debate before the king at Toulouse, in 1304,
+Guillem Pierre, the Dominican provincial, asserted that there were then
+in Languedoc no heretics except some forty or fifty in Albi,
+Carcassonne, and Cordes, and for a few leagues around them. This was
+doubtless an exaggeration, but with improved prospects of immunity
+perfected missionaries were invited from Lombardy and Sicily, and the
+number of believers rapidly increased. Bernard Gui boasts that from 1301
+to 1315 there were more than a thousand detected by the Inquisition, who
+confessed and were publicly punished.[114]
+
+The registers of Geoffroi d'Ablis at Carcassonne in 1308-9 show great
+activity rewarded by abundant results, and one of the witnesses in the
+trial of Bernard Delicieux tells us that, when the Inquisition was able
+to resume its labors there, many heretics and believers were promptly
+discovered.[115] About the same period commence the sentences of the
+Inquisition of Toulouse published by Limborch. In 1306 Bernard Gui had
+been appointed inquisitor at Toulouse. His numerous works attest his
+wide range of learning and incessant mental activity, while his
+practical skill in affairs was animated with a profound conviction of
+the wickedness of heresy and of the duty of his Order to enforce, at
+every cost, submission to Rome. Two missions as papal legate, one to
+Italy and the other to France, and two bishoprics, those of Tuy and
+Lodeve, attest the value set on his services by John XXII. With his
+appointment at Toulouse he promptly commenced the long campaign which
+resulted in the virtual extirpation of Catharism in Languedoc. Yet,
+though stern and unsparing when the occasion seemed to demand it, his
+record bears no trace of useless cruelty or abusive extortion.[116]
+
+Catharism by this time had been forced back to the humbler class among
+whom it had found its first disciples. The nobles and gentlemen who had
+so long upheld it had perished or been impoverished by the remorseless
+confiscations of three quarters of a century. The rich burghers of the
+cities--merchants and professional men--had learned the temptations held
+out by their wealth and the impossibility of avoiding detection. The
+fascinations of martyrdom have their limits, and the martyrs among them
+had been gradually but surely weeded out. Yet the old beliefs were still
+rooted among the simple folk of country hamlets and especially in the
+wild valleys among the foothills of the eastern Pyrenees. The active
+intercourse with Lombardy, and even with Sicily, was still kept up, and
+there were not wanting earnest ministers who braved every danger to
+administer to believers the consolations of their religion and to spread
+the faith in the fastnesses which were its last refuge. Chief among
+these was Pierre Autier, formerly a notary of Ax (Pamiers). His early
+life had not been pure, for we hear of his _druda_, or mistress, and his
+natural children, but with advancing years he embraced all the
+asceticism of the sect, to which he devoted his life. Driven to Lombardy
+in 1295, he returned in 1298 to remain on his native soil to the end,
+and to endure a war to the knife from the Inquisition. His property was
+confiscated and his family dispersed and ruined. The region to which he
+belonged lay at the foot of the Pyrenees, rugged, with few roads and
+many caves and hiding-places, whence escape across the frontier to
+Aragon was comparatively facile; it was full of his kindred who were
+devoted to him, and here for eleven years he maintained himself, lurking
+in disguise and wandering from place to place with the emissaries of the
+Holy Office ever on his track. He had been ordained to the ministry at
+Como, and speedily acquired authority in the sect of which he became one
+of the most zealous, indefatigable, and intrepid missionaries. Already,
+in 1300, he was so conspicuous that every effort was made for his
+apprehension. A certain Guillem Jean offered the Dominicans of Pamiers
+to betray him, but the treachery became known among the faithful, two of
+whom, Pierre d'Aere and Philippe de Larnat enticed Guillem to the bridge
+at Alliat by night, seized him, gagged him, carried him off to the
+mountains, and, after extorting a confession, cast him over a precipice.
+Worthy lieutenants of Pierre Autier were his brother Guillem and his son
+Jacques, Amiel de Perles, Pierre Sanche, and Sanche Mercadier, whose
+names occur everywhere throughout the confessions as active
+missionaries. Jacques Autier on one occasion had the boldness to preach
+at midnight to a gathering of heretic women in the Church of
+Sainte-Croix in Toulouse, the spot being selected as one in which they
+could best hold their meeting undisturbed.[117]
+
+The work of Geoffroi d'Ablis in Carcassonne seems to be principally
+directed to determining the protectors and refuges of Pierre Autier. At
+Toulouse Bernard Gui was energetically employed in the same direction.
+The heretic was driven from place to place, but the wonderful fidelity
+of his disciples seemed to render all efforts vain, and finally Bernard
+was driven to the expedient of issuing, August 10, 1309, a special
+proclamation as an incitement for his capture.
+
+     "Friar Bernard Gui, Dominican, Inquisitor of Toulouse, to all
+     worshippers of Christ, the reward and crown of eternal life. Gird
+     yourselves, Sons of God; arise with me, Soldiers of Christ, against
+     the enemies of his Cross, those corrupters of the truth and purity
+     of Catholic faith, Pierre Autier, the heresiarch, and his
+     coheretics and accomplices, Pierre Sanche and Sanche Mercadier.
+     Hiding in concealment and walking in darkness, I order them by the
+     virtue of God, to be tracked and seized wherever they may be found,
+     promising eternal reward from God, and also a fitting temporal
+     payment to those who will capture and produce them. Watch,
+     therefore, O pastors, lest the wolves snatch away the sheep of your
+     flock! Act manfully, faithful zealots, lest the adversaries of the
+     faith fly and escape!"
+
+This stirring exhortation was probably superfluous, for the prey was
+captured before it could have been published throughout the land. The
+arrest of nearly all his family and friends, in 1308-9, had driven
+Pierre Autier from his accustomed haunts. About St. John's Day (June
+24), 1309, he found refuge with Perrin Maurel of Belpech, near
+Castelnaudari, where he lay for five weeks or more. Thither came his
+daughter Guillelma, who remained with him a short time, and the two
+departed together. The next day he was captured. Perrin Maurel was
+likewise seized, and with customary fidelity stoutly denied everything
+until Pierre Autier, in prison, advised him in December to confess.[118]
+
+This triumph was followed in October by the capture of Amiel de Perles,
+who forthwith placed himself in _endura_, refusing to eat or drink, and,
+as he was fast sinking, to prevent the stake from being robbed of its
+prey, a special _auto de fe_ was hurriedly arranged for his burning,
+October 23. While yet his strength lasted, however, Bernard Gui enjoyed
+the ghastly amusement of making the two heresiarchs in his presence
+perform the act of heretical "adoration."[119]
+
+Pierre Autier was not burned until the great _auto de fe_ of April,
+1310, when Geoffroi d'Ablis came from Carcassonne to share in the
+triumph. The heresiarch had not sought to conceal his faith, but had
+boldly declared his obnoxious tenets and had pronounced the Church of
+Rome the synagogue of Satan. That he was subjected to the extremity of
+torture, however, there can be no reasonable doubt--not to extract a
+confession, for this was superfluous, but to force him to betray his
+disciples and those who had given him refuge. His intimate acquaintance
+with all the heretics of the land was a source of information too
+important for Bernard Gui to shrink from any means of acquiring it; and
+the copious details thus obtained are alluded to in too many subsequent
+sentences for us to hesitate as to the methods by which the heresiarch
+was brought to place his friends and associates at the mercy of his
+tormentors.[120]
+
+This may be said to close the bloody drama of Catharism in Languedoc.
+Armed with the revelations thus obtained, Bernard Gui and Geoffroi
+d'Ablis required but a few years more to convert or burn the remnant of
+Pierre Autier's disciples who could be caught, and to drive into exile
+those who eluded their spies. No new and self-devoted missionaries arose
+to take his place, and after 1315 the Patarin almost disappears from
+the records of the Inquisition in France. Some few scattering cases
+subsequently occur, but their offences are of old date and almost
+invariably revert to the missionary work of Pierre Autier and his
+associates. One of the latest of these is recorded in an undated
+sentence, probably of 1327 or 1328, in which Jean Duprat, Inquisitor of
+Carcassonne, condemns Guillelma Torniere. She had abjured and had been
+long confined in prison, where she was detected in making converts and
+praising Guillem Autier and Guillem Balibaste as good and saintly men.
+Under interrogation she refused to take an oath, and was accordingly
+burned. In 1328, Henri de Chamay of Carcassonne condemned to prison
+Guillem Amiel for Catharism, and in 1329 he sentenced two Cathari,
+Bartolome Pays and Raymond Garric of Albi, whose offences had been
+committed respectively thirty-five and forty years before. In the same
+year he ordered four houses and a farm to be demolished because their
+owners had been hereticated in them, but these acts had doubtless been
+performed long previous. Confiscations still continued for ancestral
+offences, but Catharism as an existing belief may be said at this period
+to be virtually extinct in Languedoc, where it had a hundred and fifty
+years before had a reasonable prospect of becoming the dominant
+religion.[121]
+
+In the same year, 1329, occurred a case which is not without interest as
+showing how an earnest but unstable brain pondering over the crime and
+misery of the world, wove some of the cruder elements of Catharism and
+Averrhoism into a fantastic theory. Limoux Noir, of Saint-Paul in the
+diocese of Alet, had already been tried by his bishop in 1326, but had
+been able to evade the unskilled officials of the episcopal tribunal.
+The Inquisition had surer methods and speedily brought him to
+confession. He had formed a philosophy of the Universe which superseded
+all religion. God had created the archangels, these the angels, and the
+latter the sun and moon. These heavenly bodies, as being unstable and
+corruptible, were females. Out of their urine the world was formed, and
+was necessarily corrupt, with all that sprang from it. Moses, Mahomet,
+and Christ were all sent by the sun and were teachers of equal
+authority. In the under world Christ and Mahomet are now disputing and
+seeking to gain followers. Baptism was of no more use than the
+circumcision of Israel or the blessing of Islam, for those who renounced
+evil in baptism grew up to be robbers and strumpets. The Eucharist was
+naught, for God would not let himself be handled by adulterers such as
+the priests. Matrimony was to be shunned, for from it sprang robbers and
+strumpets. Thus he explained away and rejected all the doctrines and
+practices of the Church. To see whether the Saviour's fast of forty days
+was possible, he had fasted in a cabin ten days and nights, at the end
+of which this system of philosophy had been revealed to him by God.
+Again, in 1327, he had placed himself in _endura_, with the resolve to
+carry it to the end, but had been persuaded by his brother to take the
+Eucharist, to save his bones from being burned after his death. He was
+sixty years old, and his crazy doctrines had brought him a few
+disciples, but the sect was crushed at the outset. He declared to the
+inquisitor that he would rather be flayed alive than believe in
+transubstantiation, and he proved his resolute character by resisting
+all attempts to induce him to recant, so that there was no alternative
+but to abandon him to the secular arm, which was duly done and his
+belief perished with him.[122]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Thus the Inquisition triumphed, as force will generally do when it is
+sufficiently strong, skilfully applied, and systematically continued
+without interruption to the end. In the twelfth century the south of
+France had been the most civilized land of Europe. There commerce,
+industry, art, science, had been far in advance of the age. The cities
+had won virtual self-government, were proud of their wealth and
+strength, jealous of their liberties, and self-sacrificing in their
+patriotism. The nobles, for the most part, were cultivated men, poets
+themselves or patrons of poetry, who had learned that their prosperity
+depended on the prosperity of their subjects, and that municipal
+liberties were a safeguard, rather than a menace, to the wise ruler. The
+crusaders came, and their unfinished work was taken up and executed to
+the bitter end by the Inquisition. It left a ruined and impoverished
+country, with shattered industry and failing commerce. The native nobles
+were broken by confiscation and replaced by strangers, who occupied the
+soil, introducing the harsh customs of Northern feudalism, or the
+despotic principles of the Roman law, in the extensive domains acquired
+by the crown. A people of rare natural gifts had been tortured,
+decimated, humiliated, despoiled, for a century and more. The precocious
+civilization which had promised to lead Europe in the path of culture
+was gone, and to Italy was transferred the honor of the Renaissance. In
+return for this was unity of faith and a Church which had been hardened
+and vitiated and secularized in the strife. Such was the work and such
+the outcome of the Inquisition in the field which afforded it the widest
+scope for its activity, and the fullest opportunity for developing its
+powers.
+
+Yet in the very triumph of the Inquisition was the assurance of its
+decline. Supported by the State, it had earned and repaid the royal
+favor by the endless stream of confiscations which it poured into the
+royal coffers. Perhaps nothing contributed more to the consolidation of
+the royal supremacy than the change of ownership which threw into new
+hands so large a portion of the lands of the South. In the territories
+of the great vassals the right to the confiscations for heresy became
+recognized as an important portion of the _droits seigneurioux_. In the
+domains of the crown they were granted to favorites or sold at moderate
+prices to those who thus became interested in the new order of things.
+The royal officials grasped everything on which they could lay their
+hands, whether on the excuse of treason or of heresy, with little regard
+to any rights; and although the integrity of Louis IX. caused an inquest
+to be held in 1262 which restored a vast amount of property illegally
+held, this was but a small fraction of the whole. To assist his
+Parlement in settling the innumerable cases which arose, he ordered, in
+1260, the charters and letters of greatest importance to be sent to
+Paris. Those of each of the six senechaussees filled a coffer, and the
+six coffers were deposited in the treasury of the Sainte-Chapelle. In
+this process of absorption the case of the extensive Viscounty of
+Fenouilledes may be taken as an illustration of the zeal with which the
+Inquisition co-operated in securing the political results desired by the
+crown. Fenouilledes had been seized during the crusades and given to
+Nunez Sancho of Roussillon, from whom it passed, through the King of
+Aragon, into the hands of St. Louis. In 1264 Beatrix, widow of Hugues,
+son of the former Viscount Pierre, applied to the Parlement for her
+rights and dower and those of her children. Immediately the inquisitor,
+Pons de Poyet, commenced a prosecution against the memory of Pierre, who
+had died more than twenty years previously in the bosom of the Church,
+and had been buried with the Templars of Mas Deu, after assuming the
+religious habit and receiving the last sacraments. He was condemned for
+having held relations with heretics, his bones were dug up and burned,
+and the Parlement rejected the claim of the daughter-in-law and
+grandchildren. Pierre, the eldest of these, in 1300, made a claim for
+the ancestral estates, and Boniface VIII. espoused his quarrel with the
+object of giving trouble to Philippe le Bel; but, though the affair was
+pursued for some years, the inquisitorial sentence held good. It was not
+only the actual heretics and their descendants who were dispossessed.
+The land had been so deeply tinctured with heresy that there were few
+indeed whose ancestors could not be shown, by the records of the
+Inquisition, to have incurred the fatal taint of associating with
+them.[123]
+
+The rich bourgeoisie of the cities were ruined in the same way. Some
+inventories have been preserved of the goods and chattels sequestrated
+when the arrests were made at Albi in 1299 and 1300, which show how
+thoroughly everything was swept into the maelstrom. That of Raymond
+Calverie, a notary, gives us every detail of the plenishing of a
+well-to-do burgher's house--every pillow, sheet, and coverlet is
+enumerated, every article of kitchen gear, the salted provisions and
+grain, even his wife's little trinkets. His farm or bastide was
+subjected to the same minuteness of seizure. Then we have a similar
+insight into the stock and goods of Jean Baudier, a rich merchant. Every
+fragment of stuff is duly measured--cloths of Ghent, Ypres, Amiens,
+Cambray, St. Omer, Rouen, Montcornet, etc., with their valuation--pieces
+of miniver, and other articles of trade. His town house and farm were
+inventoried with the same conscientious care. It is easy to see how
+prosperous cities were reduced to poverty, how industry languished, and
+how the independence of the municipalities was broken into subjection in
+the awful uncertainty which hung over the head of every man.[124]
+
+In this respect the Inquisition was building better than it knew. In
+thus aiding to establish the royal power over the newly-acquired
+provinces, it was contributing to erect an authority which was destined
+in the end to reduce it to comparative insignificance. With the
+disappearance of Catharism, Languedoc became as much a part of the
+monarchy as l'Isle de France, and the career of its Inquisition merges
+into that of the rest of the kingdom. It need not, therefore, be pursued
+separately further.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+FRANCE.
+
+
+Although Catharism never obtained in the North sufficient foothold to
+render it threatening to the Church, yet the crusades and the efforts
+which followed the pacification of 1229 must have driven many heretics
+to seek refuge in places where they might escape suspicion. In
+organizing persecution in the South, therefore, it was necessary to
+provide some supervision more watchful than episcopal negligence was
+likely to supply, over the regions whither heretics might fly when
+pursued at home, or the efforts made in Languedoc would only be
+scattering the infection. Vigilant guardians of the faith were
+consequently requisite in lands where heretics were few and hidden, as
+well as in those where they were numerous and enjoyed protection from
+noble and city. Under the pious king, St. Louis, who declared that the
+only argument a layman could use with a heretic was to thrust a sword
+into him up to the hilt, they were sure of ample support from the
+secular power.[125]
+
+Accordingly when, in 1233, the experiment was tried of appointing Pierre
+Cella and Guillem Arnaud as inquisitors in Toulouse, a similar tentative
+effort was made in the northern part of the kingdom. Here also it was
+the Dominican Order which was called upon to furnish the necessary
+zealots. I have already alluded to the failure of the attempt to induce
+the Friars of Franche-Comte to undertake the work. In western Burgundy,
+however, the Church was more fortunate in finding a proper instrument.
+Like Rainerio Saccone, Frere Robert, known as _le Bugre_, had been a
+Patarin. The peculiar fitness thence derived for detecting the hidden
+heretic was rendered still more effective by the special gift which he
+is said to have claimed, of being able to recognize them by their
+speech and carriage. In addition, he was fitted for the work by the
+ardent fanaticism of the convert, by his learning, his fiery eloquence,
+and his mercilessness. When, early in 1233, instructions to persecute
+heresy were sent to the Prior of Besancon, Robert was nominated to
+represent him and act as his substitute; and, eager to manifest his
+zeal, he lost no time in making a descent upon La Charite. It will be
+remembered that this place was notorious as a centre of heresy in the
+twelfth century, and that repeated efforts had been made to purify it.
+These had proved fruitless against the stubbornness of the misbelievers,
+and Frere Robert found Stephen, the Cluniac prior, vainly endeavoring to
+win or force them over. The new inquisitor seems to have been armed with
+no special powers, but his energy speedily made a profound impression,
+and heretics came forward and confessed their errors in crowds, husbands
+and wives, parents and children, accusing themselves and each other
+without reserve. He reported to Gregory IX. that the reality was far
+worse than had been rumored; that the whole town was a stinking nest of
+heretical wickedness, where the Catholic faith was almost wholly set
+aside and the people in their secret conventicles had thrown off its
+yoke. Under a specious appearance of piety they deceived the wisest, and
+their earnest missionary efforts, extending over the whole of France,
+were seducing souls from Flanders to Britanny. Uncertain as to his
+authority, he applied to Gregory for instructions and was told to act
+energetically in conjunction with the bishops, and, under the statutes
+recently issued by the Holy See, to extirpate heresy thoroughly from the
+whole region, invoking the aid of the secular arm, and coercing it if
+necessary with the censures of the Church.[126]
+
+We have no means of knowing what measures Robert adopted, but there can
+be no doubt that under this stimulus, and clothed with this authority,
+he was active and unsparing. His crazy fanaticism probably exaggerated
+greatly the extent of the evil and confounded the innocent with the
+guilty. It was not long before the Archbishop of Sens, in whose province
+La Charite lay, expostulated with Gregory upon this interference with
+his jurisdiction, and in this he was joined by other prelates, alarmed
+at the authority given to the Dominican Provincial of Paris to appoint
+inquisitors for all portions of the kingdom. They assured the pope that
+there was no heresy in their provinces and no necessity for these
+extraordinary measures. Gregory thereupon revoked all commissions early
+in February, 1234, and urged the prelates to be vigilant, recommending
+them to make use of Dominicans in all cases where action appeared
+desirable, as the friars were specially skilled in the refutation of
+heresy. Had Robert been an ordinary man this might have postponed for
+some time the extension of the Inquisition in France, but he was too
+ardent to be repressed. In June, 1234, we find St. Louis paying for the
+maintenance of heretics in prison at St. Pierre-le-Moutier, near Nevers,
+which would seem as though Frere Robert had succeeded in getting to work
+again on his old field of operations. Meanwhile he had not been idle
+elsewhere. King Louis furnished him with an armed guard to protect him
+from the enmities which he aroused, and, secure in the royal favor, he
+traversed the country carrying terror everywhere. At Peronne he burned
+five victims; at Elincourt, four, besides a pregnant woman who was
+spared for a time at the intercession of the queen. His methods were
+speedy, for before Lent was out we find him at Cambrai, where, with the
+assistance of the Archbishop of Reims and three bishops, he burned about
+twenty and condemned others to crosses and prison. Thence he hastened to
+Douai, where, in May, he had the satisfaction of burning ten more, and
+condemning numerous others to crosses and prison in the presence of the
+Count of Flanders, the Archbishop of Reims, sundry bishops and an
+immense multitude who crowded to the spectacle. Thence he hurried to
+Lille, where more executions followed. All this was sufficient to
+convince Gregory that he had been misinformed as to the absence of
+heresy. Undisturbed by the severe experience which he had just undergone
+with a similar apostle of persecution, Conrad of Marburg, we find him,
+in August, 1235, excitedly announcing to the Dominican provincial that
+God had revealed to him that the whole of France was boiling with the
+venom of heretical reptiles, and that the business of the Inquisition
+must be resumed with loosened rein. Frere Robert was to be commissioned
+again, with fitting colleagues to scour the whole kingdom, aided by the
+prelates, so that innocence should not suffer nor guilt escape. The
+Archbishop of Sens was strictly ordered to lend efficient help to
+Robert, whom God had gifted with especial grace in these matters, and
+Robert himself was honored with a special papal commission empowering
+him to act throughout the whole of France. The pope, moreover, spurred
+him on with exhortations to spare no labor in the work, and not to
+shrink from martyrdom if necessary for the salvation of souls.[127]
+
+This was pouring oil upon the flames. Robert's untempered fanaticism had
+required no stimulus, and now it raged beyond all bounds. The kingdom,
+by Gregory's thoughtless zeal, was delivered up to one who was little
+better than a madman. Supported by the piety of St. Louis, the prelates
+were obliged to aid him and carry out his behests, and for several years
+he traversed the provinces of Flanders, Champagne, Burgundy, and France
+with none to curb or oppose him. The crazy ardor of such a man was not
+likely to be discriminating or to require much proof of guilt. Those
+whom he designated as heretics had the alternative of abjuration with
+perpetual imprisonment or of the stake--varied occasionally with burial
+alive. In one term of two or three months he is said to have thus
+despatched about fifty unfortunates of either sex, and the whole number
+of his victims during his unchecked career of several years must have
+been large. The terror spread by his arbitrary and pitiless proceedings
+rendered him formidable to high and low alike, until at length the
+evident confounding of the innocent with the guilty raised a clamor to
+which even Gregory IX. was forced to listen. An investigation was held
+in 1238 which exposed his misdeeds, though not before he had time, in
+1239, to burn a number of heretics at Montmorillon in Vienne, and
+twenty-seven, or, according to other accounts, one hundred and
+eighty-three, at Mont-Wimer--the original seat of Catharism in the
+eleventh century--where, at this holocaust pleasing to God, there were
+present the King of Navarre with a crowd of prelates and nobles and a
+multitude wildly estimated at seven hundred thousand souls. Robert's
+commission was withdrawn, and he expiated his insane cruelties in
+perpetual prison. The case ought to have proved, like that of Conrad of
+Marburg, a wholesome warning. Unfortunately the spirit which he had
+aroused survived him, and for three or four years after his fall active
+persecution raged from the Rhine to the Loire, under the belief that the
+land was full of heretics.[128]
+
+The unlucky termination of Robert's career did not affect his
+colleagues, and thenceforth the Inquisition was permanently established
+throughout France in Dominican hands. The prelates at first were
+stimulated to some show of rivalry in the performance of their neglected
+duties. Thus the provincial council of Tours, in 1239, endeavored to
+revive the forgotten system of synodal witnesses. Every bishop was
+instructed to appoint in each parish three clerks--or, if such could not
+be had, three laymen worthy of trust--who were to be sworn to reveal to
+the officials all ecclesiastical offences, especially those concerning
+the faith. Such devices, however, were too cumbrous and obsolete to be
+of any avail against a crime so sedulously and so easily concealed as
+heresy, even if the prelates had been zealous and earnest persecutors.
+The Dominicans remained undisputed masters of the field, always on the
+alert, travelling from place to place, scrutinizing and questioning,
+searching the truth and dragging it from unwilling hearts. Yet scarce a
+trace of their strenuous labors has been left to us. Heretics throughout
+the North were comparatively few and scattered; the chroniclers of the
+period take no note of their discovery and punishment, nor even of the
+establishment of the Inquisition itself. That a few friars should be
+deputed to the duty of hunting heretics was too unimpressive a fact to
+be worthy of record. We know, however, that the pious King Louis
+welcomed them in his old hereditary dominions, as he did in the
+newly-acquired territories of Languedoc, and stimulated their zeal by
+defraying their expenses. In the accounts of the royal baillis for 1248
+we find entries of sums disbursed for them in Paris, Orleans, Issoudun,
+Senlis, Amiens, Tours, Yevre-le-Chatel, Beaumont, St. Quentin, Laon, and
+Macon, showing that his liberality furnished them with means to do their
+work, not only in the domains of the crown, but in those of the great
+vassals; and these items further illustrate their activity in every
+corner of the land. That their sharp pursuit rendered heresy unsafe is
+seen in the permission already alluded to, in 1255, to pursue their
+quarry across the border into the territories of Alphonse of Toulouse,
+thus disregarding the limitations of inquisitorial districts.[129]
+
+This shows us that already the Inquisition was becoming organized in a
+systematic manner. In Provence, where Pons de l'Esparre, the Dominican
+prior, had at first carried on a kind of volunteer chase after heretics,
+we see an inquisitor officially acting in 1245. This district,
+comprising the whole southeastern portion of modern France, with Savoy,
+was confided to the Franciscans. In 1266, when they were engaged in
+Marseilles in mortal strife with the Dominicans, the business of
+persecution would seem to have been neglected, for we find Clement IV.
+ordering the Benedictines of St. Victor to make provision for
+extirpating the numerous heretics of the valley of Rousset, where they
+had a dependency. The Inquisition of Provence was extended in 1288 over
+Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, whose governor was ordered to defray
+from the confiscations the moderate expenses of the inquisitors,
+Bertrand de Cigotier and Guillem de Saint-Marcel. In 1292 Dauphine was
+likewise included, thus completing the organization in the territories
+east of the Rhone. The attention of the inquisitors was specially called
+to the superstition which led many Christians to frequent the Jewish
+synagogues with lighted candles, offering oblations and watching through
+the vigils of the Sabbath, when afflicted with sickness or other
+tribulations, anxious for friends at sea or for approaching childbirth.
+All such observances, even in Jews, were idolatry and heresy, and those
+who practised them were to be duly prosecuted.[130]
+
+With this exception the whole of France was confided to the Dominicans.
+In 1253 a bull of Innocent IV. renders the Provincial of Paris supreme
+over the rest of the kingdom, including the territories of Alphonse of
+Toulouse. Numerous bulls follow during the next few years which speak of
+the growth of heresy requiring increased efforts for its suppression and
+of the solicitude of King Louis that the Inquisition should be
+effective. Elaborate instructions are sent for its management, and
+various changes are made and unmade in a manner to show that a watchful
+eye was kept on the institution in France, and that there was a constant
+effort to render it as efficient as possible. By a papal brief of 1255
+we see that at that time the Inquisition of Languedoc was independent of
+the Paris provincial; in 1257 it is again under his authority; in 1261
+it is once more removed, and in 1264 it is restored to him--a provision
+which became final, rendering him in some sort a grand-inquisitor for
+the whole of France. In 1255 the Franciscan provincial was adjoined to
+the Dominican, thus dividing the functions between the two Orders; but
+this arrangement, as might be expected, does not seem to have worked
+well, and in 1256 we find the power again concentrated in the hands of
+the Dominicans. The number of inquisitors to be appointed was always
+strictly limited by the popes, and it varied with the apparent
+exigencies of the times and also with the extent of territory. In 1256
+only two are specified; in 1258 this is pronounced insufficient for so
+extensive a region, and the provincial is empowered to appoint four
+more. In 1261, when Languedoc was withdrawn, the number is reduced to
+two; in 1266 it is increased to four, exclusive of Languedoc and
+Provence, to whom in 1267 associates were adjoined, and in 1273 the
+number was made six, including Languedoc, but excluding Provence. This
+seems to have been the final organization, but it does not appear that
+the Northern kingdom was divided into districts, strictly delimitated as
+those of the South.[131]
+
+The Inquisition at Besancon appears to have been at first independent
+of that of Paris. After the failure to establish it in 1233 it seems to
+have remained in abeyance until 1247, when Innocent IV. ordered the
+Prior of Besancon to send friars throughout Burgundy and Lorraine for
+the extirpation of heresy. The next year John Count of Burgundy urged
+greater activity, but his zeal does not seem to have been supplemented
+with liberality, and in 1255 the Dominicans asked to be relieved of the
+thankless task, which proved unsuccessful for lack of funds, and
+Alexander IV. acceded to their request. There are some evidences of an
+Inquisition being in operation there about 1283, and in 1290 Nicholas
+IV. ordered the Provincial of Paris to select three inquisitors to serve
+in the dioceses of Besancon, Geneva, Lausanne, Sion, Metz, Toul, and
+Verdun, thus placing Lorraine and the French Cantons of Switzerland, as
+well as Franche Comte, under the Inquisition of France, an arrangement
+which seems to have lasted for more than a century.[132]
+
+Little remains to us of the organization thus perfected over the wide
+territory stretching from the Bay of Biscay to the Rhine. The laborers
+were vigorous, and labored according to the light which was in them, but
+the men and their acts are buried beneath the dust of the forgotten
+past. That they did their duty is visible in the fact that heresy makes
+so little figure in France, and that the slow but remorseless
+extermination of Catharism in Languedoc was not accompanied by its
+perpetuation in the North. We hear constantly of refugees from Toulouse
+and Carcassonne flying for safety to Lombardy and even to Sicily, but
+never to Touraine or Champagne, nor do we ever meet with cases in which
+the earnest missionaries of Catharism sought converts beyond the
+Cevennes. This may fairly be ascribed to the vigilance of the
+inquisitors, who were ever on the watch. Chance has preserved for us as
+models in a book of formulas some documents issued by Frere Simon Duval,
+in 1277 and 1278, which afford us a momentary glimpse at his proceedings
+and enable us to estimate the activity requisite for the functions of
+his office. He styles himself inquisitor "_in regno Franciae_," which
+indicates that his commission extended throughout the kingdom north of
+Languedoc, and he speaks of himself as acting in virtue of the
+apostolical authority and royal power, showing that Philippe le Hardi
+had dutifully commissioned him to summon the whole forces of the State
+to his assistance when requisite. November 23, 1277, he gives public
+notice that two canons of Liege, Suger de Verbanque and Berner de
+Niville, had fled on being suspected of heresy, and he cites them to
+appear for trial at St. Quentin in Vermandois on the 23d of the ensuing
+January. This trial was apparently postponed, for on January 21, 1278,
+we find him summoning the people and clergy of Caen to attend his sermon
+on the 23d. Here he at least found an apostate Jewess who fled, and we
+have his proclamation calling upon every one to aid Copin, sergeant of
+the Bailli of Caen, who had been despatched in her pursuit. Frere Duval
+was apparently making an extended inquest, for July 5 he summons the
+people and clergy of Orleans to attend his sermon on the 7th. A
+fortnight later he is back in Normandy and has discovered a nest of
+heretics near Evreux, for on July 21 we have his citation of thirteen
+persons from a little village hard by to appear before him. These
+fragmentary and accidental remains show that his life was a busy one and
+that his labors were not unfruitful. A letter of the young Philippe le
+Bel, in February, 1285, to his officials in Champagne and Brie, ordering
+them to lend all aid to the inquisitor Frere Guillaume d'Auxerre,
+indicates that those provinces were about to undergo a searching
+examination.[133]
+
+The inquisitors of France complained that their work was impeded by the
+universal right of asylum which gave protection to criminals who
+succeeded in entering a church. No officer of the law dared to follow
+and make an arrest within the sacred walls, for a violation of this
+privilege entailed excommunication, removable only after exemplary
+punishment. Heretics were not slow in availing themselves of the
+immunity thus mercifully afforded by the Church which they had wronged,
+and in the jealousy which existed between the secular clergy and the
+inquisitors there was apparently no effort made to restrict the abuse.
+Martin IV. was accordingly appealed to, and in 1281 he issued a bull
+addressed to all the prelates of France, declaring that such perversion
+of the right of asylum was no longer to be permitted; that in such
+cases the inquisitors were to have full opportunity to vindicate the
+faith, and that so far from being impeded in the performance of their
+duty, they were to be aided in every way. The special mention in this
+bull of apostate Jews along with other heretics indicates that this
+unfortunate class formed a notable portion of the objects of
+inquisitorial zeal. Several of them, in fact, were burned or otherwise
+penanced in Paris between 1307 and 1310.[134]
+
+There was one class of offenders who would have afforded the Inquisition
+an ample field for its activity, had it been disposed to take cognizance
+of them. By the canons, any one who had endured excommunication for a
+year without submission and seeking absolution was pronounced suspect of
+heresy, and we have seen Boniface VIII., in 1297, directing the
+inquisitors of Carcassonne to prosecute the authorities of Beziers for
+this cause. The land was full of such excommunicates, for the shocking
+abuse of the anathema by priest and prelate for personal interests had
+indurated the people, and in a countless number of cases absolution was
+only to be procured by the sacrifice of rights which even faithful sons
+of the Church were not prepared to make. This growing disregard of the
+censure was aggravating to the last degree, but the inquisitors do not
+seem to have been disposed to come forward in aid of the secular clergy,
+nor did the latter call upon them for assistance. In 1301 the Council of
+Reims directed that proceedings should be commenced, when it next should
+meet, against all who had been under excommunication for two years, as
+being suspect of heresy; and in 1303 it called upon all such to come
+forward and purge themselves of the suspicion, but the court in which
+this was to be done was that of the bishops and not of the Inquisition.
+Mutual jealousy was seemingly too strong to admit of such
+co-operation.[135]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In 1308 we hear of a certain Etienne de Verberie of Soissons, accused
+before the inquisitor of blasphemous expressions concerning the body of
+Christ. He alleged drunkenness in excuse, and was mercifully treated.
+Shortly afterwards occurred the first formal _auto de fe_ of which we
+have cognizance at Paris, on May 31, 1310. A renegade Jew was burned,
+but the principal victim was Marguerite de Hainault, or la Porete. She
+is described as a "_beguine clergesse_," the first apostle in France
+of the German sect of Brethren of the Free Spirit, whom we shall
+consider more fully hereafter. Her chief error was the doctrine that the
+soul, absorbed in Divine love, could yield without sin or remorse to all
+the demands of the flesh, and she regarded with insufficient veneration
+the sacrifice of the altar. She had written a book to propagate these
+doctrines which had, before the year 1305, been condemned as heretical
+and burned by Gui II., Bishop of Cambrai. He had mercifully spared her,
+while forbidding her under pain of the stake from circulating it in
+future or disseminating its doctrines. In spite of this she had again
+been brought before Gui's successor, Philippe de Marigny, and the
+Inquisitor of Lorraine, for spreading it among the simple folk called
+Begghards, and she had again escaped. Unwearied in her missionary work,
+she had even ventured to present the forbidden volume to Jean, Bishop of
+Chalons, without suffering the penalty due to her obstinacy. In 1308 she
+extended her propaganda to Paris and fell into the hands of Frere
+Guillaume de Paris, the inquisitor, before whom she persistently refused
+to take the preliminary oath requisite to her examination. He was
+probably too preoccupied with the affair of the Templars to give her
+prompt justice, and for eighteen months she lay in the inquisitorial
+dungeons under the consequent excommunication. This would alone have
+sufficed for her conviction as an impenitent heretic, but her previous
+career rendered her a relapsed heretic. Instead of calling an assembly
+of experts, as was customary in Languedoc, the inquisitor laid a written
+statement of the case before the canonists of the University, who
+unanimously decided, May 30, that if the facts as stated were true, she
+was a relapsed heretic, to be relaxed to the secular arm. Accordingly,
+on May 31, she was handed over, with the customary adjuration for mercy,
+to the prevot of Paris, who duly burned her the next day, when her noble
+manifestation of devotion moved the people to tears of compassion.
+Another actor in the tragedy was a disciple of Marguerite, a clerk of
+the diocese of Beauvais named Guion de Cressonessart. He had endeavored
+to save Marguerite from the clutches of the Inquisition, and on being
+seized had, like her, refused to take the oath during eighteen months'
+imprisonment. His brain seems to have turned during his detention, for
+at length he astonished the inquisitor by proclaiming himself the Angel
+of Philadelphia and an envoy of God, who alone could save mankind. The
+inquisitor in vain pointed out that this was a function reserved solely
+for the pope, and as Guion would not withdraw his claims he was
+convicted as a heretic. For some reason, however, not specified in the
+sentence, he was only condemned to degradation from orders and to
+perpetual imprisonment.[136]
+
+The next case of which we hear is that of the Sieur de Partenay, in
+1323, to which allusion has already been made. Its importance to us lies
+in its revealing the enormous and almost irresponsible authority wielded
+by the Inquisition at this period. The most powerful noble of Poitou,
+when designated as a heretic by Frere Maurice, the Inquisitor of Paris,
+is at once thrown into the prison of the Temple by the king, and all his
+estates are sequestrated to await the result. Fortunately for Partenay
+he had a large circle of influential friends and kindred, among them the
+Bishop of Noyon, who labored strenuously in his behalf. He was able to
+appeal to the pope, alleging personal hatred on the part of Frere
+Maurice; he was sent under guard to Avignon, where his friends succeeded
+in inducing John XXII. to assign certain bishops as assessors to try the
+case with the inquisitor, and after infinite delays he was at length set
+free--probably not without the use of means which greatly diminished his
+wealth. When such a man could be so handled at the mere word of an angry
+friar, meaner victims stood little chance.[137] This case in the North
+and the close of Bernard Gui's career in Toulouse, about the same time,
+mark the apogee of the Inquisition in France. Thenceforth we have to
+follow its decline.
+
+Yet for some years longer there was a show of activity at Carcassonne,
+where Henri de Chamay was a worthy representative of the older
+inquisitors. January 16, 1329, in conjunction with Pierre Bruni he
+celebrated an _auto de fe_ at Pamiers, where thirty-five persons were
+permitted to lay aside crosses, and twelve were released from prison
+with crosses, six were pardoned, seven were condemned to perpetual
+imprisonment, together with four false witnesses, eight had arbitrary
+penances assigned them, four dead persons were sentenced, and a friar
+and a priest were degraded. As the see of Pamiers, to which this _auto_
+was confined, was a small one, the number of sentences uttered indicates
+active work. December 12, of the same year, Henri de Chamay held another
+at Narbonne, where the fate of some forty delinquents was decided. Then,
+January 7, 1329, he held another at Pamiers; May 19, one at Beziers;
+September 8, one at Carcassonne, where six unfortunates were burned and
+twenty-one condemned to perpetual prison. Shortly afterwards he burned
+three at Albi, and towards the end of the year he held another _auto_ at
+a place not named, where eight persons were sentenced to prison, three
+to prison in chains, and two were burned. Some collisions seem to have
+occurred about this time with the royal officials, for, in 1334, the
+inquisitors complained to Philippe de Valois that their functions were
+impeded, and Philippe issued orders to the seneschals of Nimes,
+Toulouse, and Carcassonne that the Inquisition must be maintained in the
+full enjoyment of its ancient privileges.[138]
+
+Activity continued for some little time longer, but the records have
+perished which would supply the details. We happen to have the accounts
+of the Senechaussee of Toulouse, for 1337, which show that Pierre Bruni,
+the inquisitor, was by no means idle. The receiver of confiscations
+enumerates the estates of thirty heretics from which collections are in
+hand; there was an _auto de fe_ celebrated and paid for; the number of
+prisoners in the inquisitorial jail is stated at eighty-two, but as
+their maintenance during eleven months amounted to the sum of three
+hundred and sixty-five livres fourteen sols, the average number at three
+deniers per diem must have been ninety. The terrible vicissitudes of the
+English war doubtless soon afterwards slackened the energy of the
+inquisitors, but we know that there were _autos de fe_ celebrated at
+Carcassonne in 1346, 1357, and 1383, and one at Toulouse in 1374. The
+office of inquisitor continued to be filled, but its functions
+diminished greatly in importance, as we may guess from the fact that it
+is related of Pierre de Mercalme, who was Provincial of Toulouse from
+1350 to 1363, that during more than two years of this period he also
+served as inquisitor.[139]
+
+In the North we hear little of the Inquisition during this period. The
+English wars, in fact, must have seriously interfered with its activity,
+but we have an evidence that it was not neglecting its duty in a
+complaint made by the Provincial of Paris to Clement VI., in 1351, that
+the practice of excepting the territories of Charles of Anjou from the
+commissions issued to inquisitors deprived the provinces of Touraine and
+Maine of the blessings of the institution and allowed heresy to flourish
+there, whereupon the pope promptly extended the authority of Frere
+Guillaume Chevalier and of all future inquisitors to those regions.[140]
+
+With the return of peace under Charles le Sage the Inquisition had freer
+scope. The Begghards, or Brethren of the Free Spirit, undeterred by the
+martyrdom of Marguerite la Porete, had continued to exist in secret. In
+September, 1365, Urban V. notified the prelates and inquisitors
+throughout France that they were actively at work propagating their
+doctrines, and he sent detailed information as to their tenets and the
+places where they were to be found to the Bishop of Paris, with orders
+to communicate it to his fellow-prelates and the Inquisition. If any
+immediate response to this was made, the result has not reached us, but
+in 1372 we find Frere Jacques de More, "_inquisiteur des Bougres_,"
+busy in eradicating them. They called themselves the Company of Poverty,
+and were popularly known by the name of Turelupins; as in Germany, they
+were distinguished by their peculiar vestments, and they propagated
+their doctrines largely by their devotional writings in the vernacular.
+Charles V. rewarded the labors of the inquisitor with a donation of
+fifty francs, and received the thanks of Gregory XI. for his zeal. The
+outcome of the affair was the burning of the books and garments of the
+heretics in the swine-market beyond the Porte Saint-Honore, together
+with the female leader of the sect, Jeanne Daubenton. Her male colleague
+escaped by death in prison, but his body was preserved in quicklime for
+fifteen days, in order that he might accompany his partner in guilt in
+the flames. That such a spectacle was sufficiently infrequent to render
+it a matter of importance is shown by its being recorded in the doggerel
+of a contemporary chronicler--
+
+    "L'an MDCCCLXXII. je vous dis tout pour voir
+     Furent les Turelupins condannez pour ardoir,
+     Pour ce qu'ils desvoient le people a decepvoir
+     Par feaultes heresies, l'Eveque en soult levoir."
+
+The sect was a stubborn one, however, especially in Germany, as we shall
+see hereafter, and in the early part of the next century Chancellor
+Gerson still considers it of sufficient importance to combat its errors
+repeatedly. Its mystic libertinism was dangerously seducing, and he was
+especially alarmed by the incredible subtlety with which it was
+presented in a book written by a woman known as Mary of Valenciennes. In
+May, 1421, twenty-five of these sectaries were condemned at Douai by the
+Bishop of Arras. Twenty of them recanted and were penanced with crosses
+and banishment or imprisonment, but five were stubborn and sealed their
+faith with martyrdom in the flames.[141]
+
+In 1381 Frere Jacques de More had a more illustrious victim in Hugues
+Aubriot. A Burgundian by birth, Aubriot's energy and ability had won for
+him the confidence of the wise King Charles, who had made him Prevot of
+Paris. This office he filled with unprecedented vigor. To him the city
+owed the first system of sewerage that had been attempted, as well as
+the Bastille, which he built as a bulwark against the English, and he
+imposed some limitation on the flourishing industry of the _filles de
+vie_. His good government gained him the respect and affection of the
+people, but he made a mortal enemy of the University by disregarding
+the immunities on the preservation of which, in the previous century, it
+had staked its existence. In savage mockery of its wrath, when building
+the Petit-Chatelet, he named two foul dungeons after two of the
+principal quarters of the University, le Clos Bruneau and la Rue du
+Foing, saying that they were intended for the students. Under the strong
+rule of Charles V. the University had to digest its wrongs as best it
+could, but after his death, in 1380, it eagerly watched its opportunity.
+This was not long in coming, nor, in the rivalry between the Dukes of
+Berri and Burgundy, was it difficult to enlist the former against
+Aubriot as a Burgundian. The rule of the princes, at once feeble and
+despotic, invited disorder, and when the people, November 25, 1380, rose
+against the Jews, pillaged their houses, and forcibly baptized their
+children, Aubriot incurred the implacable enmity of the Church by
+forcing a restoration of the infants to their parents. The combination
+against him thus became too strong for the court to resist. It yielded,
+and on January 21, 1381, he was cited to appear before the bishop and
+inquisitor. He disdained to obey the summons, and his excommunication
+for contumacy was published in all the churches of Paris. This compelled
+obedience, and when he came before the inquisitor, on February 1, he was
+at once thrown into the episcopal prison while his trial proceeded. The
+charges were most frivolous, except the affair of the Jewish children
+and his having released from the Chatelet a prisoner accused of heresy,
+placed there by the inquisitor. It was alleged that on one occasion one
+of his sergeants had excused himself for delay by saying that he had
+waited at church to see God (the elevation of the Host), when Aubriot
+angrily rejoined, "Sirrah, know ye not that I have more power to harm
+you than God to help;" and again that when some one had told him that
+they would see God in a mass celebrated by Silvestre de la Cervelle,
+Bishop of Coutances, he replied that God would not permit himself to be
+handled by such a man as the bishop. His enemies were so exasperated
+that on the strength of this flimsy gossip he was actually condemned to
+be burned without the privilege allowed to all heretics of saving
+himself by abjuration; but the princes intervened and succeeded in
+obtaining this for him. He had no reason to complain of undue delay. On
+May 17 a solemn _auto de fe_ was held. On a scaffold erected in front of
+Notre Dame, Aubriot humbly confessed and recanted the heresies of which
+he had been convicted, and received the sentence of perpetual
+imprisonment, which of course carried with it the confiscation of his
+wealth, while the rejoicing scholars of the University lampooned him in
+halting verses. He was thence conveyed to a dungeon in the episcopal
+prison, where he lay until 1382, when the insurrection of the Maillotins
+occurred. The first thought of the people was of their old prevot. They
+broke open the prison, drew him forth and placed him at their head. He
+accepted the post, but the same night he quietly withdrew and escaped to
+his native Burgundy, where his adventurous life ended in peaceful
+obscurity. The story is instructive as showing how efficient an
+instrument was the Inquisition for the gratification of malice. In fact,
+its functions as a factor in political strife were of sufficient
+importance to require more detailed consideration hereafter.[142]
+
+After this we hear little more of the Inquisition of Paris, although it
+continued to exist. When, in 1388, the eloquence of Thomas of Apulia
+drew wondering crowds to listen with veneration to his teaching that the
+law of the Gospel was simply love, with the deduction that the
+sacraments, the invocation of saints, and all the inventions of the
+current theology were useless; when he wrote a book inveighing against
+the sins of prelate and pope, and asserting, with the Everlasting
+Gospel, that the reign of the Holy Ghost had supplanted that of the
+Father and the Son, and when he boldly announced himself as the envoy of
+the Holy Ghost sent to reform the world, the Inquisition was not called
+upon to silence even this revolutionary heretic. It was the Prevot of
+Paris who ordered him to desist from preaching, and, when he refused, it
+was the bishop and University who tried him, ordered his book to be
+burned on the Place de Greve, and would have him burned had not the
+medical alienists of the day testified to his insanity and procured for
+him a commutation of his punishment to perpetual imprisonment.[143]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Various causes had long been contributing to deprive the Inquisition in
+France of the importance which it had once enjoyed. It no longer as of
+old poured into the royal fisc a stream of confiscations and co-operated
+efficiently in consolidating the monarchy. It had done its work too
+well, and not only had it become superfluous as an instrument for the
+throne, but the throne which it had aided to establish had become
+supreme and had reduced it to subjection. Even in the plenitude of
+inquisitorial power the tendency to regard the royal court as possessing
+a jurisdiction higher than that of the Holy Office is shown in the case
+of Amiel de Lautrec, Abbot of S. Sernin. In 1322 the Viguier of Toulouse
+accused him to the Inquisition for having preached the doctrine that the
+soul is mortal in essence and only immortal through grace. The
+Inquisition examined the matter and decided that this was not heresy.
+The royal _procureur-general_, dissatisfied with this, appealed from the
+decision, not to the pope but to the Parlement or royal court. No
+question more purely spiritual can well be conceived, and yet the
+Parlement gravely entertained the appeal and asserted its jurisdiction
+by confirming the decree of the Inquisition.[144]
+
+This was ominous of the future, although the indefatigable Henri de
+Chamay, apparently alarmed at the efforts successfully made by Philippe
+de Valois to control and limit spiritual jurisdictions, procured from
+that monarch, in November, 1329, a _Mandement_ confirming the privileges
+of the Inquisition, placing all temporal nobles and officials afresh at
+its disposal, and annulling all letters emanating from the royal court,
+whether past or future, which should in any way impede inquisitors from
+performing their functions in accordance with their commissions from the
+Holy See. The evolution of the monarchy was proceeding too rapidly to be
+checked. Henri de Chamay himself, in 1328, had officially qualified
+himself as inquisitor, deputed, not by the pope, as had always been the
+formula proudly employed, but by the king, and a judicial decision to
+this effect followed soon after. It was Philippe's settled policy to
+enforce and extend the jurisdiction of the crown, and in pursuance of
+this he sent Guillaume de Villars to Toulouse to reform the
+encroachments of the ecclesiastical tribunals over the royal courts. In
+1330 de Villars, in the performance of his duty, caused the registers of
+the ecclesiastical courts to be submitted to him, after which he
+demanded those of the Inquisition. When we remember how jealously these
+were guarded, how arrogantly Nicholas d'Abbeville had refused a sight of
+them to the bishops sent by Philippe le Bel, and how long Jean de
+Pequigny hesitated before he interfered with Geoffroi d'Ablis, we can
+measure the extent of the silent revolution which had occurred during
+the interval in the relations between Church and State, by the fact that
+de Villars, on being refused, coolly proceeded to break open the door of
+the chamber in which the registers were kept. The inquisitor appealed,
+and again it was not to the pope, but to the Parlement, and that body,
+in condemning de Villars to pay the costs and damages, did so on the
+ground that the Inquisition was a royal and not an ecclesiastical court.
+This was a Pyrrhic victory; the State had absorbed the Inquisition. It
+was the same when, in 1334, Philippe listened to the complaints of the
+inquisitors that his seneschals disturbed them in their jurisdiction,
+and gave orders that they should enjoy all their ancient privileges, for
+these are treated as derived wholly from the royal power. Henceforth the
+Inquisition could exist only on sufferance, subject to the supervision
+of the Parlement, while the Captivity of Avignon, followed by the Great
+Schism, constantly gave to the temporal powers increased authority in
+spiritual matters.[145]
+
+How completely the Inquisition was becoming an affair of state is
+indicated by two incidents. In 1340, when the lieutenant of the king in
+Languedoc, Louis of Poitou, Count of Die and Valentinois, was making his
+entry into the good city of Toulouse, he found the gate closed.
+Dismounting and kneeling bareheaded on a cushion, he took an oath on the
+Gospels, in the hands of the inquisitor, to preserve the privileges of
+the Inquisition, and then another oath to the consuls to maintain the
+liberties of the city. Thus both institutions were on the same footing
+and required the same illusory guarantee, the very suggestion of which
+would have been laughed to scorn by Bernard Gui. Again, in 1368, when
+the royal revenues were depleted by the English wars and the ravages of
+the Free Companies, and were insufficient to pay the wages of the
+Inquisitor of Carcassonne, Pierre Scatisse, the royal treasurer,
+ordered a levy by the consuls of twenty-six livres tournois to complete
+the payment. Confiscations had long since ceased to meet the
+expenditures, but the inquisitor was a royal official and must be paid
+by the city if not by the state.[146]
+
+How thorough was the subjection of all ecclesiastical institutions, and
+how fallen the Inquisition from its high estate, is manifested by an
+occurrence in 1364, at a moment when the royal authority was at the
+lowest ebb. King John had died a prisoner in London, April 8, and the
+young Charles V. was not crowned until May 19, while his kingdom was
+reduced almost to anarchy by foreign aggression and internal
+dissensions. Yet, April 16, Marshal Arnaud d'Audeneham, Lieutenant du
+Roi in Languedoc, convoked at Nimes an assembly of the Three Estates
+presided over by the Archbishop of Narbonne. One of the questions
+discussed was a quarrel between the Archbishop of Toulouse and the
+inquisitor whom he had prohibited from exercising his functions, saying
+that the Inquisition had been established at the request of the province
+of Languedoc, and that now it had become an injury. All the prelates,
+except Aymeri, Bishop of Viviers, sided with the archbishop, while the
+representatives of Toulouse asked to be admitted as parties to the suit
+on the side of the inquisitor. No one seems to have doubted that the
+marshal, as royal deputy, had full jurisdiction over the matter, and his
+decision was against the archbishop.[147]
+
+Even in Carcassonne, where the Dominicans had lorded it so imperiously,
+all fear of them had disappeared so utterly that in 1354 a sturdy
+blacksmith named Hugues erected a shop close to the church of the
+Friars, and carried on his noisy avocation so vigorously as to interrupt
+their services and interfere with their studies. Remonstrances and
+threats were of no avail, and they were obliged to appeal, not to the
+bishop or the inquisitor, but to the king, who graciously sent a
+peremptory order to his seneschal to remove the smithy or to prevent
+Hugues from working in it.[148]
+
+Towards the end of the century some cases occurring in Reims illustrate
+how completely the Inquisition was falling into abeyance throughout the
+kingdom, and how the jurisdiction of the royal court of the Parlement
+was accepted as supreme in spiritual matters. In 1385 there arose a
+dispute between the magistrates of the city and the archbishop as to
+jurisdiction over blasphemy, which was claimed by both. This was settled
+by an agreement recognizing it as belonging to the archbishop, but
+twenty years later the quarrel broke out afresh over the case of Drouet
+Largele, who was guilty of blasphemy savoring of heresy as to the
+Passion and the Virgin. The matter was appealed to the Parlement, which
+decided in favor of the archbishop, and no allusion throughout the whole
+affair occurs as to any claim that the Inquisition might have to
+interpose, showing that at this time it was practically disregarded. Yet
+we chance to know that Reims was the seat of an Inquisition, for in 1419
+Pierre Floree was inquisitor there, and preached, October 13, the
+funeral sermon at the obsequies of Jean sans Peur of Burgundy, giving
+great offence by urging Philippe le Bon not to avenge the murder of his
+father. We see also the scruples of the Inquisition on the subject of
+blasphemy in 1423 at Toulouse, where it had become the custom to submit
+to the inquisitor the names of all successful candidates in municipal
+elections in order to ascertain whether they were in any way suspect of
+heresy. Among the capitouls elected in 1423 was a certain Francois
+Albert, who was objected to by the acting inquisitor, Frere Bartolome
+Guiscard, on account of habitual use of the expletives _Tete-Dieu_ and
+_Ventre-Dieu_, whereupon the citizens substituted Pierre de Sarlat.
+Albert appealed to the Parlement, which approved of the action of the
+inquisitor.[149]
+
+Still more emphatic as to the supreme authority of the Parlement was the
+case of Marie du Canech of Cambrai, to which I have already had occasion
+to refer. For maintaining that when under oath she was not bound to tell
+the truth to the prejudice of her honor, she was prosecuted for heresy
+by the Bishop of Cambrai and Frere Nicholas de Peronne, styling himself
+deputy of the inquisitor-general or Provincial of Paris. Being severely
+mulcted, she appealed to the Archbishop of Reims, as the metropolitan,
+and he issued inhibitory letters. Then the bishop and inquisitor
+appealed from the archbishop to the Parlement. The matter was
+elaborately argued on both sides, the archbishop alleging that there was
+at that time no inquisitor in France, and drawing a number of subtle
+distinctions. The Parlement had no hesitation in accepting jurisdiction
+over this purely spiritual question. It paid no attention to the
+cautious arguments of the archbishop, but decided broadly that the
+bishop and inquisitor had no grounds for disobeying the citation of the
+archbishop evoking the case to his own court, and it condemned them in
+costs. Thus the ancient supremacy of the episcopal jurisdiction was
+reasserted over that of the Inquisition.[150]
+
+The Great Schism, followed by the councils of Constance and Basle, did
+much to shake the papal power on which that of the Inquisition was
+founded. The position of Charles VII. towards Rome was consistently
+insubordinate, and the Pragmatic Sanction which he published in 1438
+secured the independence of the Gallican Church, and strengthened the
+jurisdiction of the Parlement. When Louis XI. abrogated it, in 1461, the
+remonstrances of his Parlement form a singularly free-spoken indictment
+of papal vices, and that body continued to treat the instrument as
+practically in force, while Louis himself, by successive measures of
+1463, 1470, 1472, 1474, 1475, and 1479, gradually re-established its
+principles. Had not the Concordat of Francis I., in 1516, swept it away,
+when he conspired with Leo X. to divide the spoils of the Church, it
+would eventually have rendered France independent of Rome. Francis knew
+so well the opposition which it would excite that he hesitated for a
+year to submit the measure to his Parlement for registration, and the
+Parlement deferred the registration for another year, till at last the
+negotiator of the concordat, Cardinal Duprat, brought to bear sufficient
+pressure to accomplish the object. During the discussion the University
+had the boldness to protest publicly against it, and to lodge with the
+Parlement an appeal to the next general council.[151]
+
+During this period of antagonism to Rome the University of Paris had
+contributed no little to the abasement of the Inquisition by supplanting
+it as an investigator of doctrine and judge of heresy. Its ancient
+renown, fully maintained by an uninterrupted succession of ardent and
+learned teachers, gave it great authority. It was a national institution
+of which clergy and laity alike might well be proud, and at one time it
+appeared as though it might rival the Parlement in growing into one of
+the recognized powers of the State. In the fearful anarchy which
+accompanied the insanity of Charles VI. it boldly assumed a right to
+speak on public affairs, and its interference was welcomed. In 1411 the
+king, who chanced at the time to be in the hands of the Burgundians,
+appealed to it to excommunicate the Armagnacs, and the University
+zealously did so. In 1412 it presented a remonstrance to the king on the
+subject of the financial disorders of the time and demanded a reform.
+Supported by the Parisians, at its dictate the financiers and thieves
+of the government, with the exception of the chancellor, were dismissed
+in 1413, greatly to the discontent of the courtiers, who ridiculed the
+theologians as bookworms; and in the same year it co-operated with the
+Parlement in securing momentary peace between the angry factions of the
+land. The thanks which the heir-apparent, the Duke of Guienne,
+accompanied by the Dukes of Berri, Burgundy, Bavaria, and Bar, solemnly
+rendered to the assembled Faculty, virtually recognized it as a part of
+the State. But when, in 1415, it sent a deputation to remonstrate
+against the oppression of the people through excessive taxation, the
+Duke of Guienne, who was angry at the part taken by it, without
+consulting the court, in degrading John XXIII. at the Council of
+Constance, curtly told the spokesmen that they were interfering in
+matters beyond their competence; and when the official orator attempted
+to reply, the duke had him arrested on the spot and kept in prison for
+several days.[152]
+
+Though its temporary ambition to rival the Parlement in state affairs
+was fortunately not gratified, in theology such a body as this was
+supreme. It would naturally be called upon, either as a whole or by
+delegates, to furnish the experts whose counsel was to guide bishop and
+inquisitor in the decision of cases; and as the old heresies died out
+and new ones were evolved, every deviation from orthodoxy came to be
+submitted to it as a matter of course, when its decision was received as
+final. These were for the most part scholastic subtleties to which I
+shall recur hereafter, as well as to the great controversies over the
+Immaculate Conception of the Virgin, and over Nominalism and Realism, in
+which it took a distinguished part. Sometimes, however, the questions
+were more practical. When some insolent wretch, in 1432, impudently told
+Frere Pierre de Voie, the deputy-inquisitor of Evreux, that his
+citations were simply abuses, the offended functionary, in place of
+promptly clapping the recalcitrant into prison, plaintively referred the
+case to the University, and had the satisfaction of receiving a solemn
+decision that the words were audacious, presumptuous, scandalous, and
+tending to rebellion (it did not say heretical), and that the utterer
+was liable to punishment. Bernard Gui or Nicholas d'Abbeville would
+have asked for no such warrant.[153]
+
+To what an extent the University in time replaced the Inquisition in its
+neglected and forgotten functions is shown in 1498, in the case of the
+Observantine Franciscan, Jean Vitrier. In the restlessness and
+insubordination which heralded the Reformation, this obscure friar
+anticipated Luther even more than did John of Wesel, although in the
+strictness of his asceticism he taught that a wife might better break
+her marriage-vow than her fasts. In his preaching at Tournay he
+counselled the people to drag the concubines and their priests from
+their houses with shame and derision; he affirmed that it was a mortal
+sin to listen to the masses of concubinary priests. Pardons and
+indulgences were the offspring of hell: the faithful ought not to
+purchase them, for they were not intended for the maintenance of
+brothels. Even the intercession of the saints was not to be sought.
+These were old heresies for which any inquisitor would promptly offer
+the utterer the alternative of abjuration or the stake; but the prelates
+and magistrates of Tournay referred the matter to the University, which
+laboriously extracted from Vitrier's sermons sixteen propositions for
+condemnation.[154]
+
+Even more significant of the growing authority of the University and the
+waning power of the Papacy was a decision rendered in 1502. Alexander
+VI. had levied a tithe on the clergy of France, with the customary
+excuse of prosecuting the war against the Turks. The clergy, whose
+consent had not been asked, refused to pay. The pope rejoined by
+excommunicating them, and they applied to the University to know whether
+such a papal excommunication was valid, whether it was to be feared, and
+whether they should consequently abstain from the performance of divine
+service. On all these points the University replied in the negative,
+unanimously and without hesitation. Had circumstances permitted the same
+independence in Germany, a little more progress in this direction would
+have rendered Luther superfluous.[155]
+
+It is not to be supposed, however, that the Inquisition, though fallen
+from its former dignity, had ceased to exist or to perform its
+functions after a fashion. It was to the interest of the popes to
+maintain it, and the position of inquisitor, though humble in comparison
+with that which his predecessors enjoyed, was yet a source of influence,
+and possibly of profit, which led to its being eagerly sought. In 1414
+we find two contestants for the post at Toulouse, and in 1424 an
+unseemly quarrel between two rivals at Carcassonne. The diocese of
+Geneva was also the subject of contention embittered by the traditional
+rivalry between the two Mendicant Orders. It will be remembered that in
+1290 this, with other French cantons, was included by Nicholas IV. in
+the inquisitorial province of Besancon, which was Dominican. Geneva
+belonged, however, ecclesiastically to the metropolis of Vienne, which
+was under the Franciscan Inquisition of Provence, and Gregory XI. so
+treated it in 1375. When Pons Feugeyron was commissioned, in 1409,
+Geneva was not mentioned in the enumeration of the dioceses under him;
+but when his commission was renewed by Martin V., in 1418, it was
+included, and he began to exercise his powers there. There at once arose
+the threat of a most scandalous quarrel between the combative Orders;
+the Dominicans appealed to Martin, and in 1419 he restored Geneva to
+them. Yet in 1434, when Eugenius IV. again confirmed Pons Feugeyron's
+commission, the name of Geneva once more slipped in. The Dominicans must
+again have successfully reclaimed it, for in 1472, when there was a
+sudden resumption of inquisitorial activity under Sixtus IV., in
+confirming Frere Jean Vaylette as Inquisitor of Provence, with the same
+powers as Pons Feugeyron, Geneva was omitted in the list of his
+jurisdictions, while the Dominicans, Victor Rufi and Claude Rufi, were
+appointed respectively at Geneva and Lausanne; and in 1491 another
+Dominican, Francois Granet, was commissioned at Geneva.[156]
+
+Yet the position thus eagerly sought had no legitimate means of support.
+In the terrible disorders of the times the royal stipends had been
+withdrawn. Alexander V., in 1409, instructed his legate, the Cardinal of
+S. Susanna, that some method must be devised of meeting the expenses of
+the inquisitor, his associate, his notary, and his servant. He suggests
+either levying three hundred gold florins on the Jews of Avignon; or
+that each bishop shall defray the cost as the inquisitor moves from one
+diocese to another; or that each bishop shall contribute ten florins
+annually out of the legacies for pious uses. Which device was adopted
+does not appear, but they all seem to have proved fruitless, for in 1418
+Martin V. wrote to the Archbishop of Narbonne that he must find some
+means of supplying the necessary expenses of the Inquisition. Under such
+circumstances the attraction of the office may, perhaps, be discerned
+from a petition, in this same year 1418, from the citizens of Avignon in
+favor of the Jews. The protection afforded by the Avignonese popes to
+this proscribed class had rendered the city a Jewish centre, and they
+were found of much utility; but they were constantly molested by the
+inquisitors, who instituted frivolous prosecutions against them,
+doubtless not without profit. Martin listened kindly to the appeal, and
+it proves the degradation of the Inquisition that he gave the Jews a
+right to appoint an assessor who should sit with the inquisitor in all
+cases in which they were concerned.[157]
+
+Still the Inquisition was not wholly without evidence of activity in its
+purposed sphere of duty. We shall see hereafter that Pierre d'Ailly,
+Bishop of Cambrai, when, in 1411, he prosecuted the Men of Intelligence,
+duly called in the inquisitor of the province, who was Dominican Prior
+of St. Quentin in Vermandois, to join in the sentence. In 1430 we hear
+of a number of heretics who had been burned at Lille by the
+deputy-inquisitor and the Bishop of Tournay; and in 1431 Philippe le Bon
+ordered his officials to execute all sentences pronounced by Brother
+Heinrich Kaleyser, who had been appointed Inquisitor of Cambrai and
+Lille by the Dominican Provincial of Germany--a manifest invasion of the
+rights of his colleague of Paris, doubtless due to the political
+complications of the times. This order of Philippe le Bon, however,
+shows that the example of supervision set by the Parlement was not lost
+on the feudatories, for the officials are only instructed to make
+arrests when there has been a proper preliminary inquest, with
+observance of all the forms of law. I shall have occasion hereafter to
+speak of the part played by the Inquisition in the tragedy of Joan of
+Arc, and need here only allude to the appointment, in 1431, by Eugenius
+IV., of Frere Jean Graveran to be Inquisitor of Rouen, where he was
+already exercising the functions of the office, and where he was
+succeeded in 1433 by Frere Sebastien l'Abbe, who had been papal
+penitentiary and chaplain--another evidence of the partition of France
+during the disastrous English war. People were growing more careless
+about excommunication than ever. About 1415, a number of ecclesiastics
+of Limoges were prosecuted by the inquisitor, Jean du Puy, as suspect of
+heresy for this cause; they appealed to the Council of Constance, and in
+1418 the matter was referred back to the archbishop. Still the
+indifference to excommunication grew, and in 1435 Eugenius IV.
+instructed the Inquisitor of Carcassonne to prosecute all who remained
+under the censure of the Church for several years without seeking
+absolution.[158]
+
+With the pacification of France and the final expulsion of the English,
+Nicholas V. seems to have thought the occasion opportune for reviving
+and establishing the Inquisition on a firmer and broader basis. A bull
+of August 1, 1451, to Hugues le Noir, Inquisitor of France, defines his
+jurisdiction as extending not only over the Kingdom of France, but also
+over the Duchy of Aquitaine and all Gascony and Languedoc. Thus, with
+the exception of the eastern provinces, the whole was consolidated into
+one district, with its principal seat probably in Toulouse. The
+jurisdiction of the inquisitor was likewise extended over all offences
+that had hitherto been considered doubtful--blasphemy, sacrilege,
+divination, even when not savoring of heresy, and unnatural crimes. He
+was further released from the necessity of episcopal co-operation, and
+was empowered to carry on all proceedings and render judgment without
+calling the bishops into consultation. Two centuries earlier these
+enormous powers would have rendered Hugues almost omnipotent, but now it
+was too late. The Inquisition had sunk beyond resuscitation. In 1458 the
+Franciscan Minister of Burgundy represented to Pius II. the deplorable
+condition of the institution in the extensive territories confided to
+his Order, comprising the great archiepiscopates of Lyons, Vienne,
+Arles, Aix, Embrun, and Tarantaise, and covering both sides of the
+Rhone and a considerable portion of Savoy. In the thirteenth century
+Clement IV. had placed this region under the control of the Burgundian
+Minister, but with the lapse of time his supervision had become nominal.
+Ambitious friars had obtained directly from the popes commissions to act
+as inquisitors in special districts, and therefore acknowledged no
+authority but their own. Others had assumed the office without
+appointment from any one. There was no power to correct their excesses;
+scandals were numerous, the people were oppressed, and the Order exposed
+to opprobrium. Pius hastened to put an end to these abuses by renewing
+the obsolete authority of the minister, with full power of removal, even
+of those who enjoyed papal commissions.[159]
+
+The Inquisition was thus reorganized, but its time had passed. To so low
+an ebb had it fallen that in this same year, 1458, Frere Berard Tremoux,
+Inquisitor of Lyons, who had aroused general hostility by the rigor with
+which he exercised his office, was thrown in prison through the efforts
+of the citizens, and it required the active interposition of Pius II.
+and his legate, Cardinal Alano, to effect his release. The venality and
+corruption of the papal curia, moreover, was so ineradicable that no
+reform was possible in anything subject to its control. But three years
+after Pius had placed the whole district under the Minister of Burgundy
+we find him renewing the old abuses by a special appointment of Brother
+Bartholomaeus of Eger as Inquisitor of Grenoble. That such commissions
+were sold, or conferred as a matter of favor, there can be no reasonable
+doubt, and the appointees were turned loose upon their districts to
+wring what miserable gains they could from the fears of the people. Only
+this can explain a form of appointment which became common as
+"inquisitor in the Kingdom of France," "without prejudice to other
+inquisitors authorized by us or by others"--a sort of letter-of-marque
+to cruise at large and make what the appointees could from the faithful.
+Similarly significant is the appointment of Frere Pierre Cordrat,
+confessor of Jean, Duke of Bourbon, in 1478, to be Inquisitor of
+Bourges, thus wholly disregarding the consolidation of the kingdom by
+Nicholas V. It is hardly necessary to extend the list further.
+Inquisitors were appointed by the popes in constant succession, either
+for the kingdom of France or for special districts, as though the
+institution were at the height of its power and activity. That something
+was to be gained by all this there can be no question, but there is
+little risk in assuming that the gainer was not religion.[160]
+
+Several cases occurring about this period are interesting as
+illustrations of the spread of the spirit of inquiry and independence,
+and of the subordinate position to which the Inquisition had sunk. In
+1459, at Lille, there was burned a heretic known as Alphonse of
+Portugal, who led an austere life as an anchorite and frequented the
+churches assiduously, but who declared that since Gregory the Great
+there had been no true pope, and consequently no valid administration of
+the sacraments. In the account which has reached us of his trial and
+execution there is no allusion to the intervention of the Holy Office.
+Still more significant is the case, in 1484, of Jean Laillier, a priest
+in Paris, a theological licentiate, and an applicant for the doctorate
+in theology. In his sermons he had been singularly free-spoken. He
+denied the validity of the rule of celibacy; he quoted Wickliff as a
+great doctor; he rejected the supremacy of Rome and the binding force of
+tradition and decretal; John XXII., he said, had had no power to condemn
+Jean de Poilly; so far from St. Francis occupying the vacant throne of
+Lucifer in heaven, he was rather with Lucifer in hell; since the time of
+Silvester the Holy See had been the church of avarice and of imperial
+power, where canonization could be obtained for money. So weak had
+become the traditional hold of the Church on the consciences of men that
+this revolutionary preaching seems to have aroused no opposition, even
+on the part of the Inquisition; but Laillier, not content with simple
+toleration, applied to the University for the doctorate, and was refused
+admission to the preliminary disputations unless he should purge
+himself, undergo penance, and obtain the assent of the Holy See.
+Laillier thereupon boldly applied to the Parlement, now by tacit assent
+clothed with supreme jurisdiction in ecclesiastical matters, asking it
+to compel the University to admit him. The Parlement entertained no
+doubts as to its own competence, but decided the case in a manner not
+looked for by the hardy priest. It ordered Louis, Bishop of Paris, in
+conjunction with the inquisitor and four doctors selected by the
+University, to prosecute Laillier to due punishment. The bishop and
+inquisitor agreed to proceed separately and communicate their processes
+to each other; but Laillier must have had powerful backers, for Bishop
+Louis, without conferring with his colleague or the experts, allowed
+Laillier to make a partial recantation and a public abjuration couched
+in the most free and easy terms, absolved him, June 23, 1486, pronounced
+him free from suspicion of heresy, restored him to his functions, and
+declared him capable of promotion to all grades and honors. Frere Jean
+Cossart, the inquisitor, who had been diligently collecting evidence of
+many scandalous doctrines of Laillier's and vainly communicating them to
+the bishop, was forced to swallow this affront in silence, but the
+University felt its honor engaged and was not inclined to submit.
+November 6, 1486, it issued a formal protest against the action of the
+bishop, appealed to the pope, and demanded "Apostoli." Innocent VIII.
+promptly came to the rescue. He annulled the decision of the bishop and
+ordered the inquisitor, in conjunction with the Archbishop of Sens and
+the Bishop of Meaux, to throw Laillier into prison, while they should
+investigate the unrecanted heresies and send the papers to Rome for
+decision. Very suggestive of the strong influences supporting Laillier
+is the pope's expression of fear lest the pressure brought to bear on
+the University should have forced it to admit him to the doctorate; if
+so, such action is pronounced void, and all engaged in the attempt are
+ordered to desist under pain of incurring suspicion of heresy. It is not
+a little singular that the Bishop of Meaux, who was thus selected to sit
+in judgment on Laillier, was at this very time under censure by the
+University for reviving the Donatist heresy of the insufficiency of the
+sacraments in polluted hands--the Eucharist of a fornicating priest was
+of no more account, he said, than the barking of a dog. Many an
+unfortunate Waldensian had been burned for less than this, but the
+inquisitor had not dared to hold him to account. Nor do we hear of his
+intervention in the case of Jean Langlois, priest of St. Crispin, who,
+when celebrating mass, June 3, 1491, horrified his flock by casting on
+the floor and trampling the consecrated wine and host. On his arrest he
+gave as his reason that the body and blood of Christ were not in the
+elements, and as he stubbornly refused to recant, he expiated his error
+at the stake. Similar was the fate of Aymon Picard, who, at the feast of
+St. Louis in the Sainte-Chapelle, August 25, 1503, snatched the host
+from the celebrant and cast it in pieces on the floor, and obstinately
+declined to abjure. All this was significant of the time coming when the
+Inquisition would be more necessary than ever.[161]
+
+The present degradation which it shared with the rest of the Church in
+the constantly growing supremacy of the State is manifested by a
+commission issued in 1485, by Frere Antoine de Clede, appointing a vicar
+to act for him in Rodez and Vabres. In this document he styles himself
+Inquisitor of France, Aquitaine, Gascony, and Languedoc, deputed by the
+Holy See and the Parlement. The two bodies are thus equal sources of
+authority, and the appointment by the pope would have been insufficient
+without the confirmation by the royal court. How contemptible, indeed,
+the Inquisition had become, even in the eyes of ecclesiastics, is
+brought instructively before us in a petty quarrel between the
+Inquisitor Raymond Gozin and his Dominican brethren. When he succeeded
+Frere Gaillard de la Roche, somewhere about 1516, he found that the
+house of the Inquisition at Toulouse had been stripped of its furniture
+and utensils by the friars of the Dominican convent. He made a
+reclamation, and some of the articles were restored; but the friars
+subsequently demanded them back, and on his refusal procured from the
+General Master instructions to the vicar, under which the latter
+proceeded to extremities with him, wholly disregarding his appeal to the
+pope, though he finally, in 1520, succeeded in obtaining the
+intervention of Leo X. Imagination could scarcely furnish a more
+convincing proof of decadence than this exhibition of the successor of
+Bernard de Caux and Bernard Gui vainly endeavoring to defend his kitchen
+gear from the rapacious hands of his brethren.[162]
+
+It is quite probable that this dispute was envenomed by the inevitable
+jealousy between the main body of the Order and its puritan section
+known as the Reformed Congregation. Of this latter Raymond Gozin was
+vicar-general, and his anxiety to regain his furnishings was probably
+due to the fact that he was altering the house of the Inquisition so as
+to accommodate within it a Reformed convent. The vast buildings which it
+had required in the plenitude of its power had become a world too wide
+for its shrunken needs. The original home of the Dominican Order, before
+the removal in 1230 through the liberality of Pons de Capdenier, it
+contained a church with three altars, a refectory, cells (or prison),
+chambers, guest-rooms, cloisters, and two gardens. In approving of the
+proposed alterations, Leo X. stipulated that some kind of retiring-room
+with convenient offices must still be reserved for the use of the
+Inquisition. This epitomizes the history of the institution. Yet it had
+by no means wholly lost its power of evil, for in 1521 Johann Bomm,
+Dominican Prior of Poligny, and inquisitor at Besancon had the
+satisfaction of despatching two lycanthropists, or wer-wolves.[163]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The career of the Waldenses forms so interesting and well-defined an
+episode in the history of persecution that I have hitherto omitted all
+reference to that sect, in order to present a brief, continuous outline
+of its relations with the Inquisition, which found in it, after the
+disappearance of the Cathari, the only really important field of labor
+in France.
+
+Although by no means as numerous or as powerful in Languedoc as the
+Cathari, the Waldenses formed an important heretical element. They were,
+however, mostly confined to the humbler classes, and we hear of few
+nobles belonging to the sect. In the sentences of Pierre Cella, rendered
+in Querci in 1241 and 1242, we have abundant testimony as to their
+numbers and activity. Thus, references occur to them--
+
+    At Gourdon in      55 cases out of 219
+    At Montcucq in     44   "    "  "   84
+    At Sauveterre in    1 case   "  "    5
+    At Belcayre in      3 cases out of   7
+    At Montauban in   175   "   "  "  252
+    At Moissac in       1 case  "  "  94
+    At Montpezat in    no   "   "  "   22
+    At Montaut in      no   "   "  "   23
+    At Castelnau in     1   "   "  "   11
+
+and although many of these are mere allusions to having seen them or had
+dealings with them, the comparative frequency of the reference indicates
+the places where their heresy was most flourishing. Thus, Montauban was
+evidently its headquarters in the district, and at Gourdon and Montcucq
+there were vigorous colonies.
+
+They had a regular organization--schools for the young where their
+doctrines were doubtless implanted in the children of orthodox parents;
+cemeteries where their dead were buried; missionaries who traversed the
+land diligently to spread the faith, and who customarily refused all
+alms, save hospitality. A certain Pierre des Vaux is frequently referred
+to as one of the most active and most beloved of these, regarded,
+according to one of his disciples, as an angel of light. Public
+preaching in the streets was constant, and numerous allusions are made
+to disputations held between the Waldensian ministers and the Catharan
+perfects. Still, the utmost good feeling existed between the two
+persecuted sects. Men were found who confessed to believing in the
+Waldenses and to performing acts of adoration to the Cathari--in the
+common enmity to Rome any faith which was not orthodox was regarded as
+good. The reputation of the Waldenses as skilful leeches was a powerful
+aid in their missionary labors. They were constantly consulted in cases
+of disease or injury, and almost without exception they refused payment
+for their ministrations, save food. One woman confessed to giving forty
+sols to a Catharan for medical services, while to Waldenses she gave
+only wine and bread. We learn also that they heard confessions and
+imposed penance; that they celebrated a sacramental supper in which
+bread and fish were blessed and partaken of, and that bread which they
+consecrated with the sign of the cross was regarded as holy by their
+disciples. Notwithstanding the strength and organization of the sect,
+the Waldenses were evidently looked upon by Pierre Cella with a less
+unfavorable eye than the Cathari, and the penances imposed on them were
+habitually lighter.[164]
+
+From Lyons the Waldensian belief had spread to the North and East, as
+well as to the South and West. It is a curious fact that while the
+Cathari never succeeded in establishing themselves to any extent beyond
+the Romance territories, the Waldenses were already, in 1192, so
+numerous in Lorraine that Eudes, Bishop of Toul, in ordering them to be
+captured and brought to him in chains for judgment, not only promises
+remission of sins as a reward, but feels obliged to add that if, for
+rendering this service, the faithful are driven away from their homes,
+he will find them in food and clothing. In Franche Comte, John, Count of
+Burgundy, bears emphatic testimony to their numbers in 1248, when he
+solicited of Innocent IV. the introduction of the Inquisition in his
+dominions, and its discontinuance in 1257 doubtless left them to
+multiply in peace. In 1251 we find the Archbishop of Narbonne condemning
+some female Waldenses to perpetual imprisonment. It was, however, in the
+mountains of Auvergne and the Alpine and sub-Alpine regions stretching
+between Geneva and the Mediterranean that they found the surest refuge.
+While Pierre Cella was penancing those of Querci, the Archbishop of
+Embrun was busy with their brethren of Freyssinieres, Argentiere, and
+Val-Pute, which so long continued to be their strongholds. In 1251, when
+Alphonse and Jeanne, on their accession, guaranteed at Beaucaire the
+liberties of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin, the Bishop-legate Zoen
+earnestly urged them to destroy the Waldenses there. There were ample
+laws on the municipal statute-books of Avignon and Arles for the
+extermination of "heretics and Waldenses," but the local magistracy
+was slack in their enforcement and was obliged to swear to extirpate the
+sectaries. The Waldenses were mostly simple mountain folk, with
+possessions that offered no temptation for confiscation, and persecuting
+energy was more profitable and more usefully directed against the richer
+Cathari. We hear, indeed, that from 1271 to 1274 the zeal of Guillaume
+de Cobardon, Seneschal of Carcassonne, urged the inquisitors to active
+work against the Waldenses, resulting in numerous convictions, but among
+the far more populous communities near the Rhone the Inquisition was not
+introduced into the Comtat Venaissin until 1288, nor into Dauphine until
+1292, and in both cases we are told that it was caused by the alarming
+spread of heresy. In 1288 the same increase is alluded to in the
+provinces of Arles, Aix, and Embrun, when Nicholas IV. sent to the
+nobles and magistrates there the laws of Frederic II., with orders for
+their enforcement, and to the inquisitors a code of instructions for
+procedure.[165]
+
+About the same period there is a curious case of a priest named Jean
+Philibert, who was sent from Burgundy into Gascony to track a fugitive
+Waldensian. He followed his quarry as far as Ausch, where he found a
+numerous community of the sectaries, holding regular assemblies and
+preaching and performing their rites, although they attended the parish
+churches to avert suspicion. Their evangelical piety so won upon him
+that, after going home, he returned to Ausch and formally joined them.
+He wandered back to Burgundy, where he fell under suspicion, and in 1298
+he was brought before Gui de Reims, the Inquisitor of Besancon, when he
+refused to take an oath and was consigned to prison. Here he abjured,
+and on being liberated returned to the Waldenses of Gascony, was again
+arrested, and brought before Bernard Gui in 1311, who finally burned him
+in 1319 as a relapsed. In 1302 we hear of two Waldensian ministers
+haunting the region near Castres, in the Albigeois, wandering around by
+night and zealously propagating their doctrines. Still, in spite of
+these evidences of activity, little effort at repression is visible at
+this period. The Inquisition was crippled for a while by its contest
+with Philippe le Bel and Clement V., and when it resumed unrestricted
+operations, Pierre Autier and his Catharan disciples absorbed its
+energies. Although the sentences of Bernard Gui at Toulouse commence in
+1308, it is not until the _auto de fe_ of 1316 that any Waldenses appear
+among its victims, when one was condemned to perpetual imprisonment and
+one was burned as an unrepentant heretic. The _auto_ of 1319 appears to
+have been a jail-delivery, for poor wretches appear in it whose
+confessions date back to 1309, 1311, 1312, and 1315. On this occasion
+eighteen Waldenses were condemned to pilgrimages with or without
+crosses, twenty-six to perpetual prison, and three were burned. In the
+_auto_ of 1321 a man and his wife who obstinately refused to abjure were
+burned. In that of 1322 eight were sentenced to pilgrimages, of whom
+five had crosses, two to prison, six dead bodies were exhumed and
+burned, and there is an allusion to the brother of one of the prisoners
+who had been burned at Avignon. This comprises the whole work of Bernard
+Gui from 1308 to 1323, and does not indicate any very active
+persecution. It is perhaps noteworthy that all of those punished in 1319
+were from Ausch, while the popular name of "Burgundians," by which the
+Waldenses were known, indicates that the headquarters of the sect were
+still in Franche Comte. In fact, an allusion to a certain Jean de
+Lorraine as a successful missionary indicates that region as busy in
+proselyting efforts, and there are not wanting facts to prove that the
+Inquisition of Besancon was active during this period. In the _auto_ of
+1322 many of the sufferers were refugees from Burgundy, and we learn
+that they had a provincial named Girard, showing that the Waldensian
+Church of that region had a regular organization and hierarchy.[166]
+
+In his "_Practica_" Bernard Gui gives a clear and detailed statement
+of the Waldensian belief as it existed at this time, the chief points of
+which may be worth enumerating as affording us a definite view of the
+development of the faith in its original seat after a century and a half
+of persecution. There was no longer any self-deceit as to connection
+with the Roman Church. Persecution had done its work, and the Waldenses
+were permanently severed. Theirs was the true Church, and that of the
+pope was but a house of lies, whose excommunication was not to be
+regarded, and whose decrees were not to be obeyed. They had a complete
+organization, consisting of bishops, priests, and deacons, and they held
+in some large city one or two general chapters every year, in which
+orders were conferred and measures for mission work were perfected. The
+Waldensian orders, however, did not confer exclusive supernatural power.
+Although they still believed in transubstantiation, the making of the
+body and blood of Christ depended on the purity of the ministrant; a
+sinner was impotent to effect it, while it could be done by any
+righteous man or woman. It was the same with absolution: they held the
+power of the keys direct from Christ, and heard confessions and imposed
+penance. Their antisacerdotalism was strongly expressed in the
+simplification of their faith. There was no purgatory, and consequently
+masses for the dead or the invocation of the suffrages of the saints
+were of no avail; the saints, in fact, neither heard nor helped man, and
+the miracles performed in their name in the churches were fictitious.
+The fasts and feasts prescribed in the calendar were not to be observed,
+and the indulgences so lavishly sold were useless. As of old, oaths and
+homicide were forbidden. Yet enough of the traditional ascetic
+tendencies were preserved to lead to the existence of a monastic
+fraternity whose members divested themselves of all individual property,
+and promised chastity, with obedience to a superior. Bernard Gui refers,
+with a brevity which shows how little importance he attached to them, to
+stories about sexual abominations performed in nocturnal assemblies, and
+he indicates the growth of popular superstition by a brief allusion to a
+dog which appears in these gatherings and sprinkles the sectaries with
+his tail.[167]
+
+The non-resistance doctrines of the Waldenses rendered them, as a rule,
+a comparatively easy prey, but human nature sometimes asserted itself,
+and a sharp persecution carried on at this period by Frere Jacques
+Bernard, Inquisitor of Provence, provoked a bloody reprisal. In 1321 he
+sent two deputies--Freres Catalan Fabri and Pierre Paschal--to the
+diocese of Valence to make inquisition there. Former raids had left the
+people in an angry mood. Multitudes had been subjected to the
+humiliation of crosses, and these and their friends vowed revenge on the
+appearance of the new persecutors. A plot was rapidly formed to
+assassinate the inquisitors at a village where they were to pass the
+night. For some reason, however, they changed their plans, and passed on
+to the Priory of Montoison. The conspirators followed them, broke down
+the doors, and slew them. Strangely enough, the Prior of Montoison was
+accused of complicity in the murder, and was arrested when the murderers
+were seized. The bodies of the martyrs were solemnly buried in the
+Franciscan convent at Valence, where they soon began to manifest their
+sanctity in miracles, and they would have been canonized by John XXII.
+had not the quarrel which soon afterwards sprang up between him and the
+Franciscans rendered it impolitic for him to increase the number of
+Franciscan saints.[168]
+
+A few Waldenses appear in the prosecutions of Henri de Chamay of
+Carcassonne in 1328 and 1329, and, from the occasional notices which
+have reached us in the succeeding years, we may conclude that
+persecution, more or less fitful, never wholly ceased; while, in spite
+of this, the heresy kept constantly growing. After the disappearance of
+Catharism, indeed, it was the only refuge for ordinary humanity when
+dissatisfied with Rome. The Begghards were mystics whose speculations
+were attractive only to a certain order of minds. The Spirituals and
+Fraticelli were Franciscan ascetics. The Waldenses sought only to
+restore Christianity to its simplicity; their doctrines could be
+understood by the poor and illiterate, groaning under the burdens of
+sacerdotalism, and they found constantly wider acceptance among the
+people, in spite of all the efforts put forth by the waning power of the
+Inquisition. Benedict XII., in 1335, summoned Humbert II., Dauphin of
+Viennois, and Adhemar of Poitou to assist the inquisitors. Humbert
+obeyed, and from 1336 to 1346 there were expeditions sent against them
+which drove them from their homes and captured some of them. Of these a
+portion abjured and the rest were burned; their possessions were
+confiscated and the bones of the dead exhumed. The secular and
+ecclesiastical officials of Embrun joined in these efforts, but they
+had no permanent result. In Languedoc Frere Jean Dumoulin, Inquisitor of
+Toulouse, in 1344 attacked them vigorously, but only succeeded in
+scattering them throughout Bearn, Foix, and Aragon. In 1348 Clement VI.
+again urged Humbert, who responded with strict orders to his officers to
+aid the ecclesiastical authorities with what force might be necessary,
+and this time we hear of twelve Waldenses brought to Embrun, and burned
+on the square in front of the cathedral. When Dauphine became a
+possession of the crown the royal officials were equally ready to
+assist. Letters of October 20, 1351, from the governor, order the
+authorities of Briancon to give the inquisitor armed support in his
+operations against the heretics of the Brianconnais, but this seems to
+have been ineffective; and the next year Clement VI. appealed to the
+Dauphin Charles, and to Louis and Joanna of Naples, to aid Frere Pierre
+Dumont, the Inquisitor of Provence, and summoned prelates and
+magistrates to co-operate in the good work. The only recorded result of
+this was the penancing of seven Waldenses by Dumont in 1353. More
+successful were the Christian labors of Guillaume de Bordes, Archbishop
+of Embrun from 1352 to 1363, surnamed the Apostle of the Waldenses, who
+tried the unusual expedient of kindness and persuasion. He personally
+visited the mountain valleys, and had the satisfaction of winning over a
+number of the heretics. With his death his methods were abandoned, and
+Urban V., from 1363 to 1365, was earnest in calling upon the civil power
+and in stimulating the zeal of the Provencal inquisitors, Freres Hugues
+Cardilion and Jean Richard. The celebrated inquisitor Francois Borel now
+appears upon the scene. Armed expeditions were sent into the mountains
+which had considerable success. Many of the heretics were obstinate and
+were burned, while others saved their lives by abjuration. Their pitiful
+little properties were confiscated; one had a cow, another two cows and
+clothes of white cloth. In the purse of another, more wealthy, were
+found two florins--a booty which scarce proved profitable, for the wood
+to burn him and a comrade cost sixty-two sols and six deniers. One woman
+named Juven who was burned possessed a vineyard. The vintage was
+gathered and the must stored in her cabin, when the wrathful neighbors
+fired it at night and destroyed the product.[169]
+
+All this was of no avail. When Gregory XI. ascended the pontifical
+throne, in 1370, his attention was early directed to the deplorable
+condition of the Church in Provence, Dauphine, and the Lyonnais. The
+whole region was full of Waldenses, and many nobles were now beginning
+to embrace the heresy. The prelates were powerless or negligent, and the
+Inquisition ineffective. He set to work vigorously, appointing
+inquisitors and stimulating their zeal, but the whole system by this
+time was so discredited that his labors were ineffectual. The royal
+officials, so far from aiding the inquisitors, had no scruple in
+impeding them. Unsafe places were assigned to them in which to conduct
+their operations; they were forced to permit secular judges to act as
+assessors with them; their proceedings were submitted for revision to
+the secular courts, and even their prisoners were set at liberty without
+consulting them. The secular officials refused to take oaths to purge
+the land of heresy, and openly protected heretics, especially nobles,
+when prosecutions were commenced against them.[170]
+
+Gregory duly complained of this to Charles le Sage in 1373, but to
+little purpose at first. The evil continued unabated, and in 1375 he
+returned to the charge still more vigorously. No stone was left
+unturned. Not only was the king requested to send a special deputy to
+the infected district, but the pope wrote directly to the royal
+lieutenant, Charles de Banville, reproaching him for his protection of
+heretics, and threatening him if he did not mend his ways. Certain
+nobles who had become conspicuous as favorers of heresy were
+significantly reminded of the fate of Raymond of Toulouse; the prelates
+were scolded and stimulated; Amedeo of Savoy was summoned to assist, and
+the Tarantaise was added to the district of Provence that nothing might
+interfere with the projected campaign. As the spread of heresy was
+attributable to the lack of preachers, and to the neglect of prelates
+and clergy in instructing their flocks, the inquisitor was empowered to
+call in the services of Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and
+Augustinians, to spread over the land and teach the people the truths of
+religion. These multiplied efforts at length began to tell. Charles
+issued orders to enforce the laws against heresy, and when Gregory sent
+a special Apostolic Internuncio, Antonio, Bishop of Massa, to direct
+operations, persecution began in earnest. Frere Francois Borel, the
+Inquisitor of Provence, had long been struggling against the
+indifference of the prelates and the hostility of the secular power. Now
+that he was sure of efficient seconding be was like a hound slipped from
+the leash. His forays against the miserable populations of
+Freyssinieres, l'Argentiere, and Val-Pute (or Val-Louise) have conferred
+on him a sinister reputation, unredeemed by the efficient aid which he
+contributed to regaining the liberties of his native town of Gap.[171]
+
+The immediate success which rewarded these efforts was so overwhelming
+as to bring new cause for solicitude. The Bishop of Massa's mission
+commenced early in May, 1375, and already, by June 17, Gregory is
+concerned about the housing and support of the crowds of wretches who
+had been captured. In spite of numerous burnings of those who proved
+obstinate, the prisons of the land were insufficient for the detention
+of the captives, and Gregory at once ordered new and strong ones to be
+built in Embrun, Avignon, and Vienne. To solve the financial
+complications which immediately arose, the bishops, whose negligence was
+accountable for the growth of heresy, were summoned within three months
+to furnish four thousand gold florins to build the prisons, and eight
+hundred florins per annum for five years for the support of the
+prisoners. This they were allowed to take from the legacies for pious
+uses, and the restitutions of wrongly-acquired funds, with a threat, if
+they should demur, that they should be deprived of these sources of
+income and be excommunicated besides. The bishops, however, were no more
+amenable to such arguments than those of Languedoc had been in 1245,
+and, after the three months had passed, Gregory answers, October 5, the
+anxious inquiry of the Bishop of Massa as to how he shall feed his
+prisoners, by telling him that it is the business of every bishop to
+support those of his diocese, and that any one who refuses to do so is
+to be coerced with excommunication and the secular arm. This was a mere
+_brutum fulmen_, and in 1376 he endeavored to secure a share in the
+confiscations, but King Charles refused to divide them, though in 1378
+he at last agreed to give the inquisitors a yearly stipend for their own
+support, similar to that paid to their brethren at Toulouse.[172]
+
+All other devices being exhausted, Gregory at last had recourse to the
+unfailing resource of the curia--an indulgence. There is something so
+appallingly grotesque in tearing honest, industrious folk from their
+homes by the thousand, in thrusting them into dungeons to rot and
+starve, and then evading the cost of feeding them by presenting them to
+the faithful as objects of charity, that the proclamation which Gregory
+issued August 15, 1370, is perhaps the most shameless monument of a
+shameless age--
+
+     "To all the faithful in Christ: As the help of prisoners is
+     counted among pious works, it befits the piety of the faithful to
+     mercifully assist the incarcerated of all kinds who suffer from
+     poverty. As we learn that our beloved son, the Inquisitor Francois
+     Borelli, has imprisoned for safe-keeping or punishment many
+     heretics and those defamed for heresy, who in consequence of their
+     poverty cannot be sustained in prison unless the pious liberality
+     of the faithful shall assist them as a work of charity; and as we
+     wish that these prisoners shall not starve, but shall have time for
+     repentance in the said prisons; now, in order that the faithful in
+     Christ may through devotion lend a helping hand, we admonish, ask,
+     and exhort you all, enjoining it on you in remission of your sins,
+     that from the goods which God has given you, you bestow pious alms
+     and grateful charity for the food of these prisoners, so that they
+     may be sustained by your help, and you, through this and other good
+     works inspired by God, may attain eternal blessedness!"[173]
+
+Imagination refuses to picture the horrors of the economically
+constructed jails where these unfortunates were crowded to wear out
+their dreary lives, while their jailers vainly begged for the miserable
+pittance that should prolong their agonies. Yet so far was Gregory from
+being satisfied with victims in number far beyond his ability to keep,
+that, December 28, 1375, he bitterly scolded the officials of Dauphine
+for the negligent manner in which they obeyed the king's commands to aid
+the inquisitors--a complaint which he reiterated May 18, 1376. From some
+expressions in these letters it is permissible to assume that this whole
+inhuman business had shocked even the dull sensibilities of that age of
+violence. Yet in spite of all that had been accomplished the heretics
+remained obstinate, and in 1377 Gregory indignantly chronicles their
+increase, while reproaching the inquisitors with their slackness in
+performing the duties for which they had been appointed.[174]
+
+What effect on the future of the Waldenses a continuance of Gregory's
+remorseless energy would have wrought can only be matter of conjecture.
+He died March 27, 1378, and the Great Schism which speedily followed
+gave the heretics some relief, during which they continued to increase,
+although in 1380 Clement VII. renewed the commission of Borel, whose
+activity was unabated until 1393, and his victims were numbered by the
+hundred. A good many conversions rewarded his labors, and the converts
+were allowed to retain their property on payment of a certain sum of
+money, as shown by a list made out in 1385. In 1393 he is said to have
+burned a hundred and fifty at Grenoble in a single day. San Vicente
+Ferrer was a missionary of a different stamp, and his self-devoted
+labors for several years in the Waldensian valleys won over numerous
+converts. His memory is still cherished there, and the village of
+Puy-Saint-Vincent, with a chapel dedicated to him, shows that his kindly
+ministrations were not altogether lost.[175]
+
+The Waldenses by this time were substantially the only heretics with
+whom the Church had to deal outside of Germany. The French version of
+the _Schwabenspiegel_, or South German municipal code, made for the
+Romande speaking provinces of the empire, is assignable to the closing
+years of the century, and it attests the predominance of Waldensianism
+in its chapter on heresy, by translating the _Kaeezer_ (Catharus) of the
+original by _vaudois_. Even "Leschandus" (Childeric III.) is said to
+have been dethroned by Pope Zachary because he was a protector of
+vaudois. That at this period the Inquisition had become inoperative in
+those regions where it had once been so busy is proved by the episcopal
+tribunals being alone referred to as having cognizance of such
+cases--the heretic is to be accused to his bishop, who is to have him
+examined by experts.[176]
+
+How completely the Waldenses dropped out of sight in the struggles of
+the Great Schism is seen in a bull of Alexander V., in 1409, to Frere
+Pons Feugeyron, whose enormous district extended from Marseilles to
+Lyons and from Beaucaire to the Val d'Aosta. This comprehended the whole
+district which Francois Borel and Vicente Ferrer found swarming with
+heretics. The inquisitor is urged to use his utmost endeavors against
+the schismatic followers of Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., against the
+increasing numbers of sorcerers, against apostate Jews and the Talmud,
+but not a word is said about Waldenses. They seem to have been
+completely forgotten.[177]
+
+After the Church had reorganized itself at the Council of Constance it
+had leisure to look after the interests of the faith, although its
+energies were mostly monopolized by the Hussite troubles. In 1417 we
+hear of Catharine Sauve, an anchorite, burned at Montpellier for
+Waldensian doctrines by the deputy-inquisitor, Frere Raymond Cabasse,
+assisted by the Bishop of Maguelonne. The absence of persecution had by
+no means been caused by a diminution in the number of heretics. In 1432
+the Council of Bourges complained that the Waldenses of Dauphine had
+taxed themselves to send money to the Hussites, whom they recognized as
+brethren; and there were plenty of them to be found by any one who took
+the trouble to look after them. On August 23, of this same year, we have
+a letter from Frere Pierre Fabri, Inquisitor of Embrun, to the Council
+of Basle, excusing himself for not immediately obeying a summons to
+attend it on the ground of his indescribable poverty, and of his
+preoccupations in persecuting the Waldenses. In spite of the great
+executions which he had already made, he describes them as flourishing
+as numerously as ever in the valleys of Freyssinieres, Argentiere, and
+Pute, which had been almost depopulated by the ferocious raids of
+Francois Borel. He now has in his dungeons of Embrun and Briancon six
+relapsed heretics, who have revealed to him the names of more than five
+hundred others whom he is about to seize, and whose trials will be a
+work of time, but as soon as he can absent himself without prejudice to
+the faith his first duty will be to attend the council. Evidently the
+harvest was abundant and the reapers were few.[178]
+
+In 1441 the Inquisitor of Provence, Jean Voyle, made some effort at
+persecution, but apparently with little result, and the Waldensian
+churches seem to have enjoyed a long respite, for the terrible episode
+of the so-called Vaudois of Arras, in 1460, as we shall see hereafter,
+was merely a delirium of witchcraft. In France, so completely had the
+Waldenses monopolized the field of misbelief in the public mind that
+sorcery became popularly known as _vauderie_ and witches as _vaudoises_.
+Accordingly, when, in 1465, at Lille, five "Poor Men of Lyons" were
+tried, and four of them recanted and one was burned, it was necessary to
+find some other name for them, and they were designated as
+Turelupins.[179]
+
+It is not until 1475 that we find the inquisitors again at work in their
+old hunting-ground among the valleys around the headwaters of the
+Durance. The Waldenses had quietly multiplied again. They held their
+conventicles undisturbed, they dared openly to preach their abhorred
+faith, and their missionary zeal was rewarded with abundant conversions.
+Worse than all, when the bishops and inquisitors sought to repress them
+in the accustomed manner, they appealed to the royal court, which was so
+untrue to its duty that it granted them letters of protection and they
+waxed more insolent than ever. In vain Sixtus IV. sent special
+commissions armed with full powers to put an end to this disgraceful
+state of things. Men at this time in France recked little of papal
+authority, and the commissioners found themselves scorned. Sixtus,
+therefore, July 1, 1475, addressed an earnest remonstrance to Louis XI.
+The king was surely ignorant of the acts of his representatives; he
+would hasten to disavow them and lend the whole power of the State, as
+of old, to the support of the Inquisition.[180]
+
+The correspondence which ensued would doubtless be interesting reading
+if it were accessible. Its purport, however, can readily be discerned in
+the Ordonnance of May 18, 1478, which marks in the most emphatic manner
+the supremacy which the State had obtained over the Church. The king
+assumed that his subjects of Dauphine were all good Catholics. In a
+studied tone of contemptuous insolence he alludes to the old Mendicants
+(_vieux mendiens_) styling themselves inquisitors, who vex the faithful
+with accusations of heresy and harass them with prosecutions in the
+royal and ecclesiastical courts for purposes of extortion or to secure
+the confiscation of their property. He therefore forbids his officers to
+aid in making such confiscations, decrees that the heirs shall be
+reinstated in all cases that have occurred, and in order to put a stop
+to the frauds and abuses of the inquisitors he strictly enjoins that for
+the future they shall not be permitted to prosecute the inhabitants in
+any manner.[181]
+
+Such was the outcome of the efforts which, for two hundred and fifty
+years, the Church had unremittingly made to obtain despotic control over
+the human mind. For far less than such defiance it had destroyed Raymond
+of Toulouse and the civilization of Languedoc. It had built up the
+monarchy with the spoils of heresy, and now the monarchy cuffed it and
+bade it bury its Inquisition out of the sight of decent men. This put an
+end for a time to the labors of the Inquisition against the Waldenses of
+Dauphine, but the troubles of the latter were by no means over. The
+death of Louis, in 1483, deprived them of their protector, and the
+Italian policy of Charles VIII. rendered him less indifferent to the
+wishes of the Holy See. At the request of the Archbishop of Embrun,
+Innocent VIII. ordered the persecutions renewed. The Franciscan
+Inquisitor, Jean Veyleti, whose excesses had caused the appeal to the
+throne in 1475, was soon again at work, and had the satisfaction of
+burning both consuls of Freyssinieres. Though the Waldenses had
+represented themselves to Louis XI. as faithful Catholics, the ancient
+errors were readily brought to light by the efficient means of torture.
+Though they believed in transubstantiation, they denied that it could be
+effected by sinful priests. Their _barbes_, or pastors, were ordained,
+and administered absolution after confession, but the pope, the bishops,
+and the priests had lost that power. They denied the existence of
+purgatory, the utility of prayers for the dead, the intercession of
+saints, the power of the Virgin, and the obligation of keeping any
+feast-days save Sunday. Wearied with their stubbornness, the archbishop,
+in June and July, 1486, summoned them either to leave the country or to
+come forward and submit, and as they did neither he excommunicated them.
+This was equally ineffective, and he appealed again to Innocent VIII.,
+who resolved to end the heresy with a decisive blow. Accordingly, in
+1488, a crusade on a large scale was organized in both Dauphine and
+Savoy. The papal commissioner, Alberto de' Capitanei, obtained the
+assistance of the Parlement of Grenoble, and a force was raised under
+the command of Hugues de La Palu, Comte de Vanax, to attack them on
+every side. The attack was delayed by legal formalities, during which
+they were urged to submission, but refused, saying that their faith was
+pure and that they would die rather than abandon it. At length, in
+March, 1489, the crusaders advanced. The valley of Pragelato was the
+first assailed, and, after a few days, was reduced to the alternative of
+death or abjuration, when fifteen obstinate heretics were burned. In Val
+Cluson and Freyssinieres the resistance was more stubborn and there was
+considerable carnage, which so frightened the inhabitants of Argentiere
+that they submitted peaceably. In Val Louise the people took refuge in
+the cavern of Aigue Fraide, which they imagined inaccessible, but La
+Palu succeeded in reaching it, and built fires in the mouth, suffocating
+the unhappy refugees. This, and the confiscations which followed,
+divided between Charles VIII. and the Archbishop of Embrun, gave a fatal
+blow to Waldensianism in the valleys. To prevent its resuscitation the
+legate left behind him Francois Ploireri as Inquisitor of Provence, who
+continued to harass the people with citations and pronounced
+condemnations for contumacy, burning an occasional _barbe_ and
+confiscating the property of relapsed and hardened heretics.[182]
+
+With a new king, in the person of Louis XII., there came a new phase in
+the affairs of the Waldenses. A conference was held in Paris before the
+royal chancellor, where envoys from Freyssinieres met Rostain, the new
+Archbishop of Embrun, and deputies of the Parlement of Grenoble. It was
+resolved to send to the spot papal and royal commissioners, with power
+to determine the status of the so-called heretics. They went to
+Freyssinieres and examined witnesses, who satisfied them that the
+population were good Catholics, in spite of the urgent assertions of the
+archbishop that they were notorious heretics. All the excommunications
+were removed, which put an end to the prosecutions. On October 12, 1502,
+Louis XII. confirmed the decision, and Alexander VI., to whose son,
+Caesar Borgia, Louis had given the Duchy of Valentinois, embracing the
+territory in question, was not disposed to run counter to the royal
+wishes. The Waldenses were, however, unable to loosen the grip of the
+Archbishop of Embrun on the property which he had confiscated, in spite
+of positive orders for its restoration from the king, but at least they
+were allowed, under the guise of Catholicism, to worship God after their
+own fashion, until the crowding pressure of the Reformation forced them
+to a merger with the Calvinists. In the Brianconnais, in spite of
+occasional burnings, heresy continued to spread until, in 1514, Antoine
+d'Estaing, Bishop of Angouleme, was sent thither, when the measures he
+adopted, vigorously enforced by the secular authorities, put an end to
+it in a few years.[183]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SPANISH PENINSULA.
+
+
+The kingdom of Aragon, stretching across both sides of the Pyrenees,
+with a population kindred in blood and speech to that of Mediterranean
+France, was particularly liable to inroads of heresy from the latter.
+The Counts of Barcelona had been Carlovingian vassals, and even owned a
+shadowy allegiance to the first Capetians. We have seen how ready were
+Pedro II. and his successors to aid in resisting Frankish encroachments,
+even at the cost of encouraging heresy, and it was inevitable that
+schismatic missions should be established in populous centres such as
+Barcelona, and that heretics, when hard-pressed, should seek refuge in
+the mountains of Cerdana and Urgel. In spite of this, however, heresy
+never obtained to the west of the Pyrenees the foothold which it enjoyed
+to the east. Its manifestations there were only spasmodic, and were
+suppressed with effort comparatively slender.
+
+It is somewhat remarkable that we hear nothing specifically of the
+Cathari in Aragon proper. Matthew Paris, indeed, tells a wild tale of
+how, in 1234, they were so numerous in the parts of Spain that they
+decreed the abrogation of Christianity, and raised a large army with
+which they burned churches and spared neither age nor sex, until Gregory
+IX. ordered a crusade against them throughout western Europe, when in a
+stricken field they were all cut off to a man; but this may safely be
+set down to the imagination of some pilgrim returning from Compostella
+and desiring to repay a night's hospitality at St. Alban's. In the
+enumeration of Rainerio Saccone, about 1250, there is no mention of any
+Catharan organization west of the Pyrenees. That many Cathari existed in
+Aragon there can be no doubt, but they are never described as such, and
+the only heretics of whom we hear by name are _los encabats_--the
+Insabbatati or Waldenses. It will be remembered that it was against
+these that the savage edicts of Alonso II. and Pedro II. were directed,
+towards the close of the twelfth century.[184]
+
+After this, for a while, persecution seems to have slept. The sympathies
+and ambition of King Pedro were enlisted with Raymond of Toulouse, and
+after his fall at Muret, during the minority of Jayme I., the Aragonese
+probably awaited the results of the Albigensian war with feelings
+enlisted in favor of their race rather than of orthodoxy. As it drew to
+a close, however, Don Jayme, in 1226, issued an edict prohibiting all
+heretics from entering his kingdom, doubtless moved thereunto by the
+numbers who sought escape from the crusade of Louis VIII., and he
+followed this, in 1228, with another, depriving heretics, with their
+receivers, fautors, and defenders, of the public peace. The next step,
+we are told by the chroniclers of the Inquisition, was taken in
+consequence of the urgency of Raymond of Pennaforte, the Dominican
+confessor of the young king, who prevailed on him to obtain from Gregory
+IX. inquisitors to purge his land. This is based on the bull
+_Declinante_, addressed, May 26, 1232, to Esparrago, Archbishop of
+Tarragona, and his suffragans, instructing them to make inquest in their
+dioceses after heretics, either personally or by Dominicans or other
+fitting persons, and to punish such as might be found, according to the
+statutes recently issued by him and by Annibaldo, Senator of Rome. This
+doubtless gave an impulse to what followed, but as yet there was no
+thought of a papal or Dominican Inquisition, or of adopting foreign
+legislation. In the following year, 1233, Don Jayme issued from
+Tarragona, with the advice of his assembled prelates, a statute on the
+subject, showing that the matter was regarded as pertaining to the State
+rather than to the Church. Seigneurs who protected heretics in their
+lands forfeited them to the lord, or, if allodial, to the king. Houses
+of heretics, if allodial, were to be torn down; if held in fief,
+forfeited to the lord. All defamed or suspected of heresy were declared
+ineligible to office. That the innocent might not suffer with the
+guilty, no one was to be punished as a heretic or believer except by his
+bishop or such ecclesiastic as had authority to determine his guilt.
+Bishops were ordered, when it might seem expedient to them in places
+suspected of heresy, to appoint a priest or clerk, while the king or his
+bailli would appoint two or three laymen, whose duty it should be to
+investigate heretics, and, taking precautions against their escape, to
+report them to the bishop or to the royal officials, or to the lord of
+the place. In this incongruous mixture of clerical and lay elements
+there may, it is true, be discovered the germ of an Inquisition, but one
+of a character very different from that which was at this time taking
+shape at Toulouse. The subordinate position of these so-called
+inquisitors is seen in the provision that any negligence in the
+performance of their functions was punishable, in the case of a clerk,
+by the loss of his benefice, in that of a layman, by a pecuniary
+mulct.[185]
+
+To what extent this crude expedient was put in practice we have no means
+of knowing, but probably some attempts were made which only proved its
+inefficiency. Esparrago died soon afterwards and was succeeded in the
+archiepiscopal seat of Tarragona by Guillen Mongriu, whose vigorous and
+martial temperament was illustrated by his conquest of the island of
+Iviza. Mongriu speedily found that the domestic Inquisition would not
+work, and applied for the solution of some doubts to Gregory, who sent
+him, April 30, 1235, a code of instructions drawn up by Raymond of
+Pennaforte. About this time we find the first record of active work in
+persecution, which illustrates the absence of all formal inquisitorial
+procedure. Robert, Count of Rosellon, was one of the great feudatories
+of the crown of Aragon. He seems to have been involved, as most nobles
+were, in some disputes as to fiefs and tithes with the Bishop of Elne,
+whose diocese was in his territories. The bishop accused him of being
+the chief of the heretics of the region and of using his castles as a
+refuge for them. All this was very likely true--at least the bishop had
+no difficulty in finding witnesses to prove it, when Robert obediently
+abjured, but subsequently relapsed. Don Jayme accordingly had him
+arrested and imprisoned, but Robert managed to escape and shut himself
+in one of his inaccessible mountain strongholds. His position, however,
+was desperate, and his lands liable to confiscation; he therefore
+expressed to Gregory IX. his desire to return to the bosom of the
+Church, and offered to serve with his followers against the Saracen as
+long as the pope might designate. Gregory therefore wrote, February 8,
+1237, to Raymond of Pennaforte, that if the count would for three years
+with his subjects assist in the conquest of Valencia, and give
+sufficient security that in case of relapse his territories should be
+forfeited to the crown, he could be absolved. On hearing this the good
+bishop hastened to the papal court and declared that if Robert was
+absolved he and his witnesses would be exposed to the imminent peril of
+death, and that heresy would triumph in his diocese; but, on receiving
+assurances that his fiefs and tithes would be taken care of, he quieted
+down and offered no further opposition.[186]
+
+Under the impulsion of Gregory and of Raymond of Pennaforte, Dominican
+inquisitors had at last been resorted to, and in this year, 1237, we
+first become cognizant of them. In right of his wife Ermessende, Roger
+Bernard the Great of Foix was Vizconde of Castelbo, a fief held of the
+Bishop of Urgel, with whom he had had a bitter war. He gave Castelbo to
+his son Roger, who, by the advice of his father, in 1237, allowed the
+Inquisition free scope there, placing the castle in the hands of Ramon
+Fulco, Vizconde of Cardona, in the name of the Archbishop of Tarragona
+and the bishops assembled at the Council of Lerida. That council
+thereupon appointed a number of inquisitors, including Dominicans and
+Franciscans, who made a descent on Castelbo. It had long been noted as a
+nest of Catharans. In 1225, under the protection of Arnaldo, then lord
+of the place, perfected heretics publicly preached their doctrines
+there. In 1234 we hear of a heretic of Mirepoix going thither to receive
+the _consolamentum_ on his death-bed. The inquisitors, therefore, had no
+difficulty in finding victims. They ordered two houses to be destroyed,
+exhumed and burned the bones of eighteen persons, condemned as heretics,
+and carried off as prisoners some forty-five men and women, condemned
+fifteen who fled, and were undecided about sundry others. Still, the
+Bishop of Urgel was not satisfied, and he gratified his rancor by
+condemning and excommunicating Roger Bernard as a defender of heretics,
+and it was not until 1240 that the latter, through the intervention of
+the Archbishop of Tarragona, and by submitting, abjuring heresy, and
+swearing to perform any penance assigned to him, procured from the
+bishop absolution and a certificate that he recognized him "_per bon
+et per leyal e per Catholich_."[187]
+
+In 1238 the Inquisition of Aragon may be said to be founded. In April of
+that year Gregory IX. wrote to the Franciscan Minister and Dominican
+Prior of Aragon deploring the spread of heresy through the whole
+kingdom, so that heretics no longer seek secrecy, but openly combat the
+Church, to the destruction of its liberties; and though this may be an
+exaggeration, we know from a confession before the Inquisition of
+Toulouse that there were enough scattered through the land to afford
+shelter to the wandering Catharan missionaries. Gregory, therefore,
+placed in the hands of the Mendicants the sword of the Word of God,
+which was not to be restrained from blood. They were instructed to make
+diligent inquisition against heresy and its abettors, proceeding in
+accordance with the statutes which he had issued, and calling in when
+necessary the aid of the secular arm. At the same time he made a similar
+provision for Navarre, which was likewise said to be swarming with
+heretics, by commissioning as inquisitors the Franciscan Guardian of
+Pamplona and the Dominican Pedro de Leodegaria. As an independent
+institution the Inquisition of Navarre seems never to have advanced
+beyond an embryonic condition. In 1246 we find Innocent IV. writing to
+the Franciscan Minister there to publish that Grimaldo de la Mota, a
+citizen of Pamplona, is not to be aspersed as a heretic because while in
+Lombardy he had eaten and drunk with suspected persons, but this is the
+only evidence of vitality that I have met with, and Navarre was
+subsequently incorporated into the Inquisition of Aragon.[188]
+
+In Aragon the institution gradually took shape. Berenger de Palau,
+Bishop of Barcelona, was busily engaged in organizing it throughout his
+diocese at the time of his death in 1241, and the vicar, who replaced
+him while the see was vacant, completed it. In 1242 Pedro Arbalate, who
+had succeeded Guillen Mongriu as archbishop, with the assistance of
+Raymond of Pennaforte, held the Council of Tarragona to settle the
+details of procedure. Under the guidance of so eminent a canonist, the
+code drawn up by the council showed a thorough knowledge of the
+principles guiding the Church in its dealings with heretics, and long
+continued to be referred to as an authority not only in Spain, but in
+France. At the same time its careful definitions, which render it
+especially interesting to us, indicate that it was prepared for the
+instruction of a Church which as yet practically knew nothing of the
+principles of persecution firmly established elsewhere. It was probably
+under the impulse derived from these movements that active persecution
+was resumed at Castelbo, which does not seem to have been purified by
+the raid of 1237. This time the heretics were not as patient as before,
+and resorted to poison, with which they succeeded in taking off Fray
+Ponce de Blanes, or de Espira, the inquisitor, who had made himself
+peculiarly obnoxious by his vigorous pursuit of heresy for several
+years. This aroused all the martial instincts of the retired archbishop,
+Guillen Mongriu, who assembled some troops, besieged and took the
+castle, burned many of the heretics, and imprisoned the rest for life.
+An organized effort was made to extend the Inquisition throughout the
+kingdom, and the parish priests were individually summoned to lend it
+all the aid in their power. Urgel seems to have been the headquarters of
+the sectaries, for subsequently we hear of their sharp persecution there
+by the Dominican inquisitor, Bernardo Travesser, and of his martyrdom by
+them. As usual, both he and Ponce de Blanes shone forth in miracles, and
+have remained an object of worship in the Church of Urgel, though in
+1262 the latter was translated to Montpellier, where he lies
+magnificently entombed.[189]
+
+Still, the progress of organization seems to have been exceedingly slow.
+In 1244 a case decided by Innocent IV. shows a complete absence of any
+effective system. The Bishop of Elne and a Dominican friar, acting as
+inquisitors, had condemned Ramon de Malleolis and Helena his wife as
+heretics. By some means they succeeded in appealing to Gregory IX., who
+referred the matter to the Archdeacon of Besalu and the Sacristan of
+Girona. These acquitted the culprits and restored them to their
+possessions; but the case was carried back to Rome, and Innocent finally
+confirmed the first sentence of conviction. Again, in 1248, a letter
+from Innocent IV. to the Bishop of Lerida, instructing him as to the
+treatment in his diocese of heretics who voluntarily return to the
+Church, presupposes the absence of inquisitors and absolute ignorance as
+to the fundamental principles in force. The power conferred the same
+year on the Dominican Provincial of Spain to appoint inquisitors seems
+to have remained unused. The efforts of Archbishop Mongriu and Raymond
+of Pennaforte had spent themselves apparently without permanent results.
+King Jayme grew dissatisfied, and, in 1254, urgently demanded a fresh
+effort of Innocent IV. This time the pope concluded, at Jayme's
+suggestion, to place the matter entirely in Dominican hands; but so
+little had been done in the way of general organization that he confided
+the choice of inquisitors to the priors of Barcelona, Lerida, Perpignan,
+and Elne, each one to act within his own diocese, unless, indeed, there
+are inquisitors already in function under papal commissions--a clause
+which shows the confusion existing at the time. Innocent further felt it
+necessary to report this action to the Archbishops of Tarragona and
+Narbonne, and to call upon them to assist the new appointees. This
+device does not seem to have worked satisfactorily. At that time the
+whole peninsula constituted but one Dominican province, and, in 1262,
+Urban IV. again adopted definitely the plan, in general use elsewhere,
+of empowering the provincial to appoint the inquisitors--now limited to
+two. A few days before he had sent to those of Aragon a bull defining
+their powers and procedure, and a copy of this was enclosed to the
+provincial for his guidance. This long remained the basis of
+organization; but after the division of the province into two, by the
+General Chapter of Cologne in 1301, the Aragonese chafed under their
+subordination to the Provincial of Spain, whose territories consisted
+only of Castile, Leon, and Portugal. The struggle was protracted, but
+the Inquisition of Aragon at last achieved independence in 1351, when
+Fray Nicholas Roselli, the Provincial of Aragon, obtained from Clement
+VI. the power of appointing and removing the inquisitors of the
+kingdom.[190]
+
+Meanwhile the inquisitors had not been inactive. Fray Pedro de Cadreyta
+rendered himself especially conspicuous, and as usual Urgel is the
+prominent scene of activity. In conjunction with his colleague, Fray
+Pedro de Tonenes, and Arnaldo, Bishop of Barcelona, he rendered final
+judgment, January 11, 1257, against the memory of Ramon, Count of Urgel,
+as a relapsed heretic who had abjured before the Bishop of Urgel, and
+whose bones were to be exhumed; but, with unusual lenity, the widow,
+Timborosa, and the son, Guillen, were admitted to reconciliation and not
+deprived of their estates. Twelve years later, in 1269, we find
+Cadreyta, together with another colleague, Fray Guillen de Colonico, and
+Abril, Bishop of Urgel, condemning the memory of Arnaldo, Vizconde of
+Castelbo, and of his daughter Ermessende, whom we know as the heretic
+wife of Roger Bernard the Great of Foix. They had both been dead more
+than thirty years, and her grandson, Roger Bernard III. of Foix, who had
+inherited the Vizcondado of Castelbo, was duly cited to defend his
+ancestors; but if he made the attempt, it was vain, and their bones were
+ordered to be exhumed. It is not likely that these sturdy champions of
+the faith confined their attention to the dead, though the only
+execution we happen to hear of at this period is that of Berenguer de
+Amoros, burned in 1263. That the living, indeed, were objects of fierce
+persecution is rendered more than probable by the martyrdom of Cadreyta,
+who was stoned to death by the exasperated populace of Urgel, and who
+thus furnished another saint for local cult.[191]
+
+During the remainder of the century we hear little more of the
+Inquisition of Aragon, but the action of the Council of Tarragona, in
+1291, would seem to show that it was neither active nor much respected.
+Otherwise the council would scarce have felt called upon to order the
+punishment of heretics who deny a future existence, and, further, that
+all detractors of the Catholic faith ought to be punished as they
+deserve, to teach them reverence and fear. Still more significant is the
+injunction on parish priests to receive kindly and aid efficiently the
+beloved Dominican inquisitors, who are laboring for the extirpation of
+heresy.[192]
+
+With the opening of the fourteenth century there would appear to be an
+increase of vigor. In 1302 Fray Bernardo celebrated several _autos de
+fe_, in which a number of heretics were abandoned to the secular arm. In
+1304 Fray Domingo Peregrino had an _auto_ in which we are told that
+those who were not burned were banished, with the assent of King Jayme
+II.--one of the rare instances of this punishment in the annals of the
+Inquisition. In 1314 Fray Bernardo Puigcercos was so fortunate as to
+discover a number of heretics, of whom he burned some and exiled others.
+To Juan de Longerio, in 1317, belongs the doubtful honor of condemning
+the works of Arnaldo de Vilanova. The names of Arnaldo Burguete, Guillen
+de Costa, and Leonardo de Puycerda have also reached us, as successful
+inquisitors, but their recorded labors were principally directed against
+the Spiritual Franciscans, and will be more particularly noted
+hereafter. The Aragonese seem not to have relished the methods of the
+Inquisition, for in 1325 the Cortes, with the assent of King Jayme II.,
+prohibited for the future the use of the inquisitorial process and of
+torture, as violations of the Fueros. Whether or not this was intended
+to apply to the ecclesiastical as well as to the secular courts it is
+impossible now to tell, but, if it were, it had no permanent result, as
+we learn from the detailed instructions of Eymerich fifty years later.
+About the middle of the century, the merits of the Inquisitor Nicholas
+Roselli earned him the cardinalate. It is true that when the energetic
+action of the Inquisitor Jean Dumoulin, in 1344, drove the Waldenses
+from Toulouse to seek refuge beyond the Pyrenees, Clement VI. wrote
+earnestly to the kings and prelates of Aragon and Navarre to aid the
+Inquisition in destroying the fugitives, but there is no trace of any
+corresponding result.[193]
+
+To Roselli, however, belongs the credit of raising a question which
+inflamed to a white heat the traditional antagonism of the two great
+Mendicant Orders. It is worth brief attention as an illustration of the
+nicety to which doctrinal theology had attained under the combined
+influence of scholastic subtlety in raising questions, and inquisitorial
+enforcement of implicit obedience in the minutest articles of faith. In
+1351 the Franciscan Guardian of Barcelona, in a public sermon, stated
+that the blood shed by Christ in the Passion lost its divinity, was
+sundered from the Logos, and remained on earth. The question was a novel
+one and a trifle difficult of demonstration, but its raising gave
+Roselli a chance to inflict a blow on the hated Franciscans, and he
+referred it to Rome. The answer met his most ardent anticipations. The
+Cardinal of Sabina, by order of Clement VI., wrote that the pope had
+heard the proposition with horror; he had convened an assembly of
+theologians in which he himself argued against it, when it was
+condemned, and the inquisitors everywhere were ordered to proceed
+against all audacious enough to uphold it. Roselli's triumph was
+complete, and the unfortunate guardian was obliged to retract his
+speculations in the pulpit where he had promulgated them. The
+Franciscans were restless under this rebuff, which they construed as
+directed against their Order. In spite of the papal decision the
+question remained an open one in the schools, where it was eagerly
+debated on both sides. The Franciscans argued, with provoking
+reasonableness, that the blood of Christ might well be believed to
+remain on earth, seeing that the foreskin severed in the Circumcision
+was preserved in the Lateran Church and reverenced as a relic under the
+very eyes of pope and cardinal, and that portions of the blood and water
+which flowed in the Crucifixion were exhibited to the faithful at
+Mantua, Bruges, and elsewhere. After the lapse of a century, the
+Franciscan, Jean Bretonelle, professor of theology in the University of
+Paris, in 1448 brought the matter before the faculty, stating that it
+was causing discussion at Rochelle and other places. A commission of
+theologians was appointed, which, after due debate, rendered a solemn
+decision that it was not repugnant to the faith to believe that the
+blood shed at the Passion remained on earth. Thus encouraged, the
+Franciscans grew bolder.
+
+The Observantine Franciscan, Giacomo da Monteprandone, better known as
+della Marca, was one of the most prominent ecclesiastics of the
+fifteenth century. His matchless eloquence, his rigid austerity, his
+superhuman vigor, and his unquenchable zeal for the extermination of
+heresy well earned the beatification conferred on him after death; and
+since 1417 he had been known as a hammer of heretics. He held a
+commission as universal inquisitor which clothed him with power
+throughout Christendom, and the heretics in every corner of Italy, in
+Bohemia, Hungary, Bosnia, and Dalmatia, had learned with cause to
+tremble at his name. It required no little nerve to assail such a man,
+and yet when, April 18, 1462, at Brescia, he publicly preached the
+forbidden doctrine, the Dominican Inquisitor, Giacomo da Brescia, lost
+no time in calling him to account. First a courteous note expressed
+disbelief in the report of the sermon and asked a disclaimer; but on the
+Observantine adhering to the doctrine, a formal summons followed, citing
+him to appear for trial on the next day. The two Orders had thus fairly
+locked horns. The Bishop of Brescia interfered and obtained a withdrawal
+of the summons, but the question had to be fought out before the pope.
+The bitterness of feeling may be judged by the complaint of the
+inquisitor that his opponent had so excited the people of Brescia
+against him and the Dominicans that but for prompt measures many of them
+would have been slain; while, from Milan to Verona, every Dominican
+pulpit resounded with denunciations of Giacomo della Marca as a heretic.
+
+The politic Pius II. feared to quarrel with either Order, and had a
+tortuous path to tread. To the Dominicans he furnished an authenticated
+copy of the decision of Clement VI. To Giacomo della Marca he wrote that
+this had been done because he could not refuse it, and not to give it
+authority. It had not been issued by Clement, but only in his name, and
+the question was still an open one. Giacomo might rest in peace in the
+conviction that the pope had full confidence in his zeal and orthodoxy,
+and that his calumniators should be silenced. On May 31 he issued
+commands that all discussions of the question should cease, and that
+both sides should send their most learned brethren to an assembly which
+he would hold in September for exhaustive debate and final decision.
+This he hoped would put an end to the matter, while skilful postponement
+of the conference would allow it to die out; but he miscalculated the
+enmity of the rival Orders. The quarrel raged more fiercely than ever.
+The Franciscans declared that the inquisitor who started it would be
+deprived of his office and mastership in theology. Pius thereupon
+soothed him by assuring him that he had only done his duty, and that he
+had nothing to fear.
+
+The conference had become an inevitable evil, and Pius found himself
+obliged to allow it to meet in December, 1463. Each side selected three
+champions, and for three days, in the presence of the pope and sacred
+college, they argued the point with such ardent vehemence that, in spite
+of the bitter winter weather, they were bathed in sweat. Then others
+took part and the question was debated pro and con. The Franciscans put
+in evidence the blood of Christ exhibited for the veneration of the
+faithful in many shrines, and to the foreskin which was in the Lateran
+and also in the royal chapel of France. They also appealed to the
+cuttings of Christ's hair and beard, the parings of his nails, and all
+his excretions--did these remain on earth or were they divine and
+carried to heaven? To these arguments the Dominican reply is a curious
+exhibition of special pleading and sophistry; but as no one could allege
+a single text of Scripture bearing upon the question, neither side could
+claim the victory. The good Bishop of Brescia, who had at first played
+the part of peacemaker, consistently presented a written argument in
+which he proved that the pope ought not to settle the question because
+such a determination would, firstly, be doubtful; secondly, superfluous;
+and, thirdly, perilous. This wise utterance was probably inspired, for
+Pius reserved his decision, and, August 1, 1464, only eight days before
+his death, issued a bull in which he recited how the faithful had been
+scandalized by the quarrel between the two Orders, and, therefore, he
+forbade further discussion on the subject until the Holy See should
+finally decide it. The Dominicans were emphatically prohibited from
+denouncing the Franciscans as heretics on account of it, and any
+infraction of his commands was punishable by _ipso facto_
+excommunication supplemented with harsh imprisonment. He tells us
+himself that after the public discussion the cardinals debated the
+matter for several days. The majority inclined to the Dominicans and he
+agreed with them, but the preaching of the Franciscans was necessary for
+the crusade against the Turks which he proposed to lead in person, and
+it was impolitic to offend them, so he postponed the decision.
+Mutterings of discussion, without open quarrel, have since then
+occasionally occurred between the Orders, but the popes have never seen
+fit to issue a definite decision on the subject, and the momentous
+question started by Roselli remains still unsettled--a pitfall for
+unwary feet.[194]
+
+In 1356 Roselli was created Cardinal of S. Sisto, and was succeeded
+after a short interval by Nicolas Eymerich, the most noteworthy man of
+whom the Aragonese Inquisition can boast, although after more than
+thirty years of service he ended his days in disgrace and exile. Trained
+in varied learning, and incessant in industry, of his numerous works but
+one has had the honors of print--his "Directorium Inquisitorum," in
+which, for the first time, he systematized the procedure of his beloved
+institution, giving the principles and details which should guide the
+inquisitor in all his acts. The book remained an authority to the last,
+and formed the basis of almost all subsequent compilations. Eymerich's
+conception of the model inquisitor was lofty. He must be fully
+acquainted with all the intricacies of doctrine, and with all the
+aberrations of heresy--not only those which are current among the common
+people, but the recondite speculations of the schools, Averrhoism and
+Aristotelian errors, and the beliefs of Saracen and Tartar. At a time
+when the Inquisition was declining and falling into contempt, he boldly
+insisted on its most extreme prerogatives as an imprescriptible
+privilege. If he assumed that the heretic had but one right--that of
+choosing between submission and the stake--he was in this but the
+conscientious exponent of his age, and his writings are instinct with
+the conviction that the work of the inquisitor is the salvation of
+souls.
+
+From Eymerich's lament over the difficulty of providing for the expenses
+of an institution so necessary to the Church, it is evident that the
+kings of Aragon had not felt it their duty to support the Holy Office,
+while the bishops, he tells us, were as firm as their brethren in other
+lands in evading the responsibility which by right was incumbent on
+them. The confiscations, he adds, amounted to little or nothing, for
+heretics were poor folk--Waldenses, Fraticelli, and the like. In fact,
+so far as we can gather, the sum of Eymerich's activity during his long
+career is so small that it shows how little was left of heresy by this
+time. Occasional Fraticelli and Waldenses and renegade Jews or Saracens
+were all that rewarded the inquisitor, with every now and then some
+harmless lunatic whose extravagance unfortunately took a religious turn,
+or some over-subtle speculator on the intricacies of dogmatic theology.
+Thus, early in his career, about 1360, Eymerich had the satisfaction of
+burning as a relapsed heretic a certain Nicholas of Calabria, who
+persisted in asserting that his teacher, Martin Gonsalvo of Cuenca, was
+the Son of God, who would live forever, would convert the world, and at
+the Day of Judgment would pray for all the dead and liberate them from
+hell. In 1371 he had the further gratification of silencing, by a
+decision of Gregory XI., a Franciscan, Pedro Bonageta. The exact
+relation between the physical matter of the consecrated host and the
+body of Christ under certain circumstances had long been a source of
+disputation in the Church, and Fray Pedro taught that if it fell into
+the mud or other unclean place, or if it were gnawed by a mouse, the
+body of Christ flew to heaven and the wafer became simple bread; and so
+also when it was ground under the teeth of the recipient, before he
+swallowed it. Gregory did not venture to pronounce this heretical, but
+he forbade its public enunciation. About the same time Eymerich had a
+good deal of trouble with Fray Ramon de Tarraga, a Jew turned Dominican,
+whose numerous philosophical writings savored of heresy. After he had
+been kept in prison for a couple of years, Gregory ordered him to have a
+speedy trial, and threatened Eymerich with punishment for contumacy if
+his commands were disobeyed. Ramon must have had powerful friends in the
+Order whom Eymerich feared to provoke, for six months later Gregory
+wrote again, saying that if Ramon could not be punished according to the
+law in Aragon, he must be sent to the papal court under good guard with
+all the papers of the process duly sealed. In fact, the Inquisition was
+not established for the trial of Dominicans. At the same time another
+Jew, Astruchio de Piera, held by Eymerich on an accusation of sorcery
+and the invocation of demons, was claimed as justiciable by the civil
+power, and was sequestrated until Gregory ordered his delivery to the
+inquisitor, who forced him to abjure and imprisoned him for life.
+Somewhat earlier was a certain Bartolo Janevisio, of Majorca, who
+indulged in some apocalyptic writing about Antichrist, and was forced,
+in 1361, by Eymerich to recant, while his book was publicly burned. More
+practical, from a political point of view, was Eymerich's doctrine that
+all who lent assistance to the Saracens were punishable by the
+Inquisition as fautors of heresy, but this seems to have remained a
+theoretical assertion which brought no business to the Holy Office. We
+shall see hereafter how he fared in seeking the condemnation of Raymond
+Lulli's writings, and need only say here that the result was his
+suspension from office, to be succeeded by his capital enemy Bernardo
+Ermengaudi, in 1386, and that after the succession to the throne, in
+1387, of Juan I., who was bitterly hostile to him, he was twice
+proscribed and exiled, and was denounced by the king as an obstinate
+fool, an enemy of the faith inspired by Satan, anointed with the poison
+of infidelity, together with other unflattering qualifications. He did
+not succeed better when in his rash zeal he assailed the holy San
+Vicente Ferrer for saying in a sermon that Judas Iscariot had a true and
+salutary repentance; that, being unable to reach Christ and obtain
+forgiveness owing to the crowd, he hanged himself and was pardoned in
+heaven. When the case was drawing to a conclusion, Pedro de Luna, then
+Cardinal of Aragon, took Vicente under his protection and made him his
+confessor, and, after his election in 1394 as Avignonese pope, under the
+name of Benedict XIII., he forced Eymerich to surrender the papers,
+which he unceremoniously burned. The next inquisitor, Bernardo Puig, is
+said to have been earnest and successful, punishing many heretics and
+confuting many heresies. In Valencia, about 1390, there was a case in
+which Pedro de Ceplanes, priest of Cella, read in his church a formal
+declaration that there were three natures in Christ--divine, spiritual,
+and human. A merchant of the town loudly contradicted it, and a tumult
+arose. The inquisitor of Valencia promptly arrested the too ingenious
+theologian, who only escaped the stake by public recantation and
+condemnation to perpetual imprisonment; but he broke jail and fled to
+the Balearic Isles, interjecting an appeal to the Holy See.[195]
+
+The creation, in 1262, of the kingdom of Majorca, comprising the
+Balearic Isles, Rosellon, and Cerdana, by Jayme I. of Aragon, for the
+benefit of his younger son Jayme, seemed to render a separate
+inquisition requisite for the new realm. At what time it was established
+is uncertain, the earliest inquisitor of Majorca on record being Fr.
+Ramon Durfort, whose name occurs as a witness on a charter of 1332, and
+he continued to occupy the position until 1343, when he was elected
+Provincial of Toulouse. From that time, at least, there is a succession
+of inquisitors, and the forcible reunion in 1348, by Pedro IV., of the
+outlying provinces to the crown of Aragon did not effect a consolidation
+of the tribunals. As the Inquisition declined in dignity and importance,
+indeed, it seems to have sought a remedy in multiplying and localizing
+its offices. In 1413 Benedict XIII. (who was still recognized as pope in
+Aragon) made a further division by separating the counties of Rosellon
+and Cerdana from the Balearic Isles, Fray Bernardo Pages retaining the
+former, and Guillen Sagarra obtaining the latter. Both of these were
+energetic men who celebrated a number of _autos de fe_, in which
+numerous heretics were reconciled or burned. Sagarra was succeeded by
+Bernardo Moyl, and the latter by Antonio Murta, who was confirmed in
+1420, when Martin V. approved of the changes made. At the same time
+Martin, at the request of the king and of the consuls of Valencia,
+erected that province also into a separate Inquisition. The Provincial
+of Aragon appointed Fray Andrea Ros to fill the position; he was
+confirmed in 1433 by Eugenius IV., but was removed without cause
+assigned the next year by the same pope, although we are told that he
+inflexibly persecuted the "Bohemians" or "Wickliffites" with fire
+and sword. His successors, Domingo Corts and Antonio de Cremona, earned
+equal laurels in suppressing Waldenses.[196]
+
+A case occurring in 1423 would seem to indicate that the Inquisition had
+lost much of the terror which had rendered it formidable. Fray Pedro
+Salazo, Inquisitor of Rosellon and Cerdana, threw in prison on charges
+of heresy a hermit named Pedro Freserii, who enjoyed great reputation
+for sanctity among the people. The accused declared that the witnesses
+were personal enemies, and that he was ready to purge himself before a
+proper judge, and his friends lodged an appeal with Martin V. The pope
+referred the matter, with power to decide without appeal, to Bernardo,
+Abbot of the Benedictine Monastery of Arles, in the diocese of Elne.
+Bernardo deputed the case to a canon of the church of Elne, who
+acquitted the accused without awaiting the result of another appeal to
+the pope interjected by the inquisitor; and Martin finally sent the
+matter to the Ordinary of Narbonne, with power to summon all parties
+before him and decide the case definitely. The whole transaction shows a
+singular want of respect for the functions of the Inquisition.[197]
+
+Even more significant is a complaint made in 1456 to Calixtus III. by
+Fray Mateo de Rapica, a later inquisitor of Rosellon and Cerdana.
+Certain neophytes, or converted Jews, persisted in Judaic practices,
+such as eating meat in Lent and forcing their Christian servants to do
+likewise. When Fray Mateo and Juan, Bishop of Elne, prosecuted them,
+they were so far from submitting that they published a defamatory libel
+upon the inquisitor, and, with the aid of certain laymen, afflicted him
+with injuries and expenses. Finding himself powerless, he appealed to
+the pope, who ordered the Archbishop and Official of Narbonne to
+intervene and decide the matter. The same spirit, in even a more
+aggravated form, was exhibited in a case already referred to, when, in
+1458, Fray Miguel, the Inquisitor of Aragon, was maltreated and thrown
+in prison for nine months by some nobles and high officials of the
+kingdom, whom he had offended in obeying the instructions sent to him by
+Nicholas V.[198]
+
+Yet, as against the poor and friendless, the Inquisition retained its
+power. Wickliffitism--as it had become the fashion to designate
+Waldensianism--had continued to spread, and about 1440 numbers of its
+sectaries were discovered, of whom some were reconciled, and more were
+burned as obstinate heretics by Miguel Ferriz, Inquisitor of Aragon,
+and Martin Trilles of Valencia. Possibly among these was an unfortunate
+woman, Leonor, wife of Doctor Jayme de Liminanna, of whom, about this
+time, we hear that she refused to perform the penance assigned to her by
+the Inquisition of Cartagena, and that she was consequently abandoned to
+the secular arm. The post of inquisitor continued to be sought for. To
+multiply it, Catalonia was separated from Aragon by Nicholas V. shortly
+after his accession in 1447. In 1459 another division took place, the
+diocese of Barcelona being erected into an independent tribunal by
+Martiale Auribelli, Dominican General Master, for the benefit of Fray
+Juan Conde, counsellor and confessor of the infant Carlos, Prince of
+Viane. The new incumbent, however, had not a peaceful time. It was
+probably the Inquisitor of Catalonia, objecting to the fractioning of
+his district, who obtained from Pius II., in 1461, a brief annulling the
+division, on the ground that one inquisitor had always sufficed. Fray
+Juan resisted and incurred excommunication, but the influence of his
+royal patron was sufficient to obtain from Pius, October 13, 1461,
+another bull restoring him to his position and absolving him from the
+excommunication. In 1479 a squabble occurring at Valencia shows that the
+office possessed attractions worth contending for. The Provincial of
+Aragon had removed Fray Jayme Borell and appointed Juan Marquez in his
+stead. Borell carried the tale of his woes to Sixtus IV., who commanded
+the General Master to replace him and retain him in peaceful
+possession.[199]
+
+Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded to the throne of Aragon in 1479, as he
+had already done, in 1474, to that of Castile by right of his wife
+Isabella. Even before the organizing of the new Inquisition in Aragon,
+in 1483, it is probable that the influence of Ferdinand had done much to
+restore the power of the institution. In 1482, on the eve of the change,
+we find the Inquisition of Aragon acting with renewed vigor and
+boldness, under the Dominican, Juan de Epila. A number of cases are
+recorded of this period, including the prosecution of the father and
+mother of Felipe de Clemente, Prothonotary of the kingdom. As a
+preparatory step to placing the dominions of the crown of Aragon under
+Torquemada as Inquisitor-general, it was requisite to get rid of
+Cristobal Gualvez, who had been Inquisitor of Valencia since 1452, and
+who had disgraced his office by his crimes. Sixtus IV. had a special
+enmity to him, and, in ordering his deposition, stigmatized him as an
+impudent and impious man, whose unexampled excesses were worthy of
+severe chastisement; and when Sixtus, in 1483, extended Torquemada's
+authority over the whole of Spain, with power to nominate deputies, he
+excepted "that son of iniquity, Cristobal Gualvez," who had been
+interdicted from the office in consequence of his demerits, and whom he
+even deprived of the function of preaching.[200]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The great kingdom of Castile and Leon, embracing the major portion of
+the Spanish peninsula, never enjoyed the blessing of the mediaeval
+Inquisition. It was more independent of Rome than any other monarchy of
+the period. Lordly prelates, turbulent nobles, and cities jealous of
+their liberties allowed scant opportunity for the centralization of
+power in the crown. The people were rude and uncultured, and not much
+given to vain theological speculation. Their superfluous energy,
+moreover, found ample occupation in the task of winning back the land
+from the Saracen. The large population of Jews and of conquered Moors
+gave them peculiar problems to deal with which would have been
+complicated rather than solved by the methods of the Inquisition, until
+the union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdinand and Isabella, followed
+by the conquest of Granada, enabled those monarchs to undertake
+seriously the business, attractive both to statecraft and to fanaticism,
+of compelling uniformity of faith.
+
+It is true that the Dominican legend relates how Dominic returned from
+Rome to Spain as Inquisitor-general, on the errand of establishing there
+the Inquisition for the purpose of punishing the renegade converted Jews
+and Moors; how he was warmly seconded by San Fernando III.; how he
+organized the Inquisition throughout the land, celebrating himself the
+first _auto de fe_ at Burgos, where three hundred apostates were
+burned, and the second _auto_ in the presence of the saintly king, who
+himself carried on his shoulders fagots for the burning of his subjects,
+and the pertinacious wretches defiantly rejoiced in the flames which
+were consuming them; how, after this, he established the Inquisition in
+Aragon, whence he journeyed to Paris and organized it throughout France;
+how, in 1220, he sent Conrad of Marburg as inquisitor to Germany, and in
+1221 finished his labors by founding it in all the parts of Italy. All
+this can rank in historical value with the veracious statement of an old
+chronicler--a compatriot of the Pied Piper of Hamelin--that St. Boniface
+was an inquisitor, and that, with the support of Pepin le Bref, he
+burned many heretics. Detailed lists, moreover, are given of the
+successive inquisitors-general of the Peninsula--Frailes Suero Gomes, B.
+Gil, Pedro de Huesca, Arnaldo Segarra, Garcia de Valcos, etc., but these
+are simply the Dominican provincials of Spain, who were empowered by the
+popes to appoint inquisitors, and whose exercise of that power did not
+extend beyond Aragon. Even Paramo, although he tries to prove that there
+were inquisitors nominally in Castile, is forced to admit that
+practically there was no Inquisition there.[201]
+
+Yet, even in the distant city of Leon, Catharism had obtained a
+foothold. Bishop Rodrigo, who died in 1232, expelled a number of
+Cathari, on his attention being called to them by their circulating a
+story to excite hatred of the priesthood, relating how a poor woman
+placed a candle on the altar in honor of the Virgin, and on her leaving
+it a priest took it for his own use. The following night the Virgin
+appeared to her votary and cast burning wax into her eyes, saying,
+"Take the wages of your service. As soon as you went away a priest
+carried off the candle; as you would have been rewarded had the candle
+been consumed on my altar, so you must bear the punishment, since your
+carelessness gave me the light only for a moment." This diabolical
+story, says Lucas of Tuy, an eye-witness, so affected the minds of the
+simple that the devotion of offering candles ceased, and it required two
+genuine miracles to restore the faith of the people. During the
+interval between the death of Bishop Rodrigo, in March, 1232, and the
+election of his successor, Arnaldo, in August, 1234, the heretics had
+ample opportunity to work their wicked will. A Catharan named Arnaldo
+had been burned, about 1218, in a place in the suburbs used for
+depositing filth. There was a spring there which the heretics colored
+red, and proclaimed that it had miraculously been turned to blood. Many
+of them, simulating blindness, lameness, and demoniacal possession, were
+carried there and pretended to be cured, after which they dug up the
+heretic's bones and declared them to be those of a holy martyr. The
+people were fired with enthusiasm, erected a chapel, and worshipped the
+relics with the utmost ardor. In vain the clergy and the friars
+endeavored to stem the tide; the people denounced them as heretics, and
+despised the excommunication with which the neighboring bishops visited
+the adoration of the new saint; while the real heretics made many
+converts by secretly relating how the affair had been managed, and
+pointing it out as a sample of the manufacture of saints and miracles.
+God visited the sacrilege with a drouth of ten months, which was not
+broken until Lucas, at the risk of his life, destroyed the heretic
+chapel; and when the rains came there was a revulsion of feeling which
+enabled him to expel the heretics. All this would seem to indicate that
+the heretics were numerous and organized; it certainly shows that there
+was no machinery for their suppression; but after the elevation of Lucas
+to the see of Tuy, in 1239, we hear no more of heretics or of
+persecutions. The whole affair, apparently, was a sporadic
+manifestation, probably of some band of fugitives from Languedoc, who
+disappeared and left no following.[202]
+
+If what Lucas tells us be true, that ecclesiastics frequently joined in
+and enjoyed the ridicule with which heretics derided the sacraments and
+the clergy, the Spanish Church was not likely to give much aid to the
+introduction of the Inquisition. How little its methods were understood
+appears in the fact that when, in 1236, San Fernando III. found some
+heretics at Palencia, he proceeded to brand them in the face, which
+brought them to reason and led them to seek absolution. No one seemed to
+know what to do with them, so Gregory IX. was applied to, and he
+authorized the Bishop of Palencia to reconcile them. There is probably
+no truth in the statement of some historians that the king, on several
+occasions, was obliged to levy from his subjects a tribute of wood with
+which to burn the unrepentant, and the story only serves to show how
+utterly vague have been the current conceptions of the period.[203]
+
+We reach firmer ground with the codes known as El Fuero Real and Las
+Siete Partidas, the first issued by Alonso the Wise, in 1255, and the
+second about ten years later. By this time the Inquisition was at its
+height. It was thoroughly organized, and wherever it existed the
+business of suppressing heresy was exclusively in its hands. Yet not
+only does Alonso take no count of it, but in his regulation by secular
+law of the relations between the heretic and the Church he shows how
+completely, up to this period, Spain had remained outside of the great
+movements of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Heresy, it is true,
+is one of the matters pertaining to the ecclesiastical tribunals, and
+any one can accuse a heretic before his bishop or vicar. If the accused
+is found not to believe as the Church teaches, effort is to be made to
+convert him, and if he returns to the faith he is to be pardoned. If he
+proves obstinate, he is to be handed over to the secular judge. Then,
+however, his fate is decided without reference to the laws which the
+Church had endeavored to introduce throughout Christendom. If the
+culprit had received the _consolamentum_, or is a believer observing the
+rites, or one of those who deny the future life, he is to be burned; but
+if a believer not observing the rites, he is to be banished or
+imprisoned until he returns to the faith. Any one learning heresy, but
+not yet a believer, is fined ten pounds of gold to the fisc, or, if
+unable to pay, to receive fifty lashes in public. In the case of those
+who die in heresy or are executed, their estates pass to Catholic
+descendants, or, in default of these, to the next of kin; if without
+such kindred, the property of laymen goes to the fisc, of ecclesiastics,
+to the Church, if claimed within a year, after which it inures to the
+fisc. Children disinherited for heresy recover their portions, but not
+the mesne profits, on recantation. No one, after condemnation for
+heresy, can hold office, inherit property, make a will, execute a sale,
+or give testimony. The house where a wandering heretic missionary is
+sheltered is forfeited to the Church, if inhabited by the owner; if
+rented, the offending tenant is fined ten pounds of gold or publicly
+scourged. A _rico home_ or noble sheltering heretics in his lands or
+castles, and persisting after a year's excommunication, forfeits the
+land or castle to the king; and if a non-noble his body and property are
+at the king's pleasure. The Christian who turns Jew or Moslem is legally
+a heretic, and is to be burned, as well as one who brings up a child in
+the forbidden faith. Prosecutions of the dead, however, are humanely
+limited to five years after decease.[204]
+
+All this shows that Alonso and his counsellors recognized the duty of
+the State to preserve the purity of the faith, but that they considered
+it wholly an affair of the State, in which the Church had no voice
+beyond ascertaining the guilt of the accused. All the voluminous and
+minute legislation of Gregory IX., Innocent IV., and Alexander IV. was
+wholly disregarded--the canon law had no currency in Castile, which
+regulated such matters to suit its own needs. That in this respect the
+popular needs were met is shown by the Ordenamiento de Alcala, issued in
+1348, which is silent on the subject of heresy. Apparently no change was
+deemed necessary in the provisions of the Partidas, which were then for
+the first time confirmed by the popular assembly. Under such legislation
+it follows as a matter of course that the Dominican provincial had no
+inquisitors to appoint, except in Aragon, under the bull of Urban IV. in
+1262.
+
+Castile continued unvexed by the Inquisition, and persecution for heresy
+was almost unknown. In 1316 Bernard Gui, of Toulouse, discovered in his
+district some of the dreaded sectaries known as Dolcinists or
+Pseudo-Apostoli, who fled to Spain to escape his energetic pursuit. May
+1, 1316, he wrote to all the prelates and friars of Spain describing
+their characteristics and urging their apprehension and punishment. Had
+there been an Inquisition there he would have addressed himself to it.
+From remote Compostella he received an answer, written by Archbishop
+Rodrigo, March 6, 1317, announcing that five persons answering to the
+description had been captured there and were held in chains, and asking
+for instructions as to the mode of trying them and the punishment to be
+inflicted in case they are found guilty, "for all this is heretofore
+unaccustomed in our parts." Evidently there was no Inquisition in
+Castile and Leon to which to apply, and even the provisions of the
+Partidas were unknown, though of all places in the kingdom Compostella
+must have been the one most familiar with the outer world and with
+heretics, from the stream of penitents continually sent thither as
+pilgrims.[205]
+
+In 1401 Boniface IX. made a demonstration by appointing the provincial,
+Vicente de Lisboa, inquisitor over all Spain, directing that his
+expenses should be paid by the bishops, and that no superior of his
+Order could remove him. The only heresy specifically alluded to in the
+bull is the idolatrous worship of plants, trees, stones, and
+altars--apparently superstitious relics of paganism which indicate the
+condition of religion and culture in the Peninsula. Boniface's action
+could hardly have been taken with any expectation of result, as Spain
+rendered obedience to Benedict XIII., the Antipope of Avignon, and it
+was probably only a move in the political game of the Great Schism.
+Whatever the motive, however, the effort was fruitless, for Fray Vicente
+was already dead in the odor of sanctity at the date of the bull. On
+learning this, Boniface returned to the charge, February 1, 1402, by
+empowering forever thereafter the Dominican Provincial of Spain to
+appoint and remove inquisitors, or to act as such himself, with all the
+privileges and powers accorded to the office by the canons. Inoperative
+as this remained, it at least had the advantage of supplying to the
+Spanish historians an unbroken line of inquisitors-general to be
+catalogued. About the same time King Henry III. increased the penalties
+of heresy by decreeing confiscation to the royal treasury of one-half of
+the possessions of heretics condemned by the ecclesiastical
+judges.[206]
+
+This, perhaps, technically justifies Alonso Tostado, Bishop of Avila,
+who soon afterwards alludes to inquisitors in Spain investigating those
+defamed for heresy, and it explains the remarks of Sixtus IV. when, in
+January, 1482, he confirmed the two inquisitors appointed at Seville by
+Ferdinand and Isabella at the commencement of their reforms, and forbade
+their naming more, for the reason that the appointees of the Dominican
+provincial were sufficient. In spite of all this, the Spanish
+Inquisition was simply potential, not existent. When, in 1453, Alonso de
+Almarzo, Abbot of the great Benedictine foundation of Antealtares of
+Compostella, with his accomplices, was tried for selling throughout
+Spain and Portugal indulgences warranted to release the souls of the
+damned from hell, for counterfeiting the papal Agnus Dei, for forging
+and altering papal letters, and for persuading Jewish converts to
+apostatize, had there been an Inquisition it would promptly have taken
+cognizance of the culprits; but in place of this the case was referred
+to Nicolas V., who instructed the Bishop of Tarazona to proceed against
+them. A few years later Alonso de Espina, about 1460, sorrowfully admits
+the absence of all persecution of heresy. Bishops and inquisitors and
+preachers ought all to resist the heretics, but there is no one to do
+it. "No one investigates the errors of heretics. The ravening wolves, O
+Lord, have gained admittance to thy flock, for the shepherds are few.
+There are many hirelings, and because they are hirelings they care only
+for shearing, not for feeding the sheep!" and he draws a deplorable
+picture of the Spanish Church, distracted with heretics, Jews, and
+Saracens. Soon after this, in 1464, the Cortes assembled at Medina
+turned its attention to the subject and complained of the great number
+of "_malos cristianos e sospechosos en la fe_," but the national
+aversion to the papal Inquisition still manifested itself, and its
+introduction was not suggested. The archbishops and bishops were
+requested to set on foot a rigid investigation after heretics, and King
+Henry IV. was asked to lend them aid, so that every suspected place
+might be thoroughly searched, and offenders brought to light,
+imprisoned, and punished. It was represented to the king that this would
+be to his advantage, as the confiscations would inure to the royal
+treasury, and he graciously expressed his assent; but the effort was
+resultless.[207]
+
+For the most part the orthodoxy of Spain had been vexed only with a few
+Fraticelli and Waldenses, not numerous enough to call for active
+repression. The main trouble lay in the multitudes of Jews and Moors
+who, under the law, were entitled to toleration, but whom popular
+fanaticism had forced to conversion in great numbers, and whose purity
+of faith was justly liable to suspicion. Hereafter I hope to have the
+opportunity of showing that from both the religious and the political
+standpoint of the age the measures taken by Ferdinand and Isabella were
+by no means without justification, however mistaken they were both in
+morals and in policy, and however unfortunate in their ultimate results.
+At present it suffices to point out this condition of affairs to explain
+the dissatisfaction which was widely prevalent and the demand for an
+efficient remedy.
+
+At the same time even Spain was not wholly unmoved by the spirit of
+unrest and inquiry which marked the second half of the fifteenth
+century, sapping the foundations of tradition and rejecting the claims
+of sacerdotalism. About 1460 we learn from Alonso de Espina that many
+were beginning to deny the efficacy of oral confession, and this point
+could not have been reached without calling in question many other
+doctrines and observances which the Church taught to be necessary to
+salvation. At length these innovators grew so bold that Pedro de Osma, a
+professor in the great University of Salamanca, ventured to promulgate
+their obnoxious opinions in print. Oral confession, he asserted, was of
+human, not of divine precept, and was unnecessary for the forgiveness of
+sins; no papal indulgence could insure the living from the fires of
+purgatory; the papacy could err, and had no power to dispense with the
+statutes of the Church. Had there been any machinery of persecution at
+hand, short work would have been made with so bold a heretic, but the
+authorities were so much at a loss what to do with him that they applied
+to Sixtus IV., who sent a commission to Alonso Carrillo, Archbishop of
+Toledo, the dignitary next in rank to the king, to try him. In 1479 a
+council was assembled for the purpose at Alcala, consisting of fifty-two
+of the best theologians in Spain, besides a number of canon lawyers.
+Pedro was summoned to appear, and on his failing to do so his doctrine
+was condemned as heretical, and he was sentenced--not to the stake for
+contumacy, but to recant publicly in the pulpit. He submitted and did
+so, and we are told in the official report of the proceedings that all
+the faithful burst into tears at this signal manifestation of the
+conquering hand of God. Pedro died peacefully in the bosom of the Church
+during the next year, 1480, and Sixtus IV., in confirming the action of
+the council, ordered the archbishop to prosecute as heretics any of his
+followers who would not imitate his obedience.[208]
+
+Evidently some more efficient and less cumbrous method was requisite if
+the population of reunited Spain was to enjoy the blessing of uniformity
+in faith. It did not take long for the piety of Isabella and the policy
+of Ferdinand to discover appropriate means.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Portugal, Affonso II., at the commencement of his reign, in 1211, had
+manifested his zeal by inducing his Cortes to adopt severe laws for the
+repression of heresy; but when Sueiro Gomes, the first Dominican
+Provincial of Spain, endeavored to introduce in his kingdom inquisitors
+of the order, Affonso refused to admit them, and successfully insisted
+that heretics should be tried as heretofore by the ordinary episcopal
+courts. This rebuff sufficed for nearly a century and a half, and there
+must have been considerable freedom of thought, for, about 1325, Alvaro
+Pelayo gives a long list of the errors publicly defended in the schools
+of Lisbon by Thomas Scotus, a renegade friar. Their nature may be
+appreciated from his Averrhoistic assertion that there had been three
+deceivers--Moses who deceived the Jews, Christ the Christians, and
+Mahomet the Saracens. He seems to have enjoyed immunity until he
+declared that St. Antony of Padua kept concubines, when the Franciscan
+prior had him incarcerated, and his trial followed. At last, by a bull,
+dated January 17, 1376, Gregory XI. authorized Agapito Colonna, Bishop
+of Lisbon, to appoint, for this time only, a Franciscan inquisitor, as
+heresies were known to be spreading, and there were no inquisitors in
+the kingdom. The nominee was to receive an annual salary of two hundred
+gold florins assessed upon all the dioceses in the proportion of their
+contributions to the apostolic chamber. Under this authority Agapito
+appointed the first Portuguese inquisitor, Martino Vasquez. From what we
+have seen elsewhere we may reasonably doubt his success in collecting
+his stipend; but, small as his receipts may have been, they were the
+equivalent of his service, for no trace of any labors performed by him
+remains.[209]
+
+The Great Schism commenced in 1378, and as Portugal acknowledged Urban
+VI. while Spain adhered to the antipope Clement VII., the Dominican
+province of Spain divided itself, the Portuguese choosing a
+vicar-general, and finally a provincial, Goncalo, in 1418, when Martin
+V. legalized the separation. This perhaps explains why Martino Vasquez
+was succeeded by another Franciscan. In 1394 Rodrigo de Cintra, calling
+himself Inquisitor of Portugal and Algarve, applied to Boniface IX. for
+confirmation, which was graciously accorded to him. Apparently the
+revenues of the office were nil, for the privilege was granted to him of
+residing with one associate at will in any Franciscan convent, which was
+bound to minister to his necessities, the same as to any other master of
+theology. Rodrigo was preacher to King Joao I., who requested this favor
+of Boniface, and his career, like that of his predecessor, is a blank.
+He was followed by a Dominican, Vicente de Lisboa, who had been
+Provincial of Spain at the time of the disruption, when he returned to
+Portugal and became confessor of Dom Joao. The king, in 1399, requested
+of Boniface his appointment as inquisitor, which was duly granted; and,
+as we have seen, in 1401, the pope endeavored to extend his jurisdiction
+over Castile and Leon. No trace of his inquisitorial activity exists.
+After his death, in 1401, there appears to have been an interval. The
+office apparently was regarded as a perquisite of the royal chapel for
+those who would condescend to accept it. The next appointment of which
+we hear is that of another confessor of Dom Joao, in 1413, this time a
+Franciscan, Affonso de Alprao, of whose doings no record has been
+preserved. When, in 1418, the kingdom was reorganized as an independent
+Dominican province, the earnest annalists of the Inquisition assume that
+under the bull of Boniface IX., in 1402, each successive provincial was
+likewise an inquisitor-general, and the lists of these worthies are
+laboriously paraded as such, until the founding of the New Inquisition
+in 1531. No acts of theirs in such capacity, however, are recorded. The
+Holy Office continued dormant, without even a titular official, until,
+in the early years of the sixteenth century, Dom Manoel, stimulated by
+the example of his Castilian neighbors, and feeling solicitude as to the
+status of the New Christians, or converts from Judaism and Islam,
+bethought him of its revival. Although he had the Dominican provincial
+at hand, no purpose of utilizing him in this manner seems to have been
+entertained. The king applied to the pope and obtained the appointment
+of a Franciscan, Henrique de Coimbra, but there is no trace of his
+activity.[210]
+
+The New Inquisition of Spain was a model which the smaller kingdom would
+naturally be expected to adopt, and in fact, to ardent Catholics, there
+might well seem to be a necessity for such an institution in view of the
+problems arising from the large influx of New Christians flying from
+Spanish persecution. Dom Manoel, indeed, at one time entertained so
+seriously the idea of establishing the Spanish Inquisition in his
+dominions that, in 1515, he ordered his ambassador at Rome, D. Miguel da
+Silva, to obtain from Leo X. the same privileges as those which had been
+conceded to Castile, but from some cause the project was abandoned. His
+son, Dom Joao III., who succeeded him in 1521, was a weak-minded
+fanatic, and it is only singular that the introduction of the
+Inquisition on the Spanish model was delayed for still ten years. The
+struggle which took place over the measure belongs, however, to a period
+beyond our present limits.[211]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ITALY.
+
+
+In France we have seen the stubbornness of heresy in alliance with
+feudalism resisting the encroachments of monarchy. In Italy we meet with
+different and more complicated conditions, which gave additional
+stimulus to antagonism against the established Church, and rendered its
+suppression a work of much greater detail. Here heresy and politics are
+so inextricably intermingled that at times differentiation becomes
+virtually impossible, and the fate of heretics depends more on political
+vicissitudes than even on the zeal of men like St. Peter Martyr, or
+Rainerio Saccone.
+
+For centuries the normal condition of Italy was not far removed from
+anarchy. Spasmodic attempts of the empire to make good its traditional
+claim to overlordship were met by the steady policy of the papacy to
+extend its temporal power over the Peninsula. During the century
+occupied by the reigns of the Hohenstaufens (1152-1254), when the empire
+seemed nearest to accomplishing its ends, the popes sought to erect a
+rampart by stimulating the attempts of the cities to establish their
+independence and form self-governing republics, and it thus created for
+itself a party in all of them. North of the Patrimony of St. Peter the
+soil of Italy thus became fractioned into petty states under
+institutions more or less democratic. For the most part they were torn
+with savage internal feuds between factions which, as Guelf or
+Ghibelline, hoisted the banner of pope or kaiser as an excuse for
+tearing each other to pieces. As a rule, they were involved in constant
+war with each other. Occasionally, indeed, some overmastering necessity
+might bring about a temporary union, as when the Lombard League, in
+1177, broke the Barbarossa's power on the field of Legnano, but, in
+general, the chronicles of that dismal period are a confused mass of
+murderous strife inside and outside the gates of every town.
+
+Heresy could scarce ask conditions more favorable for its spread. The
+Church, worldly to the core, was immersed in temporal cares and
+pleasures, and during the strife between Alexander III. and the four
+antipopes successively set up by Frederic I.--Victor, Pascal, Calixtus,
+and Innocent--the enforcement of orthodoxy was out of the question.
+After the triumph of the papacy, stringent decrees, as we have seen,
+were issued by Lucius III., and edicts were promulgated by Henry VI. in
+1194, and by Otho IV. in 1210, but they were practically inefficient.
+When every town was divided against itself heresy could bargain for
+toleration by holding the balance of power, and was frequently able, by
+throwing its weight on one side or the other, to obtain a share in the
+government. The larger struggles of city against city and of pope
+against emperor afforded a still wider field for the exercise of this
+diplomatic ability, of which full advantage was taken. When the formulas
+of persecution became defined under Honorius III., Gregory IX., and
+Frederic II., and fautorship was made equivalent to heresy, the factions
+and the nobles who tolerated or protected heretics became involved in
+the common anathema, and whole communities were stigmatized as given
+over to false idols. Yet although Ghibelline and heretic were frequently
+held by the popes to be almost convertible terms, there was in reality
+no test capable of universal application. Traditional hostility to the
+empire rendered Milan an intensely Guelf community, and yet it was
+everywhere recognized as the greatest centre of heresy.
+
+Though heresy was by no means so universal as the papal anathemas would
+indicate, yet heretics were quite numerous enough to possess political
+importance, and to have some justification for their hopes of eventually
+becoming dominant. Little concealment was deemed necessary. When Otho
+IV. was in Rome for his coronation in 1209, under the vigilant rule of
+Innocent III., the ecclesiastics who accompanied him were scandalized at
+finding schools where Manichaean doctrines were openly taught, apparently
+without interference. The earlier Dominican persecutors are represented
+as constantly holding public disputations with heretics in the most
+populous cities of Italy, and the miracles related of them were mostly
+occasioned by the taunts and challenges of heretics. Otho, at Ferrara,
+in 1210, was obliged to order the magistrates to put to the ban the
+Cathari who refused, at the instance of the bishop, to return to the
+Church, and also those who publicly supported them.[212]
+
+Although Stephen of Bourbon relates that a converted heretic informed
+him that in Milan there were no less than seventeen heterodox sects
+which bitterly disputed with each other, yet they can, as in France, be
+reduced to two main classes--Cathari, or Patarins, and Waldenses. The
+Cathari, it will be remembered, made their appearance in the first half
+of the eleventh century, at Monforte, in Lombardy, and they had
+continued to multiply since then. About the middle of the thirteenth
+century Rainerio Saccone gives us an enumeration of their churches. In
+Lombardy and the Marches there were about five hundred perfected Cathari
+of the Albanensian sect, more than fifteen hundred Concorrezenses, and
+about two hundred Bajolenses. The Church of Vicenza reckoned about a
+hundred; there were as many in Florence and Spoleto, and in addition
+about one hundred and fifty refugees from France in Lombardy. As he
+estimates the total number, from Constantinople to the Pyrenees, at four
+thousand, with a countless congregation of believers, it will be seen
+that nearly two thirds of the whole number were concentrated in northern
+Italy, chiefly in Lombardy, and that they constituted a notable portion
+of the population.[213]
+
+Lombardy, in fact, was the centre whence Catharism was propagated
+throughout Europe. We have seen above how for more than half a century
+it served as a refuge to the persecuted saints of Languedoc, and as a
+source whence to draw missionaries and teachers. About 1240 a certain
+Yvo of Narbonne was falsely accused of heresy and fled to Italy, where
+he was received as a martyr, and had full opportunity of penetrating
+into the secrets of the sectaries. In a letter to Geraud, Archbishop of
+Bordeaux, he describes their thorough organization throughout Italy,
+with ramifications extending into all the neighboring lands. From all
+the cities of Lombardy and Tuscany their youth were sent to Paris to
+perfect themselves in logic and theology, so as to be able successfully
+to defend their errors. Catharan merchants frequented fairs and
+obtained entrance into houses where they lost no opportunity of
+scattering the seed of false doctrine. Full of zeal and courage, the
+Catharan believed his faith to be the religion of the future, and his
+ardor courted martyrdom in the effort to spread it everywhere. Milan was
+the headquarters whither every year delegates were sent from the
+churches throughout Christendom, bringing contributions for the support
+of the central organization, and receiving instructions as to the
+symbol, changed every twelvemonth, whereby the wandering Patarin could
+recognize the houses of his brethren and safely claim hospitality. It
+was in vain that, in 1212, Innocent III. warned the heretical city of
+the fate of Languedoc, and threatened to send a similar crusade for its
+extirpation. Fortunately for the Lombards he had no one to summon to
+their destruction, for Germany, however desirous of conquering Italy,
+was too distracted for such an enterprise, and the popes dreaded
+imperial domination quite as much as heresy. There was bitter irony in
+the reply of Frederic II., when, in 1236, he was subduing the rebellious
+Lombards, and he answered the clamor of Gregory IX., who called upon him
+to transfer his arms to Syria, by pointing out that the Milanese were
+much worse than Saracens, and their subjugation much more
+important.[214]
+
+We have no means of obtaining an approximate estimate of the Waldenses,
+but in some districts they must have been almost as numerous as the
+Cathari. The remains of the Arnaldistae and Umiliati had eagerly welcomed
+the missionaries of the Poor Men of Lyons, and had not only adopted
+their tenets, but had pushed them to a further development in antagonism
+to Rome. As early as 1206 we see Innocent III. alluding to Umiliati and
+Poor Men of Lyons as synonymous expressions, and endeavoring with little
+success to effect their expulsion from Faenza, where they were spreading
+and infecting the people. In Milan they had built a school where they
+publicly taught their doctrines; this was at length torn down by a
+zealous archbishop, and when, in 1209, Duran de Huesca sought to bring
+them back to the fold, a hundred or more of them consented to be
+reconciled if the building were restored to them. Evidently they had
+little to dread from active persecution, and subsequent letters of
+Innocent show them to be still flourishing there. The Waldenses who were
+burned at Strassburg in 1212 admitted that their chief resided in Milan,
+and that they were in the habit of collecting money and remitting it to
+him.[215]
+
+It was, however, in the valleys of the Cottian Alps, to which they
+spread from Dauphine, that they settled themselves most firmly. In those
+inhospitable regions, till then almost uninhabited, their marvellous and
+self-denying industry occupied every spot where incessant labor could
+support life. There they rapidly increased and filled the valleys of
+Luserna, Angrogna, San Martino, and Perosa. In 1210 Giacomo di Carisio,
+Bishop of Turin, alarmed at the constant growth of this heresy in his
+diocese, applied to Otho IV. for aid in its suppression, but the emperor
+in reply merely ordered him to use severity in their punishment and
+expulsion. Authority for this he already had in abundance under the
+canons, but he lacked the physical force to render it effective, and the
+imperial rescript went for naught. This shows that the local suzerains
+took no measures to enforce persecution, and the heretics continued to
+increase. The immediate sovereign of the district most deeply infected
+was the Abbey of Ripaille, which found itself unable to control them,
+and made over its temporal rights to Tommaso I., Count of Savoy. He
+issued an edict, to which I have already referred, imposing a fine of
+ten sols for giving refuge to heretics, which proved altogether
+ineffective. Thus, in the absence of efficient repression, were
+established those Alpine communities whose tenacity of belief supplied
+through centuries an unfailing succession of humble martyrs, and who
+ennobled human nature by their marvellous example of constancy and
+endurance.[216]
+
+Although the Lombard Waldenses admitted their descent from the Poor Men
+of Lyons, their more rapid development gave rise to differences, and in
+1218 a conference was held at Bergamo between delegates of both parties.
+This did not succeed in removing the points of dissidence, and about
+1230 the Lombards sent to the brethren in Germany a statement of the
+discussion and of their views. It is not our province to enter into
+these minute details of faith and Church government, but the affair is
+worth alluding to as illustrating the flourishing condition of the
+Church, the practical toleration which it enjoyed, and the active
+communication which existed between its organizations throughout
+Europe.[217]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The aggressiveness of the heretics, the favor shown them by the people,
+and the impossibility of any systematic suppression by the Church under
+existing political conditions are well exhibited in the troubles which
+commenced at Piacenza in 1204. There the heretics were strong enough to
+provoke a quarrel between the authorities and Bishop Grimerio, which
+resulted in either the withdrawal or the expulsion of the prelate and
+all the clergy. The exiles transferred themselves to Cremona, but in
+1205 that city likewise quarrelled with its pastors, and the wanderers
+were again driven forth, to find a refuge in Castell' Arquato. For
+three years and a half Piacenza remained without an orthodox priest, and
+deprived of all the observances and consolations of religion. So weak
+was the hold of the Church upon the people that this deprivation was
+acquiesced in with the utmost indifference. In October, 1206, Innocent
+III. sent three Apostolic Visitors to effect a reconciliation, with a
+threat of dividing the diocese and apportioning it among the neighboring
+sees, but the citizens cared nothing for this, and refused the terms
+demanded, which required them to compensate their bishop for the damage
+inflicted on him. After some six months wasted in fruitless negotiations
+the Visitors departed, and it was not till July, 1207, that another
+commission, offering more favorable conditions, succeeded in effecting a
+reconciliation which enabled the clergy to return from exile. About the
+same period Innocent found himself obliged to use persuasion and
+argument in the endeavor to urge the people of Treviso to expel their
+heretics. So far from threatening them, he begged them to have faith
+that their bishop would reform the excesses of the clergy whose evil
+example had disturbed them. It is easy thus to understand the exulting
+confidence with which the heretics anticipated the eventual triumph of
+their creeds, and the despair which led Abbot Joachim of Flora, in
+expounding the Apocalypse, to see in them the locusts with the power of
+scorpions who issue from the bottomless pit at the sounding of the fifth
+trumpet (Rev. IX. 3, 4). These heretics are the Antichrist; they are to
+grow in power and their king is already chosen, that king of the locusts
+"whose name in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but in the Greek tongue
+hath his name Apollyon" (Rev. IX. 11). Resistance to them will be in
+vain; they are to unite with the Saracens, with whom, in 1195, he says
+they are already entering into negotiations.[218]
+
+When Honorius III., in 1220, obtained from Frederic II. the ferocious
+coronation-edict against heresy, he may well have imagined that the way
+was open for its immediate suppression. If so, he was not long in
+discovering his mistake. Whatever professions Frederic might make, or
+whatever rigor he might exercise in his Sicilian dominions, it was no
+part of his policy to estrange the Ghibelline leaders, or to strengthen
+the Guelfic factions in the turbulent little republics which he sought
+to reduce to subjection. His whole reign was an internecine conflict,
+open or concealed, with Rome, and he was too much of a free-thinker to
+have any scruples as to the sources whence he could draw strength for
+himself or annoyance for his enemy. In central and upper Italy,
+therefore, his laws were for the most part virtually a dead letter.
+Already, in 1221, Ezzelin da Romano, the most powerful Ghibelline in the
+March of Treviso, was complained of for the protection which he afforded
+to heretics, and his continuing to do so to the end shows that he found
+it to be good policy. When, in 1227, Ingheramo da Macerata, the late
+podesta of Rimini, was persecuted by the citizens because he had
+delivered for burning as heretics some of their daughters and sisters,
+and because he had wished to inscribe on their statute-books the
+constitutions of Frederic, it was not to the emperor that he applied for
+protection, but to Honorius III.[219]
+
+Something more than imperial edicts was plainly necessary, and Honorius,
+in casting around for methods to check the spread of heresy, appointed,
+in 1224, the Bishops of Brescia and Modena as commissioners with special
+powers to exterminate the heretics of Lombardy--as inquisitors, in fact,
+this being one of the steps which gradually led to the establishment of
+the Inquisition, the usefulness of the Dominicans in this respect not
+having yet been divined. The Bishop of Modena, however, undertook a
+mission to convert the pagans of Prussia, and the Bishop of Rimini was
+substituted in his place. The prelates commenced with Brescia itself,
+whose prelate doubtless knew where to strike. They ordered the tearing
+down of certain houses where heretical preachers had been accustomed to
+hold forth. At once an armed insurrection broke out. The perennial
+factions of the city took sides. Several churches were burned, and the
+heretics parodied from them the anathema by casting lighted torches from
+the windows, and solemnly excommunicating all members of the Church of
+Rome. It was not until after a severe and prolonged conflict that the
+Catholics obtained the upper hand, and then the terms prescribed by
+Honorius were so mild as to indicate that it was not deemed politic to
+drive the defeated party to despair. All excommunicates were required to
+apply personally for absolution to the Holy See. The fortified houses of
+the lords of Gambara, of Ugona, of the Oriani, of the sons of Botatio,
+who had been the leader in the troubles, were ordered to be razed to the
+ground, never to be rebuilt, while other strongholds, which had been
+defended against the Catholics, were to be cut down one-third or
+one-half. Benificed clerks who were children of heretics or of fautors
+were to be suspended for three years or more as their individual
+participation in the troubles might indicate. A levy of three hundred
+and thirty lire was ordered on the clergy of Lombardy and the
+Trivigiana to recompense the Catholics for the losses endured in
+contending with the heretics. So unaccustomed as yet were the Lombards
+to persecution that even these conditions were deemed too harsh. The
+city of Milan interceded, and finally even the authorities of Brescia
+itself urged that moderation would be conducive to peace; and, May 1,
+1226, Honorius authorized the bishops to use their discretion in
+diminishing the penalties. When, however, the Dominican Guala was
+elected Bishop of Brescia in 1230, he speedily succeeded in introducing
+in the local statutes the law of Frederic, of March, 1224, which decreed
+for heretics the stake or loss of the tongue, and he forced the podesta
+to swear to its execution.[220]
+
+Gregory IX. was a man of sterner temper than Honorius, and, despite his
+octogenary age, his advent to the pontificate, in 1227, was the signal
+for unrelenting war on heresy. Within three weeks of his accession peace
+was signed, under the auspices of the papacy, between Frederic II. and
+the Lombard League, with provisions for the suppression of heresy.
+Gregory immediately, in the most imperious fashion, summoned the
+Lombards to perform their duty. Hitherto, he told them, all their
+pretended efforts had been fraudulent. No enforcement of the imperial
+constitutions had been attempted. If the heretics had at any time been
+driven away, it was with a secret understanding that they would be
+allowed to return and dwell in peace. If fines had been inflicted, the
+money had been covertly refunded. If statutes had been enacted, there
+was always a reservation by which they were rendered ineffective. Thus
+heresy had grown and strengthened while the liberties of the Church had
+been subverted. Heretics had been permitted to preach their doctrines
+publicly, while ecclesiastics had been outlawed and imprisoned. All this
+must cease, the provisions of the treaty of peace must be enforced, and,
+if they continued in their evil courses, the Holy See would find means
+to coerce them in their perversity.[221]
+
+These were brave words, though the political condition of Lombardy
+rendered them ineffective. Nearer home, however, Gregory had fairer
+opportunity of enforcing his will, and we have already seen how
+promptly he recognized the utility of the Order of Dominic and laid the
+foundations of the Inquisition by his tentative action in Florence.
+While this was taking shape his zeal was stimulated by the discovery, in
+1231, that in Rome itself heresy had become so bold that it ventured to
+assert itself openly, and that many priests and other ecclesiastics had
+been converted. Probably the first _auto de fe_ on record was that held
+by the Senator Annibaldo at the portal of Santa Maria Maggiore, when
+these unfortunates were burned or condemned to perpetual prison, and
+Gregory took advantage of the occasion to issue the decretal which
+became the basis of inquisitorial procedure, and to procure the
+enactment of severe secular laws in the name of the senator. The details
+I have already given (Vol. I. p. 325), and they need not be repeated
+here; but Gregory did not content himself with what he thus accomplished
+in Rome. His aid just then was desirable to Frederic II. in his Lombard
+complications, and to Gregory's urgency may doubtless be attributed the
+severe legislation of the Sicilian Constitutions, issued about this
+time, and the Ravenna decrees of 1232. Shortly afterwards, indeed, we
+find Frederic writing to him that they are like father and son; that
+they should sharpen the spiritual and temporal swords respectively
+committed to them against heretics and rebels, without wasting effort on
+sophistry, for if time be spent in disputation nature will succumb to
+disease. It is not probable that Gregory counted much on the zeal of the
+emperor, but he sent the edict of Annibaldo to Milan, with instructions
+that it be adopted and enforced there. Already, in 1228, his legate,
+Goffredo, Cardinal of San Marco, had obtained of the Milanese the
+enactment of a law by which the houses of heretics were to be destroyed,
+and the secular authorities were required to put to death within ten
+days all who were condemned by the Church; but thus far no executions
+seem to have taken place under it.[222]
+
+It was now that Gregory, seeing the futility of all efforts thus far
+save those which the Dominicans were making in Florence, hit upon the
+final and successful experiment of confiding to the Order the
+suppression of heresy as part of their regular duties. A fresh impulse
+was felt all along the line. The Church suddenly found that it could
+count upon an unexpected reserve of enthusiasm, boundless and
+exhaustless, despising danger and reckless of consequences, which in the
+end could hardly fail to triumph. A new class of men now appears upon
+the scene--San Piero Martire, Giovanni da Vicenza, Rolando da Cremona,
+Rainerio Saccone--worthy to rank with their brethren in Languedoc, who
+devoted themselves to what they held to be their duty with a singleness
+of purpose which must command respect, however repulsive their labors
+may seem to us. On one hand these men had an easier task than their
+Western colleagues, for they had not to contend with the jealousy, or
+submit to the control, of the bishops. The independence of the Italian
+episcopate had been broken down in the eleventh century. Besides, the
+bishops naturally belonged to the Guelfic faction, and welcomed any
+allies who promised to aid them in crushing the antagonistic party in
+their turbulent cities. On the other hand, the political dissensions
+which raged everywhere with savage ferocity increased enormously the
+difficulties and dangers of the task.
+
+In Italy, as in France, the organization of the Inquisition was gradual.
+It advanced step by step, the earlier proceedings, as we have seen both
+in Florence and Toulouse, being characterized by little regularity. As
+the tribunal by degrees assumed shape, a definite code of procedure was
+established which was virtually the same everywhere, except with regard
+to the power of confiscation, the application of the profits of
+persecution, and the acquittal of the innocent. To these attention has
+already been called, and they need not detain us further. The problems
+which the founders of the Inquisition had to meet in Italy, and the
+methods in which these were met, can best be illustrated by a rapid
+glance at what remains to us of the careers of some of the earnest men
+who undertook the apparently hopeless task.
+
+The earliest name I have met with bearing the title of Inquisitor of
+Lombardy is that of a Fra Alberico in 1232. The Cardinal Legate
+Goffredo, whom we have seen busy in Milan, undertook to quiet civil
+strife in Bergamo, with the consent of all factions, by appointing as
+podesta Pier Torriani of Milan; and at the same time he seized the
+opportunity to make a raid on heretics, a number of whom he cast into
+prison. No sooner was his back turned than the citizens refused to
+receive his podesta, elected in his place a certain R. di Madello, and,
+what was worse, set at liberty the captive heretics. Thereupon the
+legate placed the city under interdict, which brought the people to
+their senses, and they agreed to stand to the mandate of the Church.
+Gregory accordingly, November 3, 1232, instructed Alberico, as
+Inquisitor of Lombardy, to reconcile the city on condition that the
+people refund to Pier Torriani all his expenses and give sufficient
+security to exterminate heresy. Here we see how intimate were the
+relations between politics and heresy, and what difficulties the
+alliance threw in the way of persecution.[223]
+
+Fra Rolando da Cremona we have already met as professor in the inchoate
+University of Toulouse, and we have seen how rigid and unbending was his
+zeal. Hardly had he quitted Langueduc when we find him, in 1233, already
+actively at work in the congenial duty of suppressing heresy at
+Piacenza. The twenty-five years which had elapsed since the Piacenzans
+had shown themselves so indifferent to their spiritual privileges had
+not greatly increased their respect for orthodoxy. Rolando assembled
+them, preached to them, and then ordered the podesta to expel the
+heretics. The result did not correspond to his expectations. With the
+connivance of the podesta, the heretics and their friends arose and made
+a general onslaught on the clergy, including the bishop and the friars,
+in which a monk of San Sabino was slain and Rolando and some of his
+comrades were wounded. The Dominicans carried Rolando half-dead from the
+city, which was placed under interdict by the bishop. Then a revulsion
+of feeling occurred; Rolando was asked to return, and full satisfaction
+was promised. He prudently kept away, but ordered the imprisonment of
+the podesta and twenty-four others till the pleasure of the pope should
+be known. Gregory took advantage of the opportunity by sending thither
+the Archdeacon of Novara, with instructions to place the city under
+control of the orthodox party, taking ample security that the heretics
+should be suppressed; but this arrangement did not please the citizens,
+who rose again and liberated the prisoners. Sharp as was this
+experience, it did not dull the edge of Rolando's zeal, for the next
+year we find him at work in the Milanese, where he received rough
+treatment at the hands of Lantelmo, a noble who sheltered heretics in
+his castle near Lodi. For this Lantelmo was condemned to be led through
+the streets, stripped and with a halter around his neck, to Rolando's
+presence, and there to accept such penance as the friar, at command of
+the pope, might enjoin on him. A month later we hear of his seizing two
+Florentine merchants, Feriabente and Capso, with all their goods. They
+evidently were persons of importance, for Gregory ordered their release
+in view of having received bail for them in the enormous sum of two
+thousand silver marks.[224]
+
+During this transition period, while the Inquisition was slowly taking
+shape, one of the most notable of the Dominicans engaged in the work of
+persecution was Giovanni Schio da Vicenza. I have alluded in a previous
+chapter to his marvellous career as a pacificator, and it may perhaps
+not be unjust to assume that his motive in employing his unequalled
+eloquence in harmonizing discordant factions was not only the Christian
+desire for peace, but also to remove the obstruction to persecution
+caused by perpetual strife, for in almost all these movements we may
+trace the connection between heresy and politics. After his wonderful
+success at Bologna, Gregory urged him to undertake a similar mission to
+Florence, where constant civic war was accompanied by recrudescence of
+heresy. In spite of the efforts of the embryonic Inquisition there,
+heresy was undisguised, and the ministers of Christ were openly opposed
+and ridiculed. Gregory assumed that Giovanni acted under the direct
+inspiration of the Holy Ghost, and did not venture to send him orders,
+but only requests. He was, like all his colleagues, popularly regarded
+as a thaumaturgist, and stories were told of his crossing rivers
+dry-shod, and causing vultures to descend from on high at his simple
+command. The Bolognese were so loath to part with him that they used
+gentle violence to retain him, and only let him go after Gregory had
+ordered their city laid under interdict, and had threatened to deprive
+of its episcopal dignity any place which should detain him against his
+will. After completely succeeding in his mission to Florence he was
+despatched on a similar one to Lombardy. The League, which had been so
+efficient an instrument in curbing the imperial power, was breaking up.
+Fears were entertained that Frederic would soon return from Germany with
+an army, and a portion of the Lombard cities and nobles were disposed to
+invite him. Some countervailing influence was required, and nothing more
+effective than Giovanni's eloquence could be resorted to. At Padua,
+Treviso, Conigliano, Ceneda, Oderzo, Belluno, and Feltre he preached on
+the text "Blessed are the feet of the bearers of peace" with such
+effect that even the terrible Ezzelin da Romano is said to have twice
+burst into tears. The whole land was pacified, save the ancestral
+quarrel between Ezzelin and the counts of Campo San Piero, which
+unpardonable wrongs had rendered implacable. After a visit to Mantua,
+the apostle of peace went to Verona, then besieged by an army of
+Mantuans, Bolognese, Brescians, and Faenzans, where he persuaded the
+assailants to withdraw, and the Veronese, in gratitude, proclaimed him
+podesta by acclamation. He promptly made use of the position to burn in
+the market-place some sixty heretics of both sexes, belonging to the
+noblest families of the city. Then he summoned to a great assembly in a
+plain hard by all the confederate cities and nobles. Obedient to his
+call there came the Patriarch of Aquileia, the Bishops of Mantua,
+Brescia, Bologna, Modena, Reggio, Treviso, Vicenza, Padua, and Ceneda,
+Ezzelin da Romano, the Marquis of Este, who was Lord of Mantua, the
+Count of San Bonifacio, who ruled Ferrara, and delegates from all the
+cities, with their carrochi. The multitude was diversely estimated at
+from forty thousand to five hundred thousand souls, who were wrought by
+his eloquence to the utmost enthusiasm of mutual forgiveness. After
+denouncing as rebels and enemies of the Church all who adhered to
+Frederic or invited him to Italy, Giovanni induced his auditors to swear
+to accept such settlement of their quarrels as he should dictate, and
+when he announced the terms they unanimously signed the treaty.[225]
+
+So great became his reputation that Gregory IX. was seriously disturbed
+at a report that Giovanni contemplated making himself pope. A consistory
+was assembled to consider the advisability of excommunicating him, and
+that step would have been taken had not the Bishop of Modena sworn upon
+a missal that he had once seen an angel descend from heaven while
+Giovanni was speaking, and place a golden cross upon his brow. A
+confidential mission was sent to Bologna to investigate his career
+there, which returned with authentic accounts of numberless miracles
+performed by him, among them no less than ten resuscitations of the
+dead. So holy a man could not well be thrust from the pale of the
+Church, and the project was abandoned.[226]
+
+Meanwhile he had visited his native place, Vicenza, on invitation of the
+bishop, and had so impressed the people that they gave him their
+statutes to revise at his pleasure, and proclaimed him duke, marquis,
+and count of the city--titles which belonged to the bishop, who also
+offered to make over the episcopate to him. As at Verona, he used his
+power to burn a number of heretics. During his absence at Verona,
+Uguccione Pileo, an enemy of the Schia family, induced the people to
+revolt, when Giovanni hastened back and suppressed the rebellion,
+putting to death, with torture, a number of citizens, who are charitably
+supposed to have been heretics. Uguccione brought up reinforcements; a
+fierce battle was fought in the streets, and Giovanni was worsted and
+taken prisoner. A letter of condolence, addressed to him in prison, by
+Gregory, under date of September 22, 1233, serves to fix the date of
+this, and to show how powerless was the papacy to protect its agents in
+the fierce dissensions of the period. Giovanni was obliged to ransom
+himself and return to Verona, and thence to Bologna. The peace which he
+had effected was of short duration. The chronic wars broke out afresh,
+and Giovanni, at the instance of Gregory, came again to pacify them. In
+this he succeeded, but no sooner was his back turned than hostilities
+were renewed. Gregory made a third attempt, through the Bishops of
+Reggio and Treviso, who induced the warring factions to lay down their
+arms for a while; but the main object, of presenting a united front and
+keeping Frederic out of Italy, was lost, Ezzelin and a number of the
+cities urged his coming, and the decisive victory of Cortenuova, in
+November, 1237, dissolved the Lombard League which had so long held the
+empire in check, and made him master of Lombardy.[227]
+
+During all this time Gregory had been untiring in his efforts to subdue
+heresy in Lombardy, undeterred by the disheartening lack of result. All
+his legates to that province were duly instructed to regard this as one
+of their chief duties. In May, 1236, he had even attempted to establish
+there a rudimentary Inquisition, but, in the existing condition of the
+land, even he could hardly have expected to accomplish anything.
+Frederic came with professions that the extirpation of heresy was one of
+the motives impelling him to the enterprise; and when Gregory reproached
+him with suppressing the preaching of the friars and thus favoring
+heresy, he astutely retorted, with a reference to Giovanni, by alluding
+to those who, under pretext of making war on heresy, were busy in
+establishing themselves as potentates, and were taking castles as
+security from those suspect in faith. Gregory, in reply, could only
+disclaim all responsibility for the acts of the adventurous friar. Yet
+Gregory himself, when it suited his Lombard policy, did not hesitate to
+relax his severity against the heretics, and it became a popular cry in
+Germany that he had been bribed with their gold.[228]
+
+For some years Giovanni Schio led a comparatively quiet existence in
+Bologna, but in 1247, by which time the Inquisition was fairly taking
+shape, Innocent IV. appointed him perpetual inquisitor throughout
+Lombardy, arming him with full powers and releasing him from all
+subjection or accountability to the Dominican general or provincial. In
+the existing condition of the north of Italy the commission was
+virtually inoperative, and its only interest lies in its terms, which
+show that up to this time there was no organized Inquisition there. We
+hear nothing further of his activity, even after the death of Frederic,
+in 1250, until, in 1256, the long-delayed crusade was undertaken against
+Ezzelin da Romano. By his fiery eloquence he raised in Bologna a
+considerable force of crusaders, at whose head he marched against the
+tyrant of the Trevisan, but, disgusted with the quarrels of the leaders,
+he returned to Bologna before the final catastrophe, and he is supposed
+to have perished, in 1265, in the crusade against Manfred, when there
+was a contingent of ten thousand Bolognese in the army of Charles of
+Anjou.[229]
+
+Yet the most noteworthy in all respects of the dauntless zealots who
+fought the seemingly desperate battle against heresy was Piero da
+Verona, better known as St. Peter Martyr. Born at Verona in 1203 or
+1206, of a heretic family, his legend relates that he was divinely led
+to recognize their errors. When a schoolboy of only seven years of age
+his uncle chanced to ask him what he learned, and he repeated the
+orthodox creed. His uncle thereupon told him he must not say that God
+created the heaven and the earth, for he was not the creator of the
+visible universe; but the child, filled with the Holy Ghost, overcame
+his elder in argument, who thereupon urged the parents to remove him
+from school, but the father, who hoped to see him become a leader of the
+sect, allowed him to complete his education. His orthodox zeal grew with
+his growth, and in 1221 he entered the Dominican Order. His confessor
+testified that he never committed a mortal sin, and the bull of his
+canonization bears emphatic evidence to his humility, his meek
+obedience, his sweet benignity, his exhaustless compassion, his
+unfailing patience, his wonderful charity, his passionate supplications
+to God for martyrdom, and the innumerable miracles which illustrated his
+life.[230]
+
+Before the Dominicans were armed with the power of persecution Piero
+earnestly devoted himself to the original function of the Order, that of
+controverting heresy, and preaching against heretics. In this the
+success of the young apostle was marvellously aided by his thaumaturgic
+development. At Ravenna, Mantua, Venice, Milan, and other places,
+numerous wonders are related of his performance. Thus, at Cesena, the
+success of his efforts at conversion irritated the heretics, who, on one
+occasion, interrupted his preaching in the public square by volleys of
+filth and stones discharged from a house near by. He several times
+mildly entreated them to desist, but in vain, when, inspired by divine
+wrath, he launched a terrible imprecation against them. Instantly the
+house crumbled in ruin, burying the sacrilegious wretches, nor could it
+be rebuilt until long afterwards.[231]
+
+When the Dominicans were charged with the duty of persecution his
+earnest zeal naturally caused him to be selected as one of the earliest
+laborers. In 1233 he was sent to Milan, where, thus far, all the efforts
+of papal missives and legates had proved ineffectual to rouse the
+authorities and the citizens to undertake the holy work. The laws which,
+in 1228, Cardinal Goffredo had inscribed on the statute-book had
+remained a dead letter. All this was changed when Piero da Verona made
+his influence felt. Not only did he cause Gregory's legislation of 1231
+to be adopted in the municipal law, but he stimulated the podesta,
+Oldrado da Tresseno, and the archbishop, Enrico da Settala, to work in
+earnest. A number of heretics were burned, who were probably the first
+victims of fanaticism which Milan had seen since the time of the Cathari
+of Monforte. So strong was the impression made by these executions that
+they earned for the podesta Oldrado the honor of an equestrian portrait
+in bas-relief, with the inscription, "_Qui solium struxit, Catharos ut
+debuit uxit_," which is still to be seen adorning the wall of the Sala
+del Consiglio, now the Archivio pubblico. It fared worse with the
+archbishop, who was rendered so unpopular that he was banished, for
+which the magistracy was duly excommunicated; but he, too, had
+posthumous reward, for his tomb bore the legend "_instituto inquisitore
+jugulavit hoereses_." Piero likewise founded in Milan a company, or
+association, for the suppression of heresy, which was taken under
+immediate papal protection--the model of that which ten years later did
+such bloody work in Florence. We may safely assume that his fiery
+activity continued unabated, though we hear nothing of him until 1242,
+when we again find him in Milan so vigorously at work that he is said
+to have caused a sedition which nearly ruined the city.[232]
+
+Two years later we meet him fighting heresy in Florence. That city, it
+will be remembered, was the subject of the earliest inquisitorial
+experiments, Fra Giovanni di Salerno, Prior of Santa Maria Novella,
+having been commissioned to prosecute heretics in 1228, and being
+succeeded after his death, in 1230, by Fra Aldobrandini Cavalcante, and
+about 1241 by Fra Ruggieri Calcagni. The first two of these accomplished
+little, being, in fact, rather preachers than inquisitors. The heretics
+were protected by the Ghibelline faction and the partisans of Frederic
+II., and heresy, far from decreasing, spread rapidly in spite of
+occasional burnings. When the Catharan Bishop Paternon fled, his
+position was successively held by three others, Torsello, Brunnetto, and
+Giacopo da Montefiascone. Many of the most powerful families were
+heretics or open defenders of heresy--the Baroni, Pulci, Cipriani,
+Cavalcanti, Saraceni, and Malpresa. The Baroni built a stronghold at San
+Gaggio, beyond the walls, which served as a refuge for the Perfected,
+and there were plenty of houses in the town where they could hold their
+conventicles in safety. The Cipriani had two palaces, one at Mugnone and
+the other in Florence, where troops of Cathari assembled under the
+leadership of a heresiarch named Marchisiano, and there were great
+schools at Poggibonsi, Pian di Cascia, and Ponte a Sieve.[233]
+
+The whole of central Italy, in fact, was almost as deeply infected with
+heresy as Lombardy, and little had as yet been done to purify it. That
+as late as 1235 no comprehensive attempt had been made to establish the
+Inquisition is shown by a papal brief addressed in that year to the
+Dominicans of Viterbo, empowering them, in all the dioceses of Tuscany,
+Viterbo, Orta, Balneoreggio, Castro, Soano, Amerino, and Narni, to
+absolve heretics not publicly defamed for heresy, who should
+spontaneously accuse themselves, provided the bishops assented and
+sufficient bail were given; and the bishops were ordered to co-operate.
+Heretics not thus voluntarily confessing were to be dealt with according
+to the papal statutes. At Viterbo dwelt Giovanni da Benevento, who was
+called the pope of the heretics, but it was not until Gregory went
+thither in 1237 and undertook the task of purifying the place himself
+that any efficient action was taken; he condemned Giovanni and many
+other heretics, and ordered the palaces of some of the noblest families
+of the city to be torn down, as having afforded refuge to heretics. At
+the same time the Bishop of Padua was urged to persevere in the good
+work, and at Parma the Knights of Jesus Christ were instituted with the
+same object by Jordan, the Dominican general. All this indicates the
+commencement of systematic operations, and the pressure grew stronger
+year by year. Under the energetic management of Ruggieri Calcagni the
+Florentine Inquisition rapidly took shape and executions became
+frequent, while in the confessions of the accused allusions are made to
+heretics burned elsewhere, showing that persecution was becoming active
+wherever political conditions rendered it possible. Thus in a confession
+of 1244 there is a reference to two, Maffeo and Martello, burned not
+long before at Pisa.[234]
+
+In Florence Fra Ruggieri's vigor was reducing the heretics to
+desperation. Each trial revealed fresh names, and as the circle spread
+the prosecutions became more numerous and terrible. The Signoria was
+coerced by papal letters to enforce the citations of the inquisitor, and
+as the prisoners multiplied and their depositions were taken, fully a
+third of the citizens, including many nobles, were found to be involved.
+Excited by the magnitude of the developments, Ruggieri determined to
+strike at the chiefs, and, invoking the aid of the Priors of the Arts,
+he seized a number of them and condemned to the stake those who proved
+contumacious. The time had evidently come when they must choose between
+open resistance and destruction. The Baroni assembled their followers,
+broke open the jails, and carried off the prisoners, who were
+distributed through various strongholds in the Florentine territory,
+where they continued to preach and spread their doctrines.
+
+Matters were rapidly approaching a crisis. On the one hand it was
+impossible for so large a body as the heretics to permit themselves to
+be slaughtered in detail with impunity, to say nothing of the
+spoliation and gratification of private feuds which could not fail to
+involve the innocent with the guilty in a persecution of such extent so
+recklessly pursued. On the other hand, the persecutors were maddened
+with excitement and with the prospects of at last triumphing over the
+adversaries who had so long defied them. Innocent IV. wrote pressingly
+to the Signoria commanding energetic support for the inquisitor, and he
+summoned from Lombardy Piero da Verona to lend his aid in the
+approaching struggle. Towards the end of 1244 Piero hastened to the
+conflict, and his eloquence drew such crowds that the Piazza di Santa
+Maria Novella had to be enlarged to accommodate the multitude. He
+utilized the enthusiasm by enrolling the orthodox nobles in a guard to
+protect the Dominicans, and formed a military order under the name of
+the Societa de' Capitani di Santa Maria, uniformed in a white doublet
+with a red cross, and these led the organization known as the Compagnia
+della Fede, sworn to defend the Inquisition at all hazards, under
+privileges granted by the Holy See. Thus encouraged and supported,
+Ruggieri pushed forward the trials, and numbers of victims were burned.
+This was a challenge which the heretics could only decline under pain of
+annihilation. They likewise organized under the lead of the Baroni, and
+it was not difficult to persuade the podesta, Ser Pace di Pesannola of
+Bergamo, recently appointed by Frederic II., that the interest of his
+master required him to protect them. Thus the perennial quarrel between
+the Church and the empire filled the streets of Florence with bloodshed
+under the banners of orthodoxy and heterodoxy.
+
+Ruggieri provoked the conflict without flinching. He cited the Baroni
+before him, and when they contemptuously refused to appear he procured a
+special mandate from Innocent IV. This they obeyed with the utmost
+docility, about August 1, 1245, swearing to stand to the mandates of the
+Church, and depositing one thousand lire as security; but when they
+understood that he was about to render sentence against them, they
+appealed to the podesta. Ser Pace thereupon sent his officers, August
+12, to Ruggieri, ordering him to annul the proceedings as contrary to
+the mandate of the emperor, to return the money taken as bail, and, in
+case of contumacy, to appear the next day before the podesta under
+penalty of a thousand marks. Ruggieri's only notice of this was a
+summons the next day to Ser Pace to appear before the Inquisition as
+suspect of heresy and fautorship, under pain of forfeiture of office.
+The fervid rhetoric of Fra Piero poured oil upon the flames, and the
+city found itself divided into two factions, not unequally matched and
+eager to fly at each other. Taking advantage of the assembling of the
+faithful in the churches on a feast-day, the podesta sounded the tocsin,
+and many unarmed Catholics are said to have been slaughtered before the
+altars. Then on St. Bartholomew's day (August 24) Ruggieri and Bishop
+Ardingho, in the Piazza di S. Maria Novella, publicly read a sentence
+condemning the Baroni, confiscating their possessions, and ordering
+their castles and palaces to be destroyed, which naturally led to a
+bloody collision between the factions. Piero then placed himself at the
+head of the Compagnia della Fede, carrying a standard like the other
+captains, among whom the de' Rossi were the most conspicuous. Under his
+leadership two murderous battles were fought, one at the Croce al
+Trebbio and the other in the Piazza di S. Felicita, in both of which the
+heretics were utterly routed. Monuments still mark the scene of these
+victories; and, until recent times, the banner which San Piero gave to
+the de' Rossi was still carried by the Compagnia di San Piero Martire
+on the celebration of his birthday, April 29, while the one which he
+bore himself is preserved among the relics of Santa Maria Novella and is
+publicly displayed on his feast-day.
+
+Thus was destroyed in Florence the power of the heretics and of the
+Ghibellines. Ruggieri, for his steadfast courage, was rewarded, before
+the close of 1245, with the bishopric of Castro, and was succeeded as
+inquisitor by San Piero himself, whose indefatigable zeal allowed the
+heretics no rest. Many of them, recognizing the futility of further
+resistance, abandoned their errors; others fled, and when Piero left
+Florence he could boast that heresy was conquered and the Inquisition
+established on an impregnable basis; though Rainerio's estimate of the
+Florentine Cathari, some years later, shows that it still had an ample
+harvest to reward its labors.[235]
+
+While Ruggieri, in the summer of 1245, was precipitating the conflict in
+Florence, Innocent IV., in the Council of Lyons, was passing sentence of
+dethronement on Frederic II. and trying to find some aspirant hardy
+enough to accept the imperial crown. Frederic laughed the sentence to
+scorn and easily disposed of his would-be competitors, but he was
+obliged to struggle hard to maintain his Italian possessions, and his
+death, December 13, 1250, relieved the papacy from the most formidable
+antagonist which its ambitious designs had ever encountered. Skilled
+equally in the arts of war and peace, untiring in activity, dismayed by
+no reverses, intellectually far in advance of his age, and encumbered
+with few scruples, Frederic's brilliant abilities and indomitable
+courage had been the one obstacle in the papal path towards domination
+over Italy and the foundation on that basis of a universal theocratic
+monarchy. His son, Conrad IV., a youth of twenty-one, was scarce to be
+dreaded in comparison, though Innocent cautiously waited for a while in
+Lyons before venturing into Italy. After reaching Genoa, June 8, 1251,
+he addressed to Piero da Verona and Viviano da Bergamo a brief which
+shows that the intervening six months had not sufficed to dull the sense
+of rejoicing at the death of his great opponent, and that no more time
+was to be lost in taking full advantage of the opportunity. A
+dithyrambic burst of exultation is followed by the declaration that
+thanks to God for this inestimable mercy are to be rendered not so much
+in words as in deeds, and of these the most acceptable is the
+purification of the faith. Frederic's favor towards heretics had long
+impeded the operations of the Inquisition throughout Italy, and now that
+he is removed it is to be put into action everywhere with all possible
+vigor. Inquisitors are to be sent into all parts of Lombardy; Piero and
+Viviano are ordered to proceed forthwith to Cremona, armed with all
+necessary powers; rulers who do not zealously assist them will be
+coerced with the spiritual sword, and, if this proves insufficient,
+Christendom will be aroused to destroy them in a crusade. This bull was
+followed by a rapid succession of others addressed to the Dominican
+provincials and to potentates, ordering strenuous co-operation, and the
+inscription in all local statutes of the constitutions of the dead
+emperor and of the popes--bulls issued in such haste that, June 13,
+1252, the pope was obliged to explain that the blunders and omissions
+arising from the hurried work of the scribes are not to invalidate them.
+The whole was crowned, May 15, 1252, by the issue of the bull _Ad
+extirpanda_, of which I have given an abstract in a former chapter. This
+sought to render the civil power completely subservient to the
+Inquisition, and prescribed the extirpation of heresy as the chief duty
+of the State.[236]
+
+Innocent's mandate probably found Piero at the convent of San Giovanni
+in Canali at Piacenza, of which he was prior in 1250, and where his
+austerities so impressed his brethren that they begged his friend,
+Matteo da Correggio, pretor of the city, to induce him to moderate them,
+lest the flesh which he so persistently macerated should give way under
+the ardent spirit within. If, in fact, we are to believe the statement
+that he habitually never broke his fast before sunset, and that he
+passed most of the night in prayer, restricting his sleep to the least
+that was compatible with life, his career becomes easily intelligible.
+Deficiency of nourishment, replaced by unceasing and unnatural nervous
+exaltation, must have rendered him virtually an irresponsible
+being.[237]
+
+We have no details of what he accomplished as inquisitor at Cremona, or
+at Milan to which he was afterwards transferred. It is presumable,
+however, that his relentless activity fully responded to the
+expectations of those who had selected him as the fittest instrument to
+take advantage, in the headquarters of heresy, of the unexpected
+opportunity to visit the now defenceless heretics with the wrath of God.
+Within nine months after he had been summoned to action he had already
+become such an object of terror that in despair a plot was laid for his
+assassination. The matter was intrusted to Stefano Confaloniero, a noble
+of Aliate, and the hire of the assassins, twenty-five lire, was
+furnished by Guidotto Sachella. The week before Easter (March 23-30),
+1252, Stefano proposed the murder to Manfredo Clitoro of Giussano, who
+agreed to do it, and associated with him Carino da Balsamo. At the same
+time Giacopo della Chiusa undertook to go to Pavia to slay Rainerio
+Saccone, and made the journey, but failed to accomplish his mission. The
+other conspirators were more successful. Fra Piero at that time was
+Prior of Como, and went thither to pass his Easter. He was obliged to
+return to Milan on Low Sunday, April 7, as on that day expired the term
+of fifteen days which he had assigned to a contumacious heretic. During
+Easter week Stefano, with Manfredo and Carino, went to Como and awaited
+Piero's departure. It shows the fearlessness and the austerity of the
+man that he set out on foot, April 7, though weakened with a quartain
+fever, and accompanied only by a single friar, Domenico. Manfredo and
+Carino followed them as far as Barlassina, and set upon them in a lonely
+spot. Carino acted as executioner, laying open Piero's head with a
+single blow, mortally wounding Domenico, and then, finding that Piero
+still breathed, plunging a dagger in his breast. Some passing travellers
+carried the body of the martyr to the convent of San Sempliciano, while
+Domenico was conveyed to Meda, where he died five days afterwards. As
+for the conspirators, I have already alluded to the strange delay which
+postponed for forty-three years the final sentence of Stefano
+Confaloniero, and to the repentance and beatification of Carino, who
+became St. Acerinus. Daniele da Giussano, another of the confederates,
+also repented and entered the Dominican Order. Giacopo della Chiusa
+seems to have escaped, and Manfredo and a certain Tommaso were captured
+and confessed. Manfredo admitted that he had been concerned in the
+murder of two other inquisitors, Fra Pier di Bracciano and Fra Catalano,
+both Franciscans, at Ombraida in Lombardy. He was simply ordered to
+present himself to the pope for judgment, but in place of obeying he
+very naturally fled, and there is no record of his subsequent fate. No
+one seems to have been put to death, and common report asserted that the
+assassins found a safe refuge among the Waldenses of the Alpine valleys,
+which is not improbable.[238]
+
+In fact, the Church made much shrewder use of the martyrdom than the
+exaction of vulgar vengeance. Its whole machinery was set to work at
+once to impress the populations with the sanctity of the martyr.
+Miracles multiplied around him. When the General Chapter of the Order
+assembled at Bologna in May, Innocent wrote to them in terms of the most
+extravagant hyperbole respecting him, and urged them to fresh exertions
+in the cause of Christ. By August 31, he ordered the commencement of
+proceedings of canonization, and before a year had elapsed, March 25,
+1253, the bull of canonization was issued--I believe the most speedy
+creation of a saint on record. It would be difficult to exaggerate the
+cult which developed itself around the martyr. Before the century was
+out, Giacopo di Voragine compared his martyrdom with that of Christ,
+establishing many similitudes between them, and he assures us that the
+disappearance of heresy in the Milanese was owing to the merits of the
+saint--indeed, already, in the bull of canonization it is asserted that
+many heretics had been converted by his death and miracles. It is true
+that when, in 1291, Fra Tommaso d'Aversa, a Dominican of Naples, in a
+sermon on the feast of San Piero dared to compare his wounds with the
+stigmata of St. Francis--saying that the former were the signs of the
+living God and not of the dead, while the latter were those of the dead
+God and not of the living--it is true that the expression was thought to
+savor of blasphemy. The existing pope, Nicholas IV., chanced to be a
+Franciscan, so Tommaso was summoned before him, forced to confess, and
+was sent back to his provincial with orders to subject him to a
+punishment that would prevent a repetition of the sacrilege. Yet
+successive popes encouraged the cult of San Piero until Sixtus V., in
+1586, designated him as the second head of the Inquisition after St.
+Dominic, and as its first martyr, and in 1588 granted plenary indulgence
+to all who should visit for devotion the Dominican churches on the days
+of St. Dominic, Peter Martyr, and Catharine of Siena. In the seventeenth
+century an enthusiastic Spaniard declared that he was crowned with three
+crowns, "_como Emperador de Martyres_." In 1373, Gregory XI. granted
+permission to erect a small oratory on the spot of the murder, which
+grew to be a magnificent church with a splendid convent, through the
+offerings of the innumerable pilgrims who flocked thither. The
+authenticity of the martyr's sanctity was proved when, in 1340,
+eighty-seven years after death, the body was translated to a tomb of
+marvellous workmanship, and was found in a perfect state of
+preservation; and when the sepulchre was opened in 1736 it was still
+found uncorrupted, with wounds corresponding exactly to those described
+in the annals.[239]
+
+The enthusiasm excited by the career of San Piero was turned to
+practical account by the organization in most of the Italian cities of
+_Crocesegnati_, composed of the principal cavaliers, who swore to defend
+and assist the inquisitors at peril of their lives, and to devote person
+and property to the extermination of heretics, for which service they
+received plenary remission of all their sins. These associations were
+wont to assemble on the feast of San Piero in the Dominican churches,
+which were the seats of the Inquisition, and hold aloft their drawn
+swords during the reading of the Gospel, in testimony of their readiness
+to crush heresy with force. They continued to exist until the last
+century, and Fra Pier-Tommaso Campana, who was inquisitor at Crema,
+relates with pride how, in 1738, he presided over such a ceremony in
+Milan. The Crocesegnati, moreover, furnished material support to the
+inquisitors, supplying them when necessary with both men and money for
+the performance of their functions. In fact, they were subject to
+excommunication if they refused to give money when called upon by the
+inquisitor. It can readily be conceived how greatly the effectiveness of
+the Inquisition was increased by such an organization.[240]
+
+If the heretics had hoped to strike their persecutors with terror they
+were short-sighted. The fanaticism of the Order of Dominic furnished an
+unfailing supply of men eager for the crown of martyrdom and unsparing
+in their efforts to earn it. Hardly were the splendid obsequies of San
+Piero completed when his place was occupied by Guido da Sesto and
+Rainerio Saccone da Vicenza. The latter had been high in the Catharan
+Church, when, divinely illuminated as to his errors, he was converted
+and expiated his past life by entering the strict Dominican Order. It
+was possibly in his favor that in 1246 Innocent IV. authorized the
+Dominican prior at Milan to admit repentant heretics into the Order
+without requiring the year's novitiate that was imposed on Catholics.
+Thoroughly acquainted with all the secrets of heresy, he could render
+invaluable aid in persecuting his old associates, whom he pursued with
+all the ruthless bigotry of an apostate. He was speedily made an
+inquisitor, and earned an enviable reputation among the faithful by his
+vigor and success in exterminating heresy. The fact that, as we have
+seen, he was singled out with San Piero by the conspirators to be slain
+shows how thoroughly he had earned the hate of the persecuted. We know
+nothing of the details of the attempt upon his life save that Giacopo
+della Chiusa returned from Pavia with his errand unaccomplished.
+Rainerio was at once transferred to Milan as the man best fitted to
+replace the martyr, and he justified the selection by the unbending
+firmness with which he vindicated the authority of his office. It was
+still a novelty in Lombardy, and a man of his keen intelligence,
+strength of purpose, and self-devotion was required to organize it and
+establish it among a recalcitrant population.[241]
+
+Heretics, in fact, were more numerous than ever in Lombardy, for the
+active work carried on in Languedoc by Bernard de Caux and his
+colleagues had caused a wholesale emigration. Until the death of
+Frederic, Lombardy was regarded as a secure haven; colonies established
+themselves there, and even after the Lombard Inquisition was thoroughly
+organized the persecuted wretches continued for half a century to seek
+refuge there, nor do we often hear of their being detected.[242] All of
+Rainerio's resolution and energy were required for the work before him.
+In the March of Treviso, Ezzelin da Romano, whose influence extended far
+to the west, continued openly to protect heresy, and even in Lombardy
+the hopes excited by Frederic's death threatened to prove fallacious. In
+1253, when Conrad IV. passed through Treviso to recover possession of
+his Sicilian kingdom, he appointed as his Lombard vicar-general Uberto
+Pallavicino, who soon became as obnoxious to the Church as Ezzelin
+himself; and, though Conrad died in 1254, and Innocent IV. seized Naples
+as a forfeited fief of the Church, Pallavicino's power continued to
+increase, and he soon established relations with Manfred, Frederic's
+illegitimate son, who wrested Naples from the papacy and became the
+chief of the Ghibelline faction. Even more threatening was the revulsion
+of feeling in Milan itself, when its ardent Guelfism was changed to
+indifference by Innocent's indiscreet assertion of certain
+ecclesiastical immunities which touched the pride of the citizens. The
+heads of the hydra might well seem indestructible.
+
+One of Rainerio's first enterprises, in 1253, was summoning Egidio,
+Count of Cortenuova, before his tribunal, as a fautor and defender of
+heresy. The castle of Cortenuova, near Bergamo, had been razed as a nest
+of heretics, and its reconstruction prohibited, but the count had seized
+the castle of Mongano, which was claimed by the Bishop of Cremona, and
+had converted it into a den of heretics, who enjoyed immunity under his
+protection. He disdained to obey the citation and was duly
+excommunicated. He paid no attention to this, and on March 23, 1254,
+Innocent IV. ordered the authorities of Milan, under pain of
+ecclesiastical censures, to take the castle by force and deliver its
+inmates to the inquisitors for trial. The count, however, was in close
+alliance with Pallavicino, "that enemy of God and the Church," and
+the Milanese appear to have had no appetite for the enterprise at the
+time. Mongano continued to be a place of refuge for the persecuted until
+1269, when the Milanese were at last stimulated to undertake the siege,
+and on capturing it handed it over to the Dominicans.[243]
+
+Better success awaited Rainerio's efforts with Roberto Patta da
+Giussano, a Milanese noble who for twenty years had been one of the most
+conspicuous defenders of heresy in Lombardy. At his castle of Gatta he
+publicly maintained heretic bishops, allowing them to build houses, and
+establish schools whence they spread their pernicious doctrines through
+the land. They had also there a cemetery where, among others, were
+buried their bishops, Nazario and Desiderio. The place was notorious,
+and it is related of San Piero-Martire, as an instance of his prophetic
+gifts, that once when passing it he had foretold its destruction and the
+exhumation of the heretic bones. Roberto had been cited by the
+archbishop and had abjured heresy, but no effective measures had been
+ventured upon to coerce him from his evil ways, and the heretics of
+Gatta had continued to enjoy his protection. It was otherwise when, in
+1254, Rainerio and Guido summoned him again. On his failing to appear
+they summarily condemned him as a heretic, declared his property
+confiscated and his descendants subject to the usual disabilities.
+Roberto saw that the new officials were not to be trifled with. The
+prospects of the Ghibellines at the moment were apparently hopeless. He
+hastened to make his peace, binding himself to submit to any terms which
+the pope might dictate; and Innocent doubtless deemed himself merciful
+when, August 19, 1254, he ordered the castle of Gatta and all the
+heretic houses to be destroyed by fire, the bones in the cemetery to be
+dug up and burned, and the count to perform such salutary penance as
+Rainerio might prescribe.[244]
+
+The papal power was now at its height. Conrad IV. had died May 20, 1254,
+not without suspicion of poison; Innocent IV. had seized his Sicilian
+kingdoms, and for a brief space, until Manfred's romantic adventures and
+victory of Foggia, he might well imagine himself on the eve of becoming
+the undisputed temporal as well as spiritual head of Italy. Every effort
+was made to perfect the Inquisition and to render it efficient both as a
+political instrument and as a means of bringing about the long-desired
+uniformity of belief. On March 8 Innocent had taken an important step in
+its organization by ordering the Franciscan Minister of Rome to appoint
+friars of his Order as inquisitors in all the provinces south of
+Lombardy. On May 20 he reissued his bull _Ad extirpanda_; on the 22d he
+sent the constitutions of Frederic II. to all the Italian rulers, with
+orders to incorporate them in the local statutes, and informed them that
+the Mendicants were instructed to coerce them in case of disobedience.
+On the 29th he proceeded to reorganize the Lombard Inquisition by
+instructing the provincial to appoint four inquisitors whose power
+should extend from Bologna and Ferrara to Genoa. Under this impulsion
+and the restless energy of Rainerio no time was lost in extending the
+institution in every direction save where Ghibelline potentates such as
+Ezzelin and Uberto prevented its introduction. We chance to have an
+illustration of the process in the records of the little republic of
+Asti, on the confines of Savoy. It is recited that in 1254 two
+inquisitors, Fra Giovanni da Torino and Fra Paulo da Milano, with their
+associates, appeared before the council of the republic and announced to
+them that the pope enjoined them to admit the Inquisition within their
+territories. Thereupon the Astigiani made answer that they were ready to
+obey the pontiff, but they had no laws providing for persecution and it
+would be necessary to frame one. Accordingly an _ordenamento_ was drawn
+up prescribing obedience to the constitutions of Innocent IV. and
+Frederic II., and it was forthwith added to the local statutes. Similar
+action was doubtless taking place in every quarter where the people had
+thus far remained in ignorance of the new doctrine that the suppression
+of heresy was the first duty of the government.[245]
+
+The death of Innocent IV., December 7, 1254, whether it was the result
+of Dominican litanies or of mortification at Manfred's success, made no
+difference in the energy with which the progress of the Inquisition was
+pushed. The accession of Alexander IV. was signalized by a succession of
+bulls repeating and enforcing the regulations of his predecessor, and
+urging prelates and inquisitors to increased activity. To overcome the
+resistance of such cities as were slack in the duty of capturing and
+delivering all who were designated for arrest by the inquisitors, the
+latter were empowered to punish such delinquency with the heavy fine of
+two hundred silver marks. Under this impulsion Rainerio assembled the
+people of Milan, August 1, 1255, in the Piazza del Duomo, read to them
+his commission, and gave them notice that, although he had hitherto
+acted with great mildness, the time had passed for trifling. Many
+citizens, he said, openly derided the Inquisition in the public streets;
+others caused scandal by opposing and molesting it. He therefore gave
+three formal warnings, attested by a notarial instrument duly witnessed,
+that all who should continue to indulge in detraction or should in any
+way impede the Inquisition were excommunicate as fautors of heresy, and
+would be prosecuted to such penalties as their audacity deserved.[246]
+
+As the Inquisition warmed to its work, the four inquisitors provided for
+Lombardy by Innocent IV. proved insufficient, and, March 20, 1256,
+Alexander IV. ordered the provincial to increase the number to eight. He
+appears to have been somewhat dilatory in obedience, for in 1260 he was
+sharply reminded of the command and enjoined no longer to postpone its
+fulfilment. Possibly the delay may have arisen from the fact that in
+January, 1257, Rainerio had risen to the position of supreme inquisitor
+over the whole of Lombardy and the Marches of Genoa and Treviso, with
+power to appoint deputies. He thus was doubtless practically emancipated
+from the control of the provincial, and was able to supply any
+deficiency in the working force with those who were absolutely dependent
+upon himself. In March, 1256, the prelates had been required in the most
+urgent terms to render all aid and support to the inquisitors; and in
+January, 1257, this was emphasized by informing them that those who
+manifested neglect should not escape punishment, while those who showed
+themselves zealous would find the Holy See benignant to them in their
+"opportunities." The significance of this is not to be mistaken, and
+it would be difficult to set limits to the power thus concentrated in
+the hands of the ex-Catharan.[247]
+
+Territorially, however, his authority was circumscribed by the
+possessions of Uberto and Ezzelin, within which no inquisitor dared
+venture. In this very year, 1257, Piacenza, which had fallen under
+control of Uberto, was placed in such complete hostility to the Church
+that it was deprived of its episcopate, and its bishop, Alberto, was
+transferred to Ferrara. In Vicenza, which was ruled by Ezzelin, matters
+were even worse. There the heretics had a recognized chief named Piero
+Gallo, of the Borgo di San Piero, whose name was adopted by them as a
+rallying cry, to which the Catholics responded with "_viva Volpe_!"--a
+member of the family of Volpe being the leader of their faction; and so
+thoroughly did this become encrusted in the habits of the people that we
+are told in the seventeenth century that the cry of the citizens of the
+Borgo (then corruptly called Porsampiero) was still "_viva Gallo_!"
+while that of the dwellers in the Piazza and Porta Nuova was "_viva
+Volpe_!" Ezzelin would permit no persecution, and when the blessed
+Bortolamio di Breganze, one of the immediate disciples of St. Dominic,
+was made Bishop of Vicenza, in 1256, he was reduced to seeking
+conversions by persuasion. After preaching for a while with little
+effect he had a public discussion with Piero Gallo, and so impressed him
+by argument that the heretic was converted. We may reasonably doubt the
+assertion that Ezzelin's displeasure at this feat was the cause of
+Bortolamio's banishment from his see, but, whatever was the motive, he
+was consoled by Alexander IV., who sent him as nuncio to England. During
+his absence, in 1258, his archdeacon, Bernardo Nicelli, was bolder, and
+made a capture of importance in the person of the Catharan Bishop,
+Viviano Bogolo. He endeavored to convert his prisoner, but his powers of
+persuasion were insufficient, and Ezzelin interfered and set the heretic
+at liberty.[248]
+
+So long as these Ghibelline chiefs retained power it was evident that
+the foothold of heresy was secure, and that the hopes based on the death
+of Frederic II. were not destined to fruition. Every motive had long
+conspired to render the Church eager for the destruction of Ezzelin, who
+was its most dreaded antagonist, and every expedient had been tried to
+reduce him to subjection. As far back as 1221 Gregory IX., then legate
+in Lombardy, had extorted from him assurances of his hatred of heresy.
+In 1231 his sons, Ezzelin and Alberico, were at the papal court
+expressing horror at his crimes and promising to deliver him up for
+trial as a heretic if he would not reform, in order to escape the
+disinheritance which they would otherwise incur under Frederic's laws.
+They pledged themselves, moreover, to deliver to him letters from
+Gregory, dated September 1, in which he was bitterly reproached for his
+protection of heretics, and told that if he would humbly acknowledge his
+errors and expel all heretics from his lands he might come within two
+months to the Holy See, prepared to obey implicitly all commands laid
+upon him; otherwise heaven and earth would be invoked against him, his
+lands should be abandoned to seizure, and he, who was already a scandal
+and a horror to men, should become an eternal opprobrium.[249]
+
+Whether the sons dutifully presented to their father this portentous
+epistle does not appear, nor is it of any importance save as showing how
+Ezzelin was already regarded as the mainstay of heresy, and how
+habitually zeal for the faith was made to cover the ambitious political
+designs of the Church. Ezzelin's courage never wavered, and his
+adventurous career was pursued with scarce a check. When Frederic II.
+overcame the resistance of Lombardy, he gave, in 1238, his natural
+daughter Selvaggia to Ezzelin in marriage and created him imperial
+vicar. The unanimous testimony of the ecclesiastical chroniclers
+represents him as a monster whose crimes almost transcend the capacity
+for evil of human nature, but the unrelieved blackness of the picture
+defeats the object of the painter. Possibly he may have been among the
+worst of the Italian despots of the time, when faithlessness and
+contempt for human suffering were the rule, but the long unbroken
+success which attended him shows that he must have had qualities which
+attached men to him, and the report that he was twice moved to tears by
+the eloquence of Fra Giovanni Schio indicates a degree of sensibility
+impossible in one utterly depraved. In fact, the anecdote related by
+Benvenuto da Imola, that he carried on his back his sister's lover
+Sordello to and from the place of assignation, and then gave the
+frightened troubadour a friendly warning, presupposes a character wholly
+at variance with that currently attributed to him. Some of the stories
+circulated to excite odium against him are so absurdly exaggerated as to
+cast doubt upon all the accusations of the papalist writers.[250]
+
+Gregory's letters of September 1, 1231, were simply a ruse. So far was
+he from awaiting the two months' delay for Ezzelin to present himself,
+that three days later, on September 4, he executed his threat by
+ordering the Bishops of Reggio, Modena, Brescia, and Mantua to offer
+Ezzelin's lands to the spoiler, and to preach the cross against him,
+with the same indulgences as for the Holy Land. This proved a failure,
+and when Fra Giovanni Schio was sent on his mission of peace, in 1233,
+Ezzelin's absolution was included in the general pacification, though he
+had not abandoned the protection of heresy, which had been the
+ostensible reason for assailing him. While Frederic was at peace with
+the Church, Ezzelin appears to have been let alone; and when the quarrel
+broke out afresh, after the emperor's subjugation of Lombardy, Ezzelin
+was again attacked. Frederic's excommunication of April 7, 1239, was
+followed, November 20, by that of Ezzelin. This time there is no mention
+of fautorship of heresy, but only of his encroachments on the church of
+Treviso and of his remaining under excommunication for more than three
+years. A month is given to him to submit, after which he is to be
+proceeded against as a heretic, for the Church had already discovered
+the convenience of treating disobedience as heresy. Nothing came of
+this, and in 1244 Innocent IV. resolved to see whether the Inquisition
+could not be used to better effect. Fra Rolando da Cremona, whose
+dauntless energy we have witnessed, was commissioned to make inquest on
+him as on one suspected and publicly defamed for heresy by reason of
+his association with heretics; and as the accused was "terrible and
+powerful," the inquisitor was empowered to publish the legal citations
+in any place where he could do so in safety. The result of this trial
+_in absentia_ was conclusive. It was found that he was the son of a
+heretic, that his kinsmen were heretics, that under his protection
+heresy had spread throughout the March of Treviso, and it was decided
+that he did not believe in the faith of Christ, and must be held suspect
+of heresy. In March, 1248, Innocent pronounced his condemnation as a
+manifest heretic to receive the reward of damnation incurred by damned
+heretics, but promised him that he would learn the abundant clemency of
+the Church if he would present himself in person by the next Ascension
+day (May 28). The wary old chief did not allow his curiosity as to the
+extent of papal clemency to overcome his caution, and abstained from
+placing his person in Innocent's power. He sent envoys, however, who
+offered to purge him of the suspicion of heresy by swearing to his
+orthodoxy; but Innocent held that he must appear in person, and offered
+him a safe-conduct in coming and going. There was no security promised
+in staying, however, and Ezzelin was cautious. The term allowed him
+passed away, and he was duly excommunicated. After two years more he was
+notified that unless he appeared by August 1, 1250, he would be
+subjected to the statutes against heresy. The obdurate sinner was
+equally unmoved by this, and in June, 1251, the Bishop of Treviso and
+the Dominican Prior of Mantua were ordered to summon him personally
+again to appear by a given time, offering him ample security for his
+safety: if he disobeyed, his subjects of Treviso were commanded to
+coerce him, and if this failed a crusade was to be preached against
+him.[251]
+
+To a pope desirous of extending his temporal sway it was exceedingly
+convenient to condemn his political opponents for heresy, and
+exceedingly economical to pay for their subjugation by lavishing the
+treasures of salvation. Thus, in April, 1253, Innocent IV., as an
+episode in his quarrel with Brancaleone, Senator of Rome, ordered the
+Dominicans of the Roman province to preach a crusade, with Holy-Land
+indulgences, against the so-called heretics of Tuscany. Preparations
+were similarly made, on a larger scale, to crush those of Lombardy,
+where heresy was described as being more rampant and aggressive than
+ever. For two years a succession of bulls was issued directing all
+prelates, and especially the inquisitors, to preach the cross against
+them, with a most liberal assortment of indulgences. In one of these
+absolution was actually offered to those who held property wrongfully
+acquired, provided they contributed its value in aid of the crusade,
+thus deliberately rendering the Church an accomplice in robbery. In
+another, all persons or communities neglecting to aid the crusade were
+ordered to be prosecuted by the inquisitors as fautors of heresy. As a
+formal preliminary, Ezzelin was again cited, April 9, 1254, to present
+himself for judgment by the next Ascension day (May 21), failing which
+he was sentenced as a manifest heretic, to be dealt with as such. In all
+these proceedings the curious travesty of an inquisitorial trial shows
+us the influence which the Inquisition was already exercising on the
+minds of churchmen, and the employment of inquisitors proves how useful
+the institution was becoming as a factor in advancing the power of the
+Holy See.[252]
+
+The Neapolitan conquest and the death of Innocent IV. postponed the
+organization of the crusade, but at length, in June, 1256, it set out
+from Venice under the leadership of the Legate Filippo, Archbishop-elect
+of Ravenna. The capture by assault of Padua, Ezzelin's most important
+city, was an encouraging commencement of the campaign, but the
+seven-days' sack, to which the unfortunate town was abandoned, showed
+that the soldiers of the cross were determined to make the most of the
+indulgences which they had earned. Under its incompetent captain the
+crusade dragged on without further result, in spite of reiterated bulls
+offering salvation, until, in 1258, the legate was utterly routed near
+Brescia and captured, together with his astrologer, the Dominican
+Everard. Brescia fell into Ezzelin's hands, who, more powerful than
+ever, entertained designs upon Milan, where he had relations with the
+Ghibelline faction. When all danger seemed to him past, however, there
+was a sudden revulsion of fortune. The Ghibelline chiefs of Lombardy,
+Uberto Pallavicino and Buoso di Dovara, lords of Cremona, had been in
+alliance with him; they had aided in the capture of Brescia, with the
+understanding that they were to share in its possession, but he had
+monopolized the conquest, and they were resolved on revenge. June 11,
+1259, they signed a treaty against Ezzelin with the Milanese and with
+Azzo d'Este, the head of the Lombard Guelfs. Ezzelin took the field with
+a heavy force, hoping to gain possession of Milan through the
+intelligences which he had within the walls, but on the march he was
+attacked by Uberto, Buoso, and Azzo, who by skilful strategy dispersed
+his troops and captured him, grievously wounded. His savage pride would
+not brook this degradation: he tore the bandages from his wound, refused
+all aid, and died in a few days.[253]
+
+No greater service could have been rendered to the Church than that
+performed by Uberto, who had been in field and council the soul of the
+alliance that destroyed the dreaded Ezzelin and threw open, after thirty
+years of fruitless effort, the March of Treviso to the Inquisition. Some
+show of favor in return for such services would not have been amiss;
+would perhaps, indeed, have been wise, as it might have won over the
+powerful Ghibelline chief. In the treaty of June 11, however, the allies
+had alluded to Manfred as King of Sicily, and had pledged themselves to
+labor for his reconciliation with the pope. No service, especially after
+it had become irrevocable, could overbalance this recognition of the
+hated son of Frederic. Uberto, Buoso, and the Cremonese had been
+absolved from excommunication when they entered the alliance, but
+Alexander IV. wrote, December 13, 1259, to his legate in Lombardy that
+the absolution was worthless because it had not been administered by a
+Dominican or a Franciscan, who alone were empowered to grant it; if,
+however, the allies would repudiate Manfred and give sufficient security
+to obey the mandates of the Church and to restore all Church property,
+they might still be absolved.[254]
+
+Apparently Alexander's head had been turned by the triumph over Ezzelin,
+but he knew little of the man whom he thus treated with such
+supercilious ingratitude. By intrigues with the Torriani and other
+powerful nobles of Milan, Uberto created for himself a party in that
+city, and in 1260 he procured his election as podesta for five years.
+Rainerio Saccone vainly endeavored to prevent a consummation so
+deplorable. He assembled the citizens, denounced Uberto as vehemently
+suspected of heresy and as a manifest defender of heretics, and
+threatened that if it was persisted in he would ring all the church
+bells, and summon the people and clergy and Crocesegnati to oppose it by
+force. Unfortunately the citizens did not take in good part this
+somewhat insolent interference of a stranger with their internal
+affairs; or, as Alexander IV. describes it, "this wholesome counsel
+given in the spirit of humility and kindness." In wrath they assembled
+and rushed to the Dominican convent, where they gave Rainerio the
+alternative of leaving the city or faring worse. He chose the wiser
+alternative and departed.[255]
+
+It was in vain that Alexander, in the bull detailing these griefs,
+ordered Rainerio and the other inquisitors to prosecute the guilty
+parties. It was in vain also that he approved, October 14, 1260, the
+statutes of an association of Defenders of the Faith recently formed in
+Milan in honor of Jesus Christ, the Blessed Virgin, St. John the
+Baptist, and St. Peter Martyr, whose members pledged themselves to give
+assistance, armed or otherwise, to the Inquisition in its labors for the
+extermination of heresy. Uberto was now the most powerful man in
+Lombardy, and wherever his influence extended he prohibited inquisitors
+from performing their functions. Heretics were safe under his rule, and
+they flocked to his territories from other parts of Lombardy and from
+Languedoc and Provence. One of his confidential servitors was a certain
+Berenger, who had been condemned for heresy. Alexander lost no time in
+repeating with him the comedy of an inquisitorial trial, which we have
+seen performed with Ezzelin. December 9, 1260, he addressed instructions
+to the inquisitors of Lombardy to cite him, from some safe place, to the
+papal presence within two months, offering him a safe-conduct for coming
+(but not for going), when if he can prove his innocence he will be
+admitted to swear obedience to the papal mandates. If he does not
+appear, he is to be proceeded against inquisitorially.[256]
+
+Uberto cared as little as Ezzelin for the impotent papal thunder, and
+quietly went on strengthening his position and adding city after city to
+his dominions, in spite of Alexander's instructions to Rainerio and his
+inquisitors to act vigorously and to preach a crusade. Between his
+success in the north, and the daily extending influence of Manfred's
+wise and vigorous rule in the south, it looked for a while as though the
+ambitious designs of the papacy were permanently crushed, and that the
+Italian Inquisition might come to an untimely end. Inquisitors were no
+longer able to move around in safety, even in the Roman province, and
+prelates and cities were ordered to provide them with a sufficient guard
+in all their journeys. An indication of the popular feeling is afforded
+by the action taken in 1264 by the people of Bergamo, greatly to the
+indignation of the Roman curia, to defend themselves against the
+arbitrary methods of inquisitorial procedure. They enacted that any one
+cited or excommunicated for heresy or fautorship might take an oath
+before the prosecutor or bishop that he held the faith of the Church of
+Rome in all its details, and then another oath before the podesta
+binding himself to pay one hundred sols every time that he deviated from
+it; after this he could not be cited outside of the city, and was
+eligible to any municipal office within it, while the magistrates were
+to defend him at the public expense against any such citation or
+excommunication. Yet outside of Uberto's territories and influence the
+business of the Inquisition in Lombardy went steadily on. In 1265 and
+1266 Clement IV. is found issuing instructions as to the duties and
+appointment of inquisitors as vigorously as though there were no
+impediments to their functions. It seemed only a question of time,
+however, when the districts yet open should be closed to them.[257]
+
+There have been few revolutions more pregnant with results than that
+which occurred when the popes, renouncing the hope of acquiring for
+themselves the kingdom of Sicily, and vainly tempting Edmond, son of
+Henry III. of England, succeeded in arousing the ambition of Charles of
+Anjou, and caused a crusade to be preached everywhere in his behalf. The
+papacy fully recognized the supreme importance of the issue, and staked
+everything upon it. The treasures of salvation were poured forth with
+unstinted hand, and plenary indulgences were given to all who would
+contribute a fourth of their income or a tenth of their property. The
+temporal treasury of the Church was drawn upon with equal liberality.
+Three years' tithe of all ecclesiastical revenues in France and
+Flanders were granted to Charles, and when all this proved insufficient,
+Clement IV. sacrificed the property of the Roman churches without
+hesitation. An effort to raise one hundred thousand livres by pledging
+it brought in only thirty thousand, and then he pawned for fifty
+thousand more the plate and jewels of the Holy See. He could truly
+answer Charles's increasing demands for money to support his naked and
+starving crusaders by declaring that he had done all he could, and that
+he was completely exhausted--he had no mountains and rivers of gold, and
+could not turn earth and stones into coin. So utter was his penury that
+the cardinals were reduced to living at the expense of the monasteries;
+and when the Abbot of Casa Dei complained of the number quartered on
+him, he was told that he would be relieved of the Cardinal of Ostia, but
+that he must support the rest. More permanent relief, however, was found
+at the expense of the foreigner by assigning to them revenues on
+churches abroad on the liberal scale of three hundred marks a year
+apiece.[258]
+
+Vainly Pallavicino sought to prevent the passage of the crusaders
+through Lombardy. The fate of Italy--one may almost say of the
+papacy--was decided, February 26, 1266, on the plain of Benevento, where
+Guelf and Ghibelline from all portions of the Peninsula faced each
+other. Had Charles been defeated it would have fared ill with the Holy
+See. Europe had looked with aversion on the prostitution of its
+spiritual power to advance its temporal interests, and success alone
+could serve as a justification, in an age when men looked on the battle
+ordeal as recording the judgment of God. In the previous August, Clement
+had despairingly answered Charles's demands for money by declaring that
+he had none and could get none--that England was hostile, that Germany
+was almost openly in revolt, that France groaned and complained, that
+Spain scarce sufficed for her internal necessities, and that Italy did
+not furnish her own share of expenses. After the battle, however, he
+could exultingly write, in May, to Cardinal Ottoboni of San Adriano, his
+legate in England, that "Charles of Anjou holds in peace the whole
+kingdom of that pestilent man, obtaining his putrid body, his wife, his
+children, and his treasure," adding that already the Mark of Ancona had
+returned to obedience, that Florence, Siena, Pistoja, and Pisa had
+submitted, that envoys had come from Uberto and Piacenza, and that
+others were expected from Cremona and Genoa; and on June 1 he announced
+the submission of Uberto and of Piacenza and Cremona.[259]
+
+Although one by one Pallavicino's cities revolted from him in the
+general terror, his submission was only to gain time, and in 1267 he
+risked another cast of the die by joining in the invitation to Italy of
+the young Conradin, but the defeat and capture of that prince at
+Tagliacozza, in August, 1268, followed by his barbarous execution in
+October, extinguished the house of Suabia and the hopes of the
+Ghibellines. Charles of Anjou was master of Italy; he was created
+imperial vicar in Tuscany; even in the north we find him this year
+appointing Adalberto de' Gamberti as podesta in Piacenza. Before the
+close of 1268 Pallavicino died, broken with age and in utter misery,
+while besieged in his castle of Gusaliggio by the Piacenzans and
+Parmesans. For a presumed heretic he made a good end, surrounded by
+Dominicans and Franciscans, confessing his sins and receiving the
+viaticum, so that, as a pious chronicler observes, we may humbly believe
+that his soul was saved. Despite the calumnies of the papalists, he left
+the reputation of a man of sterling worth, of lofty aims, and of great
+capacity. As for Rainerio Saccone, the last glimpse we have of him is in
+July, 1262, when Urban IV. orders him to come with all possible speed
+for consultation on a matter of moment, defraying, from the proceeds of
+the confiscations, all expenses for horses and other necessaries on the
+journey. His expulsion from Milan had evidently not diminished his
+importance.[260]
+
+Under these circumstances, the long interregnum of nearly three years,
+which occurred after the death of Clement IV., in 1268, made little
+difference. Henceforth there was to be no refuge for heresy. The
+Inquisition could be organized everywhere, and could perform its
+functions unhampered. By this time, too, its powers, its duties, and its
+mode of procedure had become thoroughly defined and universally
+recognized, and neither prelate nor potentate dared to call them in
+question. As already stated, in 1254, Innocent IV. had divided the
+Peninsula between the two Orders, giving Genoa and Lombardy to the
+Dominicans, and central and southern Italy to the Franciscans. To the
+provinces of Rome and Tuscany were allotted two inquisitors each, while
+for that of St. Francis, or Spoleto, one was deemed sufficient, but in
+1261 each inquisitor was furnished with two assistants, and the
+provincials were instructed to appoint as many more as might be asked
+for, so that the holy work might be prosecuted with full vigor.
+Lombardy, as we have seen, had eight inquisitors, and when the
+Dominicans divided that province, in 1304, the number was increased to
+ten, seven being assigned to Upper and three to Lower Lombardy. For a
+while the March of Treviso and Romagnola were intrusted to the
+Franciscans, but, as stated above (Vol. I. p. 477), their extortions
+were so unendurable that, in 1302, Boniface VIII. transferred these
+districts to the Dominicans, without thereby relieving the people.[261]
+
+No time had been lost in enforcing unity of belief in the territories
+redeemed from Ghibelline control. As early as February, 1259, the
+Franciscan Minister of Bologna was ordered to appoint two friars as
+inquisitors in Romagnola. At Vicenza, no sooner was quiet restored after
+the death of Ezzelin than Fra Giovanni Schio was sent thither to remove
+the excommunication incurred by the people in consequence of their
+subjection to Ezzelin. The ceremony was symbolic of the scourging
+inflicted on penitents. The podesta and council assembled at the usual
+place of meeting, whence they marched in pairs to the cathedral. At the
+south portal stood Giovanni with seven priests, and as the magistrates
+entered they touched each one lightly with rods, after which the rites
+of absolution were solemnly performed. The exiled bishop, Bortolamio, on
+his return from England had tarried with St. Louis, whose confessor he
+had been in Palestine, where he had served as papal legate during the
+saintly king's crusade. As soon as he heard of the death of Ezzelin he
+hastened homeward, bearing with him the priceless treasures of a thorn
+of the crown and a piece of the cross which St. Louis had bestowed upon
+him in parting. At once he commenced to build the great Dominican church
+and convent of the Santa Corona. The site chosen was on the most
+elevated spot in the city, known as the Colle, and among the buildings
+destroyed to give place for it was the church of Santa Croce, which had
+been occupied by the heretics as their place of assembly and worship. We
+are told that the presence of the relics worked the miracle of relieving
+the city of its three leading sins--avarice, heresy, and discord. As for
+heresy, the miracle lay in the unlooked-for conversion of the chief
+heretic of the district, Gieremia, known as the Archbishop of the Mark,
+who, with his son Alticlero, made public recantation. The heretic
+bishop, Viviano Bogolo, fled to Pavia, where he was recognized and
+burned. His two deacons, Olderico da Marola and Tolomeo, with eight
+others, probably Perfects, were obstinate, and were promptly burned.
+These examples were sufficient. The "credentes" furnished no further
+martyrs, and heresy, at least in its outward manifestation, was
+extinguished.[262]
+
+In some places, unblessed with such wonder-working relics, however, the
+Inquisition had much greater trouble in establishing orthodoxy. In
+Piacenza it is said to have found the burning of twenty-eight wagon
+loads of heretics necessary. At Sermione for sixteen years the
+inhabitants defiantly refused to allow persecution. Though Catholic
+themselves, they continued to afford protection to heretics, who
+naturally flocked thither as one refuge after another was rendered
+unsafe by the zeal of the inquisitors. It was in vain that Fra Timedeo,
+the inquisitor, obtained evidence by sending there a female spy, named
+Costanza da Bergamo, who pretended to be a heretic, received the
+_consolamentum_, and was then unreservedly admitted to their secrets. At
+last the scandal of such ungodly toleration became unendurable, and the
+Bishop of Verona prevailed upon Mastino and Alberto della Scala of
+Verona, and Pinamonte de' Bonacolsi of Mantua, to reduce Sermione to
+obedience. It was obliged to submit in 1276, delivering up no less than
+one hundred and seventy-four perfected heretics, and humbly asking to be
+restored to Catholic unity, with a pledge to stand to the mandates of
+the Church. Fra Filippo Bonaccorso, the Inquisitor of Treviso, applied
+to John XXI. for instructions as to the treatment of the penitent
+community. The pope was a humane and cultured man who cared more for
+poetry than theology, and he was disposed to be lenient with repentant
+sinners. He instructed Fra Filippo to remove the interdict if the town
+would appoint a syndic to abjure heresy in its name, and to swear in
+future to seize all heretics and deliver them to the Inquisition, any
+infraction of the oath to work a renewal, _ipso facto_, of the
+interdict. Every inhabitant was then to appear personally before the
+inquisitor, and make full confession of everything relating to heresy,
+to abjure, and to accept such penance as might be assigned--all infamous
+penalties, disabilities, imprisonment, and confiscation being mercifully
+excluded. Full records were to be kept of each case, and any
+withholding of the truth or subsequent relapse was to expose the
+delinquent to the full rigor of the law. Obstinate heretics were to be
+dealt with according to the canons, and of these there were found
+seventy, whom Fra Filippo duly condemned, and had the satisfaction of
+seeing burned. To insure the future purity of the faith, in 1278 a
+Franciscan convent was built at Sermione with the proceeds of a fine of
+four thousand lire levied upon Verona as one of the conditions of
+removing the interdict incurred by its upholding the cause of the
+unfortunate Conradin; and in 1289 Ezzelin's castle of Illasio was given
+to some of the nobles who had been conspicuous in the reduction of
+Sermione, as a reward for their service, and to stimulate them in the
+future to continue their support of the Inquisition.[263]
+
+Thus heresy, deprived of all protection, was gradually stamped out, and
+the Inquisition established its power in every corner of the land. How
+that power was abused to oppress the faithful with ingeniously devised
+schemes of extortion we have already seen. In fact, in the territories
+which had once been Ghibelline, it was impossible for any man, no matter
+how rigid his orthodoxy, to be safe from prosecution if he chanced to
+provoke the ill-will of the officials, or possessed wealth to excite
+their cupidity. So successful had the Church been in confounding
+political opposition with heresy that the mere fact of having adhered of
+necessity to Ezzelin during the period of his unquestioned domination
+long continued sufficient to justify prosecution for heresy, entailing
+the desirable result of confiscation. When Ezzelin's generation passed
+away, the memory of the dead was assailed and the descendants were
+disinherited. In all this there was no pretence of errors of faith, but
+the men to whom the Church intrusted the awful powers of the Inquisition
+seemed implacably determined to erase from the land every trace of those
+who had once dared to resist its authority. At last, in 1304, the
+authorities of Vicenza appealed to Benedict XI. no longer to allow the
+few survivors of Ezzelin's party and their descendants to be thus
+cruelly wronged, and the pope graciously granted their petition. By this
+time the empire was but a shadow; Ghibellinism represented no living
+force that the papacy could reasonably dread, and its persecution had
+long been merely the gratification of greed or malice.[264]
+
+The triumph of the Inquisition had not been effected wholly without
+resistance. In 1277 Fra Corrado Pagano undertook a raid against the
+heretics of the Valtelline. It was, doubtless, organized on an extended
+scale, for he took with him two associates and two notaries. This would
+indicate that heretics were numerous; the event showed that they did not
+lack protectors, for Corrado da Venosta, one of the most powerful nobles
+of the region, cut short the enterprise by slaughtering the whole party,
+on St. Stephen's day, December 26. Pagano had been a most zealous
+persecutor of heresy, and when his body was brought to Como it lay there
+for eight days before interment, with wounds freshly bleeding, showing
+that he was a martyr of God, and justifying the title bestowed on him by
+his Dominican brethren of St. Pagano of Como. His relics are still
+preserved there and are the objects of a local cult. Nicholas III. made
+every effort to avenge the murder, even invoking the assistance of
+Rodolf of Hapsburg, and his joy was extreme when, in November, 1279, the
+podesta and people of Bergamo succeeded in capturing Corrado and his
+accomplices. He at once ordered their delivery, under safe escort, to
+the inquisitors, Anselmo da Alessandria, Daniele da Giussano, and
+Guidone da Coconate, who were instructed to inflict a punishment
+sufficient to intimidate others from imitating their wickedness, and all
+the potentates of Lombardy were commanded to co-operate in their safe
+conveyance.[265]
+
+The same year that justice was thus vindicated, a popular ebullition in
+Parma shows how slender was the hold which the Inquisition possessed on
+the people. Fra Florio had been diligent in the exercise of his
+functions, and we are told that he had burned innumerable heretics,
+when, in 1279, he chanced at Parma to have before him a woman guilty of
+relapse. It was a matter of course to condemn her to relaxation, and she
+was duly burned. In place of being piously impressed by the spectacle
+the Parmesans were inspired by Satan to indignation which expressed
+itself by sacking the Dominican convent, destroying the records of the
+Inquisition, and maltreating the friars so that one of them died within
+a few days. The Dominicans thereupon abandoned the ungrateful city,
+marching out in solemn procession. The magistrates showed singular
+indifference as to punishing this misdeed, and when summoned by the
+Cardinal Legate of Ostia, the representatives who presented themselves
+lacked the necessary authority, so that, after vainly waiting for
+satisfaction, he laid an interdict upon the city. This was not removed
+till 1282, and even then the guilty were not punished. In 1285 we find
+Honorius IV. taking up the matter afresh and summoning the Parmesans to
+send delegates to him within a month to receive sentence; what that
+sentence was does not appear, but in 1287 the humbled citizens
+petitioned the Dominicans to return, received them with great honor, and
+voted them one thousand lire, in annual instalments of two hundred lire,
+wherewith to build a church. So stubborn was the opposition elsewhere to
+the Inquisition and its ways, that in 1287 the Provincial Council of
+Milan still deemed it necessary to decree that any member of a municipal
+government in any city within the province who should urge measures
+favoring heretics should be deemed suspect of heresy, and should forfeit
+any fiefs or benefices held of the Church.[266]
+
+Even in the Patrimony of St. Peter resistance was not wholly at an end.
+In 1254, when the papacy was triumphant, Innocent IV. urged the
+inquisitors of Orvieto and Anagni to take advantage of the propitious
+time and act with the utmost vigor. In 1258 Alexander IV. sounded the
+alarm that heresy was increasing even in Rome itself, and he pressingly
+urged increased activity on the inquisitors and greater zeal in their
+support by the bishops. Their efforts were not wholly successful. Twenty
+years later a knight named Pandolfo still made his stronghold of Castro
+Siriani, near Anagni, a receptacle of heretics. Fra Sinibaldo di Lago,
+the inquisitor of the Roman province, made various ineffectual attempts
+to prosecute him, and in 1278 Nicholas III. sent his notary, Master
+Benedict, with offers of pardon in return for obedience, but the
+heretics were obdurate, and Nicholas was forced to order Orso Orsini,
+Marshal of the Church in Tuscany, to levy troops and give Fra Sinibaldo
+armed assistance sufficient to enable him to coerce them to penitence. A
+similar enterprise against the Viterbian noble, Capello di Chia, in
+1260, has already been described (Vol. I. p. 342). In this case the zeal
+of the Viterbians, who levied an army to assist the inquisitor, must
+have had some political motive, for their city was of evil repute in the
+matter of heresy. In 1265, encouraged by the assistance of Manfred, the
+people had risen against the Inquisition and had only been subdued after
+a bloody fight in which two friars were slain. In 1279 Nicholas
+expresses his regret that although, while he had been inquisitor-general,
+he had labored strenuously to purge Viterbo of heresy, his labors had
+been unsuccessful. Heretics were still concealed there, and the whole
+city was infected. Fra Sinibaldo was therefore ordered to go thither to
+make a thorough inquisition of the place.[267]
+
+Earnest and unsparing as were the labors of the inquisitors, it seemed
+impossible to eradicate heresy. Its open manifestations were readily
+suppressed when the Ghibelline chiefs who protected it were destroyed,
+but in secret it still flourished and maintained its organization. In
+the inquest held on the memory of Armanno Pongilupo of Ferrara there is
+a good deal of testimony which shows not only the activity and success
+of the Inquisition of that city, but the continued existence of heresy
+throughout the whole region. There are allusions to numerous heretics in
+Vicenza, Bergamo, Rimini, and Verona. In the latter city a
+lady-in-waiting of the Marchesa d'Este, named Spera, was burned in 1270,
+and about the same time there were two Catharan bishops there, Alberto
+and Bonaventura Belesmagra. In 1273 Lorenzo was Bishop of Sermione, and
+Giovanni da Casaletto was Bishop of Mantua. There was a secret
+organization extending through all the Italian cities, with visitors and
+_filii majores_ performing their rounds, and messengers were constantly
+passing to and fro, elaborate arrangements being made for secreting
+them. Those who were in prison were kept supplied with necessaries by
+their brethren at large, who never knew at what moment they might be
+incarcerated. From the sentences of Bernard Gui we know that until the
+fourteenth century was fairly advanced the Cathari of Languedoc still
+looked to Italy as to a haven of refuge; that pilgrims thither had no
+trouble in finding their fellow-believers in Lombardy, in Tuscany, and
+in the kingdom of Sicily; that when the French churches were broken up
+those who sought to be admitted to the circle of the Perfect, or to
+renew their _consolamentum_, resorted to Lombardy, where they could
+always find ministers authorized to perform the rites. When Amiel de
+Perles had forfeited his ordination a conference was held in which it
+was determined that he should be sent with an associate to "the Ancient
+of the Heretics," Bernard Audoyn de Montaigu, in Lombardy for
+reconciliation; and on another occasion we hear of Bernard himself
+visiting Toulouse on business connected with the propagation of the
+faith.[268]
+
+How difficult, indeed, was the task of the inquisitor in detecting
+heresy under the mask of orthodoxy is curiously illustrated by the case
+of Armanno Pongilupo himself. In Ferrara heretics were numerous.
+Armanno's parents were both Cathari; he was a "_consolatus_" and his
+wife a "_consolata_." In 1254 he was detected and imprisoned; he
+confessed and abjured, and was released. From his Catharan bishop he
+received absolution for his oath of abjuration, and was received back
+into the sect. From this time until his death, in 1269, he was
+unceasingly engaged in propagating Catharan doctrines and in ministering
+to the wants of his less fortunate brethren in the clutches of the
+Inquisition, which was exceedingly active and successful. Meanwhile be
+preserved an exterior of the strictest Catholicism; he was regular in
+attendance at the altar and confessional, and wholly devoted to piety
+and good works. He died in the odor of sanctity, was buried in the
+cathedral, and immediately he began to work miracles. He was soon
+reverenced as a saint. A magnificent tomb arose over his remains, an
+altar was erected, and, as the miraculous manifestations of his
+sanctity multiplied, his chapel became filled with images and ex-votos,
+to the no little profit of the church fortunate enough to possess him.
+Adored as a saint in the popular cult, there came a general demand for
+his canonization, in which the pride of the city was warmly enlisted,
+but which was steadfastly opposed by the Inquisition. In the confessions
+of heretics before it the name of Armanno constantly recurred as that of
+one of the most active and trusted members of the sect, and ample
+evidence accumulated as to his unrepentant heresy. Then arose a curious
+conflict, waged on both sides with unremitting vigor for thirty-two
+years. Hardly had the remains been committed to honorable sepulture in
+the cathedral when Fra Aldobrandini, the inquisitor who had tried him in
+1254, ordered the archpriest and chapter to exhume and burn the corpse,
+and on their refusal excommunicated them and placed the cathedral under
+interdict. From this they appealed to Gregory X. and set to work to
+gather the evidence for canonization. For this purpose at different
+times five several inquests were held and superabundant testimony was
+forthcoming as to the success with which his suffrage was invoked, how
+the sick were healed, the blind made to see, and the halt to walk, while
+numerous priests bore emphatic witness to his pre-eminent piety during
+life. Gregory and Aldobrandini passed away leaving the matter unsettled.
+Fra Florio, the next inquisitor, sent to Rome expressly to urge Honorius
+IV. to come to a decision, but Honorius died without concluding the
+matter. On the accession of Boniface VIII., in 1294, Fra Guido da
+Vicenza, then inquisitor, again visited Rome to procure a termination of
+the affair. Still the contending forces were too evenly balanced for
+either to win. At length the Lord of Ferrara, Azzo X., interposed, for
+the contest between the inquisitor and the secular clergy seriously
+threatened the peace of the city. In 1300 Boniface appointed a
+commission to make a thorough investigation, with power to decide
+finally, and in 1301 sentence was rendered to the effect that Armanno
+had died a relapsed heretic; that no one should believe him to be
+anything but a heretic; that his bones should be exhumed and burned, the
+sarcophagus containing them and the altar erected before it be
+destroyed; that all statues, images, ex-votos, and other offerings set
+up in his honor in the cathedral and other Ferrarese churches should be
+removed within ten days; and that all his property, real and personal,
+was confiscated to the Inquisition, any sales or conveyances made of
+them during the thirty-two years which had elapsed since his death being
+void. Fra Guido's triumph was complete, and on the death of the Bishop
+of Ferrara, in 1303, he was rewarded with the episcopate. Extraordinary
+as this case may seem, it was not unique. At Brescia a heresiarch named
+Guido Lacha was long adored as a saint by the people until the imposture
+was detected by the Inquisition, which caused his bones to be dug up and
+burned.[269]
+
+This was the period of the greatest power and activity of the
+Inquisition, and the extent of its perfected organization is shown in a
+document of 1302, wherein Fra Guido da Tusis, Inquisitor of Romagnola,
+publishes in the communal council of Rimini the names of thirty-nine
+officials whom he has selected as his assistants. The expenses of such a
+body could not have been light, and to defray them there must have been
+a constant stream of fines and confiscations pouring into the
+inquisitorial treasury, showing an abundant harvest of heresy and active
+work in its suppression.[270] It was probably between 1320 and 1330 that
+was produced the treatise of Zanghino Ugolini, so often quoted above.
+Fra Donato da Sant' Agata had been appointed Inquisitor of Romagnola,
+and the learned jurisconsult of Rimini drew up for his instruction a
+summary of the rules governing inquisitorial procedure, which is one of
+the clearest and best manuals of practice that we possess.
+
+A singular episode of lenity occurred not long before, which is not to
+be passed over, although inexplicable in itself and unproductive of
+consequences. Its importance, indeed, lies in the evidence which it
+affords that the extreme severity of the laws against heresy was
+recognized as really unnecessary, since its relaxation in favor of a
+single community as a matter of favor would otherwise have been a crime
+against the faith. In February, 1286, Honorius IV., in consideration of
+the fidelity manifested by the people of Tuscany to the Roman Church,
+and especially to him before his elevation, relieved them individually
+and universally from the penalties for heresy, including all
+disabilities decreed by his predecessors and by Frederic II., whether
+incurred by their own errors or by those of their ancestors. Catholic
+children of heretic parents were thus _ipso facto_ restored to all
+privileges and were no longer liable to disinheritance. In the case of
+existing heretics it was necessary for them to appear before the
+inquisitors within a time to be named by the latter--excepting absentees
+in foreign lands, to whom a term of five months was allowed--to abjure
+heresy and receive penance, which was to be a secret one, involving
+neither humiliation, disability, or loss of property. Cases of relapse,
+however, were to be treated with all the rigor of the law. As this bull
+abrogated in Tuscany the constitutions of Frederic II., it required
+confirmation by Rodolph of Hapsburg, which was duly procured. For a
+while this extraordinary privilege seems to have been observed, for, in
+1289, Nicholas IV., when anathematizing heretics and stimulating the
+zeal of inquisitors throughout Genoa, Lombardy, Romagnola, Naples, and
+Sicily, pointedly omits Tuscany from his enumeration. In time, however,
+it was either repealed or disregarded. No case could come more
+completely within its purview than that already referred to of Gherardo
+of Florence, dying prior to 1250 and prosecuted in 1313. His numerous
+children and grandchildren were good Catholics, and yet they were all
+disinherited and subjected to the canonical disabilities.[271]
+
+Together with this exhibition of papal indulgence may be classed the
+occasional interference of the Holy See to moderate the rigor of the
+canons, or to repress the undue zeal of an inquisitor, when the sufferer
+had influence or money enough to attract the papal attention. It is
+pleasant to record three instances of this kind on the part of the
+despotic Boniface VIII., when, in 1297, he declared that Rainerio Gatti,
+a noble of Viterbo, and his sons had been prosecuted by the inquisitors
+on perjured testimony, wherefore the process was to be annulled and the
+accused and their heirs relieved from all stain of heresy; when, in
+1298, he ordered the Inquisition to restore to the innocent children of
+a heretic the property confiscated by Fra Andrea the inquisitor, and
+when he ordered Fra Adamo da Como, the inquisitor of the Roman province,
+to desist from molesting Giovanni Ferraloco, a citizen of Orvieto, whom
+his predecessors, Angelo da Rieti and Leonardo da Tivoli, had declared
+absolved from heresy. This Fra Adamo apparently rendered his office a
+terror to the innocent. May 8, 1293, we find him compelling Pierre
+d'Aragon, a gentleman of Carcassonne who chanced to be in Rome, to give
+him security in the heavy sum of one hundred marks to present himself
+within three months to the Inquisition of Carcassonne and obey its
+mandates. Pierre accordingly appeared before Bertrand de Clermont on
+June 19, and was closely examined, and then again on August 16, but
+nothing was discovered against him. Whether or not he recovered his one
+hundred marks from Fra Adamo does not appear, but the incident affords
+an illustration at once of the perfected organization of the Holy
+Office, and of the dangers which surrounded travellers in the countries
+where it flourished.[272]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Inquisition was thus thoroughly established and at work in northern
+and central Italy, and heresy was gradually disappearing before its
+remorseless and incessant energy. To escape it many had fled to
+Sardinia, but in 1258 that island was added to the inquisitorial
+province of Tuscany, and inquisitors were sent thither to track the
+fugitives in their retreats.[273] There were two regions, however,
+Venice and the Two Sicilies, which thus far we have not considered, as
+they were in some sort independent of the movement which we have traced
+in the rest of the Peninsula.
+
+Naples, like the other portions of southern Europe, had been exposed to
+the infection of heresy. At an early period missionaries from Bulgaria
+had penetrated the passes of the southern Apennines, and, in that motley
+population of Greek and Saracen and Norman, proselytes had not been
+lacking. The Norman kings, usually at enmity with the Holy See, had not
+cared to inquire too closely into the orthodoxy of their subjects, and
+had they done so the independence of the feudal baronage would have
+rendered minute perquisition by no means easy. The allusions of the
+Abbot Joachim of Flora to the Cathari indicate that their existence and
+doctrines were familiar facts in Calabria, though as Rainerio makes no
+allusion to any Catharan church in Italy south of Florence it is
+presumable that the sectaries were widely scattered and unorganized. In
+1235, when the Dominican convent in Naples was broken into by a mob and
+several of the friars were grievously wounded, Gregory IX. attributed
+the violence to friends of heretics.[274]
+
+Frederic II., however much at times his policy might lead him to
+proclaim ferocious edicts of persecution, and even spasmodically to
+enforce them, had no convictions of his own to render him persistent in
+persecution, and his lifelong contest with the papacy gave him, secretly
+at least, a fellow-feeling with all who resisted the supremacy of the
+Holy See, whether in temporal or spiritual concerns. Occasional attacks
+such as that under the auspices of the Archbishop of Reggio, in 1231, or
+the form of secular inquisition which he instituted in 1233, had little
+permanent effect. Cathari driven from Languedoc, who perhaps found even
+Lombardy insecure, were tolerably sure of refuge in the wild and
+secluded valleys of Calabria and the Abruzzi, lying aside from the great
+routes of travel. The domination in Naples of Innocent IV. was too brief
+for the organization of any systematized persecution, and when Manfred
+reconquered the kingdom, although he seems to have felt his position too
+precarious to risk open toleration, and, under pressure from Jayme of
+Aragon, he ordered Bishop Vivian of Toulouse and his disciples, who had
+settled in Apulia, to leave his dominions, yet he went no further in
+active measures of repression.[275]
+
+Charles of Anjou came as a crusader and as the champion of the Church.
+Scarce was his undisputed domination assured by the execution of
+Conradin, October 20, 1268, than we see him zealously employed in
+establishing the Inquisition throughout the kingdom. Numerous royal
+letters of 1269 show it actively at work, and manifest the solicitude of
+the king that the stipends and the expenses of the inquisitors should
+be provided for, and that every assistance should be rendered by the
+public officials. Each inquisitor was furnished with a letter which
+placed all the forces of the State at his unreserved command. The
+Neapolitan Inquisition was fully manned. There was one inquisitor for
+Bari and the Capitanata, one for Otranto, and one for the Terra di
+Lavoro and the Abruzzi; and in 1271 one was added for Calabria and one
+for Sicily. Most of them were Dominicans, but we meet with at least one
+Franciscan, Fra Benvenuto. Yet no buildings or prisons seem to have been
+provided for them. The royal jails were placed at their disposal, and
+the keepers were instructed to torture prisoners on requisition from the
+inquisitors. Even as late as 1305 this arrangement appears to be in
+force.[276]
+
+Charles's zeal did not confine itself to thus organizing and promoting
+the Inquisition. He supplemented its labors by instituting raids on
+heretics conducted under his own auspices. Thus, although there was an
+inquisitor for the Abruzzi, we find him, December 13, 1269, sending
+thither the Cavaliere Berardo da Rajano with instructions to investigate
+and seize heretics and their fautors. The utmost diligence was enjoined
+on him, and the local officials were ordered to assist him in every way,
+but there is no allusion to his mission being in co-operation with the
+inquisitor. Another significant manifestation of Charles's devotion is
+seen in his founding, in 1274, and richly endowing for the Dominicans
+the splendid church of San Piero Martire in Naples, and stimulating his
+nobles to follow his example in showering wealth upon it. Yet fifty
+years afterwards, in 1324, the building was still incomplete for lack of
+funds, when King Robert aided the construction with fifty ounces of
+gold, which he ordered the inquisitors to pay out of the royal third of
+the confiscations coming into their hands. This is interesting as
+showing how, in Naples, the profitable side of persecution was wholly
+under the control of the Holy Office.[277]
+
+Few details have been preserved to us of the activity of the Inquisition
+in Naples. We know that heretics continued to exist there, but the wild
+and mountainous character of much of the country doubtless afforded them
+abundant opportunities of safe asylum. Already, in August, 1269, a
+letter of Charles ordering the seizure of sixty-eight heretics
+designated by Fra Benvenuto shows that the work was being energetically
+prosecuted, and in another letter of March 14, 1270, there is an
+allusion to three others whom Fra Matteo di Caetellamare had recently
+caused to be burned in Benevento. The inquisitors of Languedoc,
+moreover, made haste, as early as 1269, to send agents to Naples to hunt
+the refugees whom their severity had driven there, and Charles ordered
+every assistance to be rendered to them, which, perhaps, explains the
+success of Fra Benvenuto. Yet the perpetual necessity for royal
+interposition leads to the inference that the Inquisition was not nearly
+so effective in Naples as it proved in Languedoc and Lombardy. The royal
+authority seems to be required at every turn, partly because the king
+allowed little independent initiative to the inquisitors, and partly,
+perhaps, because the local officials did not lend as hearty a
+co-operation as they might have done. Thus the Neapolitan Inquisition,
+even under the Angevines, seems never to have attained the compact and
+effective organization of which we have seen the results elsewhere,
+though Charles II. was an eager persecutor who stimulated the zeal of
+his inquisitors, and his son Robert earned the name of the Pious. In
+1305 we shall see Fra Tommaso di Aversa active in persecuting the
+Spiritual Franciscans, and in 1311, King Robert, at the instance of Fra
+Matteo da Ponza, ordered that all newly converted Jews should live
+scattered among Christians, so as not to be tempted back to
+Judaism.[278]
+
+The ineffectiveness of the Neapolitan Inquisition is seen in the
+comparative security which attended an organized immigration of
+Waldenses from the valleys of the Cottian Alps. It was probably about
+1315 that Zanino del Poggio, a Milanese noble, led forth the first band
+from Savoy, under specified guarantees of lands and privileges, after
+the intending emigrants had received the report of deputies sent in
+advance to survey the promised refuge. Fresh bands came to join them
+and a group of villages sprang up--Guardia Piemontese, or Borgo degli
+Oltremontani, Argentina, La Rocca, Vaccarizzo, and San Vincenzo in
+Calabria, while in Apulia there were Monteleone, Montanto, Faito, La
+Cella, and Matta. These were regularly visited by the "barbes," or
+missionary pastors, who spent their lives wandering around among the
+scattered churches, administering the consolations of religion and
+watching over the purity of the faith. The fierce persecutions conducted
+by Francois Borel led to further emigration on an enlarged scale, which
+naturally sought the Neapolitan territories as a haven of rest, until
+Apulia came to be regarded as the headquarters of the sect. That
+considerable bodies of heretics could thus establish themselves and
+flourish argues great negligence on the part of the Inquisition. In
+fact, its recognized inefficiency was shown as early as 1326, when John
+XXII. was in pursuit of some Fraticelli who had fled to Calabria;
+instead of calling upon the inquisitors he applied to King Robert and to
+the Duke of Calabria to capture them and hand them over to the episcopal
+tribunals.[279]
+
+When, as the result of the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, the Island of
+Sicily passed into the hands of Pedro III. of Aragon, it was placed in
+the bitterest antagonism towards the Holy See, and no active persecution
+is to be looked for. In fact, in 1285, Martin IV., in ordering a crusade
+preached against Pedro, gives as one of the four reasons alleged in
+justification that heresy was multiplying in the island, and that
+inquisitors were prevented from visiting it. It was not till 1302 that
+Boniface VIII. was brought to accept the accomplished fact, and to
+acknowledge Frederic of Aragon as King of Trinacria. The Inquisition
+soon followed. In 1304 we find Benedict XI. ordering Frederic to receive
+and give all due assistance to Fra Tommaso di Aversa the inquisitor, and
+all other inquisitors who may be sent thither. The pope, however, did
+not erect it into a separate tribunal, but instructed the Holy Office of
+the mainland that its jurisdiction extended over both sides of the Faro.
+Yet the introduction of the Inquisition in the island was nominal rather
+than real except, as we shall see, with regard to the Templars, and
+Sicily long remained a safe refuge for the persecuted Fraticelli.
+Doubtless Arnaldo de Vilanova contributed to this by the picture which
+he presented to Frederic of the inquisitors of the day. They were a
+diabolical pest, trafficking in their offices, converting themselves
+into demons, never edifying the faithful, but rather making them
+infidels, as they abandoned themselves to hatred, greed, and lust, with
+no one to condemn them or to repress their fury. When, in 1328, the
+Archbishop of Palermo arrested a Fraticello, appeal was at once made to
+Frederic, and John XXII. wrote to the archbishop urgently commanding
+that the sect be extirpated, showing apparently that there was no
+Inquisition then at work.[280]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Republic of Venice was always a law unto itself. Though forming part
+of the March of Treviso, its predominant interests in the thirteenth
+century lay to the east of the Adriatic, and it did not become a
+formidable power on the mainland until the acquisition of Treviso in
+1339. That of Padua, in 1405, followed by Verona, Vicenza, Feltre,
+Belluno, and Brescia, greatly increased its strength, and in 1448 it
+wrenched Bergamo from the dukes of Milan. Thus its policy with regard to
+the Inquisition eventually controlled the whole of the March of Treviso,
+and a considerable portion of Lombardy.
+
+That policy held at bay in all things the pretensions of the Holy See,
+and looked with extreme suspicion on whatever might give the popes an
+excuse for interference with either the domestic policy or the foreign
+enterprises of the Signoria. Fairly orthodox, though not bigoted, Venice
+held aloof from the strife between Guelf and Ghibelline, and was not
+involved in the anathemas lavished upon Ezzelin da Romano. Venice, in
+fact, was the basis of operations in the crusade against him, and it was
+a Venetian who led the expedition up the Brenta which captured Padua.
+Yet the republic made no haste to join in the movement for the
+extermination of heresy so energetically pushed by Gregory IX. and his
+successors. The Constitutions of Frederic II. were never inscribed in
+its statute-books. In 1229 the official oath of the Doge Giacopo
+Tiepoli, which, as is customary, contains the criminal code of the day,
+embodies no allusion to heresy or its suppression, and the same is true
+of the criminal statute of 1232 published by the same doge.[281]
+
+It was about this time that the Inquisition was developed with all the
+aggressive energy of which Gregory IX. was capable, but it found no
+foothold in Venice. Yet the duty to punish heresy was at length
+recognized, though the civil authorities would abate no jot of their
+right to control the administration of justice in spiritual as well as
+in temporal matters. The official oath taken in 1249 by the Doge Marino
+Morosini contains a promise that certain upright and discreet and
+Catholic men shall be appointed, with the advice of the Council, to
+inquire after heretics. All heretics, moreover, who shall be delivered
+to the secular arm by the Archbishop of Grado or other bishops of the
+Venetian territories shall be duly burned, under the advice of the
+Council, or of a majority of its members. Thus a kind of secular
+Inquisition was established to search after heretics. The ancient
+jurisdiction of the episcopal courts was alone recognized, but the
+judgment of the bishops was subject to revision by the Council before
+the death-penalty could be inflicted.[282]
+
+This could by no means be satisfactory to the papacy, and when the death
+of Frederic II. led to an immediate effort to extend the Inquisition
+through the territories hitherto closed to it, Venice was not forgotten.
+By a bull of June 11, 1251, Innocent IV. ordered the Frati Vicenzo of
+Milan, and Giovanni of Vercelli, to proceed to Venice and persecute
+heretics there with the same powers as those exercised by inquisitors
+elsewhere in Lombardy. Whether the good friars made the attempt to
+exercise these powers is questionable; if they did so, their ill-success
+is unquestionable. There is a document of 1256 which contains an oath to
+pursue heretics and to denounce them, not to the ecclesiastical
+tribunals, but to the doge or to the magistrates--an oath presumably
+administered to the secular inquisitors established in 1249. The same
+document contains a clause which indicates that the death-penalty
+threatened in 1249 had already been abrogated. It classes Cathari and
+usurers together: it alludes to the punishment decreed for those
+convicted of relapse into either sin, and shows that this was not
+capital, by providing that if the convict is a foreigner he shall be
+banished from Venice, but if a citizen he shall not be banished. Yet the
+death-penalty seems to have been restored soon afterwards, for, in 1275,
+the oath of Giacomo Contarini is the same as that of 1249, with the
+unimportant addition that the judgment of an episcopal vicar during the
+vacancy of a see can be substituted for that of a bishop.[283]
+
+As the pressure of the Inquisition extended throughout Lombardy and the
+Marches, the persecuted heretics naturally sought a refuge in Venetian
+territory, where supervision was so much more negligent. It was in vain
+that about 1286 Fra Filippo of Mantua, the Inquisitor of Treviso, was
+sent by Honorius IV. with a summons to the republic to inscribe in its
+laws the constitutions against heresy of Frederic and of the popes.
+Although the example of the other cities of the Marca Trivigiana was
+urged, and Venice was repeatedly required to do the same, obedience was
+persistently refused. At length, in 1288, Nicholas IV. lost patience
+with this persistent contumacy. He peremptorily ordered the Signoria to
+adopt the imperial and papal laws, and commanded that the doge should
+swear not only not to impede the Inquisitor of Treviso in his duties,
+but to assist him. In default of obedience he threatened to proceed
+against the city both spiritually and temporally.[284]
+
+The position of the republic was already indefensible under the public
+law of the period. It was so administering its own laws as to afford an
+asylum to a class universally proscribed, and it was refusing to allow
+the Church to apply the only remedy deemed appropriate to this crying
+evil. It therefore yielded to the inevitable, but in a manner to
+preserve its own autonomy and independence. It absolutely refused to
+incorporate in its own statutes the papal and imperial laws, but, August
+4, 1289, it empowered the doge, Giovanni Dandolo, to give assistance to
+the inquisitor, when called upon, without referring each case to the
+Senate. A further wise provision decreed that all fines and
+confiscations should inure to the State, which in turn undertook to
+defray the expenses of the Holy Office. These were not light, as, in
+addition to the cost of making arrests and maintaining prisoners, the
+inquisitor received the liberal salary of twelve ducats a month. For
+this purpose the proceeds of the corn-tax were set aside, and the money
+was deposited with the Provveditore delle Viare, who disbursed it on the
+requisition of the inquisitor. This compromise was accepted by Nicholas
+IV., August 28, 1288, and was duly embodied in the official oath of the
+next doge, Piero Gradenigo. Thus, while the inquisitor had full
+opportunity of suppressing heresy, the temptation to abuse his office
+for purposes of extortion was reduced to a minimum, and the State, by
+retaining in its hands all the financial portion of the business, was
+able at any time to exercise control.[285]
+
+The Inquisition was unaccustomed to submit to control, and soon chafed
+under these limitations. Already, in 1292, Nicholas IV. complained to
+Piero Gradenigo that the terms of the agreement were not carried out.
+The inquisitors, Bonagiunta of Mantua and Giuliano of Padua, reported
+that the papal and imperial laws against heresy were not enforced, and
+that under the arrangement for expenditures they were unable to employ a
+force of familiars sufficient to detect and seize the heretics. Heresy
+consequently, they said, continued to flourish in Venetian territory,
+for all of which Nicholas bitterly scolded the doge, and demanded such
+changes as should remove these scandals, but without effect. The
+Signoria, apparently, had not seen fit to abolish the office of secular
+inquisitors provided by the legislation of 1249. These were three in
+number, and were known as the "_tre Savi dell' eresia_," or
+"_assistenti_." It was hardly possible that a duplicate organization
+such as this could work without clashing. The situation became
+intolerable, and in 1301 Fra Antonio, the Inquisitor of Treviso,
+resolved to put an end to it. He notified the three Savi, Tommaso Viaro,
+Marino Zorzi, and Lorenzo Segico, to recognize no superior save himself.
+Their submission not being forthcoming, he proceeded to Venice, and
+addressed to the Doge Gradenigo a monition ordering him, under pain of
+excommunication, to swear to obey all the papal constitutions on heresy.
+Gradenigo refused, alleging that this would be a violation of his oath
+of office; the inquisitor withdrew his monition, and matters remained as
+before. Whatever hopes had been entertained that the entering wedge
+would enable the Inquisition to establish itself without restriction
+were foiled by the steadfastness of the republic. The three Savi
+continued their functions and, perhaps, even enlarged them; it had
+become customary for them to be selected from among the senators, and
+they acted in conjunction with the inquisitor in all cases coming within
+his jurisdiction. As Venice extended her conquests on the mainland, in
+all cities under her domination the _rettori_ or governors performed
+this function, and their participation was required in all prosecutions
+for heresy, not only by the inquisitor, but by the bishops.[286]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Italy, as in France, the history of the Inquisition during the
+fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is one of decadence. It is true that
+in Italy it had not to contend with the consolidation of power in the
+hands of a monarch, but the Captivity of Avignon and the debasement of
+the papacy under the influence of the French court, co-operating with
+the rise of the cities in wealth and culture, conduced to the same
+result; while the Great Schism, followed by the Councils of Constance
+and Basle, tended to emancipate the minds of men and foster
+independence. During the fourteenth century much of the inquisitorial
+activity was devoted to the new heresy of the Fraticelli, which will be
+referred to hereafter when we come to consider that remarkable religious
+movement. That movement, indeed, was the chief exception to the decay
+in spiritual enthusiasm which diminished at once the veneration which
+the Inquisition inspired and the opposition of heterodoxy which
+constituted its _raison d' etre_. As heretics grew fewer and poorer its
+usefulness decreased, its means of impressing the popular imagination
+disappeared, and its rewards grew less and less.
+
+As regards the Cathari, the Inquisition had done its work too well.
+Unceasing and unsparing repression gradually annihilated the sect which,
+during the first half of the thirteenth century, seemed almost able to
+dispute with Rome the possession of Italy on equal terms. Yet when we
+see that the Waldenses, exposed to the same merciless rigor, were not
+extinguished, we recognize that some other factor besides mere
+persecution was at work to obliterate a belief which once enjoyed so
+potent an influence on the human mind that thousands for its sake went
+joyfully to a dreadful death. The secret must be looked for in the
+hopeless pessimism of the faith itself. There was in it nothing to
+encourage and strengthen man in the battle of life. Manes had robbed the
+elder Mazdeism of its vitality when he assigned to the Evil Principle
+complete dominion over Nature and the visible universe, and when he
+adopted the Sankhya philosophy, which teaches that existence is an evil,
+while death is an emancipation for those who have earned spiritual
+immortality, and a mere renewal of the same hated existence for all who
+have not risen to the height of the austerest maceration. As
+civilization slowly advanced, as the midnight of the Dark Ages began to
+yield to the approaching dawn of modern ideas, as the hopelessness of
+humanity grew less abject, the Manichaean theory grew less attractive.
+The world was gradually awakening to new aims and new possibilities; it
+was outgrowing the dreary philosophy of pessimism, and was unconsciously
+preparing for the yet unknown future in which man was to regard Nature
+not as an enemy, but as a teacher. Catharism had no possibility of
+development, and in that lay its doom.
+
+The simple and earnest faith of the Waldenses, on the other hand,
+inculcated helpfulness and hopefulness, patience under tribulation, and
+an abiding trust in the watchful care of the Heavenly Father. The
+arduous toil of the artisan or husbandman was blessed in the
+consciousness of the performance of a duty. The virtues which form the
+basis of all Christian society--industry, charity, self-abnegation,
+sobriety, chastity, thrift--were stimulated and cultivated, and man was
+taught that his fate, here and hereafter, depended on himself, and not
+on the ministration or mediation of his fellow-creatures, alive or dead.
+It was a faith which fitted man for the environment in which he had been
+placed by his Creator, and it was capable of adaptation to the infinite
+vicissitudes of human progress. Accordingly, it had proportionate
+vitality. Rooted out in one place, it grew in another. It responded too
+nearly to the needs and aspirations of multitudes ever to be wholly
+blotted out. There was always a propitious soil for its scattered seeds,
+and its resistance of inertia in the end proved too much for even the
+persistent energy of its destroyers.
+
+Yet in Italy the Cathari lasted long after they had disappeared from
+France. Driven from the plains of Lombardy and central Italy, they took
+refuge in places less accessible. In 1340 we hear of them in Corsica,
+when Gerald, the Franciscan general, sent his friars thither, who
+succeeded in exterminating them for a time. In 1369 we again find
+Franciscans, under Fra Mondino da Bologna, zealously at work there, and
+earnestly supported by Gregory XI. In 1372 and 1373 Gregory wrote to the
+Bishops of Marrana and Ajaccio, and to Fra Gabriele da Montalcino,
+urging renewed activity, and, with singular lenity, authorizing them to
+remit the death-penalty in cases of single relapse. These hunted
+refugees were mostly in the forests and mountains, and to subdue them a
+chain of spiritual forts was established, in the shape of Franciscan
+houses. As late as 1397 a certain Fra Francesco was sent to Corsica in
+the double capacity of papal nuncio and inquisitor.[287]
+
+On the mainland, in spite of the vigilance of the Inquisition, Cathari
+continued to exist in Piedmont. In 1388 Fra Antonio Secco of Savigliano
+had the good-fortune to lay hands on one of the active members of the
+sect, Giacomo Bech of Chieri, near Turin. The report of his examination
+before the inquisitor and the Bishop of Turin, which has been printed by
+Sig. Girolamo Amati, gives full details of the condition of the sect.
+After his tongue had been loosened by repeated applications of torture,
+his confession shows that it was numerous in the vicinage, and that it
+comprised members of many noble families--the Patrizi, Bertoni, Petiti,
+Narro, and ancestors of Balbi and Cavour. Although in Italy, as in
+France, the name of Waldenses had become applicable to all heretics, and
+they were commonly designated by this name, they retained the moderated
+dualism of the Lombard Cathari. Satan fell from heaven, created the
+visible universe, and will finally return to glory. The law of Moses was
+dictated by him, and Moses was the greatest of sinners. Human souls are
+fallen demons, who transmigrate into other human bodies, or into those
+of animals, until released by death-bed _consolamentum_. The purity of
+the faith was maintained by occasional intercourse with its headquarters
+in Bosnia. Giacomo Bech was converted by a Slavonian missionary, in
+conjunction with Jocerino de' Balbi and Piero Patrizi, and the latter
+gave him ten florins and sent him to Bosnia to perfect himself in the
+doctrines, though he was compelled by ill-fortune at sea to return
+without accomplishing his pilgrimage. Forty years before one of the
+Balbi had gone thither for the same purpose; in 1360 a Narro and a
+Benso, Piero Patrizi himself in 1377, and Berardo Rascherio in 1380.
+Evidently the little community of Chieri maintained active relations
+with the heads of the Church. In 1370 Bech had fallen into the hands of
+the inquisitor, Fra Tommaso da Casacho, had been forced to confess, and
+had been released after abjuration in reward for his betraying his
+fellow-disciples.[288]
+
+Fra Antonio's labors had been already rewarded by the discovery of
+another sect of Cathari in the valleys to the west and northwest of
+Turin. Their heresiarch was Martino del Prete, and the community of
+Chieri had vainly endeavored to win them over to unity. In Pignerol, Fra
+Antonio had, in November, 1387, arrested a suspected heretic named
+Antonio Galosna, who passed for a Franciscan Tertiary. The Inquisition
+in those parts was greatly dependent upon the secular authorities, and
+the Count of Savoy, Amadeo VII., was not disposed to second it with
+zeal. When Galosna at first denied, Antonio succeeded in having him
+tortured till he promised to tell everything if released from torture,
+and accordingly the next day he made confession; but Giovanni di
+Brayda, the chamberlain of Amadeo, and Antonio da Valencia, the Judge of
+Pignerol, promised him that if he would retract they would effect his
+deliverance. The Castellan of Pignerol, in whose charge he was, also
+offered to liberate him on receiving five florins for himself and
+seventy more for necessary expenses; but, although Galosna pledged all
+his property to raise the sum, this device seems to have failed. On
+December 29 he was brought before the count himself, after being warned
+by di Brayda that if he confirmed his confession he should be hanged. He
+accordingly retracted it, but was not liberated, and a month later, in
+the presence of the count and the inquisitor, he repeated that his
+confession had been extorted by violence. Apparently he was made the
+subject of a prolonged debate between State and Church, in which the
+latter triumphed, for on May 29 we find him in the possession of the
+Bishop of Turin and of the inquisitor, undergoing examination in the
+castle of Dross, near Turin.[289]
+
+He proved a mine of information well worth the repeated interrogatories
+which extended from May 29 to July 10, for he had been a member of the
+sect for twenty-five years and a wandering missionary for fifteen, and
+was familiar with all the congregations, which appear to have been
+numerous, some in the neighborhood of Turin, but mostly in the lower
+Alpine valleys between Pignerol and Susa. Though he repeatedly alludes
+to the sectaries as Vaudois, they had no affinity with the Waldenses,
+and it is observable that he makes no reference to their existence in
+any of the distinctive Waldensian valleys, such as Angrogna, Perosa, or
+San Martino. They were mostly poor folk--peasants, servants, muleteers,
+innkeepers, mechanics, and artisans, and the chiefs of their
+"synagogues" were generally of this class, although occasionally a
+clerk, a canon, a notary, or other educated person is enumerated among
+the members. What were their precise distinctive tenets it is not easy
+to define with accuracy. Galosna's rough handling had evidently rendered
+him eager to satisfy the credulity of his examiners, and the imaginative
+character of some of his revelations casts a doubt on the truthfulness
+of them all. The applicant for initiation had to drink a beverage, foul
+of aspect, made with the excrement of a toad kept for the purpose;
+taken in excess it was apt to prove fatal, and its power was such that
+whoso once partook of it could never thereafter abandon the sect.
+Martino del Prete, the chief heresiarch, had a black cat as large as a
+lamb, which he declared to be the best friend he had on earth. We may
+safely set down the accounts of the sexual abominations which succeeded
+religious services in the conventicles, when the lights were
+extinguished, as worthy of equal credence. Contradictions in the
+repeated statements of the doctrines taught show that Galosna's
+imagination served him better than his memory in his prolonged
+examinations. He was told that in joining the sect he would secure
+salvation in glory with God the Father, and yet he declares that the
+sect rejected immortality, and held that the soul died with the
+body--and again, that there was no purgatory, but only heaven and hell
+hereafter. They believed, moreover, in God the Father who created the
+heavens, but they worshipped the Great Dragon, the creator of the world,
+who fought God and the angels, and was more powerful than he on earth.
+Christ was not the Son of God, but of Joseph, and was worthy of no
+special reverence. Altogether the account is hopelessly confused, but we
+can discern the dualism of a bastard Catharism, and allusions are made
+to the _consolamentum_ and the sacrament of bread. Like Jacopo Bech,
+Galosna had already abjured in the hands of Fra Tommaso da Casacho. Both
+were therefore relapsed; there was no mercy for them, and on September
+5, 1388, they were abandoned to the secular arm in Turin and necessarily
+burned. Unfortunately the record ends here, and we have no details as to
+the rich harvest which Fra Antonio must have reaped from the ample
+information obtained from his victims as to the scattered members of the
+sects.[290]
+
+Notwithstanding these evidences of vitality, Catharism was rapidly dying
+out. The latest definite reference to it, west of the Adriatic, occurs
+in 1403, when San Vicente Ferrer, the great Spanish revivalist,
+undertook a peaceful mission in the remote valleys which no Catholic
+priest had dared to visit for thirty years, when he found and converted
+a number of Cathari dwelling among the Waldenses. He regarded as a form
+of Manichaeism the worship of the rising sun which he found habitual
+among the peasants of the diocese of Lausanne, and some such survival of
+nature-worship was probably not infrequent, for a penitent of Fra
+Antonio Secco, in 1387, speaks of adoring the sun and moon on bended
+knees. Yet there would seem to be a remnant of Catharism lingering among
+the Waldenses of the Savoy valleys as late as 1451, when Filippo Regis
+was tried by the Inquisition.[291]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Italian Waldensianism continued to flourish in the mountain fastnesses
+of Piedmont, where the endless struggle with parsimonious nature
+fostered the hardier virtues. Thence, as we have seen, were emigrants
+and even colonies sent out, as persecution scattered the faithful or as
+population outgrew the narrow means of subsistence. The kindlier climate
+and less aggressive Inquisition of Naples finally rendered the southern
+colonies the headquarters of the sect, with which constant
+intercommunication was kept up. In 1387 we are told that the chief
+pontiff resided in Apulia and that the Waldensian community at Barge in
+Piedmont was presided over by two Apulians. A century later the mother
+communities in the Cottian Alps still looked to southern Italy as to the
+centre of their Church.[292]
+
+In 1292 we hear of persecutions in the Val Perosa, and again in 1312
+there were burnings of obstinate heretics in the valleys, but these
+efforts effected little, for in 1332 a brief of John XXII. describes the
+Waldensian church of the diocese of Turin as being in a most flourishing
+condition. The heretics were so numerous that they disdained
+concealment, holding assemblies in public in which as many as five
+hundred would be gathered together. When Fra Giovanni Alberto, the
+Inquisitor of Turin, had recently made an effort to repress them, they
+boldly rose in arms. On the public square of Angrogna they slew the
+parish priest Guillelmo, whom they suspected of furnishing information,
+and Alberto himself they besieged in a castle where he had taken refuge,
+so that he was glad to escape with his life, leaving the land abandoned
+to heresy. For twenty years and more one of their principal chiefs had
+been a man named Pier Martino, known also as Giuliano or Martino
+Pastrae, who chanced in his wandering missions to fall into the hands of
+Jean de Bades, the Inquisitor of Provence. The pope thereupon orders the
+latter to deliver his prisoner to Fra Alberto, who will be able to
+extract from him information of the utmost value in tracking and seizing
+his fellow-religionists--information, as the pope suggests, which will
+justify the use of torture. Doubtless this lucky capture enabled Fra
+Alberto to lay hands on a number of outlying heretics, though he
+probably did not again venture his person in the populous communities
+which had shown so sturdy a readiness in self-protection.[293]
+
+Persecution continued, and in 1354 we chance to hear of an order issued
+by Giacomo, Prince of Piedmont, to the Counts of Luserna, to imprison a
+number of Waldenses recently discovered in Luserna and the neighboring
+valleys. The order was issued at the instance of Pietro di Ruffia,
+Inquisitor of Piedmont, who paid for his zeal with his life, being
+shortly afterwards slain at Susa. In 1363 and 1364 Urban V. made another
+attempt to reduce the heretics to obedience. The infected district was
+exposed to attack on both sides, for the jurisdiction of the Inquisitor
+of Provence extended over the Tarantaise. Frere Jean Richard of
+Marseilles was directed to assail them from the west, while the
+inquisitor and the Bishop of Turin were busy on the east. Amadeo of
+Savoy was requested to co-operate with the Seneschal of Provence, and
+this combined assault resulted in a number of captures and trials. It
+was doubtless the mingled despair and thirst for revenge excited by this
+that led to many Waldenses joining in the rising of the Jacquerie in
+Savoy in 1365--a rising which was suppressed with the customary
+merciless cruelty by the King of Navarre and Wenzel of Brabant. In spite
+of these efforts at repression a letter written by them in 1368, to
+their German brethren, would seem to show that they were still regarded
+as the leaders of the sect.[294]
+
+Gregory XI. was especially zealous in the warfare with heresy, and we
+have already seen how earnest were his efforts in 1375 to suppress the
+Waldenses of Provence and Dauphine. Those of Piedmont had rendered
+themselves peculiarly obnoxious. Fra Antonio Pavo had recently gone to
+"Bricarax," a place deeply infected with heresy, to preach against
+them--his sermon, of course, including a summons before his
+tribunal--when in place of humbly submitting, a dozen of them, incited
+by the Evil One, had set upon him as he left the church and had slain
+him. Another inquisitor, probably Pietro di Ruffia, had met the same
+fate in the Dominican cloister at Susa, on the day of the Purification
+of the Virgin (February 2). Such misdeeds demanded exemplary
+chastisement, and Gregory's exhortations to Charles V. of France were
+accompanied with the strongest urgency on Amadeo VI. of Savoy to clear
+his land of brambles. We have seen how successful were the labors of the
+Nuncio, Antonio Bishop of Massa, and the Inquisitor of Provence,
+Francois Borel. They did not confine their energies to the French
+valleys. The Waldenses of the Val di Susa were exposed to the most
+pitiless persecution; on a Christmas night Borel with an armed force
+attacked Pragelato, putting to the sword all whom he could reach. The
+wretches who escaped perished of hunger and cold, including, it is said,
+fifty women with children at the breast.[295]
+
+It may be hoped that this holocaust satisfied the manes of the murdered
+inquisitors, for they seem to have received no other satisfaction. A
+succession of inquisitors--Piero di Castelmonte, Ruffino di Terdona,
+Tommaso da Casacho, and Michele Grassi, undaunted by the fate of their
+predecessors, wasted their energies on the Piedmontese Waldenses without
+reducing them to subjection. The pitiless forays of Borel drove the poor
+wretches from their native valleys, and they poured over into Piedmont.
+Amadeo VII., who succeeded his father in 1383, seems to have given the
+Inquisition but slender support, and it had little encouragement in its
+efforts to subdue the stubborn mountaineers. The fragmentary records of
+Fra Antonio Secco, who undertook the work in the spring of 1387, show
+how fruitless was the endeavor to co-operate with the ruthless
+proselytism of Borel. It is true that he caught Isabel Ferreria, the
+wife of Giovanni Gabriele, one of the murderers of Antonio Pavo, and had
+the satisfaction of torturing her, but he could get no evidence against
+her, and could only learn that her husband had died in 1386. Some other
+suspects he tortured and penanced with crosses: apparently he had no
+prisons at his disposal in which to incarcerate them. Accusations and
+denunciations poured in to him by the hundred, showing that the land was
+alive with heretics, but he was powerless to inflict on them punishment
+that would make an impression. One of his first cases had been a certain
+Lorenzo Bandoria, who had abjured before Antonio Pavo, and who under
+torture confessed to continued heresy. Here was a clear case of relapse,
+and accordingly, on March 31, he was abandoned to the secular arm and
+all his property declared confiscated to the Inquisition. This proved a
+mere _brutum fulmen_, for on May 6 Fra Antonio was obliged to issue a
+mandate to Ugonetto Bruno, Lord of Ozasco, ordering him, under pain of a
+hundred marks, to capture Lorenzo and present him before the tribunal
+the next day, while the treasurer of Ozasco was required, under threat
+of excommunication, to appear at the same time with an inventory of all
+the convict's property. As Lorenzo had been handed over to the Castellan
+of Pignerol for execution, it is evident that the officials refused to
+carry out the sentences of the inquisitor, nor does this new effort
+appear to have had any better result. Many of his citations were
+disregarded, and when, on May 19, he ordered the lords of Ozasco to
+arrest three heretics under penalty of a hundred marks, no attention
+seems to have been paid to the command. This insubordination increased,
+and as the season advanced we observe that when an accused refuses to
+confess, the dread entry "the lord inquisitor is not content" is not
+followed by the customary torture, but that the culprit is mercifully
+dismissed under bail. One case gave Fra Antonio infinite disgust. On
+June 27 he cited Giacomo Do and Sanzio Margarit of Sangano; they did not
+appear, but on August 6 he found them in Turin and seized them. For
+fifteen days he kept them in chains, when they broke jail, but by the
+help of God he caught them again and carried them to the castle of
+Avegliana, where they remained ten days. He had been unable to get them
+tortured, and they would not confess without it; the magistrates of
+Avegliana appealed to Count Amadeo, who ordered them released, and Fra
+Antonio records the unwillingness with which he obeyed the command. He
+endeavored to turn his stay in Avegliana to account by publishing the
+customary monition for all persons to come forward and confess their own
+heresy or denounce those who were suspect. For nine days he waited, but
+not a soul appeared to accuse himself or his neighbors, and he departed,
+grieved at heart over the obduracy of the people, for it was common fame
+that there were many heretics there and in the neighborhood, especially
+at Coazze and Valgione. The final blow came when in December he issued a
+summons to all the officials of Val Perosa, one of the recognized
+Waldensian valleys, reciting that their land was full of heretics and
+that they must appear before him in Pignerol to purge themselves and
+their communities of this infamy. They did not obey, but through the
+intervention of the Piedmontese Chancellor, Giovanni di Brayda, and
+other courtiers, they agreed to pay Count Amadeo five hundred florins a
+year, for which he was to prevent the inquisitor from visiting Val
+Perosa, and they were to be exempted from obeying his citations. This
+was too much to endure, and Fra Antonio shook the dust of Pignerol from
+his feet for the more promising chase of the Cathari near Turin, first
+denouncing the officials of Val Perosa as having incurred
+excommunication and the penalties of contumacy, the only result of which
+was to draw upon his head the wrath of Count Amadeo. It does not appear
+that he had any better success in endeavoring to obtain for his
+Inquisition the confiscations of the people of Pragelato condemned by
+the Provencal inquisitor, Francois Borel. By a special privilege of
+Clement VII. the latter's jurisdiction had been extended over some of
+the Piedmontese valleys, and though Fra Antonio might abandon the
+persons of the heretics to his Franciscan rival, he was resolved, if he
+could, to retain their property. These mishaps of Fra Antonio have an
+interest, not only as a rare instance of difficulties thrown into the
+path of the Inquisition, but as explaining why the fierce persecutions
+of Borel had so little effect in diminishing Waldensianism.[296]
+Pragelato, however, suffered more severely in 1400 when, about
+Christmas, it was attacked by an armed force from Susa. The inhabitants
+who escaped death or capture took refuge on the mountain-tops of the Val
+San Martino, where many perished from exposure in the inclement season;
+and the survivors, on returning after the departure of the troops, found
+their dwellings dismantled. This cold-blooded cruelty shocked even
+Boniface IX., who ordered the inquisitor in charge of the foray to
+moderate his zeal in future.[297]
+
+Vicente Ferrer's visit of 1403 was of a more peaceful nature, but it is
+not likely that the conversions of which he boasted were more permanent
+than those which his eloquence effected with the Moors and Jews of his
+native land, where they eagerly clamored for baptism under the
+persuasion of massacre.[298]
+
+During the Great Schism persecution slackened, but already, in 1416,
+fresh decrees were issued against the Waldenses. Our knowledge of
+details is but fragmentary at best, and it is impossible to construct a
+complete history of the conflict between them and the Inquisition, but
+we may fairly infer that the latter was at least spasmodically active. A
+petition addressed to the Duke of Savoy by the lords of Luserna recites
+that the inhabitants of the valley were in full rebellion, owing to
+repeated persecution; the document is without date, but must be
+posterior to 1417, when Sigismund erected the county into a duchy.
+Again, we know that, between 1440 and 1450, Fra Bertrando Piero, vicar
+of the inquisitor, in one raid burned at Coni twenty-two relapsed
+heretics, and confiscated their property. This happens to be alluded to
+in a memorial addressed in 1457 to Calixtus III., by the people of the
+neighboring village of Bernez, who proceed to relate that after this
+exploit Fra Bertrando visited their town in company with his principal,
+Fra Ludovico da Soncino, and commenced an inquisition there, but
+abandoned it, to the scandal of the people, without concluding the
+trials. Then Felix V. (Amadeo of Savoy) sent the Abbot of San-Piero of
+Savigliano to complete the unfinished business, who acquitted a number
+of the accused. Then recently there had come a new inquisitor who took
+up the cases again and molested those who had been discharged, whereupon
+they petitioned the pope that he be restrained from further proceedings
+until two experts in theology be appointed as assessors by the Bishop of
+Mondovi and the Abbot of Savigliano. The presentation of such a request
+shows how much the Inquisition had lost of its power of inspiring awe,
+and this is emphasized by the action of Calixtus in ordering the Bishop
+of Turin and the inquisitor to associate with themselves two experts and
+proceed with the cases. It indicates, moreover, that little rest was
+allowed to the Waldenses. While this affair was dragging its slow length
+along, Nicholas V., in 1453, addressed to the Bishops of Turin and Nice
+and to the Inquisitor Giacomo di Buronzo, a bull reciting that Giacomo
+had found in the Valley of Luserna a majority of the inhabitants
+infected with heresy, many of them having relapsed repeatedly. Unable to
+convert them, he had placed an interdict on the valley; the people had
+repented and begged for readmission to the Church, wherefore Nicholas
+orders the removal of the interdict, and that penitents, whether
+relapsed or not, be pardoned and restored to all their civil rights--a
+degree of lenity which indicates that sterner measures at the time were
+clearly inexpedient.[299]
+
+In 1475 a more serious war of extermination was commenced against them
+under the Duchess Yolande, Regent of Savoy, in conjunction with the
+simultaneous action of the Inquisition in Dauphine. By an edict of
+January 23, 1476, all the officials in the infected districts were
+placed at the disposition of the Inquisition, and the podesta of Luserna
+was cited to appear on February 10, to answer for his conduct, in
+refusing, at the instance of the Inquisitor Andrea di Aquapendente, to
+make proclamation that none of the converts of Giacomo di Buronzo should
+be permitted to effect sales greater in amount than one florin, and that
+all sales which had been made by them were void, for they had relapsed,
+were endeavoring to emigrate, and to dispose of their property, which
+was legally confiscated. Louis XI., who stopped the persecution, as we
+have seen, so unceremoniously in his own dominions, felt interest enough
+in the matter to extend protection over the unfortunates in his sister's
+territories, and his word had power sufficient to dampen the zeal of the
+duchess, who was wholly dependent on him after the misfortunes of
+Charles the Bold. Sixtus IV. was much scandalized by this. He had sent a
+special papal commissioner to speed the holy work, and he wrote
+pressingly to Louis, assuming that the royal letters of protection must
+have been surreptitiously obtained. He instructed the Bishop of Turin to
+go, if possible, in person to Louis and to make every effort to
+exterminate the heretics, who dared openly to propagate their doctrines
+and make converts, to the ruin of immortal souls. The death of Louis, in
+1483, deprived the Waldenses of their protector, and persecution
+recommenced. An order of Duke Carlo I., in 1484, to inquire into the
+violences committed by the people of Angrogna, Villaro, and Bobbio
+because their lords endeavored to suppress their heresies, shows how
+soon and how bitterly the struggle broke out afresh. The heretics
+scattered through the towns of Piedmont were mercilessly dealt with by
+the inquisitors, but those who inhabited the mountain valleys were safe,
+except from assault by overwhelming forces. In April, 1487, Innocent
+VIII. recites how the inquisitor-general, Fra Blasio di Monreale, had
+gone to the infected district, and had vainly sought by earnest
+exhortations to induce the heretics to abandon their errors; how they
+had contemptuously defied his censures, had continued openly to preach
+and make converts, had attacked his house, slain his familiar, and
+pillaged his goods. More strenuous efforts were evidently requisite, and
+Innocent appointed Alberto de' Capitanei, Archdeacon of Cremona, as
+papal nuncio and commissioner to Piedmont and Dauphine, with
+instructions to coerce the people to receive Fra Blasio, and permit the
+free exercise of his office, and to crush the heretics like venomous
+serpents. To this end Alberto was empowered to preach a crusade with
+plenary indulgences, and to deprive of their office and dignities all,
+whether ecclesiastics or laymen, who refused to obey his commands. From
+February to May, 1488, he duly issued his citations to the heretics, and
+as they were contumacious, he condemned them accordingly and abandoned
+them in mass to the secular arm. Meanwhile a force estimated at eighteen
+thousand crusaders had been raised in France and Piedmont, which
+advanced in four columns so as to block every avenue of escape. The
+slaughter in Val Louise has already been alluded to. The Val d'Angrogna
+was more fortunate, and in the attack upon it the crusading army was
+virtually annihilated. This victory earned for the Waldenses a respite,
+and in 1490 Carlo I. invited them to a conference at Pignerol, where he
+granted them peace and confirmed their privileges. In 1498 they were
+visited by Lucas of Prague and Thomas Germanus, envoys of the _Unitas
+Fratrum_ of Bohemia. Through these they addressed a letter to the
+Bohemian King Ladislas and his nobles, boasting that they did not
+frequent the Catholic churches, fiercely denouncing the vices of the
+priesthood, and arguing that the benediction of such men was rather a
+malediction. Evidently the spirit of the persecuted saints was unbroken,
+and it was soon after put to the test in the valley of the Po, where
+whole villages were found to consist of Waldenses. Marguerite de Foix,
+Marchioness of Saluces, put troops at the command of the Inquisitor
+Angelo Ricciardino, who had found his ordinary machinery baffled. The
+villages of Pravillelm, Beitoneto, and Oncino were raided; most of the
+inhabitants succeeded in escaping to Luserna, but some were captured,
+and five were sentenced to be burned, March 24, 1510. A heavy snow-storm
+delayed the execution, and during the ensuing night the prisoners broke
+jail and joined their comrades. The inquisitor, however, was not to be
+balked of his exhibition, and replaced the fugitives with three
+prisoners to whom he had promised pardon in consideration of the fulness
+of their confessions, and who were duly burned. The deserted villages
+were confiscated and made over to good Catholics, but the refugees at
+intervals descended on them, slaying and spoiling without mercy, till no
+one dared to dwell there. Finally the bigoted marchioness yielded, and
+for a round sum of money, in 1512, permitted the exiles to return and
+dwell in peace. The triumph of toleration thus won by the sword was but
+local and temporary. In Savoy, the statutes published in 1513 contain
+all the time-honored provisions for the suppression of heresy, with
+instructions to all public officials to aid in every way the
+Inquisition, whose expenses are to be defrayed out of the confiscations.
+Continued persecution was thus provided for, nor was it averted when, in
+1530, the Waldenses opened negotiations with the Protestants of
+Switzerland, resulting in their final incorporation with the
+Calvinists.[300]
+
+These incessant ravages naturally led to emigration on an extended
+scale, which, as we have seen, mostly turned itself to Calabria and
+Apulia, where the brethren had dwelt in comparative peace for nearly two
+centuries. A large portion of the population of Freyssinieres, for
+instance, expatriated themselves and settled in the valley of Volturara.
+The Inquisition was virtually extinct in the kingdom of Naples during
+the fifteenth century, and the heretics had earned toleration by a
+decent reserve. They attended mass occasionally, allowed their children
+to be baptized by the priests, and, what was more important, they paid
+their tithes with exemplary regularity--tithes which grew satisfactorily
+under the incessant industry of the God-fearing husbandmen. The mountain
+valleys which had been almost a desert became smiling with corn-fields
+and pastures, orchards and vine-yards. The nobles on whose lands they
+had settled under formal agreements gave willing protection to those who
+contributed so greatly to their revenues. When the independence of the
+feudatories was lost under the growing royal power of the House of
+Aragon, the heretics sought and obtained, in 1497, from King Frederic,
+the confirmation by the crown of the agreements with the nobles, and
+thus felt assured of continued toleration. They were visited every two
+years by the travelling pastors, or _barbes_, who came in pairs, an
+elder, known as the _reggitore_, and a younger, the _coadiutore_,
+journeying with some pretence of occupation, finding in every city the
+secret band of believers whom it was their mission to comfort and keep
+steadfast in the faith, and from whom they made collections which they
+reported to the General Assembly or Council. Between Pignerol and
+Calabria they counted twenty-five days' journey along the western
+coast, returning by the eastern to Venice. Everywhere they met friends
+acquainted with their secret passwords, and in spite of ecclesiastical
+vigilance there existed throughout Italy a subterranean network of
+heresy disguised under outward conformity. In 1497 the envoys from the
+Bohemian Brethren, Lucas and Thomas, found in Rome itself one of their
+faith, whom they bitterly reproached for concealing his belief. In
+Calabria, in 1530, it was estimated that they numbered ten thousand
+souls, in Venetia, six thousand. The fate of these poor creatures, after
+generations of peaceful existence which might well seem destined to be
+perpetual, belongs to a period beyond our present limits, but the fact
+that they could thus prosper and increase shows how rusty had grown the
+machinery of the Inquisition, and how incapable had become its
+officials.[301]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It only remains for us to note cursorily such indications as have
+reached us of the activity and condition of the Inquisition in the
+several provinces of Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries. In Savoy, as we have seen, the bitter contest with the
+Waldenses kept it in fair working condition, while it was gradually
+falling into desuetude elsewhere, although in Lombardy it still, for a
+while, maintained its terrors. We have a somewhat vague description of
+its sleepless vigilance in 1318, in pursuing certain heretics who are
+described as Lollards--whether Begghards or Waldenses does not appear,
+but probably the latter, as we are told that when concealment became
+impossible the men escaped to Bohemia, leaving some women with children
+at the breast, whereupon the women were burned, and the children given
+to good Catholics to be brought up in the faith. In 1344 we hear of a
+great popular excitement, caused by the belief that a number of victims
+of the Inquisition had suffered unjustly. Matters went so far that the
+Imperial Vicar, Lucchino Visconti, asked Clement VI. to order an
+investigation, which was duly held, though we do not know the result. It
+was possibly the feeling thus aroused which led, in 1346, to the murder
+in the Milanese of a Franciscan inquisitor conspicuous for his
+persecuting zeal. The perpetual troubles during the century between the
+Holy See and the Visconti cannot but have greatly interfered with the
+efficiency of persecution. In the collected statutes of the Dukes of
+Milan from 1343 to 1495 there is no allusion of any kind to the
+Inquisition, or to the punishment of heretics. There is, however, on
+record a decree of 1388 placing the civil officials at the service of
+the Inquisition, but it enforces the conditions of the Clementines,
+which require episcopal consent to the use of torture and harsh prison,
+and to the final sentence. It moreover threatens inquisitors with
+punishment for using their office to extort money or gratify malice; and
+it further significantly commands them not to abuse the privilege of
+armed familiars, or to unnecessarily multiply their officials. How the
+political passions of the time hindered the functions of the Holy Office
+is seen in the case of Fra Ubertino di Carleone, a bustling Franciscan,
+subsequently Bishop of Lipari, who, about 1360, was accused of heresy by
+the Inquisitor of Piacenza. He at once proclaimed that his Ghibellinism
+was the motive of the prosecution, and aroused the factions of the city
+to a tumult, under cover of which he escaped.[302]
+
+Inquisitors, indeed, continued to be regularly appointed, and to perform
+such of their functions as they could, but the decline in their
+usefulness is shown by one of the earliest acts of Martin V., in 1417,
+before leaving Constance, in commissioning the Observantine Franciscan,
+Giovanni da Capistrano, as a special inquisitor against the heretics of
+Mantua. From this time, in fact, when any effective effort against
+heresy was called for, the regular machinery of the Inquisition was no
+longer relied upon. It seems to have been regarded as effete for all the
+purposes for which it had been instituted, and special appointments were
+necessary of men devoted to the work, such as Capistrano and his friend
+Giacomo della Marca. Just as the inquisitorial jurisdiction had
+superseded the episcopal, so now both were overslaughed as insufficient.
+Thus, in 1457, when a new heresy sprang up in Brescia and Bergamo
+concerning Christ, the Virgin, and the Church Militant, infecting both
+clergy and laity, and including suspicion of sorcery, Calixtus III.
+ordered his nuncio in those parts, Master Bernardo del Bosco, to seize
+the heretics and try them, with even more than the privileges of an
+inquisitor, for he was empowered to proceed to final judgment and
+execution without appeal, leaving it to his discretion whether he should
+call for advice upon the inquisitors and episcopal ordinaries. Two years
+later, in the case of Zanino da Solcia, to which I shall recur
+hereafter, the sentence was rendered by the Lombard inquisitor, Fra
+Jacopo da Brescia, but the examination took place in the presence of
+Master Bernardo del Bosco, who moreover received the abjuration of
+Zanino, and the sentence was sent to Pius II. and was modified by him.
+The diminution of popular respect for the Inquisition was still further
+manifested in 1459, by the doubts publicly expressed of the validity of
+the bulls of Innocent IV. and Alexander IV. authorizing inquisitors to
+preach crusades against heretics and to prosecute for heresy all persons
+and communities impeding them, so that Calixtus III. was obliged to
+reissue the authorization.[303]
+
+A curious case occurring about this time illustrates the growing
+indifference felt in Lombardy for the Inquisition. In Milan, about 1440,
+a learned mathematician, named Amadeo de' Landi, was accused of heresy
+before the inquisitors. During the progress of his trial he was, to the
+great damage of his reputation, denounced as a heretic by sundry friars
+in their sermons, and among others by Bernardino of Siena, the saintly
+head of the Observantines. The Inquisition pronounced him a good
+Catholic and discharged him, but those who had slandered him offered no
+reparation. The acquittal by the Inquisition apparently did not outweigh
+the denunciations of Bernardino, and Amadeo appealed to Eugenius IV.,
+who referred the matter to Giuseppe di Brippo, with power to enforce his
+decision with censures. Giuseppe summoned the detractors to appear on a
+certain day, and on their failing to present themselves condemned
+Bernardino to make public retraction under pain of excommunication.
+Bernardino paid no heed to this, and on his death in 1444, when
+immediate efforts were made for his canonization, Amadeo raised great
+scandal by proclaiming that he had died in mortal sin as an
+excommunicate. This gratified the jealousy of the conventual branch of
+the Franciscans and many of the secular clergy, who spread the scandal
+far and wide. By this time, however, the Observantines were too
+influential for such an assault upon their revered vicar-general to be
+successful; and in 1447 they obtained from Nicholas V. a bull in which
+he annulled all the proceedings of Giuseppe, ordered every record of
+them to be destroyed, imposed silence on the unlucky Amadeo, declared
+Bernadino to have acted righteously throughout, and forbade all clerks,
+friars, and others from indulging in further detraction concerning him.
+I may add that the opposition of the Conventuals was powerful enough to
+postpone until 1450 the canonization of San Bernardino, and a humorous
+incident in the struggle may be worth mention. When the blessed Tommaso
+of Florence died at Rieti in 1447, and immediately began to coruscate in
+miracles, Capistrano hurried thither and forbade him to display further
+his thaumaturgic powers until Bernardino should be canonized--and
+Tommaso meekly obeyed.[304]
+
+Yet, shorn as the Inquisition had become of real effectiveness for its
+avowed functions, the office continued to be sought, doubtless because
+it conferred a certain measure of importance, and possibly because it
+afforded opportunity of illicit gains. Inquisitors were regularly
+appointed, and the custom grew up in Lombardy that in each city where a
+tribunal existed vacancies were filled on the nomination of the prior of
+the local Dominican convent with the assent of discreet brethren,
+whereupon the General Master of the Order issued the commission. In 1500
+this was modified by giving the Vicar-general of Lombardy power to
+reject or ratify the nomination. The subordinate position to which the
+inquisitorial office had fallen is illustrated in the last decade of the
+fifteenth century by Fra Antonio da Brescia, who was inquisitor of his
+native place, and who was claimed as an ornament of the Dominican Order,
+but his eulogist has nothing to say as to his persecuting heretics,
+while praising his pulpit labors in many of the Italian cities.[305]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Venice, as we have seen, the Inquisition never succeeded in shaking
+off the trammels of state supervision and interference. In what spirit
+the State regarded its relations with the Holy Office was exhibited in
+1356, when Fra Michele da Pisa, the Inquisitor of Treviso, imprisoned
+some Jewish converts who had apostatized. This was strictly within his
+functions, but the secular officials interposed, forbade his proceeding
+to try his prisoners, seized his familiars, and tortured them on the
+charge of pilfering the property of the accused. These high-handed
+measures provoked the liveliest indignation on the part of Innocent VI.,
+but the republic stood firm, and nothing seems to have been gained. In
+the correspondence which ensued, moreover, there are allusions to former
+troubles which show that this was by no means the first time that Fra
+Michele's labors had been impeded by the secular power. Sometimes,
+indeed, the Signoria completely ignored the Inquisition. In 1365 a case
+in which a prisoner had blasphemed the Virgin was brought before the
+Great Council, which ordered him to be tried by the vicar of the Bishop
+of Castello, and on conviction to be banished, thus prescribing the
+punishment, and recognizing only the episcopal jurisdiction.[306]
+
+In 1373 Venice was honored with the appointment of a special inquisitor,
+Fra Ludovico da San-Martino, while Fra Niccolo Mucio of Venice was made
+Inquisitor of Treviso. This led to some debate about their partition of
+the great Patriarchate of Aquileia, which extended from the province of
+Spalatro to that of Milan. The Patriarchate of Grado (which was not
+transferred to Venice till 1451) was adjudged to Ludovico, together with
+the see of Jesol. This latter place, though close to Venice, was then,
+we are told, in ruins, with a roofless cathedral serving as a place of
+refuge for heretics, who there felt safe from persecution. This
+partition did not improve the position of the inquisitor, whose
+importance was reduced to a minimum. He seems, in fact, to be regarded
+only as a functionary of the state police. In 1412 the Great Council
+orders him, April 17, to put an end to the performance of divine service
+by a Greek priest named Michael, whose celebrations attract great
+crowds, and also to banish him, taking care to so manage the affair that
+the interposition of the council may not be suspected; and a month
+later, May 26, the order of banishment is revoked, but the prohibition
+of celebration is maintained. In all his proper functions the inquisitor
+was overslaughed and disregarded. In 1422 the Council of Ten appointed a
+commission to examine some Franciscans charged with sacrificing to
+demons and other abominable practices, and a month later they sent to
+Martin V., requesting powers to terminate the matter, in view of the
+immunities enjoyed by the Mendicants. When, in the following year, 1423,
+the Senate withdrew the pecuniary provision with which the State had
+always defrayed the expenses of the Inquisition, they marked their sense
+of its inutility and their indifference to its power. This may possibly
+have led to the reunion of the districts of Venice and Treviso, for, in
+1433 and 1434, we find single inquisitors appointed to both. In the
+latter year the lack of power of the incumbent, Fra Luca Cioni, is shown
+by the fact that when he desired to proceed against Ruggieri da Bertona,
+accused of heresy, he was forced to get Eugenius IV. to order the Bishop
+of Castello (Venice) to assist him. A further recognition of the
+inefficiency of the Inquisition is seen in the sending of Fra Giovanni
+da Capistrano to Venice in 1437, when the Jesuats were accused of
+heresy, and he acquitted them, and again, about 1450, when heretical
+notions spread there concerning the origin and nature of the soul, which
+he suppressed.[307]
+
+Allusion has been made in a former chapter to the limitation imposed in
+1450 by the Council of Ten on the number of armed familiars whom the
+inquisitor might retain, reducing them to four, and in 1451 increasing
+them to twelve, with instructions to the police to see that they were
+really engaged in the duties of the Holy Office. In so large and
+populous a district this sufficiently shows how purely nominal were the
+functions of the Inquisition, and how close was the supervision
+exercised by the State. Yet inquisitors continued to be appointed, but
+when they attempted to exercise any independent jurisdiction we have
+seen, in the case of the sorcerers of 1521, that even the most energetic
+interference of Leo X. could not induce the Signoria to waive its right
+of final decision.[308]
+
+In Mantua, which formed part of the Patriarchate of Aquileia, we hear,
+in 1494, of an inquisitor who, for lack of heresies to suppress,
+assailed the _monts de piete_, or public pawning establishments, and all
+who favored them. These institutions were founded about this period as a
+charitable work for the purpose of rescuing the poor from the exactions
+of the usurers and the Jews. Fra Bernardino da Feltre, a celebrated
+Observantine Franciscan, made this a special object of his mission-work
+in the Italian cities, and on his coming to Mantua he completely
+silenced his adversaries. The decline of visible heresy at this period,
+in fact, is illustrated in the very diffuse account which Luke Wadding
+gives, year after year, of Bernardino's triumphant progress throughout
+Italy to call the people to repentance, when cities eagerly disputed
+with each other the blessing of his presence. In all this there is no
+allusion to any attacks by him on heresy; had there been any to assail,
+his burning zeal would not have suffered it to enjoy impunity.[309]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Tuscany the growing insubordination felt towards the Inquisition was
+manifested at Siena, in 1340, by the enactment of laws checking some of
+its abuses. Fra Simone Filippo, the inquisitor, complained to Benedict
+XII., who at once pronounced them null and void, and ordered them erased
+from the statute-book. The relations between the Holy Office and the
+people at this period, however, are more significantly displayed in a
+series of events occurring at Florence, of which the details chance to
+have been preserved. In Tuscany the triumph of orthodoxy had been
+complete. A sermon of Fra Giordano da Rivalto, in 1304, asserts that
+heresy was virtually exterminated: scarce any heretics remained, and
+they were in strict hiding. This is confirmed by Villani, who tells us
+that, by the middle of the century, there were no heretics in Florence.
+This is doubtless too absolute an assertion, but the existence of a few
+scattered Waldenses and Fraticelli offered scant excuse for such an
+establishment as the inquisitor was accustomed to maintain. In 1337 the
+papal nuncio, Bertrand, Archbishop of Embrun, took the incumbent of the
+office severely to task for the abuse of appointing an excessive number
+of assistants, and ordered him in future to restrict himself to four
+counsellors and assessors, two notaries, two jailers, and twelve
+ministers or familiars. This was by no means a small or inexpensive body
+of officials; the Inquisition's share of confiscations from the few
+poverty-stricken heretics who could occasionally be picked up evidently
+was insufficient to maintain such a corps, and means, either fair or
+foul, must be found to render the income of the office adequate to the
+wants of those who depended upon it for their fortunes. How this was
+done, on the one hand by cheating the papal camera, and on the other by
+extorting money on false charges of heresy and by selling to bravoes
+licenses to carry arms, has already been pointed out. The former device
+was one which, when detected, was difficult to condone, and its
+discovery caused, in the commencement of 1344, a sudden vacancy in the
+Florentine Inquisition. The republic was in the habit of suggesting
+names to the Franciscan General for appointment, and sometimes its
+requests were respected. In the present case it asked, February 26, that
+the Tuscan inquisitor, Fra Giovanni da Casale, be permitted to exercise
+his functions within the city, but the suggestion was unheeded, and in
+March the post was given to Fra Piero di Aquila.[310]
+
+Fra Piero was a distinguished member of the Franciscan Order. But two
+months earlier he had been appointed chaplain to Queen Joanna of Naples,
+and his Commentaries on the Sentences of Peter Lombard were highly
+esteemed, receiving, in 1480, the honor of an edition printed at
+Speier. A man so gifted was warmly welcomed, and the republic thanked
+the Franciscan General for the selection. I have already detailed how he
+fell into the same courses as his predecessor in cheating the papal
+camera, how he was prosecuted for this, and for what the republic
+officially denounced as "_estorsioni nefande_" committed on the
+people, and how, within two years after his appointment, he was a
+fugitive, not daring to stand trial. There is another phase of his
+activity, however, which is worth recounting in some detail, as it
+illustrates perfectly how useful an instrument was the Inquisition in
+carrying out the wishes of the Roman curia in matters wholly
+disconnected with the purity of the faith.[311]
+
+The Cardinal of Santa Sabina, while visiting various courts in the
+capacity of papal legate, had had occasion to collect large sums. In
+charity to him we may assume, what doubtless was the truth, that the
+money belonged to the pope, although it stood in the cardinal's name on
+the books of his bankers, the great Florentine company of the
+Acciajuoli. In receiving it the members of the company had bound
+themselves jointly and severally for its repayment, agreeing to subject
+themselves to the judgment of the Court of Auditors of the Apostolic
+Chamber. In 1343 there was due the cardinal some twelve thousand
+florins, which the Acciajuoli were unable to pay. A commercial and
+financial crisis had paralyzed the commerce and industries of the city.
+Its bankers had advanced vast sums to Edward III. of England and to
+Robert the Good of Naples, and clamored in vain for repayment. The
+Lombard war had exhausted the public treasury and the whole community
+was bankrupt. Not only the Acciajuoli, but the Bardi, the Peruzzi, and
+other great banking-houses closed their doors, and ruin stared the
+Florentines in the face. There was at least one creditor, however, who
+was resolved to have his money.[312]
+
+On October 9, 1343, Clement VI. wrote to the republic, stating the claim
+of the cardinal and ordering the Signoria to compel the Acciajuoli to
+pay it. Under the circumstances this was clearly impossible, but
+judgment against the debtors had been rendered by the auditors of the
+papal camera. This was enough to bring the affair within the sphere of
+spiritual jurisdiction, and authority was sent to the inquisitor to
+execute the sentence, calling in the aid of the secular arm, and, if
+necessary, laying an interdict on the city. The matter dragged on until,
+November 23, 1345, Fra Piero appeared before the Gonfaloniero and the
+Priors of the Arts, and summoned them to imprison the debtors until
+payment, under pain of excommunication and interdict; whereupon the
+magistrates responded that, out of reverence for the pope and respect
+for the inquisitor and to oblige the cardinal, they would lend the aid
+of the secular arm. Still the money was not forthcoming, and although
+such assets of the Acciajuoli as could be seized were delivered to Fra
+Piero, and security was given for the balance, he held the whole
+community responsible for the debt of a few of the citizens. The
+discussion became angry, and when the inquisitor, in violation of a law
+of the republic, committed the indiscretion of arresting Salvestro
+Baroncelli, a member of the bankrupt company, as he was leaving the
+palace of the Priors of the Arts, his three familiars who had committed
+the offence were, in compliance with a savage statute, punished with
+banishment and the loss of the right hand.
+
+All this did not extract the money from the bankrupts, and Fra Piero
+laid the city under interdict, but both the clergy and people refused to
+observe it. The churches remained open and the rites of religion
+continued to be celebrated, leading to a fresh series of prosecutions
+against the bishop and priests. Inside the walls the Florentines might
+disregard the censures of the Church, but a commercial community could
+not afford to be cut off from intercourse with the world. Her citizens
+and their goods were scattered in every trade-centre in Christendom, and
+were virtually outlawed by the interdict. This was the reason alleged by
+the priors when, June 14, 1346, they humbled their pride and sent
+commissioners to Clement authorized to bind the republic to pay the debt
+of the Acciajuoli to the cardinal, not exceeding seven thousand florins,
+in eight months. Their submission was graciously received, and, February
+28, 1347, the pope ordered the interdict removed, cautiously providing,
+however, for its _ipso facto_ renewal in case the obligation for six
+thousand six hundred florins was not met at maturity.[313]
+
+Meanwhile another scene of the comedy was developing itself. In its
+contest with Fra Piero the republic had not stood solely on the
+defensive. Piero, papal nuncio at Lucca, who had in charge the
+prosecutions against the inquisitors for embezzling the sums due to the
+camera, had appointed as his deputy in Florence, Niccolo, Abbot of Santa
+Maria, who proceeded against Fra Piero on that charge, to which the
+Signoria added the accusation, sustained by abundant testimony, of
+extorting from citizens large sums of money by fraudulent prosecutions
+for heresy. By March 10, 1346, the Signoria was asking the appointment
+of Fra Michele di Lapo as his successor. Fra Piero was a fugitive, and
+refused to return and stand his trial when legally cited and tendered a
+safe-conduct. After due delay, in 1347, the Abate Niccolo, being armed
+with papal authority, declared him in default and contumacious, and then
+proceeded to excommunicate him. The excommunication was published in all
+the churches of Florence, and Fra Piero was thus cut off from the
+faithful and abandoned to Satan. He could afford to regard all this with
+calm philosophy. His success in collecting the cardinal's money entitled
+him to reward, and the booty of seven thousand florins which he had
+personally carried off from Florence as the results of his two years'
+inquisitorial career, could doubtless be used to advantage. While
+Niccolo was vainly citing him, he was promoted, February 12, 1347, to
+the episcopate of Sant-Angeli de' Lombardi, and his excommunication was
+answered, June 29, 1348, by his translation to the presumably preferable
+see of Trivento. All that the Florentines could do was to petition
+repeatedly that in future inquisitors should be selected from among
+their own citizens, who would be less likely than strangers to be guilty
+of extortions and scandals. Their request was respected at least in
+1354, when a Florentine, Fra Bernardo de' Guastoni, was appointed
+Inquisitor of Tuscany.[314]
+
+This was not likely to be effective, and the Signoria made a more
+promising effort at self-protection by passing various laws imitated
+from those adopted not long before at Perugia. To limit the abuse of
+selling licenses to bear arms, the inquisitor, as we have seen, was
+restricted to employing six armed familiars. Moreover, it was decreed
+that no citizen could be arrested without the participation of the
+podesta, who was required to seize all persons designated to him by the
+bishop--the inquisitor not being alluded to--which would seem to leave
+small opportunity for independent action by the latter, especially as he
+was deprived of his private jail and was ordered to send all prisoners
+to the public prison. He was further prohibited from inflicting
+pecuniary punishments, and all whom he condemned as heretics were to be
+burned. This was revolutionary in a high degree, and did not tend to
+harmonize the relations between the republic and the papacy. The
+desperate quarrel between them which arose in 1375 was caused by
+political questions, but it was embittered by troubles arising from the
+Inquisition, especially as a demand made by Innocent VI., in 1355, for a
+revision of their statutes remained unheeded. In 1372 efforts were made
+to obtain the removal of Fra Tolomeo da Siena, the Inquisitor of
+Tuscany, who was exceedingly unpopular, but Gregory XI. expressed the
+fullest confidence in him and ordered him to be protected by the
+Vicar-general, Filippo, Bishop of Sabina. Yet the pope probably yielded,
+for I find in 1373 that Fra Piero di Ser Lippo, who had already served
+as Tuscan inquisitor in 1371, was again appointed to replace a certain
+Fra Andrea di Ricco. With some intervals Fra Piero served until at least
+1384, and he proved no more disposed than his predecessors to yield to
+the resistance which the methods of the Inquisition inevitably provoked
+in the free Italian cities. Pistoia had followed the example of Florence
+in endeavoring to protect its citizens by municipal statutes, and in
+1375 it was duly placed under interdict and its citizens were
+excommunicated. At the same time Fra Piero complained of Florence as
+impeding the free action of the Inquisition, and Gregory at once ordered
+the Signoria to abrogate the obnoxious statutes. No attention was paid
+to these commands by Florence, and when the rupture came the Florentine
+mob expressed its feelings by destroying the inquisitorial prison and
+driving the inquisitor from the city. It was also alleged that in the
+disturbances a monk named Niccolo was tortured and buried alive. These
+misdeeds, although denied by the Signoria, were alleged as a
+justification of the terrible bull of March 31, 1376, fulminated against
+Florence by Gregory. In this he not only excommunicated and interdicted
+the city, but specially outlawed the citizens, exposing their property
+wherever found to seizure, and their persons to slavery. This shocking
+abuse was the direct outgrowth of the long series of legislation against
+heresy, and was sanctioned by the public law of the period; everywhere
+throughout Christendom the goods of Florentines were seized and the
+merchants were glad to beg their way home, stripped of all they
+possessed. Not all were so fortunate, as some pious monarchs, like
+Edward III., in addition reduced them to servitude. No commercial
+community could long endure a contest waged after this fashion, and, as
+before, Florence was compelled to submit. In the peace signed July 28,
+1378, the republic agreed to annul all laws restricting the Inquisition
+and interfering with the liberties of the Church, and it authorized a
+papal commissioner to expunge them from the statute-book. The Great
+Schism, however, weakened for a time the aggressive energy of the
+papacy, and much of the obnoxious legislation reappears in the revised
+code of 1415.[315]
+
+The career of Tommasino da Foligno, who died in 1377, has interest for
+us, not only as illustrating the activity of the Inquisition of the
+period, but also from the curious parallelism which it affords with that
+of Savonarola. He was one of the prophets, like St. Birgitta of Sweden,
+St. Catharine of Siena, and the Friends of God in the Rhinelands, who
+were called forth by the untold miseries then afflicting mankind. A
+tertiary of St. Francis, he had practised for three years the greatest
+austerities as an anchorite, when God summoned him forth to preach
+repentance to the warring factions whose savage quarrels filled every
+city in the land with wretchedness. Like the other contemporary
+prophets, he spared neither clerk nor layman; and his bitter
+animadversions at Perugia on the evil life of Gerald, Abbot of
+Marmoutiers, papal vicar for the States of the Church, may perhaps
+account for his subsequent rough handling by the Inquisition. Gifted
+with miraculous power, as well as with the spirit of prophecy, he
+wandered from town to town, proclaiming the wrath of God, and
+foretelling misfortunes which, in the existing state of society, were
+almost sure to come to pass. To convince the incredulous at Siena, on a
+midsummer day he predicted a frost for the morrow. When it duly came he
+was accused of sorcery, seized by the Inquisition, and tortured nearly
+to death, but he was discharged when a miracle established his innocence
+and healed the wounds of the torture-chamber. After an intermediate
+pilgrimage to far-off Compostella, his preaching at Florence excited so
+much antagonism that again he was arrested by the Inquisition, cast into
+a dungeon, and kept three days without food or drink, to be finally
+discharged as insane. After his death at Foligno, unsuccessful attempts
+were made to procure his canonization, and he long remained an object of
+local veneration and worship.[316]
+
+During the fifteenth century the Inquisition in central Italy subsided
+into the same unimportance that we have witnessed elsewhere. The effect
+of the Great Schism in reducing the respect felt for the papacy was
+especially felt in Italy, and the papal officials lost nearly all power
+of enforcing obedience, although the Inquisition at Pisa, when it was
+strengthened by the presence of the council held there in 1409, took its
+revenge on a man named Andreani, whom it burned for the crime of
+habitually and publicly ridiculing it. When the schism was healed at
+Constance, one of the earliest efforts of Martin V. was directed against
+the Fraticelli, whose increase in the Roman province he especially
+deprecated. In his bull on the subject, November 14, 1418, he complained
+that when inquisitors endeavored to exercise their office against the
+heretics the latter would claim the jurisdiction of some temporal lord
+and then threaten and insult their persecutors, so that the latter were
+afraid to perform their functions. Martin's only remedy was practically
+to supersede the inquisitors by special appointments, and this naturally
+sank the institution to a deeper degradation. Thus in 1424, when there
+were three Fraticelli to be tried in Florence, Martin placed the matter
+in the hands of Fra Leonardo, a Dominican professor of theology. Still
+the office of inquisitor continued to be sought and appointments to be
+made with more or less regularity, from motives which can easily be
+conjectured; but of activity against heresy there is scarce a trace. How
+unimportant its functions had become in Bologna may be gathered from the
+fact that in 1461 the inquisitor, Gabriele of Barcelona, was sent to
+Rome by his superiors to teach theology in the convent of Minerva, when
+Pius II. authorized him to appoint a vicar to discharge his duties
+during his absence. Ten years afterwards the Bolognese inquisitor, Fra
+Simone da Novara, was fortunate enough to lay hands on a man named
+Guizardo da Sassuolo, who was suspected of heresy. So completely were
+such proceedings forgotten that he felt obliged to apply for
+instructions to Paul II., who congratulated him on the capture, ordered
+him to proceed according to the canons, and desired the episcopal vicar
+to co-operate. Heretics evidently had grown scarce, and the
+inquisitorial functions had fallen into desuetude.[317]
+
+In Rome, when there really was a heresiarch to condemn, there was no
+Inquisition at hand to perform the duty. In the proceedings against
+Luther there is no trace of its intervention. The bull _Exsurge Domine_,
+June 15, 1520, contains no allusion to his doctrines having been
+examined by it; when they were publicly condemned, June 12, 1521, the
+ceremony was performed by the Bishop of Ascoli, Auditor of the Rota, and
+Silvestro Prierias, Master of the Sacred Palace, while the sentence
+which consigned his effigy and his books to the flames was pronounced by
+Fra Cipriano, professor in the College of Sacred Theology. It was
+perhaps the most momentous _auto de fe_ that has ever been celebrated,
+but the Inquisition can boast of no participation in it.[318]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the Two Sicilies the Inquisition dragged on a moribund existence.
+Letters of King Robert in 1334 and 1335 and of Joanna I. in 1342 and
+1343 show that inquisitors continued to be appointed and to receive the
+royal exequatur, but they were limited to making fifty arrests each, and
+record of these was required to be entered in the royal courts; they had
+no jails, and the royal officials received their prisoners and tortured
+them when called upon. The Jews appear to be the main object of
+inquisitorial activity, and this can only have been halting, for in 1344
+Clement VI. orders his legate at Naples, Aymerico, Cardinal of S.
+Martino, to punish condignly all apostate Jews, as though there were no
+Inquisition at work there. Yet in 1362 there were three inquisitors in
+Naples, Francesco da Messina, Angelo Cicerello da Monopoli, and Ludovico
+da Napoli, who took part in the trial of the rebellious Luigi di
+Durazzo. Still, when efforts were to be made against the Fraticelli,
+Urban V., in 1368, deemed it necessary to send a special inquisitor, Fra
+Simone del Pozzo, to Naples. Although his jurisdiction extended over the
+island of Sicily, Gregory XI., in 1372, when informed that the relics of
+the Fraticelli were venerated there as those of saints, ordered the
+prelates to put a stop to it, as though he had no inquisitor to call
+upon. Yet Fra Simone was there in that year, and had a theological
+disputation with Fra Niccolo di Girgenti, a learned Franciscan who had
+been provincial of his Order. The question turned upon some scholastic
+subtleties respecting the three persons of the Trinity, and as each
+disputant claimed the victory, Simone proceeded to settle the matter by
+secretly prosecuting his antagonist for heresy. Niccolo got wind of this
+and at once appealed to Rome, before the Archbishop of Palermo,
+demanding his _apostoli_--an appeal which Simone pronounced frivolous.
+The revelations made by Niccolo as to his antagonists present a most
+dismal picture of the internal condition of the Church at the time,
+although Fra Simone's learning and ascetic life won him the popular
+reputation of a saint, and he obtained the bishopric of Catania,
+becoming an important political personage. In 1373 Frederic III. issued
+letters to all the royal officials ordering them to lend all aid to him
+and to his familiars, and the Inquisition seems to have been firmly
+established, with prisons of its own. In 1375 we find Gregory applying
+to the king for the confiscations, and procuring from the revenues of
+Palermo an appropriation of twelve ounces of gold, to be applied to the
+extermination of heresy. In this recrudescence of persecution the Jews
+appear to have been the principal victims. They appealed to Frederic,
+who in the same year, 1375, issued letters severely blaming the
+inquisitors and ordering that in future their prisoners should be
+confined only in the royal jails; that civil judges should assist in
+their decisions, and that an appeal should lie to the High Court. This
+was imposing serious limitations on inquisitorial jurisdiction, but no
+reclamation against it appears to have been made. In Naples, letters of
+Charles III., issued in 1382 to Fra Domenico di Astragola and Fra
+Leonardo di Napoli, show that inquisitors continued to be appointed. In
+1389 Boniface IX. seems to unite Naples with Sicily by appointing Fra
+Antonio Traverso di Aversa as inquisitor on both sides of the Faro; but
+in 1391 another brief of the same pope alludes to the Inquisition of
+Sicily having become vacant by the death of Fra Francesco da Messina,
+and as there is customarily but one inquisitor there he fills the
+vacancy by the appointment of Fra Simone da Amatore. Fra Simone had a
+somewhat stormy career. Already, in 1392, he was replaced by Fra
+Giuliano di Mileto, afterwards Bishop of Cefalu, but seems to have
+regained his position, for in 1393 he was obliged by King Martin to
+refund moneys extorted from some Jews whom he had prosecuted for holding
+illicit relations with Christian women, and was told not to interfere
+with matters beyond his jurisdiction. Engaging in treasonable
+intrigues, he was driven from the island, and in 1397 we find him acting
+as papal legate and provincial in Germany. In 1400 he obtained his
+pardon from King Martin, and was allowed to reside in Syracuse, but was
+strictly forbidden from exercising the office of inquisitor. Meanwhile,
+in 1395, we hear of Guglielmo di Girgenti as inquisitor, and in 1397, of
+Matteo di Catania, a sentence by whom in that year, fining a Jew and his
+wife in forty ounces, was confirmed by the king, showing that the
+Inquisition continued to be subordinated to the civil power. Fra Matteo
+was inquisitor on both sides of the Faro, for a royal letter of 1399
+describes him as such, and orders obedience rendered to his vicar, while
+another of 1403 shows that he still retained the position. A royal
+decree of 1402 specially provides for Jews an appeal to the king from
+all inquisitorial sentences, thus continuing what had long been the
+practice. In 1415 royal letters confirming the appointment of Fra
+Antonio de Pontecorona, others of 1427 in favor of Fra Benedetto da
+Perino, and of 1446, in favor of Fra Andrea de la Pascena, show that the
+organization was maintained, but all sentences were required to be
+transmitted to the viceroy, who submitted them to a royal judge before
+they were valid. Thus, in 1451, King Alfonso confirmed a fine of ten
+thousand florins, levied upon the Jews as a punishment for their usuries
+and other offences.[319]
+
+On the mainland we have seen proof of the decay of the Inquisition in
+the undisturbed growth of the Waldensian communities, and the complete
+breaking-down of its machinery is fairly illustrated in 1427, when
+Joanna II. undertook to enforce certain measures against the Jews of her
+kingdom. Had there been an effective and organized Inquisition she would
+have required no better instrument for her purpose; and it could only
+have been the absence of this that led her to call in the indefatigable
+persecutor, Fra Giovanni da Capistrano, to whom she issued a commission
+to coerce the Jews to abandon usury and to wear the sign Tau, as
+provided by law. He was empowered to decree such punishments as he
+might deem fit, which were to be mercilessly inflicted by all judges and
+other officials, and he was moreover to constrain, under pain of
+confiscation, the Jews to surrender to him for cancellation all letters
+and privileges granted to them by former monarchs. Yet there was still a
+simulacrum of the Inquisition maintained, for in the following year,
+1428, we find Martin V. confirming the appointment of Fra Niccolo di
+Camisio as Inquisitor of Benevento, Bari, and the Capitanata.[320]
+
+Whatever vitality the Inquisition retained was still more reduced when,
+in 1442, the House of Aragon obtained the throne of Naples. Giannone
+tells us that the Aragonese princes rarely admitted inquisitors, and,
+when they did so, required minute reports as to their every official
+act, never permitting any conviction without the participation of the
+secular magistrates, followed by royal confirmation, as we have seen to
+have been the case in Sicily. When, in 1449, Nicholas V. appointed Fra
+Matteo da Reggio as inquisitor to exterminate the apostate Jews who were
+said to be numerous throughout the kingdom, the terms employed would
+seem to indicate that for some time the Inquisition had been practically
+extinct, although but two years before he had given a commission to Fra
+Giovanni da Napoli, and although subsequent inquisitors were
+occasionally appointed.[321]
+
+In Sicily, however, in 1451, the Inquisition obtained fresh vitality by
+means of an ingenious device. Fra Enrico Lugardi, Inquisitor of Palermo,
+produced a most impudent forgery in the shape of a long and elaborate
+privilege purporting to have been issued by the Emperor Frederic II. in
+1224, ordering all his Sicilian subjects to give aid and comfort to the
+"inquisitors of heretical pravity," and stating that, as it was
+unfitting that all confiscations should inure to the royal fisc without
+rewarding the inquisitors for their toils and perils, the confiscations
+henceforth should be divided equally between the fisc, the Inquisition,
+and the Holy See; moreover, all Jews and infidels were required once a
+year to supply inquisitors and their attendants, when in prosecution of
+their duty, with all necessaries for man and beast. Though the
+fraudulent character of this document was conspicuous on its face, to
+say nothing of a blunder in the regnal year of its date, the age was not
+a critical one; Fra Enrico seems to have had no trouble in inducing King
+Alonso to confirm it, and it was subsequently confirmed again in 1477 by
+Ferdinand and Isabella. The privileges which it conferred were
+substantial, and gave fresh importance to the Inquisition, although its
+judgments were still subjected to revision by the civil power. When, in
+1474, famine led Sixtus IV. to request of the Viceroy Ximenes the
+shipment of a large supply of corn from Sicily to Rome, he wrote to the
+inquisitor, Fra Salvo di Cassetta, ordering him to strain every nerve to
+secure the granting of the favor. The inquisitor at that time was
+evidently a personage of influence, for Fra Salvo in fact was also
+confessor of the viceroy. The central tribunal of the Inquisition sat in
+Palermo, and there were three commissioners or deputies in charge of the
+three "valleys" of the island.[322]
+
+Ferdinand the Catholic, in founding the New Spanish Inquisition,
+obtained for his grand inquisitor the power of nominating deputies in
+all the dependencies of Castile and Aragon. About 1487 Fray Antonio de
+la Pena was sent to Sicily in that capacity, who speedily organized the
+Holy Office on its new basis throughout the island; and in 1492 an edict
+of banishment was issued against the Jews, who, as of old, were the
+chief objects of persecution. On the mainland there was more trouble.
+When, in 1503, Ferdinand acquired the kingdom of Naples, the Great
+Captain, Gonsalvo of Cordova, finding the people excited with the fear
+that the Spanish Inquisition might be introduced, made a solemn compact
+that no inquisitors should be sent thither. The old rules were kept in
+force; no one was allowed to be arrested without a special royal
+warrant, and no inquisitor could exercise any functions without the
+confirmation of his commission by the royal representative.
+Notwithstanding this, in 1504, Diego Deza, the Spanish inquisitor-general,
+sent to Naples an inquisitor and a receiver of confiscated property,
+with royal letters ordering them to have free exercise of their
+authority, but Gonsalvo, who knew by how slender a tenure the new
+dynasty held the allegiance of the people, seems not to have admitted
+them. Under the excuse that the Jews and New Christians expelled from
+Spain found refuge in Naples, the attempt was again made in 1510, and
+Andres Palacio was sent there as inquisitor, but the populace rose in
+arms and made demonstrations so threatening that even Ferdinand's
+fanaticism was forced to give way. The movements of the French in the
+north of Italy were disquieting, the loyalty of the Neapolitans was not
+to be relied upon, and the inquisitor was withdrawn with a promise that
+no further effort would be made to force upon the people the dreaded
+tribunal. Even Julius II. recognized the necessity of this and assented
+to the understanding. The Calabrian and Apulian Waldenses thus had a
+respite until the progress of the Reformation in Italy aroused the
+Church to renewed efforts and to a complete reorganization of its
+machinery of persecution.[323]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE SLAVIC CATHARI.
+
+
+When Innocent III. found himself confronted with the alarming progress
+of the Catharan heresy, his vigilant activity did not confine itself to
+Italy and Languedoc. The home of the belief lay to the east of the
+Adriatic among the Slavic races. Thence came the missionaries who never
+ceased to stimulate the zeal of their converts, and every motive of
+piety and of policy led him to combat the error at its source. Thus the
+field of battle stretched from the Balkans to the Pyrenees along a front
+of over a thousand miles, and the result might have been doubtful but
+for the concentration of moral and material forces resulting from the
+centralized theocracy founded by Hildebrand.
+
+The contest in the regions south of Hungary is instructive as an
+illustration of the unconquerable persistence of Rome in conducting for
+centuries an apparently resultless struggle, undeterred by defeat,
+taking advantage of every opening for a renewal of the strife, and using
+for its ends the ambition of monarchs and the self-sacrificing devotion
+of zealots. A condensed review of the rapid vicissitudes of such a
+contest is therefore not out of place, although the scene of action lay
+too far from the centres of European life to have decisive influence
+upon the development of European thought and belief, except as it served
+as a refuge for the persecuted and a centre of orthodoxy to which
+neophytes could be sent.
+
+The vast regions east of the Adriatic scarce paid more than a nominal
+spiritual allegiance to Rome. A savage and turbulent population,
+conquered by Hungary towards the end of the eleventh century, and always
+endeavoring to throw off the yoke, was Christian in little more than
+name. Such Christianity as it boasted, moreover, was not Latin. The
+national ritual was Slavic, in spite of its prohibition by Gregory VII.,
+and the Roman observance was detested, from its foreign origin, as the
+badge of subjugation. The few Latin prelates and priests and monks were
+encamped amid a hostile population to whom they were strangers in
+language and manners, and the dissoluteness of their lives gave them no
+opportunity of acquiring a moral influence that might disarm national
+and race antipathies. Under such circumstances there was nothing to
+hinder the spread of Catharism, and when the devastating wars of the
+Hungarians came to be dignified as crusades for the extermination of
+heresy, heresy might well claim to be identified with patriotism. From
+the Danube to Macedonia, and from the Adriatic to the Euxine, the
+Catharan Church was well organized, divided into dioceses with their
+bishops, and actively engaged in mission work. Its most flourishing
+province was Bosnia, where, at the end of the twelfth century, it
+counted some ten thousand devoted partisans. Culin, the Ban who held it
+under the suzerainty of Hungary, was a Catharan, and so were his wife
+and the rest of his family. Even Catholic prelates were suspected, not
+without cause, of leaning secretly to the heretic belief.[324]
+
+The earliest interference with heresy occurs at the end of the twelfth
+century, when the Archbishop of Spalatro, doubtless under impulsion from
+Innocent, drove out a number of Cathari from Trieste and Spalatro. They
+found ready refuge in Bosnia, where Culin welcomed them. Vulcan, King of
+Dalmatia, who had designs upon Bosnia, in 1199 represented to Innocent
+the deplorable prevalence of heresy there, and suggested that Emeric,
+King of Hungary, should be urged to expel the heretics. Innocent
+thereupon wrote to Emeric, sending him the severe papal decretal against
+the Patarins of Viterbo as a guide for his action, and ordering him to
+cleanse his territories of heresy and to confiscate all heretical
+property. Culin seems to have taken the initiative by attacking Hungary,
+but at the same time he tried to make his peace with Rome by asserting
+that the alleged heretics were good Catholics. He sent some of them,
+with two of his prelates, to Innocent for examination, and asked for
+legates to investigate the matter on the spot. In 1202 the pope
+accordingly ordered his chaplain, Giovanni da Casemario, and the
+Archbishop of Spalatro, to proceed to Bosnia, where, if they found any
+heretics, including the Ban himself, they were to be prosecuted
+according to the rigor of the canons. Giovanni successfully accomplished
+this mission in 1203. He reported to Innocent a pledge given by the
+Cathari to adopt the Latin faith, while, to insure the maintenance of
+religion, he recommended the erection of three or four additional
+bishoprics in the territory of the Ban, which were ten days' journey in
+extent and which yet had but one see, of which the incumbent was dead.
+At the same time King Emeric wrote that Giovanni had brought to him the
+leaders of the heretics, and he had found them converted to orthodoxy.
+Culin's son had likewise presented himself, and had entered into bonds
+of one thousand marks, to be forfeited in case he should hereafter
+protect heretics within his dominions. The triumph of the Church seemed
+assured, especially when, in the same year, Calo Johannes, the Emperor
+of the Bulgarians, applied to Innocent to have cardinals sent to crown
+him, and professed himself in all things obedient to the Holy See.[325]
+
+All such hopes proved fallacious. With the development of the
+Albigensian troubles the attention of Innocent was directed from the
+Slavs. The conversions made under pressure were but temporary. The
+metropolitan of the province, Arringer, Archbishop of Ragusa, filled the
+vacant see of Bosnia with a Catharan, and, dying himself soon after, his
+episcopal city became a nest of heretics. The few Catholic priests
+scattered through the region abandoned their posts, and Catholicism grew
+virtually almost extinct. In 1221 it is said that in the whole of Bosnia
+there was not a single orthodox preacher to be heard. Equally
+disheartening was the course of affairs among the Bulgarians. After Calo
+Johannes had been crowned by a legate from Rome, his quarrels with the
+Latin Emperors of Constantinople led to a breach, and in the wide
+territories under his dominion the Cathari had full liberty of
+conscience.[326]
+
+At length the papal attention was again directed to this deplorable
+state of affairs. In 1221 Honorius III. sent his chaplain, Master
+Aconcio, as legate to Hungary, with orders to arouse the king and the
+prelates to a sense of their obligation to exterminate the heretics who
+were thus openly defiant. On his way the legate paused at Ragusa to
+superintend the election of an orthodox archbishop, after which he
+ordered all Dalmatia and Croatia to join in a crusade, but no one
+followed him, and he went alone to Bosnia, where he died the same year.
+Better results were promised by the ambition of Ugolin, Archbishop of
+Kalocsa, who desired to extend his province; he proposed to Andreas II.
+of Hungary that he would lead a crusade at his own cost, and king and
+pope promised him all the territories which he should clear of heretics,
+but Ugolin overrated his powers, and adopted the expedient of
+subsidizing with two hundred silver marks the ruler of Syrmia, Prince
+John, son of Margaret, widow of the Emperor Isaac Angelus. John took the
+money without performing his promise, though reminded of it by Honorius
+in 1227. Relieved from apprehension, the Bosnians deposed their Ban
+Stephen and replaced him with a Catharan, Ninoslav, one of the most
+notable personages in Bosnian history, who maintained himself from 1232
+to 1250.[327]
+
+The scale at length seemed to turn with the advent on the scene of the
+Mendicant Orders, full of the irrepressible enthusiasm, the disregard of
+toil and hardship, and the thirst for martyrdom of which we have already
+seen so many examples. Behind them now, moreover, was Gregory IX., the
+implacable and indefatigable persecutor of heresy, who urged them
+forward unceasingly. The Dominicans were first upon the ground. As early
+as 1221 the Order formed establishments in Hungary, developing its
+proselyting energy from that centre, and thus taking the heretics in
+flank. The Dominican legend relates that the Inquisition was founded in
+Hungary by Friar Jackzo (St. Hyacinth), an early member of the Order,
+who died in 1257, and that it could soon boast of two martyred
+inquisitors, Friar Nicholas, who was flayed alive, and Friar John, who
+was lapidated by the heretics. In 1233 we hear of the massacre of ninety
+Dominican missionaries among the Cumans, and it was perhaps somewhat
+earlier than this that thirty-two were drowned by the Bosnian heretics,
+whom they were seeking to convert; but Dominican ardor was only inflamed
+by such incidents. Preparations were made for systematic work. In 1232
+Gregory ordered his legate in Hungary, Giacopo, Bishop of Palestrina, to
+convert the Bosnians. King Andreas gave the Banate to his son Coloman,
+Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia, and ordered him to assist. Results soon
+followed. The Catholic Bishop of Bosnia was himself infected with
+heresy, and excused himself on the ground that he had ignorantly
+supposed the Cathari to be orthodox. The Archbishop of Ragusa was
+cognizant of this, and had paid no attention to it, so Giacopo
+transferred Bosnia to Kalocsa--a transfer, however, which was for the
+present inoperative. More important was the conversion of Ninoslav, who
+abandoned the religion of his fathers in order to avert the attacks of
+Coloman, which were rapidly dismembering his territories. He was
+effusively welcomed by Gregory; he gave money to the Dominicans for the
+building of a cathedral; many of his magnates followed his example, and
+his kinsman, Uban Prijesda, handed his son to the Dominicans as a
+hostage for the sincerity of his conversion. Gregory was overjoyed at
+this apparent success. In 1233 he ordered the boy restored to his
+father; he took Bosnia under the special protection of the Holy See, and
+ordered Coloman to defend Ninoslav from the attacks of disaffected
+heretics; he deposed the heretic bishop, and instructed his legate to
+divide the territory into two or three sees, appointing proper
+incumbents. The latter measure was not carried out, however, and a
+German Dominican, John of Wildeshausen, was consecrated Bishop of all
+Bosnia.[328]
+
+The Legate Giacopo returned to Hungary satisfied that the land was
+converted, but success proved fleeting. Either Ninoslav's conversion was
+feigned or he was unable to control his heretic subjects, for in the
+next year, 1234, we find Gregory complaining that heresy was increasing
+and rendering Bosnia a desert of the faith, a nest of dragons and a home
+of ostriches. In conjunction with Andreas he ordered a crusade, and
+Coloman was instructed to attack the heretics. The Carthusian Prior of
+St. Bartholomew was sent thither to preach it with Holy Land
+indulgences, and by the end of 1234 Coloman laid Bosnia waste with fire
+and sword. Ninoslav threw himself heart and soul with the Cathari, and
+the struggle was bloody and prolonged. The Legate Giacopo induced Bela
+IV. to take an oath to extirpate all heretics from every land under his
+jurisdiction, and the Franciscans hastened to take a hand in the good
+work. They commenced with the city of Zara, but the Archbishop of Zara,
+instead of seconding their labors, impeded them, which earned for him
+the emphatic rebuke of Gregory. Indeed, from the account which Yvo of
+Narbonne gives about this time of the Cathari of the maritime districts,
+they could not have been much disturbed by these proceedings.[329]
+
+In 1235 the crusaders were unlucky. Bishop John lost all hope of
+recovering his see and asked Gregory to relieve him of it, as the labors
+of war were too severe for him; but Gregory reproved his
+faintheartedness, telling him that if he disliked war the love of God
+should urge him on.[330] In 1236 the aspect of affairs improved,
+probably because Bela IV. had replaced Andreas on the throne of Hungary,
+and because the crusaders were energetically aided by Sebislav, Duke of
+Usora, the son of the former Ban Stephen, who hoped to recover the
+succession. He was rewarded by Gregory calling him a lily among thorns
+and the sole representative of orthodoxy among the Bosnian chiefs, who
+were all heretics. At last, in 1237, Coloman triumphed, but heresy was
+not eradicated, in spite of his efforts through the following years. In
+fulfilment of his request, Gregory ordered the consecration of the
+Dominican Ponsa as Bishop of Bosnia, and soon afterwards appointed Ponsa
+as legate for three years in order that he might exterminate the remnant
+of heresy. It must have been a tolerably large remnant, for in the same
+breath he promised the protection of the Holy See to all who would take
+the cross to extirpate it. In 1239 the Provincial Prior of Hungary was
+ordered to send to the heretic districts a number of friars, powerful in
+speech and action, to consummate the work. Ponsa, though bishop and
+legate, had no revenues and no resources, so Gregory ordered paid over
+to him the moneys collected from crusaders in redemption of vows, and
+the sum which Ninoslav, during his interval of orthodoxy, had given to
+found a cathedral. By the end of 1239 heresy seemed to be exterminated,
+but scarce had Coloman and his crusaders left the land when his work was
+undone and heresy was as vigorous as ever. In 1240 Ninoslav appears
+again as Ban, visiting Ragusa with a splendid retinue to renew the old
+treaty of trade and alliance. King Bela's energies, in fact, were just
+then turned in another direction, for Assan, the Bulgarian prince, had
+declared in favor of the Greeks; his people therefore were denounced as
+heretics and schismatics, and Bela was stimulated to undertake a crusade
+against him, for which, as usual, Holy Land indulgences were promised.
+It was hard to make head at once against so many enemies of the faith,
+and in the confusion the Cathari of Bosnia had a respite. Still more
+important for them as a preventive of persecution was the Tartar
+invasion which, in 1241, reduced Hungary to a desert. In the bloody day
+of Flusse Sajo the Hungarian army was destroyed, Bela barely escaped
+with his life, and Coloman was slain. The respite was but temporary,
+however, for in 1244 Bela again overran Bosnia. Ninoslav made his peace
+and the heretics were persecuted, until 1246, when Hungary was involved
+in war with Austria, and promptly they rose again with Ninoslav at their
+head.[331]
+
+All these endeavors to diffuse the blessings of Christianity had not
+been made without bloodshed. We have few details of these obscure
+struggles in a land little removed from barbarism, but there is one
+document extant which shows that the Albigensian crusades, with all
+their horrors, had been repeated to no purpose. In 1247 Innocent IV., in
+making over the see of Bosnia to the Archbishop of Kalocsa, alludes to
+the labors performed by him and his predecessors in the effort to redeem
+it from heresy. They had meritoriously devastated the greater part of
+the land; they had carried away into captivity many thousands of
+heretics, with great effusion of blood, and no little slaughter of their
+own men and waste of their substance. In spite of these sacrifices, as
+the churches and castles which they had built were not strong enough to
+resist siege, the land could not be retained in the faith; it had wholly
+relapsed into heresy, and there was no hope of its voluntary redemption.
+The church of Kalocsa had been thoroughly exhausted, and it was now
+rewarded by placing the recalcitrant region under its jurisdiction, in
+the expectation that some future crusade might be more fortunate.
+Innocent IV. had, a few months earlier, ordered Bela to undertake a
+decisive struggle with the Cathari, but Ninoslav appealed to him,
+protesting that he had been since his conversion a faithful son of the
+Church, and had only accepted the aid of the heretics because it was
+necessary to preserve the independence of the Banate. Moved by this,
+Innocent instructed the Archbishop of Kalocsa to abstain from further
+persecution. He ordered an investigation into the faith and actions of
+Ninoslav, and gave permission to use the Glagolitic writing and the
+Slavic tongue in the celebration of Catholic service, recognizing that
+this would remove an obstacle to the propagation of the faith.
+Ninoslav's last years were peaceful, but after his death, about 1250,
+there were civil wars stimulated by the antagonism between Catharan and
+Catholic. He was succeeded by Prijesda, who had remained Catholic since
+his conversion in 1233. Under pretence of supporting Prijesda, Bela
+intervened, and by 1254 he had again reduced Bosnia to subjection,
+leading, doubtless, to active persecution of heresy, although the
+transfer of the see of Bosnia to Kalocsa was not carried into
+effect.[332]
+
+It was about this time that Rainerio Saccone gives us his computation of
+the Perfects in many of the Catharan churches. In Constantinople there
+were two churches, a Latin and a Greek, the former comprising fifty
+Perfects. The latter, together with those of Bulgaria, Roumania,
+Slavonia, and Dalmatia, he estimates at about five hundred. This would
+indicate a very large number of believers, and shows how unfruitful had
+been the labors and the wars which had continued for more than a
+generation. In fact, although Bela's long reign lasted until 1270, he
+failed utterly in his efforts to extirpate heresy. On the contrary, the
+Cathari grew ever stronger and the Church sank lower and lower. Even
+the Bosnian bishops dared no longer to remain in their see, but resided
+in Djakovar. So little reverence was there felt in those regions for the
+Holy See that so near as Trieste, when, in 1264, two Dominicans
+commissioned to preach the crusade against the Turks endeavored to
+perform their duty, the dean and canons hustled them violently out of
+the church, and would not even allow them to address the crowd in the
+public square, while the archdeacon publicly declared that any one who
+listened to them was excommunicate.[333]
+
+Things grew worse with the accession, in 1272, of Bela's grandson,
+Ladislas IV., known as the Cuman, from his mother Elizabeth, a member of
+that pagan tribe. Ladislas lived with the Cumans and shared their
+religion until his contempt for the Holy See manifested itself in the
+most offensive manner. The papal legate, Filippo, Bishop of Fermo, had
+called a council to meet at Buda, when Ladislas ordered the magistrates
+of the city not to permit the entrance of any prelates, or the supplying
+of any food to the legate, who was thus forced to depart ignominiously.
+This called down upon him the anger of Rodolph of Hapsburg and of
+Charles of Anjou, and he was fain, in 1280, to make reparation, not only
+by a humble apology and a grant of one hundred marks per annum for the
+founding of a hospital, but by adopting and publishing as the law of the
+land all the papal statutes against heresy, and swearing to enforce them
+vigorously, while his mother Elizabeth did the same as Duchess of
+Bosnia. Something was gained by this, and still more, when, in 1282,
+Ladislas appointed as ruler of Bosnia his brother-in-law, Stephen
+Dragutin, the exiled King of Servia. The latter, although a Greek,
+persecuted the Cathari; and when, about 1290, he was converted to
+Catholicism, his zeal increased, He sent to Rome Marino, Bishop of
+Antivari, to report the predominance of heresy and to ask for aid.
+Nicholas IV. promptly responded by commissioning a legate to Andreas
+III., the new King of Hungary, to preach a crusade, and the Emperor
+Rodolph was ordered to assist, but the effort was bootless. Equally vain
+was his command to the Franciscan Minister of Slavonia to select two
+friars acquainted with the language, and send them to Bosnia to
+extirpate heresy. The request at the same time made to Stephen to
+support them with the secular arm shows that the missionaries were in
+fact inquisitors. Unluckily, Nicholas in his zeal also employed
+Dominicans in the business. Inspired by the traditional hatred between
+the Orders, the inquisitors, or missionaries, employed all their
+energies in quarrelling with each other, and became objects of ridicule
+instead of terror to the heretics.[334]
+
+In 1298 Boniface VIII. undertook finally to organize the Inquisition in
+the Franciscan province of Slavonia, which comprised all the territory
+south of Hungary, from the Danube to Macedonia. The provincial minister
+was ordered to appoint two friars as inquisitors for this immense
+region, and was intrusted as usual with the power of removing and
+replacing them. This slender organization he endeavored to supplement by
+ordering the Archbishop of Kalocsa to preach a crusade, but there was no
+response, and the proposed Inquisition effected nothing. When Stephen
+Dragutin died, in 1314, Bosnia was conquered by Mladen Subic, son of the
+Ban of Croatia, under whom it was virtually independent of Hungary.
+Mladen made some show of persecuting heresy--at least when he had a
+request to make at Avignon--but as the vast majority of his subjects
+were Cathari, whose support was absolutely necessary to him, it is safe
+to say that he made no serious effort. In 1319 John XXII. describes the
+condition of Bosnia as deplorable. There were no Catholic ecclesiastics,
+no reverence for the sacraments; communion was not administered, and in
+many places the rite of baptism was not even known or understood. When
+such a pontiff as John felt obliged to appeal to Mladen himself to put
+an end to this reproach, it shows that he had no means of effective
+coercion at hand.[335]
+
+Mladen was overthrown by Stephen Kostromanic, and when he fled to
+Hungary, Charles Robert cast him in prison, leaving undisturbed
+possession to Stephen, who styled himself Ban by the grace of God.
+Stephen, in 1322, seems to have abandoned Catholicism, joining either
+the Greeks or the Cathari, but in spite of this affairs commenced to
+look more favorable. Hungary began to emerge from the disorders and
+disasters which had so long crippled it, and King Charles Robert was
+inclined to listen to exhortations as to his duty towards the Bosnian
+heretics. In 1323, therefore, John XXII. made another attempt, sending
+Fra Fabiano thither and ordering Charles Robert and Stephen to give him
+effective support. The latter was obdurate, though the former seems to
+have manifested some zeal, if one may believe the praises bestowed on
+him in 1327 by John. Fabiano was indefatigable, but his duty proved no
+easy one. At the very outset he met with unexpected resistance in a city
+so near at hand as Trieste. When he endeavored there to enforce the
+decrees against heresy, and to arouse the people to a sense of their
+duty, the bells were rung, a mob was assembled, he was dragged from the
+pulpit and beaten, the leaders in the disturbance being two canons of
+the Cathedral, Michele da Padua, and Raimondo da Cremona, who were
+promptly ordered by the pope to be prosecuted as suspects of heresy.
+Hardly had he settled this question when he was involved in a
+controversy with the rival Dominicans, whom he found to be poaching on
+his preserves. A zealous Dominican, Matteo of Agram, by suppressing the
+fact that Slavonia was Franciscan territory, had obtained from John
+letters authorizing the Dominican provincial to appoint inquisitors,
+commissioned to preach a crusade with Holy Land indulgences, and these
+inquisitors had been urgently recommended by the pope to the King of
+Hungary and other potentates. It was impossible that the Orders could
+co-operate in harmony, and Fabiano made haste to represent to John the
+trap into which he had been led. The pope was now at the height of his
+controversy with the greater part of the Franciscans over the question
+of poverty, and it was impolitic to give just grounds of complaint to
+those who remained faithful; he therefore promptly recalled the letters
+given to the Dominicans, and scolded them roundly for deceiving him.
+Even yet it seemed impossible for Fabiano to penetrate beyond the
+borders of his district, or to work without impediment, for in 1329 he
+was occupied with prosecuting for heresy the Abbot of SS. Cosmas and
+Damiani of Zara and one of his monks, when John, the Archbishop of Zara,
+intervened forcibly and stopped the proceedings. The difficulties thrown
+in Fabiano's way must have been great, for he felt compelled to visit
+Avignon for their removal, but his usual ill-luck accompanied him. The
+contest between the papacy on the one side, and the Visconti and Louis
+of Bavaria on the other, rendered parts of Lombardy unsafe for
+papalists, and a son of Belial named Franceschino da Pavia had no
+scruple in laying hands on the inquisitor and despoiling him of his
+horses, books, and papers. During all this time the Inquisition must
+have been at a standstill, but at last Fabiano overcame all obstacles.
+In 1330 he returned to the scene of action; Charles Robert and Stephen
+lent him their assistance, and the work of suppressing the Cathari
+commenced under favorable auspices, and by the methods which we have
+seen so successful elsewhere. The condition of the Bosnian Church may be
+guessed from the fear felt by John XXII. that the bishops would be
+heretics, leading him, in 1331, to reserve their appointment to the Holy
+See. Yet on the death of Bishop Peter, in 1334, the chapter elected a
+successor, and Charles Robert endeavored to force a layman on the
+Church, causing a disgraceful quarrel which was not settled until
+Benedict XII., in 1336, pronounced in favor of the candidate of the
+chapter.[336]
+
+The spiritual condition of the Slavs at this period is indicated by an
+occurrence in 1331 nearer home. The Venetian inquisitor, Fra Francesco
+Chioggia, in visiting his district, found in the province of Aquileia
+innumerable Slavs who worshipped a tree and fountain. Apparently they
+were impervious to his exhortations, and he had no means at the moment
+to enforce obedience. He was obliged to preach against them, in Friuli,
+a crusade with Holy Land indulgences. He thus raised an armed force with
+which he cut down the tree and choked up the fountain; unfortunately, we
+have no record of the fate of the nature-worshippers.[337]
+
+Benedict XII. was as earnest as his predecessor. Yet even Dalmatia was
+still full of heresy, for in 1335 be felt obliged to write to the
+Archbishop of Zara and the Bishops of Trau and Zegna, ordering them to
+use every means for the extermination of heretics, and to give efficient
+support to the inquisitors. The Dalmatian prelates, it is true,
+prevailed upon the magistrates of Spalatro and Trau to enact laws
+against heresy, but these were not enforced. A century had passed since
+the Inquisition was founded, and yet the duties of persecution had not
+even then been learned on the shores of the Adriatic. The work seemed
+further than ever from accomplishment. The Cathari continued to multiply
+under the avowed protection of Stephen and his magnates. A gleam of
+light appeared, however, when, in 1337, the Croatian Count Nelipic, a
+bitter enemy of Stephen, offered his services to Benedict, who joyfully
+accepted them, and summoned all the Croatian barons to range themselves
+under his banner in aid of the pious labors of Fabiano and his
+colleagues. War ensued between Bosnia and Croatia, of the details of
+which we know little, except that it brought no advantage to the faith,
+until it threatened to spread.[338]
+
+Stephen's position, in fact, was becoming precarious. To the east was
+Stephen Dusan the Great, who styled himself Emperor of Servia, Greece,
+and Bulgaria, and who had shown himself unfriendly since the union of
+Herzegovina with Bosnia. To the north was Charles Robert, who was
+preparing to take part in the war. It is true that the Venetians,
+desirous to keep Hungary away from their Adriatic possessions, were
+ready to form an alliance with Stephen, but the odds against him were
+too great. He probably intimated a readiness to submit, for when, in
+1339, Benedict sent the Franciscan General Gherardo as legate to
+Hungary, Charles Robert convoyed him to the Bosnian frontier, where
+Stephen received him with all honor, and said that he was not averse to
+extirpating the Cathari, but feared that in case of persecution they
+would call in Stephen Dusan. If liberally supported by the pope and King
+of Hungary he would run the risk. In 1340 Benedict promised him the help
+of all Catholics, and he allowed himself to be converted, an example
+followed by many of the magnates. It was quite time, for Catholicism had
+virtually disappeared from Bosnia, where the churches were mostly
+abandoned and torn down. Gherardo hastened to follow up his advantage by
+sending missionaries and inquisitors into Bosnia. That there was no
+place there, however, for the methods of the Inquisition, and that
+persuasion, not force, was required, is seen by the legends which
+recount how one of these inquisitors, Fray Juan de Aragon, made
+numerous converts, after a long and bitter disputation in an heretical
+assembly, by standing unhurt on a blazing pyre; and how one of his
+disciples, John, repeated the experience, remaining in the flames while
+one might chant the Miserere. These miracles, we are told, were very
+effective, and the stories show that nothing else could have been so.
+Stephen remained true to his promises, and the Catholic Church commenced
+to revive. A bull of Clement VI., in 1344, recites that, deceived by the
+falsehoods of the Franciscan General Gherardo, he had ordered the
+Bosnian tithes paid over to the friars on the pretext of rebuilding the
+churches, but on the representation of Laurence, Bishop of Bosnia, that
+they belonged to him and that he had no other source of support, he is
+in future to receive them. At the instance of Clement, in 1345, Stephen
+consented to allow the return of Valentine, Bishop of Makarska, who for
+twenty years had been an exile from his see, and the next year a third
+bishopric, that of Duvno, was erected. The Catharan magnates were
+restless, however, and when Dusan the Great, in 1350, invaded Bosnia
+many of them joined him, but their prospects became worse when peace
+followed in 1351, and when, in 1353, shortly before his death, Stephen
+married his only child to Louis of Hungary, a zealous Catholic who had
+succeeded his father, Charles Robert, in 1342.[339]
+
+Stephen Kostromanic was succeeded by his young nephew, Stephen Tvrtko,
+under the regency of his mother, Helena. Under such circumstances,
+dissatisfied and insubordinate Catharan magnates had ample opportunity
+to produce confusion. Of this full advantage was taken by Louis of
+Hungary as soon as the death of Dusan the Great, in 1355, relieved him
+from that formidable antagonist. The Dominicans hastened, in 1356, to
+obtain from Innocent VI. a confirmation of the letters of John XXII., of
+1327, authorizing them to preach a crusade against the heretics with
+Holy Land indulgences. Louis seized Herzegovina as a dower for his wife
+Elisabeth, reduced Stephen Tvrtko to the position of a vassal, and
+forced him to swear to extirpate the Cathari. Not content with this he
+proceeded to stir up rebellion among the magnates, producing great
+confusion, during which the Cathari regained their position. Then, in
+1360, Innocent VI. conferred on Peter, Bishop of Bosnia, full powers as
+papal inquisitor, and also ordered a new crusade, which served as a
+pretext to Louis for a fresh invasion. Nothing was accomplished by this;
+but in 1365 the Cathari, irritated at Tvrtko's efforts to suppress them,
+drove him and his mother from Bosnia. Louis furnished him with troops,
+and asked Urban V. to send two thousand Franciscans to convert the
+heretics. After a desperate struggle Tvrtko regained the throne. His
+brother, Stephen Vuk, who had aided the rebels, fled to Ragusa and
+embraced Catholicism, after which, in 1368, he appealed for aid to Urban
+V., representing that his heretic brother had disinherited him on
+account of his persecuting heretics. Urban accordingly urged Louis to
+protect the orthodox Vuk, and to force Tvrtko to abandon his errors, but
+nothing came of it. Whether Tvrtko was Catharan or Catholic does not
+clearly appear. Probably he was indifferent to all but his personal
+interests, and was ready to follow whatever policy promised to serve his
+ambition, and his success shows that he must have had the support of his
+subjects, who were nearly all Cathari. Although, in 1368, Urban V.
+congratulated Louis of Hungary on the success of his arms, aided by the
+friars, in bringing into the fold many thousand heretics and
+schismatics, Louis himself, in 1372, reported that Christianity was
+established in but few places; in some the two faiths were commingled,
+but for the most part all the inhabitants were Cathari. It was in vain
+that Gregory XI. endeavored to found Franciscan houses as missionary
+centres; the Bosnians would not be weaned from their creed. Had Tvrtko
+followed a policy of persecution he could not have accomplished the
+conquests which, for a brief period, shed lustre on the Bosnian name. He
+extended his sway over a large part of Servia and over Croatia and
+Dalmatia, and when, in 1376, he assumed the title of king, there was no
+one to dispute it. After his death, in 1391, the magnates asserted
+virtual independence under a succession of royal puppets--Stephen
+Dabisa, his young son, under the regency of his widow, Helena, and then
+Stephen Ostoja. The most powerful man in Bosnia was the Vojvode Hrvoje
+Vukcic, who ruled the north, and next to him was his kinsman Sandalj
+Hranic who dominated the south. Both of these men were Cathari, and so
+was the king, Stephen, Ostoja, and all his family. Catholicism almost
+disappeared, and Catharism was the religion of the State. It was
+organized under a Djed (grandfather), or chief, with twelve Ucitelji, or
+teachers, of whom the first was the Gost, or visitor, the deputy and
+successor of the Djed, and the second was known as the Starac, or
+elder.[340]
+
+These were state officials, and we see them occasionally acting in an
+official capacity. Thus, when, in 1404, the Vojvode Paul Klesic, who had
+been exiled, was recalled, it was the Djed Radomjer who sent Catharan
+envoys to Ragusa to bring him home, and who wrote to the Doge of Ragusa
+on the subject. Klesic was a Catharan, and his residence in Ragusa, as
+well as that of many similar Catharan exiles, shows that persecution had
+grown obsolete even on the coast of the Adriatic. In spite of his
+Catharism, Hrvoje Vukcic was made by Ladislas of Naples, Duke of
+Spalatro and lord of some of the Dalmatian islands, thus making
+Catharism dominant along the shore. In the troubles which ended in the
+deposition of Stephen Ostoja and the election of Stephen Tvrtko II. a
+"Congregation of the Bosnian Lords" was held in 1404, in which, among
+those present, are enumerated the Djed and several of his Ucitelji, but
+no mention is made of any Catholic bishop. Toleration seemed to have
+established itself. The Great Schism gave the Holy See abundant
+preoccupation, and missionary efforts are no longer heard of, until the
+Emperor Sigismund, as King of Hungary, bethought himself of
+re-establishing his claim over Bosnia. Two armies sent in 1405 were
+unsuccessful, but in 1407 Gregory XII. aided him with a bull summoning
+Christendom to a crusade against the Turks, the apostate Allans, and
+the Manichaeans. Under these auspices, in 1408, he led a force of sixty
+thousand Hungarians and Poles into Bosnia, defeated and captured Tvrtko
+II., and recovered Croatia and Dalmatia, but the Bosnians were
+obstinate, and replaced Ostoja on the throne. Another expedition, in
+1410-1411, drove Ostoja to the south, and Sigismund, for a while,
+retained possession of Bosnia, but when, in 1415, he released Tvrtko II.
+and sent him to Bosnia as king, a civil war immediately ensued. Tvrtko
+at first was successful, supported with a large Hungarian army, but
+Ostoja called the Turks to his assistance, and in a decisive battle the
+Hungarians were defeated. The Turks penetrated to Cillei in the
+Steyermark, devastating and plundering everywhere, and on their return
+carried with them thousands of Christian captives.[341]
+
+This shows the new factor which had injected itself into the already
+tangled problem. In 1389 the fatal day of the Amselfeld had thrown open
+the whole Balkan peninsula to the Turks, who since then had been
+steadily winning their way. In 1392 we hear of their first incursion in
+southern Bosnia, after which they had constantly taken a greater part in
+the affairs of the Banate. The condition of the country was that of
+savage and perpetual civil war. There was no royal power capable of
+enforcing order, and the magnates were engaged in tearing each other to
+pieces. Devoid of all sentiment of nationality, no one had any scruple
+in calling in the aid of the infidel, in paying allegiance to him, or in
+subsidizing him to prevent his joining the opposite party. It was the
+same with Catholic, Catharan, and Greek. No sense of the
+ever-approaching danger served to make them abandon their internecine
+quarrels, and if a temporary petty advantage was to be gained there was
+no hesitation in aiding the Turk to a farther advance. The only wonder
+is that the progress of the Moslem conquest was so slow; there can be
+little doubt that it could have been arrested by united effort, and it
+may be questioned whether the rule of Islam was not, after all, an
+improvement on the state of virtual anarchy which it replaced. To the
+peasantry it offered itself rather as a deliverance. When, in 1461,
+Stephen Tomasevic ascended the throne, in his appeal for aid to Pius II.
+he describes the Turks as treating the peasants kindly, promising them
+freedom, and thus winning them over, and he adds that the magnates
+cannot defend their castles when thus abandoned by the peasants.[342]
+
+As regards the Cathari, the Turkish advance produced two contrary
+effects. On the one hand there was the danger that persecution would
+drive them to seek protection from the enemy. On the other hand there
+was absolute need of assistance from Christendom, which could only be
+obtained by submission to Rome, and obedience to her demands for their
+extermination. Both of these influences worked to the destruction of
+Bosnia, for when toleration was practised aid was withheld, and when at
+last persecution was established as a policy the Cathari welcomed the
+invader, and contributed to the subjugation of the kingdom.
+
+In 1420 Stephen Tvrtko II. reappeared upon the scene, and the next year
+he was acknowledged. There followed a breathing-space, for the Turkish
+general Isaac was defeated and killed during an incursion into Hungary,
+and Mahomet I., involved in strife with Mustapha, had no leisure to
+repair the disaster. This did not last long, however, for in 1424 the
+sons of Ostoja endeavored, with Turkish help, to win back their father's
+throne, the only result of which was a war ending with the surrender of
+a portion of Bosnian territory to Murad II. Again, in 1433, when Tvrtko
+was fighting with the Servian despot, George Brankovic, he was suddenly
+called to the south to withstand a Turkish inroad invited by Radivoj,
+one of the sons of Ostoja, and this was immediately followed by the
+rising of Sandalj Hranic, the powerful magnate of Herzegovina, who drove
+Tvrtko to seek refuge with Sigismund. His absence lasted three years,
+during which the wildest confusion reigned in Bosnia, the Turks being
+constantly called in to participate with one side or the other.[343]
+
+Meanwhile the rise of the Observantine Franciscans was restoring to the
+Church some of its old missionary fervor, and furnishing it with the
+necessary self-devoted agents. In spite of the preoccupations arising
+from the contest between Eugenius IV. and the Council of Basle, an
+effort was made to win back Bosnia to the faith. If anything could
+accomplish this there might be hope from the fierce and inexhaustible
+enthusiasm of the Observantine Friar, the Blessed Giacomo della Marca,
+who had already given evidence of ruthless efficiency as inquisitor of
+the Italian Fraticelli. In 1432 he was accordingly sent with full powers
+to reform the Franciscan Order in Slavonia, and to turn its whole
+energies to missionary work. Under this impulsion we are told that
+conversions were numerous from Bosnia to Wallachia, and Eugenius IV.
+stimulated rivalry by also setting the Dominicans at work. In 1434
+Giacomo was driven out, but was sent back the next year, and
+distinguished himself by redoubled ardor and success, attributed,
+according to his biographers, partly to his miraculous powers. Alarmed
+at his progress, the wicked queen sent four assassins to despatch him,
+when he extended his arms and bade them do whatever God would permit,
+whereupon they became rigid and suffered agonies until he prayed for
+their release. Indignant at this attempt, he bearded the king and queen
+in full court, and his boldness gained him so many converts that the
+king became alarmed for his throne. A sorcerer was accordingly employed
+to slay the intrepid inquisitor, but Giacomo promptly rendered the man
+speechless for life. Some heretics then sawed through the supports of a
+platform where he was preaching. It fell, but he escaped, and to this
+day, says the legend, the posterity of the perpetrators have all been
+born halt and lame. These proofs of divine favor led to numerous
+conversions, but he became involved in quarrels with the Catholic
+clergy, caused, we are told, by envy, and they excommunicated him, so
+that he was obliged to seek absolution from the pope. His triumphant
+career was cut short by a summons from the Emperor Sigismund to assist
+in the pacification of the Hussite troubles, and his field of action was
+transferred to regions farther north, where we shall meet him hereafter.
+Even there, however, he did not forget his Bosnian enemies, for at
+Stuhlweissenburg, on meeting the legates of the Council of Basle, he at
+once asked them to exert their influence on Sigismund. Though King
+Stephen, he said, was an unbaptized heretic who would not allow his
+subjects to be baptized, a command from the emperor would be sufficient
+to compel him to yield. Giacomo, moreover, had left behind him worthy
+disciples from among the natives. One of these, the Blessed Angelo of
+Verbosa, shone also by miraculous gifts. On one occasion the heretics
+gave him poison to drink, but on making the sign of the cross above the
+cup it became innocuous, which brought him many converts.[344]
+
+This legendary extravagance has some foundation in fact. A bull of
+Eugenius IV., in 1437, speaks of sixteen Franciscan churches and
+monasteries destroyed by the Turks within two years, and another grants
+to the friars who remained certain privileges in hearing confessions,
+which show that they had been active, and had been winning their way.
+Giacomo's influence at Stuhlweissenburg is, moreover, indicated by his
+inducing Sigismund to compel Stephen Tvrtko to undergo baptism, and to
+issue from that place, in January, 1436, an edict taking the Franciscans
+under his protection, and permitting them to spread Catholicism
+throughout Bosnia. In reward for this Sigismund aided his return to his
+kingdom, which he found possessed partly by Servia, partly by the Turks,
+and wholly devastated. For what he could obtain of this ruined land he
+had to render allegiance to Murad II., and to pay him a yearly tribute
+of twenty-five thousand ducats. Wretched as was this simulacrum of
+royalty, it was incompatible with the favor which he had been compelled
+to show to Catholicism. Southern Bosnia by this time was independent
+under Stephen Vukcic, nephew and successor of Sandalj; as a Catharan, he
+was regarded throughout Bosnia as the defender of the national faith,
+and, in alliance with Murad II., he overthrew Stephen Tvrtko II.[345]
+
+In 1444 another king was elected in the person of Stephen Thomas
+Ostojic, a younger natural son of Ostoja, who had carefully kept himself
+in obscurity with a low-born Catharan wife, to whom he had been married
+with the Catharan ceremony--a fact which subsequently served as an
+excuse for a divorce. Almost the first question which the new king had
+to decide was whether he would adhere to his religion or cast his
+fortunes with Catholicism. The Church had not relaxed its efforts to win
+over the fragments remaining of Bosnia, in spite of the fact that it
+was only aiding the designs of the Turks by adding to confusion and
+discord. In 1437 the vacancy left by Giacomo della Marca had been filled
+by the appointment of Fra Niccolo of Trau, and since 1439 Tommaso,
+Bishop of Lesina, had been in Bosnia as papal legate, busily engaged in
+furthering the interests of Catholicism. He had failed in an effort to
+convert Stephen Vukcic, but the advent of a new king was an incentive to
+further exertions. Eugenius promptly appointed the Observantine Vicar of
+Bosnia, Fabiano of Bacs, and his successors perpetual inquisitors over
+the Slavonic lands, and instructed the Bishop of Lesina to promise
+Stephen Thomas the recognition of his election if he would embrace the
+true faith. The position was a difficult one. All his magnates, with the
+exception of Peter Vojsalic, were Catharans, and to offend them would be
+to invite Turkish intervention, while, so long as he held aloof from
+Christendom, he could expect no aid from the West. Doubtless promises
+that could not be fulfilled were made to him in plenty, for he concluded
+to cast his fortunes with Catholicism, but he abstained from receiving
+the crown offered to him by Eugenius for fear of offending his Catharan
+subjects. He permitted the erection of two new bishoprics, he was duly
+baptized, and he labored long and earnestly to induce his subjects to
+follow his example. Nearly all his magnates did so, but Stephen Vukcic
+was a conspicuous exception, and the common people were not so easily
+moved. Even the king himself did not dare to omit the customary
+"adoration" of the Perfects, for which he was duly excommunicated by
+the inquisitor, but the pope recognized the difficulty of his position,
+and wisely gave him a dispensation for associating with heretics.[346]
+
+Although many Catholic churches were built, the legate reported, on a
+visit to Rome, that the land was too full of heresy for other cure than
+the sword. The king's position was too insecure for him to venture on
+persecution, which would infallibly have led to a revolt. In a grant, in
+1446, of certain towns to Count Paul Dragisic and his brothers, who were
+zealous Cathari, it is provided that, in case of their committing
+treason, the gift is not to be resumed without a previous investigation
+"by the Lord Djed and the Bosnian Church and good Bosnians." The
+Franciscans complained of his lukewarmness to Nicholas V., when he
+justified himself on the plea of necessity; he longed, he said, for the
+time when he could offer to his subjects the alternative of death or
+conversion, but as yet the heretics were too numerous and powerful and
+his position too precarious. Nicholas calmed the Franciscans, and they
+eagerly awaited the good time to come.[347]
+
+The defeat, in 1448, of John Hunyady, in a three days' battle on the
+historic Amselfeld, led, in 1449, to a seven years' peace between him
+and Murad II., in which Bosnia was included. Peace with Servia followed,
+and, thus relieved from the fear of foreign aggression, Stephen Thomas
+was summoned to perform his promises. Before the papal representatives
+he was obliged to give a solemn pledge to John Hunyady that he would
+strike heresy with a crushing blow. Nicholas V., who had sent the Bishop
+of Lesina back as legate, ordered him to preach a crusade with Holy Land
+indulgences, and active efforts were made in the good work. Early in
+1451 the Bishop of Lesina sent most encouraging reports of the result.
+Many of the nobles had sought conversion; the king in every way helped
+the Franciscans, and had founded several houses for them; wherever these
+houses existed the heretics melted away like wax before the fire, and if
+a sufficient supply of friars could be had heresy would be extirpated.
+Not quite so rose-colored was the statement of a Dominican, Fra Giovanni
+of Ragusa, that in Bosnia and Servia there were very few monks and
+priests, so that the people were wholly untrained in the faith.
+Unmindful of the danger of conjoining the two Orders, Nicholas sent him
+thither with some of his brethren on missionary work, and at the same
+time despatched the Franciscan Eugenio Somma to Albania, Bulgaria, and
+Servia in the double capacity of nuncio and inquisitor.[348]
+
+The good Bishop of Lesina had been over-sanguine. In the first pressure
+of persecution forty heads of the Catharan Church, with great numbers of
+the laity, sought refuge with Stephen Vukcic, who proceeded to attack
+the Catholics of Ragusa, while many others fled to Servia and to the
+Turks, and appealed to them for help. Those who remained prepared for
+resistance, and a bloody religious war broke out, of which George
+Brankovic of Servia took advantage to renew the war suspended in 1449.
+This was more than Stephen Thomas could endure; he was forced to abandon
+persecution and to call for help. John Hunyady was enraged at his
+weakness, and ordered him to make peace with Servia. He appealed to
+Nicholas V., who remonstrated with Hunyady, when the latter retorted
+that Stephen Thomas was false to his promises, and, in place of
+exterminating the heretics, was protecting them, to the scandal of all
+Christendom.[349]
+
+On the fall of Constantinople, in May, 1453, Stephen Thomas promptly
+sent envoys to Mahomet II. to tender his allegiance. In the
+ever-deepening menace of the Turks persecution could hardly be resumed
+with activity, but the popes occasionally gave him a portion of the
+moneys raised for the crusade, and the Cathari were humiliated and
+proscribed as far as could be ventured upon, and constituted a
+discontented and dangerous element of the population. In 1459 we find
+the king protesting to Pius II. that he persecuted the Cathari roundly,
+and asking for more bishops; and one of his latest acts was to send the
+Bishop of Nona to the pope with three Catharan magnates--George Kucinic,
+Stojsav Tvrtkovic, and Radovan Viencinic--that they might be converted.
+It seems incredible that any one should covet a throne so precarious,
+and yet, in 1461, while Stephen Thomas was battling with the Croatian
+magnates, he was murdered by his son, Stephen Thomasevic, and his
+brother Radivoj. The crown which Stephen Thomasevic thus won by a
+parricide was a crown of thorns. To the north Matthias Corvinus of
+Hungary was estranged and unforgiving; to the west was Croatia, with
+which he was at war; in the south Stephen Vukcic was his enemy; while on
+the east lay Servia, now a Turkish pashalic, from which Mahomet II. only
+awaited the fitting moment to reduce Bosnia to a like condition. Thus
+surrounded by foes, the internal condition of the land was not
+reassuring, for it was full of secret or open Cathari, who longed for
+help or revenge, no matter whence it might come.[350]
+
+The new king recognized that his only hope lay in obtaining aid from
+Christendom, to earn which he labored energetically to strengthen the
+Catholic Church in his dominions, but, in the fatal perverseness of the
+time, this only precipitated his downfall. From Pius II. he obtained
+only barren instructions to the legate, Lorenzo, Abbot of Spalatro, to
+collect money and crusaders. From Matthias Corvinus he purchased an
+alliance by a heavy payment, by surrendering some castles, and by
+breaking off relations with the Turks and ceasing to pay them tribute.
+In all this he estranged still further his heretic subjects and drew
+upon his head the vengeance of Mahomet II. Many Cathari, driven from
+Bosnia, had found refuge in Moslem territory; others, especially nobles,
+forced to pretend conversion, maintained constant relations with the
+Turks, kept them advised of all that occurred, and were eager to aid
+them, in hopes of revenge. The news of the treaty with Matthias Corvinus
+was speedily conveyed to Mahomet, who, to test its truth, sent an envoy
+to demand the tribute. King Stephen took him to the treasury, showed him
+the money, and refused to deliver it, saying that he needed it for
+self-defence, or that it would support him in exile if driven from the
+kingdom, and he paid no heed to the envoy's warning that treasure
+withheld in defiance of pledges would bring him no luck.[351]
+
+Defiance such as this left nothing to hope for from the Turk, but
+preoccupations in Wallachia kept Mahomet busy during 1462, and he
+postponed his revenge till the following year. It shows the blindness of
+Rome to the situation and the unflagging persistency of the
+determination to secure uniformity of faith, that during this respite
+Pius II. sent learned friars to Bosnia with instructions that the best
+mode of overcoming heresy was to promote study. The instructions were
+excellent, but sadly misplaced. Through the winter and spring of 1463
+Mahomet was preparing the final blow by massing one hundred and fifty
+thousand men at Adrianople. To throw Stephen Thomasevic off of his
+guard, his request for a fifteen years' truce was granted, and his
+envoys, returning with this welcome news, were followed, after an
+interval of four days, by the Turkish host. The land was found
+defenceless, and no resistance was offered till the invaders reached the
+royal castle of Bobovac, a stronghold capable of prolonged defence. Its
+commandant, however, was Count Radak, a Catharan who had been forced to
+conversion, and on the third day he surrendered on a promise of reward.
+When he claimed this, Mahomet, reproaching him with his treason, had him
+promptly beheaded, and tradition still points out on the road to Sutiska
+the rock Radakovica, where the traitor met his end. The capitulation of
+Bobovac cast terror throughout the land. Resistance was no longer
+thought of, and the only alternatives were flight or submission. The
+king hurried towards the Croatian frontier, with Mahomet Pasha at his
+heels, and was compelled at Kljuc to surrender on promise of life and
+freedom, but, in spite of this, he was put to death, after being
+utilized to order all commandants of cities and castles to surrender
+them. Within eight days more than seventy towns fell into the hands of
+the Turks, and by the middle of June all Bosnia was in their possession.
+Then Mahomet turned southward to overrun the territories of Stephen
+Vukcic, but the mountains of Herzegovina were bravely defended by the
+Cathari, and by the end of June the Turkish host took its way homeward,
+carrying with it one hundred thousand prisoners and thirty thousand
+youths to be converted into Janissaries.[352]
+
+Thus abandoned by Christendom, except to hasten the end through
+perpetually inflaming religious strife, Bosnia was conquered without a
+struggle, while Herzegovina held out for twenty years longer. How easily
+the catastrophe might have been averted is seen in the fact that before
+the year 1463 was out Matthias Corvinus had reconquered a large portion
+of the territory so easily won, which was held until the Hungarian power
+was broken on the disastrous field of Mohacs in 1526. In the Turkish
+lands the Cathari for the most part embraced Mahometanism, and the sect
+which had so stubbornly endured the vicissitudes of more than a thousand
+years disappeared in obscurity. The Christians had the resource of
+flight, which they embraced, commencing an emigration which continued
+until the middle of the eighteenth century. This was rather to escape
+oppression than persecution, for the Turks permitted them the exercise
+of their religion. When the blessed Angelo of Verbosa, the disciple of
+Giacomo della Marca, persuaded his fellow-believers to leave the
+country, Mahomet sent for him and menacingly asked him his reasons. "To
+worship God elsewhere," he boldly replied, and so eloquently pleaded
+his cause that the Turk ordered the Christians to be unmolested, and
+gave Angelo permission to preach. Thenceforth the Franciscans were the
+refuge and support of the Christians up to modern times, though they had
+many cruelties to endure at the hands of the barbarous conquerors.[353]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+GERMANY.
+
+
+In 1209 Henry of Veringen, Bishop of Strassburg, accompanied Otho IV. on
+his coronation expedition to Rome. We have seen (p. 192) how some of the
+ecclesiastics in the emperor's train were scandalized by the almost open
+toleration of heretics in the papal city; possibly recriminations may
+have passed between the German and the Italian prelates, and the former
+may have been recommended to look more sharply after the orthodoxy of
+their own dioceses. Be this as it may, Bishop Henry is said to have
+carried home with him some theologians eager to punish aberrations from
+the faith, and a little investigation showed to his horror that his land
+was full of misbelievers. A searching inquest was organized, and he soon
+had five hundred prisoners representing all classes of society. He was a
+humane man, as the times went, and he sincerely sought their conversion,
+to which end he set on foot disputations, but his clergy were no match
+for the sectaries in knowledge of Scripture, and the faith gained little
+by the attempt. Recourse to stronger measures was evidently requisite,
+and he announced that all who were obstinate should be burned. This
+brought most of them to their senses; heretic books and writings were
+eagerly surrendered, and the converts abjured. About a hundred of them,
+however, under the persuasion of their leader, a priest of Strassburg
+named John, were obdurate, including twelve priests, twenty-three women,
+and a number of nobles. So ignorant were the episcopal officials of the
+method of proceeding against heretics that they were utterly at a loss
+how to convict these recusants; some form of trial seems to have been
+thought necessary, and resort was had to the old expedient of the
+red-hot iron ordeal. The heretics protested against it as a manifest
+tempting of God, but their objections were unavailing; those who denied
+their heresy were subjected to it, and naturally but few escaped. One
+of them, named Reinhold, appealed to Innocent III. against this form of
+trial, and the pope promptly responded by forbidding its further use in
+such matters, although we are told by contemporaries that its efficacy
+was abundantly proved by miracles. One of the heretics who repented at
+the last moment was divinely cured of his burn and was discharged.
+Returning home rejoicing, his wife upbraided him with his weakness, and
+under her reproof he relapsed. Immediately the burn reappeared, and a
+similar one was developed on the hand of the wife, inflicting such agony
+that neither could restrain their screams. Fearing to betray themselves,
+they rushed to the woods, where they yelled like wild beasts; this led
+to their speedy discovery, and before the ashes of their confederates
+were yet cold they both shared the same fate. More fortunate was one of
+a number of heretics convicted in this manner at Cambrai about the same
+time. On his way to the stake he listened to the exhortations of a
+priest and commenced to repent and confess. As he did so his hand began
+to heal, and when he received absolution there was no trace left of the
+burn. Then the priest called attention to him, pronouncing him innocent,
+and on the evidence of his uninjured hand he was discharged. At
+Strassburg there were eighty obstinate ones, whose heresy was proved by
+the ordeal. They were all burned the same day in a ditch beyond the
+walls, and in the sixteenth century the hollow was still known to the
+citizens as the Ketzergrube. The property of the condemned was duly
+confiscated and was divided between the magistrates and those who had
+labored so successfully in vindicating the faith.[354]
+
+It is not to be supposed that Strassburg was a solitary centre of
+heresy, and that this was the only case of contemporary persecution.
+Fragmentary allusions to the detection and punishment of misbelief in
+other places during the next few years show that the population of the
+Rhinelands was deeply infected, and that when the ignorance and sloth of
+the clergy permitted detection, heretics were ruthlessly exterminated.
+The event at Strassburg, however, happens to have been reported with a
+fulness of detail which invests it with peculiar importance as revealing
+the methods of the episcopal inquisition of the period, and the nature
+of existing religious dissidence.[355]
+
+The Cathari appear to have virtually disappeared from Germany, where
+their foothold, at best, had been precarious. German soil seems to have
+been unpropitious to this essentially Southern growth. On the other
+hand, Waldenses were numerous, together with sectaries known as
+Ortlibenses or Ordibarii.
+
+We have already seen how rapidly Waldensianism extended from Burgundy to
+Franche Comte and Lorraine, and how, in 1199, Innocent III., after
+vainly endeavoring to persuade the Waldenses of Metz to surrender their
+vernacular Scriptures, had sent thither the Abbot of Citeaux and two
+other abbots to repress their zeal. The abbots duly performed their
+mission, preached to the misguided zealots, and burned all such copies
+of the forbidden books as they could lay their hands on, though it is
+fair to presume, from the silence of the chronicler, that no human
+victims expiated at the stake their unlawful studies. The consequence of
+this misplaced lenity was the emboldenment of the heretics. Some years
+later when Bishop Bertrand was preaching in the cathedral he saw two
+whom he recognized, and pointed them out, saying, "I see among you
+missionaries of the Devil; there they are, who in my presence at
+Montpellier were condemned for heresy and cast out." The unabashed
+Waldenses, with a companion, replied to him with insults, and, leaving
+the church, gathered a crowd, to whom they preached their doctrines. The
+bishop was powerless to silence them, for, when he attempted to use
+force, he found them protected by some of the most influential citizens
+of the town, and they were able to disseminate their pestiferous
+opinions in safety. Here, as in many other places, quarrels between the
+people and the bishop paralyzed the arm of the Church, and the Waldenses
+for many years continued to infect the city.[356]
+
+It cannot, therefore, surprise us that nearly all the heretics burned at
+Strassburg in 1212 belonged to this sect. From their writings and
+confessions a list of three hundred errors was compiled, afterwards
+condensed into seventeen, and these were read before them to the people
+while they were on their way to the place of execution. Priest John,
+their leader, admitted the correctness of all save one alleging
+promiscuous sexual intercourse, which he indignantly denied. Those which
+he admitted show how rapidly their doctrines were developing to their
+logical conclusions, and how impassable was the gulf which already
+separated them from the Church. All the holy orders were rejected, and
+this already led to the abolition of sacerdotal celibacy; disbelief in
+purgatory was definitely adopted, with its consequences as to prayers
+and masses for the dead, and there had already been invented, before St.
+Francis and his followers, the dogma that Christ and his disciples held
+no property.[357]
+
+The Ortlibenses or Ordibarii, who were also represented among the
+victims of Strassburg, demand a somewhat more detailed consideration
+than their immediate importance would seem to justify, because, although
+comparatively few in numbers, they present the earliest indication of a
+peculiar tendency in German free thought which we shall find reproduce
+itself in many forms, and constitute, with almost unconquerable
+stubbornness, the principal enemy with which the Inquisition had to
+deal.
+
+Early in the century Maitre David de Dinant, a schoolman of Paris, whose
+subtlety of argumentation rendered him a favorite with Innocent III.,
+had indulged in dangerous speculations derived from the Aristotelian
+philosophy, as transmitted through the Arab commentators, adulterated
+with neo-Platonic elements, which transmuted the theism of the Greek
+into a kind of mystic pantheism. These speculations were carried still
+further by his fellow-schoolman, Amauri de Bene, a favorite of the
+heir-apparent, Prince Louis. His views were condemned by the university
+in 1204; he appealed to the Holy See, but was compelled to abjure in
+1207, when he is said to have died of mortification. He had disciples,
+however, who propagated his doctrines in secret. They were mostly men of
+education and intelligence, theologians of the university and priests,
+except a certain goldsmith named Guillaume, who was esteemed as the
+prophet of the little sect. It was impossible that bold speculations of
+this nature should remain stationary, and the theoretical premises of
+David and Amauri were carried to unexpected conclusions in the effort to
+reduce them into a system for proselytism among the people. Amauri had
+taught that God was the essence of all creatures, and, as light could
+not be seen of itself, but only in the air, so God was invisible except
+in his creatures. The inevitable deduction from this was that after
+death all beings would return to God, and in him be unified in eternal
+rest. This swept away the doctrines of future retribution, purgatory,
+and hell, and, as the Amaurians did not fail to point out, the
+innumerable observances through which the Church controlled the
+consciences and the wealth of men through its power over the keys and
+the treasury of salvation. As this was destructive to the ecclesiastical
+system, so was the doctrine equally subversive of morality, which taught
+that such was the virtue of love and charity that whatever was done in
+their behalf could be no sin, and, further, that any one filled with the
+Holy Ghost was impeccable, no matter what crime he might commit, because
+that Spirit, which is God, cannot sin, nor can man, who is nothing of
+himself, so long as the Spirit of God is in him.[358]
+
+There was in these utterances an irresistible attraction to minds prone
+to mystic exaltation. Even the orthodox Caesarius of Heisterbach argues
+that much is permitted to the saints which is forbidden to sinners;
+where is the Spirit of God, there is liberty--have charity, and do what
+thou pleasest.[359] When the fatal word had once been spoken, it could
+not be hushed to silence, and, in spite of the most persistent and
+unsparing efforts of repression, these dangerous heights of superhuman
+spirituality continued to be the goal of men dissatisfied with the
+limitations of frail humanity, down to the time of Molinos and the
+Illuminati, and the influence of the doctrine is to be traced in the
+reveries of Madame Guyon and the Quietists.
+
+Yet the Amaurian heresy was speedily crushed in its place of origin. In
+his proselyting zeal, Guillaume the goldsmith, in 1210, approached a
+certain Maitre Raoul de Nemours, who feigned readiness of conviction,
+and reported the matter to Pierre, Bishop of Paris, and Maitre Robert de
+Curzon, the papal supervisor of preaching in France. By their advice he
+pretended conversion and accompanied the Amaurians on a missionary tour
+which lasted for three months and extended as far as Langres. We learn
+something of the habits of the sectaries when we are told that to keep
+up the deception he would pretend to be wrapped in ecstasy, with face
+upturned to heaven, and on recovering himself would relate the visions
+which had been vouchsafed to him, though he successfully evaded the
+requests that he should preach the new doctrines in public. When fully
+informed as to all details, he communicated with the authorities, and
+arrests were made. A council of bishops was convened in Paris which
+found no difficulty in condemning all concerned; those who were in
+orders were degraded, and they were all handed over to the secular
+authorities. There were as yet no laws defining the punishment of
+heresy, so their fate was postponed until the return of the king, who
+was then absent. The result was that four of the leaders were imprisoned
+for life and ten were burned, who met their fate with unshrinking
+calmness. The simple folk of both sexes who had been seduced into
+following them were mercifully spared. A few executions took place
+elsewhere, such as that of one of the heresiarchs, Maitre Godin, who was
+tried and burned at Amiens; the remains of Amauri were exhumed and
+exposed to the dogs, after which his bones were scattered in the fields;
+the writings of the enthusiasts were forbidden to be read; the study of
+natural science in the university was suspended for three years, and the
+works of Aristotle, which had given rise to the heresy, were publicly
+burned.[360]
+
+The doctrine of impeccability was likely to give loosened rein to human
+passion in those whose spiritual exaltation did not lift them above the
+weakness of the flesh, and there may be truth in the accusations current
+against the Amaurians, that the disciples of both sexes abandoned
+themselves to scandalous license, under the pretext of yielding to the
+demands of Christian love. Yet the popular designation of Papelards
+bestowed on the sectaries show that they at least preserved an exterior
+of sanctity and devotion, and that they prudently abstained from putting
+into practice their theories of the uselessness of the sacraments and of
+all external cult.
+
+The heresy was thus crushed in its birthplace, where we hear no more of
+it except that there were teachers of it in Dauphine, where they were
+confounded with the Waldenses, and that in 1225 Honorius III. ordered
+the destruction of the Periphyseos of Erigena, which was thought to have
+given rise to Amauri's speculations. The seed, however, was widely
+scattered, to bear fruit in foreign soil. The University of Paris drew
+together eager searchers after knowledge from every country in Europe,
+and it could not be difficult for the Amaurians to find among those from
+abroad converts who would prove useful missionaries. In 1215, Robert de
+Curzon includes the works of a certain Maurice the Spaniard in his
+condemnation of those of David and Amauri. Another disciple is said to
+have been Ortlieb of Strassburg, the teacher of the sectaries known by
+his name whose fate we have seen at Strassburg. That the heresy was
+known not to be extinguished is shown by the fact that in 1215 the
+great Council of Lateran still deemed it necessary to utter a formal
+condemnation of the doctrines of Amauri, which it stigmatized as crazy
+rather than heretical.[361]
+
+We know little of the faith originally professed by the Brethren of the
+Free Spirit, as the followers of Ortlieb called themselves. The
+principal account we have of their doctrines in the thirteenth century
+concerns itself much more with the results in denying the efficacy of
+sacerdotal observances than with the principles which led to those
+results; but there are indications of pantheism in the assertion of the
+eternity of the uncreated universe, in the promise of eternal life to
+all, while denying the resurrection of the flesh, and in the mystic
+representation of the Trinity by three members of the sect. No
+immorality is attributed to them; nay, the severest continence was
+prescribed by them, even in marriage; the only generation of children
+permitted was spiritual, through conversion, while homicide, lying, and
+oaths were strictly forbidden. It is quite probable that in Alsace the
+prevalence of Waldensianism and the sympathies born of common
+proscription may have considerably modified the opinions of the
+disciples of Ortlieb. They were by no means exterminated in the
+persecutions of 1212, and we hear of further pursuit against them in
+1216, extending as far as Thurgau, in Switzerland. About the middle of
+the century they are described as prevailing in Suabia, especially in
+the neighborhood of Noerdlingen and Oettingen, and Albertus Magnus
+thought them of sufficient importance to draw up an elaborate list of
+their errors.[362]
+
+It was not long before another consequence, especially shocking to the
+faithful, was drawn from the fruitful premises of pantheism. If God was
+the essence of all creatures, Satan himself could not be excepted; if
+all were to be eventually reunited in God, Satan and his angels could
+not be condemned to eternal perdition. So infinite were the conclusions
+which flowed from the bold assumptions of the Amaurians, that those who
+accepted their views inevitably diverged in the applications, as they
+attributed greater or less importance to one series of propositions or
+another. There were some who took special interest in this theory as to
+Satan, and as their utterances were peculiarly exasperating to the
+orthodox, they were designated as a separate sect under the name of
+Luciferans. Of these we hear much but see little. Their doctrines were
+exaggerated into devil-worship, and they were included in the list of
+heretics to be periodically anathematized with a zeal which attributed
+to them vastly greater importance than their scanty numbers deserved.
+Probably this was because they were peculiarly well adapted to serve as
+a stimulus for a healthy popular abhorrence of heresy. The most
+extravagant and repulsive stories were circulated as to their hideous
+rites, which gradually took shape under the current superstitions as to
+witchcraft, which they aided to formulate and render concrete. At the
+period under consideration they formed the basis of the wildest and most
+ferocious epidemic of persecution that the world had yet seen.
+
+The first indication we have of this tendency occurs in the case of
+Henry Minneke, Provost of the Cistercian nunnery of Neuwerke in Goslar,
+which is further of interest as showing how utterly, at the close of the
+first quarter of the thirteenth century, Germany was destitute of any
+inquisitorial machinery, and how ignorant were her prelates as yet of
+inquisitorial procedure. In 1222 Minneke was accused before his bishop,
+the fanatic Conrad von Reisenberg of Hildesheim, of certain heretical
+opinions. An assembly of prelates was held at Goslar, which took
+testimony of his nuns, and found him guilty. He was simply ordered to
+teach his doctrines no longer. When he disobeyed he was summoned before
+Bishop Conrad, who examined him for three days and sentenced him to
+return to his Premonstratensian monastery, and ordered the nuns to elect
+another provost. To this, again, he paid no attention, probably
+considering that his immunities as a monk exempted him from episcopal
+jurisdiction, and the bishop seems to have had no resource but to
+implore the intervention of Honorius III. When the pope ordered the
+sentence executed, the nuns interjected an appeal back to him and to the
+emperor. Both appeals were rejected; Minneke was declared a diseased
+member of the Church, fit only to be cut off, and the nuns were told
+that they should rejoice in being liberated from his influence. Still he
+remained firm, and the bishop was obliged to consult the
+Cardinal-legate, Cinthio of Porto, before he ventured to throw the
+indomitable heretic into prison. From his jail, Minneke himself appealed
+to the pope, asserting that he had been condemned unheard, praying for
+an examination, and offering to submit to incarceration for life if he
+should refuse to recant any erroneous opinions of which he might be
+convicted. Honorius thereupon, in May, 1224, ordered Bishop Conrad to
+bring his prisoner before the legate and an assembly of prelates for a
+final hearing and judgment. About October I, at Bardewick, Cinthio met
+an assembly of the bishops of North Germany, where it was decided that
+Minneke was convicted of having encouraged the nuns to regard him as
+greater than any other born of woman; he had on many points relaxed the
+severe Cistercian discipline; in his sermons he had declared that the
+Holy Ghost was the Father of the Son, and had so exalted the state of
+virginity as to represent marriage as a sin; in a vision he had seen
+Satan praying to be forgiven, and he had asserted that in heaven there
+was a woman greater than the Virgin, whose name was Wisdom. Still
+another synod, held at Hildesheim, October 22, was requisite to conclude
+the matter. Minneke was brought before it, was convicted of his errors,
+and degraded from the priesthood, but even yet Bishop Conrad was so
+little sure of his authority that the sentence was published under the
+seal of the legate. The culprit was handed over to the secular
+authorities, and was duly burned in 1225. The prominence accorded to
+this assertion, that Satan desired forgiveness, is shown by his being
+stigmatized as a Manichaean and a Luciferan.[363]
+
+This case has a further interest for us, inasmuch as one of the
+participators in the final judgment was a man who filled all Germany
+with his fame, and who was the most perfect embodiment of the pure
+fanaticism of his time--Conrad of Marburg. Though a secular priest and
+holding himself aloof from both Mendicant Orders,[364] Conrad steeped
+himself in the severest poverty and gained his bread by beggary. Though
+he could have aspired to any dignity in the Church, which reverenced him
+as its greatest apostle, and though for years all the benefices of
+Thuringia were placed by the Landgrave Louis at his absolute disposal,
+he never accepted a single preferment. Devoted solely to the work of the
+Lord, his fiery soul and unrelaxing energies were directed with absolute
+singleness of purpose to advancing the kingdom of heaven upon earth,
+according to the light which was in him.[365]
+
+Stern in temper and narrow in mind, his bigotry was ardent to the pitch
+of insanity. What were his conceptions of the duty of man to his Creator
+and how his conscience led him to abuse unlimited authority can best be
+judged by his course as spiritual director of St. Elizabeth of
+Thuringia. The daughter of Andreas of Hungary, born in 1207, married in
+1221, at the age of thirteen, to Louis of Thuringia, one of the most
+powerful of German princes, a mother at fourteen, a widow at twenty, and
+dying of self-inflicted austerities in her twenty-fourth year,
+Elizabeth was the rarest type of womanly gentleness and self-abnegation,
+of all Christian virtues and spiritual aspirations. When but eighteen
+years of age she placed herself under Conrad's direction, and he
+proceeded to discipline this heavenly spirit with a ferocity worthy of a
+demon. Such implicit obedience did he exact that on one occasion when he
+had sent for her to hear him preach, and she was unable to do so on
+account of an unexpected visit from her sister-in-law, the Margravine of
+Misnia, he angrily declared that he would leave her. She went to him the
+next day and entreated for pardon; on his continuing obdurate, she and
+her maidens, whom he blamed for the matter, cast themselves at his feet,
+when he caused them all to be stripped to their shifts and soundly
+scourged. It is no wonder that he inspired her with such terror that she
+was wont to say "If I so much dread a mortal man, how is God to be
+rightly dreaded?" After the death of Louis, whom she tenderly loved,
+and when his brother Henry despoiled her and drove her out, penniless,
+with her children, she submitted with patient resignation and earned her
+living by beggary; and when he was forced to compound for her
+dower-rights with money, she made haste to distribute it in charity.
+Under the influence of the diseased pietism inculcated by Conrad, she
+abandoned her children to God and devoted herself to succoring casual
+outcasts and lepers; and the depth of her humility was shown when
+scandal made busy with her fame in consequence of her relations with
+Conrad. On being warned of this and counselled to greater prudence, she
+brought forth the bloody scourge which she used, and said, "This is the
+love the holy man bears to me. I thank God, who has deigned to accept
+this final oblation from me. I have sacrificed everything--station,
+wealth, beauty--and have made myself a beggar, intending only to
+preserve the adornment of womanly modesty; if God chooses to take this
+also, I hold it to be a special grace." It was this spirit, so
+self-abased and humble, that Conrad's brutal fanaticism sought
+systematically to break, contradicting her of set purpose in all things,
+and demanding of her every possible sacrifice. Merely to add to her
+afflictions he drove away, one by one, the faithful serving-women who
+idolized her, finally expelling Guda, who had been her loved companion
+since infancy in Hungary; as they themselves said, "He did this with a
+good intention, because he feared our influence in recalling her past
+splendors, and he wished to deprive her of all human comfort that she
+might rely wholly on God." When she disobeyed his orders he used to
+beat her and strike her, which she endured with pleasure, in memory of
+the blows inflicted on Christ. Once he sent for her to come to him at
+Oldenburg to determine whether he would put her into an extremely rigid
+convent there. The nuns asked him to let her visit them, and he gave her
+permission, expecting that she would decline in view of the
+excommunication hanging over all intruders on the sacred precincts.
+Supposing, however, that she had leave, she went, while her woman
+Irmengard stood outside, received the key, and opened the door. For this
+Conrad made them both lie down, and ordered his faithful comrade, Friar
+Gerhard, to beat them with a heavy rod, so that they bore the marks of
+the flogging for weeks. Well might, in the next century, the mysterious
+Friend of God in the Oberland, when speaking of St. Elizabeth, remark
+that she had abandoned herself, in place of to God, to a man far
+inferior to herself in natural aptitudes as well as in the gifts of
+divine grace.[366]
+
+The significance of all this lies not only in the coarse violence of
+Conrad's methods, which regarded torture, mental and physical, as the
+most efficient aid to salvation, but also in the arrogance of the nature
+which could, without a shadow of hesitation, assume the position of an
+avenging God punishing humanity for its weakness and sin. When a man of
+such a temper was inflamed with the most fiery fanaticism, was armed
+with irresponsible power, and believed himself to be engaged in a direct
+conflict with Satan, his mad enthusiasm could lead only to a
+catastrophe. For the evil which he wrought it would be unjust to hold
+him responsible. The crime lay with those who could coolly select such
+an instrument, work up his crazy zeal to the highest pitch, and then let
+him loose to wreak his blind wrath upon defenceless populations.
+
+Conrad had long been a man of mark, and his qualities were well known to
+those who made use of him. His burning eloquence was adapted to move the
+passions of the people, and as early as 1214 he had been honored with a
+commission to preach in Germany the crusade which was one of the
+objects for which the great Council of Lateran was assembled. From this
+time on his activity was unabated, and there is probably truth in the
+assertion that he took part in the occasional persecutions of heresy
+which are reported, though no details have reached us. His mission as
+preacher brought him into direct relations with Rome, and his success in
+inducing thousands to take the cross gave him high repute with the
+curia, doubtless enhanced by the disinterestedness which asked for no
+reward. He gradually came to be employed as a representative in matters
+of importance, and his unwearied energy rendered him increasingly
+useful. In 1220 he was intrusted with the duty of compelling, by the
+censures of the Church, the Emperor Frederic to fulfil his long-delayed
+vow of leading an expedition to the Holy Land, and he was further made
+chief of the business of preaching in its behalf, by being empowered to
+commission assistants throughout Germany. In these letters he is
+addressed as "_Scholasticus_" or head of the church schools in Mainz,
+showing that he then held that dignity. In 1227 still greater evidence
+was given of the confidence reposed in him. In March of that year
+Gregory XI. had mounted the papal throne with full resolve to crush the
+rising powers of heresy, and, if possible, to deprive it of its excuse
+for existence in the corruptions of the church establishment. We have
+seen how, on June 20, 1227, he tried the experiment in Florence of
+creating a kind of inquisition, with a Dominican to exercise its
+functions. In Germany there seems to have been no one but Conrad on whom
+to rely. June 12, eight days before the commission issued to Giovanni di
+Salerno, Gregory wrote to Conrad commending highly the diligence with
+which he was tracking and pursuing heretics--a diligence of which,
+unfortunately, all details are lost to us. In order that his labors
+might be more efficacious, Conrad was directed and empowered to nominate
+whomsoever he might see fit as his assistants, and with them to inquire
+energetically after all who were infected with heresy, so that the
+extirpation of the tares from the fields of the Lord might proceed with
+due authority. Though the Inquisition was scarce as yet even a
+prospective conception, this was in effect an informal commission as
+inquisitor-general for Germany, and it is probably no injustice to
+Gregory to suggest that one of the motives prompting it was the desire
+to substitute papal authority for the episcopal jurisdiction under
+which the local and spasmodic persecutions had hitherto been carried
+on.[367]
+
+Eight days later, on June 20, another commission was sent to Conrad,
+which increased enormously his power and influence. The German Church
+was as corrupt and depraved as its neighbors, and all efforts to purify
+it had thus far proved failures. In 1225 the Cardinal-legate Cinthio had
+assembled a great national council at Mainz, which had solemnly adopted
+an elaborate series of searching canons of reformation, that proved as
+bootless as all similar efforts before or since. Something more was
+wanted, and the sternly implacable virtue of Conrad seemed to point him
+out as the fitting instrument for burning out the incurable cancer which
+was consuming the vitals of the German Church. Gregory, whose residence
+beyond the Alps as legate had rendered him familiar with its condition,
+describes its priesthood as abandoned to lasciviousness, gluttony, and
+all manner of filthy living, like cattle putrescing in their own dung;
+as committing habitually wickedness which laymen would abhor, corrupting
+the people by their evil example, and causing the name of the Lord to be
+blasphemed. To remedy these deplorable evils, he now commissioned Conrad
+as reformer, with full powers to enforce the regulations of the
+cardinal-legate, and the monasteries were especially designated as
+objects for his regenerating hand.[368]
+
+Armed with almost illimitable powers, Conrad was now the foremost German
+ecclesiastic of the time, and we may well understand the admiration of
+Theodoric of Thuringia, who declares that he shone like a star
+throughout all Germany. Yet at this time his ill-balanced impulsiveness
+was concentrating his energies on the torturing of St. Elizabeth. There
+is no trace of his exercising his inquisitorial functions, and the only
+record of his activity as a reformer is his reorganizing the nunnery of
+Nordhausen by the simple expedient of expelling the nuns, who all led
+ungodly lives. Yet his services as a persecutor never were more needed.
+The excommunication of the Emperor Frederic, on September 29 of the same
+year, for temporarily abandoning his crusade, had set Church and State
+fairly by the ears, and had inspired the heretics with fresh hopes.
+Everywhere their missionary activity redoubled, and the land was said to
+be full of them. In each diocese they had a bishop to whom they gave the
+name of the regular incumbent, and they pretended to have a pope whom
+they called Gregory, so that, under examination, they could swear that
+they held the faith of the bishop and of Pope Gregory. In 1229 the
+Waldenses were again discovered in Strassburg, and for several years
+persecution continued there, resulting in burning many obstinate
+heretics and penancing those who yielded.[369]
+
+Local measures such as these were manifestly insufficient, and thus far
+all efforts at a comprehensive system of persecution had failed. In 1231
+Gregory was busily occupied in organizing some more efficient method,
+and Germany was not forgotten. The Roman statutes of Annibaldo and the
+papal edicts of that year, to which frequent allusion has been made
+above, were sent to the Teutonic prelates, June 20, with letters blaming
+them for their lukewarmness and lenity, and ordering them to put
+vigorously into force the new edicts. Yet already there had been
+sufficient persecution to occasion the necessity of settling the novel
+questions arising from the confiscations, and the Diet of Worms, on June
+2 of the same year, had decided that the allodial lands and the movables
+should go to the heirs, the fiefs to the lord, and in case of serfs the
+personalty to the master, thus excluding the Church and the persecutors
+from any share. Under Gregory's earnest impulsion the sluggishness of
+the bishops was somewhat stimulated. The Archbishop of Treves made a
+perquisition through his city, and found three schools of heretics in
+full activity. He called a synod for the trial of those who were
+captured, and had the satisfaction of burning three men, and a woman
+named Leuchardis, who had borne the reputation of exceeding holiness,
+but who was found, upon examination, to belong to the dreaded sect of
+Luciferans, deploring the fall of Satan as unjustly banished from
+heaven.[370]
+
+Still the results did not correspond to Gregory's desires. In October of
+the same year (1231) he sought to spur Conrad on to a discharge of his
+duty by praising in the most exalted terms his activity and success in
+exterminating heretics, and by exhorting him, with the same wealth of
+exaggeration, to redoubled energy. The need of earnest work was more
+pressing than ever. The Archbishops of Treves and Mainz had reported
+that an apostle of heresy had been sowing tares through all the land, so
+that not only the cities, but the towns and hamlets, were infected. Many
+heresiarchs, moreover, each in his own appointed district, were laboring
+to overthrow the Church. Conrad was therefore given full discretionary
+powers; he was not even required to hear the cases, but only to
+pronounce judgment, which was to be final and without appeal--justice to
+those suspect of heresy being, apparently, of no moment. He was
+authorized to command the aid of the secular arm, to excommunicate
+protectors of heresy, and to lay interdict on whole districts. The
+recent decrees of the Holy See were referred to as his guide, and
+heretics who would abjure were to have the benefit of absolution, care
+being taken that they should have no further opportunity of mischief--a
+delicate expression for condemning them to lifelong incarceration. When
+Conrad received these extensive powers he was so dangerously ill that
+his life was despaired of, and before he had fairly recovered St.
+Elizabeth died, November 29, 1231. Harsh as was his nature, her loss
+affected him severely, and for a considerable time his energies were
+concentrated on fruitless efforts for her canonization. In intervals of
+leisure, however, he exercised his powers on such heretics as were
+unlucky enough to be within easy reach. In Marburg itself many suspects
+were seized, including knights, priests, and persons of condition, of
+whom some recanted and the rest were burned. On one excursion to Erfurt,
+moreover, in 1232, he took the opportunity to burn four more
+victims.[371]
+
+Results so far below what might reasonably have been expected could not
+but be disappointing in the extreme to Gregory. One expedient
+remained--to try whether among the Dominicans there might not be found
+men able and willing to devote themselves fearlessly and exclusively to
+the holy work. Between the end of 1231 and that of 1232, therefore,
+commissions were sent to various Dominican establishments empowering
+their officials to undertake the work. The treaty of Ceperano, in 1230,
+had restored peace between the empire and the papacy, and Frederic's aid
+was successfully invoked to give the imperial sanction to the new
+experiment. From Ravenna, in March, 1232, he issued a constitution
+addressed to all the prelates and potentates of the empire, ordering
+their efficient co-operation in the extirpation of heresy, and taking
+under the special imperial protection all the Mendicants deputed by the
+pope for that purpose. The secular authorities were commanded to arrest
+all who should be designated to them by the inquisitors, to hold them
+safely until condemnation, and to put to a dreadful death those
+convicted of heresy or fautorship, or to imprison for life such as
+should recant and abjure. Relapse was punishable with the death-penalty,
+and descendants to the second generation were declared incapable of
+holding fiefs or public office.[372]
+
+Here were laws provided and ministers for their enforcement, and the
+business of vindicating the faith might at last be expected to prosper.
+If Conrad was remiss, others would be found enthusiastically ready for
+the work. So it proved. Suddenly there appeared on the scene a Dominican
+named Conrad Tors, said to be a convert from heresy, who, without
+special commission, commenced to clear the land of error. He carried
+with him a layman named John, one-eyed and one-handed, of thoroughly
+disreputable character, who boasted that he could recognize a heretic at
+sight. Apparently with little more evidence than this, Conrad Tors
+raided from town to town, condemning his victims wholesale, and those
+whom he delivered to the magistrates they were compelled by popular
+excitement to burn. Soon, however, a revulsion of feeling took place,
+and then the Dominican shrewdly enlisted the support of the nobles by
+directing his attacks against the more wealthy, and holding out the
+prospect of extensive confiscations to be divided. When remonstrated
+with he is said to have replied, "I would burn a hundred innocent if
+there was one guilty among them." Stimulated by this shining example,
+many Dominicans and Franciscans joined him, and became his eager
+assistants in the work.[373]
+
+Whether, as reported, Conrad Tors, to strengthen himself, sought out
+Conrad of Marburg and persuaded him to take part in the good work, or
+whether the latter, scenting the battle from afar, was aroused from his
+torpor and rushed eagerly to the fray, cannot positively be determined.
+This much is certain, that at length he came forward, and not only lent
+the weight of his great name to the proceedings, but urged them to a
+crueller and wider development with all his vehemence of character and
+implacable severity.
+
+The heresy of which the miserable victims of this onslaught were accused
+was not Waldensian, but Luciferan. Its hideous rites were described in
+full detail by Master Conrad to Pope Gregory, and are worth repeating as
+illustrating the superstitions concerning witchcraft which, for
+centuries, worked such cruel wrong in every corner of Europe. Indeed, it
+seemed inevitable that such embroideries should be added by
+inquisitorial craft or popular credulity to the tenets of heretics, for,
+on the first emergence of Catharism at Orleans in 1022, very similar
+stories were told of the infernal rites of the heretics, which are
+repeated by Walter Mapes in the latter half of the twelfth century.[374]
+That Conrad obtained these wild fictions in endless duplication from
+those who stood before his judgment-seat there need be no reasonable
+doubt. The reports of witch-trials in later times are too numerous and
+authentic for us to question the readiness of self-accusation of those
+who saw no other means of escape, or their eagerness to propitiate their
+judge by responding to every incriminating suggestion, and telling him
+what they found him desirous of hearing. Crude as were Conrad's methods,
+the inquisitorial process proved its universal effectiveness by their
+producing confessions as surely as the more elaborate refinements
+invented by his successors, although he had not the advantage of the use
+of torture.
+
+According to these revelations, when a novice is received into the sect
+and first attends the assembly, there appears to him a toad, which he
+kisses either on the posteriors or on the mouth; in the latter case it
+deposits something in his mouth. Occasionally it has the aspect of a
+goose or of a duck, and sometimes it is as large as an oven. Then there
+comes to him a man of wonderful paleness, with the blackest of eyes, and
+so thin that he is naught but skin and bone. Him the novice likewise
+kisses, finding him ice-cold, and with that kiss all remembrance of the
+Catholic faith vanishes from his heart. Then all sit down to a feast,
+after which, from a statue which is always present, there descends a
+black cat, as large as a dog, with the tail bent back. She comes down
+backwards and her posteriors are kissed, first by the novice, then by
+the master of the assembly, and finally by all who are worthy and
+perfect, while those who are imperfect and feel themselves unworthy
+receive peace from the master. Then each resumes his place, songs are
+sung, and the master says to his next neighbor, "What does this
+teach?" The answer is, "The highest peace," and another adds, "And
+that we must obey." All lights are then extinguished and indiscriminate
+intercourse takes place, after which the candles are relighted, each one
+takes his seat, and from a dark corner appears a man shining like the
+sun in his upper half, while from the hips down he is black like the
+cat. He illuminates the whole place, and the master, taking a fragment
+of the novice's garment, hands it to him, saying, "Master, I give this
+to thee which has been given to me." To this the shining man replies,
+"Thou hast served me well, thou wilt serve me more and better. I leave
+to thy care what thou hast given me," and then he disappears. Each year
+at Easter they receive the host, carry it home in their mouths, and spit
+it out into a cesspool to show their contempt for the Redeemer. They
+hold that God unjustly and treacherously cast Satan into hell; the
+latter is the Creator, who in the end will overcome God, when they
+expect eternal bliss with him. That which is pleasing to God is to be
+avoided, and that which he hates is to be cherished.
+
+This transparent tissue of inventions was apparently doubted by no one,
+and it excited almost to insanity the credulous old man who filled the
+papal chair. He replies that he is drunk with wormwood, and in fact his
+letters read like the ravings of a madman. "If against such men the
+earth should rise up, and the stars of heaven reveal their iniquity, so
+that not only men, but the elements, should unite in their destruction,
+wiping them from the face of the earth without sparing sex or age, and
+rendering them an eternal opprobrium for the nations, it would not be a
+sufficient and worthy punishment of their crimes." If they cannot be
+converted, the strongest remedies must be used. Fire and steel must be
+applied to wounds incurable by milder applications. Conrad was
+instructed forthwith to preach a crusade against them, and the bishop of
+the province, the emperor, and his son, King Henry, were ordered to
+exert all their powers for the extirpation of the wretches.[375]
+
+The means which Master Conrad took to obtain these avowals from his
+victims were simple in the extreme. The processes of the Inquisition had
+not yet been formulated, and the unlimited powers with which he was
+clothed enabled his impatient temper to reach the desired goal by the
+shortest possible course. As officially reported, after the bursting of
+the bubble, to Gregory by his own penitentiary, the Dominican Bernard,
+and the Archbishop of Mainz, the accused was allowed simply the option
+of confessing what was demanded of him, and receiving penance, or of
+being burned for denial--which, in fact, was the essence of the
+inquisitorial process, reduced to its simplest terms. Conrad had no
+prisons at his disposal for the incarceration of penitents, and the
+infliction of wearing crosses seems to have been unknown to him, so he
+devised the penance of shaving the head as a mark of humiliation for his
+converts, who were moreover, of course, obliged to give the names of all
+whom they had seen in the hideous nocturnal assemblies.
+
+At the outset he had fallen into the hands of a designing woman, a
+vagrant about twenty years old who had quarrelled with her relations,
+and who, coming by chance to Bingen, and observing what was going on,
+saw her opportunity of revenge. She pretended to be of the sect, that
+her husband had been burned, that she wished to perish likewise, but
+added that if the Master would believe her she would reveal the names of
+the guilty. Conrad eagerly swallowed the bait, and sent her with his
+assistants to Clavelt, whence she came, where she caused the burning of
+her kindred. Then there was a certain Amfrid, who finally confessed that
+he had led Conrad to condemn a number of innocent men. Creatures of this
+kind were sure not to be lacking, and it was even said that cunning
+heretics caused themselves to be accused, and accepted penance, for the
+purpose of incriminating Catholics, and thus rendering the whole
+proceeding odious. As no one had the slightest opportunity of defence,
+some steadfast men preferred to be burned and thus earn salvation,
+rather than to confess to lies and falsely accuse others. The weaker
+ones who saved their lives, when pressed to name their accomplices,
+would often say, "I know not whom to accuse: tell me the names of those
+you suspect;" or, when interrogated about individuals, would evasively
+reply, "They were as I was; they were in the assemblies as I was,"
+which was apparently sufficient. "Thus," proceeds the official report
+to the pope, "brother accused brother, the wife the husband, and the
+master the servant. Others gave money to the shaven penitents in order
+to learn from them methods of evasion and escape, and there arose a
+confusion unknown for ages. I, the archbishop, first by myself and
+afterwards with the two archbishops of Treves and Cologne, warned Master
+Conrad to proceed in so great a matter with more moderation and
+discretion, but he refused."[376]
+
+From this last fact we gather that the prelates of the land, while not
+interfering effectively to protect their people, had, at least, taken no
+part in the insane persecution which was raging. Conrad had found plenty
+of assistants among the Dominicans and Franciscans, but the secular
+hierarchy had held aloof. In vain had Gregory, in October, 1232, written
+to them and to the princes, telling them that the heretics who formerly
+lay in hiding were now coming forward openly, like war-horses harnessed
+for battle, publicly preaching their errors and seeking the perdition of
+the simple and ignorant. Faith was rare in Germany, he said, and,
+therefore, he ordered them to make vigorous inquisition throughout their
+lands, seizing all heretics and suspects, and proceeding against them in
+accordance with the papal decrees of 1231. The appeal fell upon deaf
+ears. The bishops seem to have been thoroughly disturbed by the
+encroachments which the papacy was making on their independence through
+the new agencies which it was bringing into play. The Mendicant Orders
+were already a sufficiently dangerous factor, and now came these new
+inquisitors, armed with papal commissions, superseding their
+time-honored jurisdiction in every spot within their dioceses. It is no
+wonder that they felt alarmed, and that they held aloof. The German
+prelates were great secular princes, combining civil and spiritual
+authority. The three electoral archbishops--Mainz, Treves, and
+Cologne--stood on a level as temporal lords with the most powerful
+princes of the empire, and the wide extent of many of the dioceses
+rendered the bishops scarcely less formidable. They were always
+suffering from the greed of the Roman curia, and were perpetually
+involved in struggles to resist its encroachments. Frederic II., indeed,
+by his constitutions of 1232, had increased their secular authority by
+rendering them absolute masters of the episcopal cities, whose municipal
+rights and liberties he abolished, but at the same time he had given, as
+we have seen, the imperial sanction to the papal Inquisition, and had
+rendered it everywhere supreme. It is no wonder that they felt aggrieved
+and alarmed, that they withheld their co-operation as far as they
+safely could, and that well-grounded jealousy would lead them to seize
+the first safe opportunity of crushing the intruding upstarts.[377]
+
+Fortunately for the German people, Conrad's blind recklessness was not
+long in affording them the desired chance. Beginning with the lowly and
+helpless, his operations had rapidly advanced to the higher classes. In
+his eyes the meanest peasant and the loftiest noble were on an equality,
+and he was as prompt to assail the one as the other, but his witnesses
+at first had not dared to accuse the high-born and powerful. It is quite
+possible, indeed, that, as the persecution became more dreadful, some of
+them may have felt that the surest mode of bringing on a crisis was to
+involve the magnates of the land. Rumors were spread impugning the faith
+of the Counts of Aneberg, Lotz, and Sayn. Conrad eagerly directed his
+interrogatories to obtaining evidence against them, and summoned them to
+appear before him. Count Sayn was an especially notable prey, as he was
+one of the most powerful nobles of the diocese, whose extensive
+possessions were guarded by castles renowned for strength, and whose
+reputation was that of a stern and cruel man. The crime of which he was
+accused was that of riding on a crab, and open defiance was expected
+from him. Sigfried, the Archbishop of Mainz, to make a show of obedience
+to the papal commands, had called a provincial council to assemble March
+13, 1233. When it met, it deplored the prevalence of heresy, from which
+scarce a village in the land was free; it prayed the prelates to labor
+zealously for the suppression of the evil, commanded them to enforce in
+their respective dioceses the recent decrees of the pope and of the
+emperor, which were to be read and explained in the local synods, so
+that the heretics might be frightened to conversion; it deprecated the
+practice of seizing the property of suspects before their guilt was
+determined; it ordered the bishops to provide prisons for coiners and
+incorrigible clerks, without alluding to the imprisonment of heretics,
+although Gregory, but a few weeks before, had specially ordered them to
+employ perpetual incarceration in all cases of relapse; it endeavored to
+maintain episcopal jurisdiction by enacting that inquisitors must obtain
+letters from the bishop before exercising their powers in any diocese;
+finally, it anticipated the resistance of Count Sayn and the other
+inculpated nobles, by directing that if any magnate, relying upon the
+strength of his castles and the support of his subjects, should refuse
+to appear after three citations, his bishop should preach a crusade
+against him with indulgences, and he should be manfully assailed.[378]
+
+Thus, while ostensibly obeying the commands of the pope and emperor, the
+action of the bishops was practically directed to limiting the powers of
+the inquisitors. As for the threat of a crusade, its significance is
+seen in the steps actually taken in the case of Count Sayn. That shrewd
+noble saw that he could rely upon episcopal protection if he could
+promise the bishops efficient support, and he had sufficient interest
+with King Henry to induce him to join with Sigfried of Mainz in calling
+a council for July 25, to consider his case. The king and his princes
+attended the assembly as well as the prelates, so that it was rather an
+imperial diet than an ecclesiastical council. The count asserted his
+innocence and offered to prove it by conjurators. Conrad, who was
+present, found his position suddenly changed. The assembly was, in
+reality, a national protest against the supremacy of the papal
+Inquisition, and the inquisitor, in place of being a judge armed with
+absolute jurisdiction, was merely a prosecutor. He presented his
+witnesses, but in that august presence the hearts of some of them
+failed, and they withdrew; others felt emboldened to declare that they
+had been forced to accuse the count in order to save their own lives,
+and those who persisted were easily shown to be personal enemies of the
+accused. The whole assemblage seemed inspired with a common desire to
+put an end to Conrad's arbitrary proceedings, and the prosecution broke
+down totally. King Henry alone, perhaps already meditating his rebellion
+against his father, and anxious not to offend either the nobles or the
+papacy, desired to postpone the matter for further consideration. The
+count pressed earnestly for immediate judgment, but the Archbishop of
+Treves interposed--"My lord, the king wishes the case postponed;" then
+turning to the people, "I announce to you that Count Sayn departs from
+here unconvicted, and as a good Catholic," Master Conrad sullenly
+muttered, "If he had been convicted it would have been different," and
+withdrew. The count finally agreed to allow the matter to be referred to
+Rome, and ecclesiastics of distinction were appointed to lay the
+proceedings before the Holy See for final decision.[379]
+
+Maddened by his defeat, Conrad at once proceeded to preach in the
+streets of Mainz a crusade against some nobles who had been summoned and
+who had not appeared. To this both the archbishop and the king objected,
+and he was forced to desist. With his usual impulsiveness he then
+abruptly determined to quit an ungrateful world, and to live henceforth
+in retirement at Marburg. The king and archbishop offered him an armed
+escort, but he would accept nothing save letters of surety, and with
+these he departed to meet his fate. Those against whom his crusade had
+been preached lay in wait for him near Marburg and despatched him, July
+31, regardless of his entreaties for mercy. His faithful follower, Friar
+Gerhard, refused the opportunity offered him to escape, threw himself on
+the body of his beloved master, and perished with him. The scene of the
+murder is supposed to be Kappeln on the Lahnsberg, where a chapel was
+erected to commemorate it. The body was carried to Marburg and buried by
+the side of St. Elizabeth, and when the latter was translated to the
+magnificent Elizabethskirche, his bones were likewise carried
+thither.[380]
+
+The immediate reputation which Conrad left behind him is shown by the
+vision, related by a contemporary, which indicated that he was
+hopelessly damned. Modern ecclesiastics, however, take a more favorable
+view of his career, and even the amiable Alban Butler describes him as a
+virtuous and enlightened priest, who rendered great service by his
+preaching, and whose fervor, disinterestedness, and love of poverty and
+austerity rendered him a model for his contemporaries. Yet,
+unaccountably, the Church has not yet proceeded to his vindication as a
+martyred saint, and has neglected to place him alongside of those
+kindred spirits, St. Peter Martyr and St. Pedro Arbues.[381]
+
+With Conrad's withdrawal from the Council of Mainz the proceedings of
+which he had been the mainspring came to an end at once. "Thus," says
+a contemporary ecclesiastic, "ceased this storm, the most dangerous
+persecution of the faithful since the days of Constantius the Heretic
+and Julian the Apostate. People once more began to breathe. Count Sayn
+was a wall for the mansion of the Lord, lest this madness should rage
+further, enveloping guilty and innocent alike, bishops and princes,
+religious and Catholics, like peasants and heretics." The murderers
+evidently felt that they had nothing to dread from public opinion, for
+they voluntarily came forward and offered to submit themselves to the
+judgment of the Church as regards the heresy whereof Conrad had accused
+them, and to the secular tribunals as regards the homicide, agreeing to
+present themselves for examination at a diet of the empire which was
+ordered for February, 1234, at Frankfort.[382]
+
+Gregory, who in June had been ordering a crusade preached against the
+heretics, and had been stimulating prince and prelate to a yet more
+ferocious persecution, was moved to regret when the envoy of the
+assembly of Mainz, Conrad, the "Scholasticus" of Speier, presented
+letters from the king and bishops describing the arbitrary methods of
+his inquisitor. He ordered letters drawn up prescribing a more regular
+form of trial for heretics; but before the envoy had permission to
+depart, there arrived the originator of the trouble, Conrad Tors, with
+the pitiful tale of the Master's martyrdom. At this news the emotional
+pope could not contain his wrath. The letters just written were recalled
+and torn up, and the unlucky envoy was threatened with the deprivation
+of all his benefices. Under the remonstrances of the Sacred College,
+however, Gregory's ire subsided sufficiently to allow him to renew the
+letters and to enable the envoy to depart unscathed. The pope solaced
+himself, however, with pouring out his grief at full length in letters
+to the German prelates. The death of Conrad was a thunderclap which had
+shaken the walls of the Christian sanctuary. No words were strong
+enough to describe the transcendant merits and services of the martyr,
+and no punishment could be invented too severe for the murderers. The
+bishops were roundly rated for their indifference in the matter, and
+were ordered to take immediate and effective measures. The Dominican
+provincial, Conrad, was commanded, in conjunction with the bishops, to
+carry on the Inquisition vigorously, and to preach a crusade against the
+heretics.[383]
+
+In spite of this furious grief and wrath the German prelates maintained
+a most provoking calmness. The fanatic Conrad, Bishop of Hildesheim, it
+is true, preached a crusade as ordered by the pope, and under his
+impulsion the Landgrave, Conrad of Thuringia, zealously purged his land
+of heretics, and completely destroyed all their assemblies, levelling to
+the ground Willnsdorf, which was reckoned their chief abiding-place;
+while his brother, Henry Raspe, and Hartmann, Count of Kiburg (Zurich),
+took the cross under the same auspices, and received, in consequence,
+papal protection for their dominions. Even this measure of activity,
+however, was regarded unfavorably in Germany, and there was no response
+to the cry for vengeance. The Diet of Frankfort duly assembled February
+2, 1234, and the first business recorded was an accusation brought by
+King Henry himself against the Bishop of Hildesheim for having preached
+the crusade; it was treated as an offence, and though he was pardoned by
+unanimous request, the recalcitrance against the papal tendencies was
+none the less significant. Then the memory of the martyred Conrad was
+arraigned, and this, as a matter of faith, was discussed by the
+ecclesiastics separately. There were twenty-five archbishops and bishops
+present, who were almost unanimous in condemning him, while the Bishop
+of Hildesheim and a Dominican named Otto strenuously defended him. One
+of the prelates exclaimed that Master Conrad ought to be dug up and
+burned as a heretic; but no conclusion seems to have been reached, for
+the proceedings were interrupted by the introduction of a procession of
+those whom he had shaved in penance the preceding year, who marched in
+with a cross at their head, and complained of his cruelty with dolorous
+cries, when a tumult arose from which his defenders were glad to escape
+with their lives. On the following Monday the solemn purgation of Count
+Sayn took place in the field of judgment beyond the walls. Eight
+bishops, twelve Cistercian and three Benedictine abbots, twelve
+Franciscan and three Dominican friars, who, with many other clerks and
+numerous nobles, took part in his oath of denial, show how emphatically
+the German hierarchy desired to disclaim all sympathy with Conrad's
+acts. Count Solms, whom Conrad had forced to confession, went through
+the same ceremony, declaring with tears in his eyes that the fear of
+death alone had compelled him to admit himself guilty. The diet then
+proceeded to legislate for the future, and its slender enunciation on
+the subject of heresy can have carried little comfort to the wrathful
+Gregory. It simply commanded that all who exercised judicial functions
+should use every effort to purge the land of heresy, but at the same
+time it cautioned them to prefer justice to unjust persecution.[384]
+
+Two months later, April 2, 1234, a council was held at Mainz for final
+action. Count Sayn and others who had been accused were subjected to a
+form of examination, were declared innocent, and were restored to
+reputation and to their possessions. Conrad's unlucky witnesses who had
+been forced to commit perjury were ordered to undergo a penance of seven
+years; those who had accused the innocent were maliciously sent to the
+pope for the imposition of penance, and he was, in the same spirit,
+asked what should be done about those whom Conrad had unjustly burned.
+As for the murderers, they were simply excommunicated.[385]
+
+All this was a direct challenge to the Holy See, but Gregory prudently
+delayed action. He was involved in troubles with the Romans which
+rendered inadvisable any trial of strength with the united Teutonic
+Church. He sent his penitentiary, Bernard, who made an investigation on
+the spot, and, in conjunction with Archbishop Sigfried, furnished him
+with a report to which we are indebted for most of our knowledge of the
+affair. On receiving this, Gregory expressed his regret that he had
+intrusted to Master Conrad the enormous powers which had led to a result
+so lamentable. Still his decision was delayed. Towards the end of the
+year 1234 he appealed earnestly to the German bishops for aid in his
+quarrel with the Romans, which continued until he made peace with them
+in April, 1235. His hands were now free, but it was not until July that
+he trusted himself to express his indignation. Then he scolded most
+vehemently the Council of Mainz for daring, in the absence of any
+defenders of the faith, to absolve those whom Conrad had prosecuted, and
+for sending to him for absolution the murderers, without having first
+exacted of them full satisfaction for their detestable crime. His
+sentence upon them is that they shall join the crusade to Palestine when
+it sets sail the following March, giving good security to insure their
+obedience, and meanwhile they shall visit all the greater churches in
+the region of the crime, bare-footed and naked, except drawers, with a
+halter around the neck, and a rod in the hand, and, when the affluence
+of people is the greatest, cause themselves to be scourged by all the
+priests, while they chant the penitential psalms, and publicly confess
+their guilt. After this they may be absolved.[386]
+
+It is satisfactory to know that the immediate author of the troubles met
+with the fate which he deserved. Conrad Tors, on his return from Rome,
+endeavored to resume his interrupted labors, but the temper of the
+people had changed, and the victims were no longer unresisting. At
+Strassburg he summoned the Junker Heinz von Muellenheim, who
+unceremoniously settled the accusation by slaying him. His assistant,
+the one-eyed John, met an even more ignominious fate, for he was
+recognized at Freiburg and hanged.[387]
+
+Thus ended this terrible drama, which left an impression of horror on
+the souls of the German people not easily effaced. The number of
+Conrad's victims can only be guessed at. Some chroniclers vaguely speak
+of them as innumerable, and one asserts that a thousand unfortunates
+were burned. Although this is probably an exaggeration, for the period
+of Conrad's insane activity cannot have exceeded a twelvemonth, yet the
+number must have been considerable to produce so profound an impression
+on a generation which was by no means susceptible.[388]
+
+One good result there undoubtedly was. The universal detestation excited
+by Conrad's crazy fanaticism rendered it comparatively easy for the
+bishops to maintain the jurisdiction which they had assumed, and to keep
+the Inquisition confined within narrow limits. For a time this was
+doubtless facilitated by the open quarrels between Frederic II. and the
+papacy, but even after his death, during the Great Interregnum and the
+reigns of emperors who were more or less dependent upon the Holy See,
+more than a century was to pass away before the popes, who were so
+zealously organizing and strengthening it elsewhere, made a serious
+effort to establish the Inquisition in Germany. We hear of no endeavors
+on their part, we meet with no appointments or commissions of German
+inquisitors. It seems to have been tacitly understood that the
+institution was unfitted for German soil until a period when it had
+fairly entered into decadence in the lands where its growth was the
+rankest.
+
+The excitement of Conrad of Marburg's exploits was naturally succeeded
+by a reaction. In 1233 the murder of Bishop Berthold of Coire,
+attributed to heretics, shows how far persecution spread, accompanied by
+a dangerous tendency to resistance. Throughout 1234 both Dominicans and
+Franciscans are reported as busy, with the result of numerous burnings;
+but the lesson taught by the attitude of the German prelates was not
+lost, and in 1235 the magistrates of Strassburg enjoined on them to seek
+conversions by preaching, and not to burn people without at least giving
+them a hearing. The languor and reaction continued. We have seen from
+the complaints of the Count of Salins, in 1248, and the fruitless
+efforts of Innocent IV. to establish the Inquisition in Besancon, that
+the western borders of Germany were full of Waldenses who had little to
+dread. At the same period there was a demonstration in the neighborhood
+of Halle which may be reasonably regarded as Waldensian. The papacy had
+succeeded in raising a rival to Frederic in the person of William of
+Holland, and a crusade was on foot in his favor against Conrad,
+Frederic's son. The imperialists would naturally regard with favor the
+Waldensian doctrines denying the power of the keys and the obedience due
+to interdicts, and they might not object further to the tenet that
+sinful priests cannot administer the sacraments. Such were the dogmas
+attributed to the heretics of Halle, who came boldly forward in 1248,
+were eagerly listened to by the nobles, and were favored by King Conrad,
+but they speedily disappeared from sight in the changeful circumstances
+of that tumultuous time.[389]
+
+We have much more distinct indications of the existence both of heresy
+and of the Inquisition in the writings of David of Augsburg, and of the
+author now generally known as the Passauer Anonymus. The date of the
+latter is not absolutely certain, but it cannot vary much from 1260. His
+field of action was the extensive diocese of Passau, stretching from the
+Iser to the Leitha, and from Bohemia to Styria, embracing eastern
+Bavaria and northern Austria. His instructions seem to take for granted
+the existence of an organized Inquisition with its fully developed code
+of procedure, but his description of the prevalence of Waldensianism
+would indicate that it was almost inoperative. He tells us that he had
+often been concerned in the inquisition and examination of the
+"schools," or communities, of Waldenses, of which there were forty-one
+in the diocese, ten of them being in the single town of Clamme, where
+the heretics slew the parish priest without any one being punished for
+it. There were also forty-one Waldensian churches, organized under a
+bishop residing in Empenbach, and there was a school for lepers at
+Newenhoffen. All this shows a prosperous growth of heresy little
+disturbed by persecution. It is observable that the places enumerated as
+the seats of these churches are mostly insignificant villages, the
+larger towns appear to be avoided, and the heretics belong to the
+humbler classes--mostly peasants and mechanics. Their wonderful
+familiarity with Scripture and their self-devoted earnestness in making
+converts have already been alluded to. From the writer's long
+description of the tenets of the Ordibarii and Ortlibenses it is evident
+that they formed a fair proportion of the heretics with whom the
+inquisitor had to deal, and their belief that the Day of Judgment would
+come when the pope and the emperor should be converted to their sect,
+indicates the hopefulness of a faith that is growing and spreading. Soon
+afterwards we hear of Waldenses captured in the diocese of Ratisbon, and
+their continued activity, in spite of persecution, through all the south
+German regions.[390]
+
+There was little on the part of the Inquisition or the bishops to
+prevent the growth and spread of heresy. During the Interregnum, in
+1261, a council of Mainz seems suddenly to have awakened to a sense of
+neglected duty in the premises; it vigorously anathematized all heretics
+after the fashion customary in the papal bulls, and it strictly
+commanded the bishops of the province to labor zealously for the
+extermination of heresy in their respective dioceses, enforcing, with
+regard to the persons and property of heretics, the papal constitutions
+and the statutes of a former provincial council. There is here no sign
+of the existence of a papal Inquisition, and the episcopal activity
+which was threatened appears to have lain dormant, though the action of
+the council would seem to show that heretics were numerous enough to
+attract attention. It is true that, in the chancery of Rodolph of
+Hapsburg, whose reign extended from 1273 to 1292, there was a formula
+for acknowledging and confirming the papal commissions presented by
+inquisitors, showing that this must, at least occasionally, have been
+done. The emperor calls God to witness that his chief object in
+accepting the crown was to be able to defend the faith; he alludes to
+the exercise of inquisitorial jurisdiction over the descendants of
+heretics as well as over heretics themselves, but he carefully inserts a
+saving clause to the effect that the accused must be legitimately
+proved guilty and be properly condemned. If, however, inquisitors
+presented themselves to obtain this recognition of their powers, they
+have left no visible traces of the results of their activity.[391]
+
+In the codes which embody the customs current in mediaeval Germany there
+is no recognition whatever of the existence of such a body as the
+Inquisition. The Sachsenspiegel, which contains the municipal law of the
+northern provinces, provides, it is true, the punishment of burning for
+those convicted of unbelief, poisoning, or sorcery, but says nothing as
+to the manner of trial; and the rule enunciated that no houses shall be
+destroyed except when rape is committed in them, or a violated woman is
+carried into them, shows that the demolition of the residences and
+refuges of heretics was unknown within its jurisdiction. The code
+throughout is singularly disregardful of ecclesiastical pretensions, and
+richly earned the papal anathema bestowed upon it when its practical
+working happened to attract the attention of the Roman curia.[392]
+
+The Schwabenspiegel, or code in force in southern Germany, is much more
+complaisant to the Church, but it knows of no jurisdiction over heretics
+save that of the bishops. It admits that an emperor rendering himself
+suspect in the faith can be put under ban by the pope. It provides death
+by fire for the heretic. It directs that when heretics are known to
+exist, the ecclesiastical courts shall inquire about them and proceed
+against them. If convicted, the secular judge shall seize them and doom
+them according to law. If he neglects or refuses he is to be
+excommunicated by the bishop, and his suzerain shall inflict on him the
+penalty of heresy. If a secular prince does not punish heresy he is to
+be excommunicated by the episcopal court; if he remains under the
+censure for a year the bishop is to report him to the pope, who shall
+deprive him of his rank and honors, and the emperor is bound to execute
+his sentence by stripping him of all his possessions, feudal and
+allodial. All this shows ample readiness to accept the received
+ecclesiastical law of the period as to heresy, but utter ignorance of
+the inquisitorial process is revealed in the provision which inflicts
+the _talio_ on whoever accuses another of certain crimes, including
+heresy, without being able to convict him. When the accuser had to
+accept the chances of the stake, prosecutions were not apt to be
+common.[393]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Towards the close of the thirteenth century and the opening of the
+fourteenth, attention was aroused to the dangerous tendencies of certain
+forms of belief lurking among some semi-religious bodies which had long
+enjoyed the favor of the pious and the protection of the Church, known
+by the names of Beguines, Beghards, Lollards, Cellites, etc. Infinite
+learned trifling has been wasted in imagining derivations for these
+appellations. The Beguines and Beghards themselves assert their descent
+from St. Begga, mother of Pepin of Landen, who built a Benedictine
+nunnery at Andennes. Another root has been sought in Lambert-le-Begue,
+or the Stammerer, a priest of St. Christopher at Liege, about 1180, who
+became prominent by denouncing the simony of the canons of the
+cathedral. Prebends were openly placed for sale in the hands of a
+butcher named Udelin, who acted as broker, and when Lambert aroused the
+people to a sense of this wickedness, the bishop arrested him as a
+disturber, and the clergy assailed him and tore him with their nails.
+His connection with the Beguines arose from his affording them shelter
+in his house at St. Christopher, which has remained until modern times
+the largest and richest Beguinage of the province. The soundest opinion,
+however, would seem to be that both Beghard and Beguine are derived from
+the old German word _beggan_, signifying either to beg or to pray, while
+Lollard is traced to _lullen_, to mutter prayers.[394]
+
+The motives were numerous which impelled multitudes to desire a
+religious life without assuming the awful and irrevocable vows that cut
+them off absolutely from the world. This was especially the case among
+women who chanced to be deprived of their natural guardians and who
+sought in those wild ages the protection which the Church alone could
+confer. Thus associations were formed, originally of women, who simply
+promised chastity and obedience while they lived in common, who assisted
+either by labor or beggary in providing for the common support, who were
+assiduous in their religious observances, and who performed such duties
+of hospitality and of caring for the sick as their opportunities would
+allow. The Netherlands were the native seat of this fruitful idea, and
+as early as 1065 there is a charter extant given by a convent of
+Beguines at Vilvorde, near Brussels. The drain of the crusades on the
+male population increased enormously the number of women deprived of
+support and protection, and gave a corresponding stimulus to the growth
+of the Beguinages. In time men came to form similar associations, and
+soon Germany, France, and Italy became filled with them. To this
+contributed in no small degree the insane laudation of poverty by the
+Franciscans and the merit conceded to a life of beggary by the immense
+popularity of the Mendicant Orders. To earn a livelihood by beggary was
+in itself an approach to sanctity, as we have seen in the case of Conrad
+of Marburg and St. Elizabeth. About 1230 a certain Willem Cornelis, of
+Antwerp, gave up a prebend and devoted himself to teaching the
+pre-eminent virtue of poverty. He carried the received doctrine on the
+subject, however, to lengths too extravagant, for he held that poverty
+consumed all sin, as fire ate up rust, and that a harlot, if poor, was
+better than a just and continent rich man; and though he was honorably
+buried in the church of the Virgin Mary, yet when, four years later,
+these opinions came to be known, Bishop Nicholas of Cambrai caused his
+bones to be exhumed and burned.[395]
+
+Extremes such as this show us the prevailing tendencies of the age, and
+it is necessary to appreciate these tendencies in order to understand
+how Europe came to tolerate the hordes of holy beggars, either wandering
+or living in communities, who covered the face of the land, and drained
+the people of their substance. Of the two classes the wanderers were the
+most dangerous, but in both there was the germ of future trouble,
+although the settled Beguines approached very nearly the Tertiaries of
+the Mendicants. Indeed, they frequently placed themselves under the
+direction of Dominicans or Franciscans, and eventually those who
+survived the vicissitudes of persecution mostly merged into the
+Tertiaries of either one Order or the other.
+
+The rapid growth of these communities in the thirteenth century is
+easily explicable. Not only did they respond to the spiritual demands of
+the age, but they enjoyed the most exalted patronage. In Flanders the
+counts seem never wearied of assisting them. Gregory IX. and his
+successors took their institution under the special protection of the
+Holy See. St. Louis provided them with houses in Paris and other cities,
+and left them abundant legacies in his will, in which he was imitated by
+his sons. Under such encouragement their numbers increased enormously.
+In Paris there were multitudes. About 1240 they were estimated at two
+thousand in Cologne and its vicinity, and there were as many in the
+single Beguinageof Nivelle, in Brabant. Philippe de Montmirail, a pious
+knight who devoted himself to good works, is said to have been
+instrumental in providing for five thousand Beguines throughout Europe.
+The great Beguinage of Ghent, founded in 1234, by the Countesses of
+Flanders, Jeanne and Marguerite, is described in the seventeenth century
+as resembling a small town, surrounded with wall and fosse, containing
+open squares, conventual houses, dwellings, infirmary, church, and
+cemetery, inhabited by eight hundred or a thousand women, the younger
+living in the convents, the older in separate houses. They were tied by
+no permanent vows and were free to depart and marry at any time, but so
+long as they were inmates they were bound to obey the Grand Mistress.
+The guardianship of the establishment was hereditary in the House of
+Flanders, and it was under the supervision of the Dominican prior of
+Ghent. How large was the space that Beguinism occupied in public
+estimation in the thirteenth century is shown by Philippe Mousket, who
+calls Conrad of Marburg a Beguine, "_uns begins mestre serrmonniere_."[396]
+
+Those who thus lived in communities could be subjected to wholesome
+supervision and established rules, but it was otherwise with those who
+maintained an independent existence, either in one spot or wandering
+from place to place, sometimes supporting themselves by labor, but more
+frequently by beggary. Their customary persistent cry through the
+streets--"_Brod durch Gott_"--became a shibboleth unpleasantly familiar
+to the inhabitants of the German cities, which the Church repeatedly and
+ineffectually endeavored to suppress. A circumstance occurring about
+1240 illustrates their reputation for superior sanctity and the
+advantages derivable from it. A certain Sibylla of Marsal near Metz, we
+are told, seeing how many women under the name of Beguines flourished in
+the appearance of religion, and under the guidance of the Dominicans,
+thought fit to imitate them. Assiduous attendance at matins and mass
+gained her the repute of peculiar holiness. Then she pretended to fast
+and live on celestial food, she had ecstasies and visions, and deceived
+the whole region, not excepting the Bishop of Metz himself. The Beguines
+who had hailed her as a saintly sister were excessively mortified when
+an accident revealed the imposture; the people were so enraged that some
+wanted to burn her and others to bury her alive, but the bishop shut her
+up in a convent, _in pace_, where, naturally enough, she soon died.[397]
+
+The Church was not long in recognizing the danger inherent in these
+practices when withdrawn from close supervision. On the one hand there
+was simulated piety, like that of Sibylla of Marsal, on the other the
+far more serious opportunity of indulgence in unlawful speculation. In
+1250 and the following years the Beguines of Cologne repeatedly sought
+the protection of papal legates against the oppression of both clergy
+and laity. Already, in 1259, a council of Mainz strongly reproved the
+pestiferous sect of Beghards and Beguttae (Beguines), who wandered
+through the streets crying "_Broth durch Gott_," preaching in caverns
+and other secret places, and given to various practices disapproved by
+the Church. All priests were ordered to warn them to abandon these
+customs, and to expel from their parishes those who were obstinate. In
+1267 the Council of Treves forbade their preaching in the streets on
+account of the heresies which they disseminated. In 1287 a council of
+Liege deprived all who did not live in the Beguinages of the right to
+wear the peculiar habit and enjoy the privileges of Beguines. In Suabia,
+about the same period, some members of communities of Beghards and
+Beguines sought to persuade the rest that they could better serve God
+"in freedom of spirit," when the bishops proceeded to abolish all such
+associations, and some of them asked to adopt the rule of St.
+Augustin.[398]
+
+All this points to the adoption, by the followers of Ortlieb, who called
+themselves Brethren of the Free Spirit, of the habit and appellation of
+the Beghards and Beguines, and the gradual invasion among the latter of
+the doctrines derived from Amaury. Comparatively few of the Lollards,
+Beghards, or Beguines were contaminated with these heresies, but they
+all had to share the responsibility, and the communities of both sexes,
+who led the most regular lives and were inspired with the purest
+orthodoxy, were exposed to unnumbered tribulations for lack of a
+distinctive appellation. When heretics regarded as peculiarly obnoxious
+were anathematized as Beghards and Beguines, it was impossible for those
+who bore the name, without sharing the errors, to escape the common
+responsibility. It became even worse when John XXII. plunged into a
+quarrel with the Spiritual Franciscans, drove them into open rebellion,
+and persecuted the new heresy which he had thus created with all the
+unsparing wrath of his vindictive nature. In France the Tertiary
+Franciscans were popularly known as Beguines, and this became the
+appellation customarily bestowed on these Spiritual heretics, and
+adopted by the Avignonese popes to designate them. Not only has this led
+to much confusion on the part of heresiologists, but its effect, for a
+time, on the fortunes of the virtuous and orthodox Beguines of both
+sexes was most disastrous. The heretic Beghards, it is true, adopted for
+themselves the title of Brethren of the Free Spirit; the rebellious
+Franciscans insisted that they were the only legitimate representatives
+of the Order, and, at most, assumed the term of Spirituals, in order to
+distinguish themselves from their carnal-minded conventual brethren; but
+the authorities were long in admitting these distinctions, and, in the
+eyes of the Church at large, the condemnation of Beghards and Beguines
+covered all alike.
+
+We have here to do only with the Brethren of the Free Spirit, whose
+doctrines, as we have seen, were derived from the speculations of the
+Amaurians carried to Germany by Ortlieb of Strassburg. Descriptions of
+their errors have reached us from so many sources, covering so long a
+period, with so general a consensus in fundamentals, that there can be
+little doubt as to the main principles of their faith. In a sect
+extending over so wide a reach of territory, and stubbornly maintaining
+itself through so many generations, there must necessarily have existed
+subdivisions, as one heresiarch or another pushed his speculations in
+some direction further than his fellows, and founded a special school
+whose aberrations there was no central authority to control. Many of
+the peculiarly repulsive extravagances attributed to them, however, may
+safely be ascribed to keen-witted schoolmen engaged in trying individual
+heretics, and forcing them to admit consequences logically but
+unexpectedly deduced from their admitted premises. There was no little
+intellectual activity in the sect, and their tracts and books of
+devotion, written in the vernacular, were widely distributed, and
+largely relied upon as means of missionary effort. These, of course,
+have wholly disappeared, and we are left to gather their doctrines from
+the condemnations passed upon them.
+
+The foundation of their creed was pantheism. God is everything that is.
+There is as much of the divinity in a louse as in a man or in any other
+creature. All emanates from him and returns to him. As the soul thus
+reverts to God after death, there is neither purgatory nor hell, and all
+external cult is useless. Thus at one blow was destroyed the efficacy of
+all sacerdotal observances and of the sacraments. Of the latter, indeed,
+no terms were severe enough to express their contempt, and they were
+sometimes in the habit of saying that the Eucharist tasted to them like
+dung. Man being thus God by nature, has in him all that is divine, and
+each one may say that he himself created the universe. One of the
+accusations brought against Master Eckart was that he had declared that
+his little finger created the world. Nay, more, man can so unite himself
+with God that he can do whatever God does; he thus needs no God; he is
+impeccable, and whatever he does is without sin. In this state of
+perfection he grieves at nothing, he rejoices at nothing, he is free
+from all virtue and all virtuous actions. No one is bound to labor for
+his bread; as all things are in common, each one may take what his
+necessities or desires may prompt.[399]
+
+The practical deductions from these doctrines were not only destructive
+to the Church, but dangerous to the moral and social order. The lofty
+mysticism of the teachers might preserve them from the evil results
+which flowed from the presumption of impeccability. In their austere
+stoicism they condemned all sexual indulgence save that of which the
+sole object was the procurement of offspring. They taught that a woman
+in marrying should deeply deplore the loss of her virginity, and that no
+one was perfect in whom promiscuous nakedness could awaken either shame
+or passion. That tests of this kind were not infrequent, the history of
+ill-regulated enthusiasm, from the time of the early Christians, will
+not permit us to doubt, and the Beghards succeeded so well in subduing
+the senses that a hostile controversialist can only suggest Satanic
+influence, well known to demonologists for its refrigerating power, as
+an explanation of their wonderful self-control under such temptation.
+Yet this rare exaltation of austerity was not possible to all natures.
+It was easy for him who had not risen superior to the allurements of the
+senses to imagine himself perfected, impeccable, and entitled to gratify
+his passions. St. Paul, in arguing against the bondage of the Old Law,
+had furnished texts which, when cited apart from their contexts, could
+be and were alleged in justification: "For the law of the spirit of
+life in Christ Jesus hath made me free from the law of sin and death"
+(Rom. VIII. 2)--"The law is not made for a righteous man" (1 Tim. I.
+9)--"But if ye be led of the Spirit ye are not under the law" (Galat.
+V. 18)--and the Brethren of the Free Spirit claimed freedom from all the
+trammels of the law. Such a doctrine was attractive to those who desired
+excuse and opportunity for license, and the evidence is too abundant and
+confirmatory for us to doubt that, at least in some cases, the sectaries
+abandoned themselves to the grossest sensuality. It is noteworthy that,
+in order to describe the divine internal light which they enjoyed, they
+invented for themselves the term Illuminism, which for more than three
+centuries continued to be of most serious import.[400]
+
+As a branch of the sect may be reckoned the Luciferans, who have been
+repeatedly alluded to above. Pantheism, of course, included Satan as an
+emanation from God, who in due time would be restored to union with the
+Godhead, and it was not difficult to assume that his fallen state was an
+injustice. In 1312 Luciferans were discovered at Krems, in the diocese
+of Passau, whose bishop, Bernhard, together with Conrad, Archbishop of
+Salzburg, and Frederic, Duke of Austria, undertook their extirpation
+with the aid of the Dominican Inquisition, which seems to have
+maintained some foothold in those regions. The persecution lasted until
+1315, but the sect was not exterminated, and reappeared repeatedly in
+after-years. It is reported to have been thoroughly organized, with
+twelve "apostles" who travelled annually throughout Germany, making
+converts and confirming the believers in the faith. All the ceremonies
+of external worship were rejected, but they did not enjoy the
+impeccability of Illuminism, for two of their ministers were held to
+enter paradise every year, where they received from Enoch and Elias the
+power of absolving their followers, and this power they communicated to
+others in each community. Those who were detected proved obdurate; they
+were deaf to all persuasion, and met their death in the flames with the
+utmost cheerfulness. One of the apostles, who was burned at Vienna,
+stated, under torture, that there were eight thousand of them scattered
+throughout Bohemia, Austria, and Thuringia, besides numbers elsewhere.
+Bohemia was especially infected with these errors, and Trithemius, in
+the opening years of the sixteenth century, states that there were still
+thousands of them in that kingdom. This is doubtless an exaggeration, if
+not a complete mistake, but they were again discovered in Austria in
+1338 and 1395, and many of them were burned.[401]
+
+The tendency to mysticism which found its complete expression in the
+Brethren of the Free Spirit influenced greatly the development of German
+religious thought in channels which, although assumedly orthodox,
+trenched narrowly upon heresy. If, as Altmeyer argues, a period of
+tribulation leads to the predominance of sentiment over intellect, to
+the yearning for direct intercourse between the soul and the Divine
+Essence, which is the supreme aim of the mystic, the Germany of the
+fourteenth century had troubles enough to justify the development of
+mysticism. Yet it is rather a question of the mental characteristics of
+a race than of external circumstances. Bonaventura was the father of the
+mystics, yet he founded no sect at home; France, in the hundred years'
+war with England, had ample experience of trial, and yet mysticism never
+flourished on her soil. In Germany, however, the mystic tendency of
+religious sentiment during the fourteenth century is the most marked
+spiritual phenomenon of the period. Few names in the first quarter of
+the century were more respected than that of Master Eckart, who stood
+high in the ranks of the great Dominican Order. I have already (Vol. I.,
+p. 360) related how he fell under suspicion of participating in the
+errors of the Beghards, how his brethren vainly strove to save him, and
+how the Archbishop of Cologne won a decided victory over the feeble and
+unorganized Dominican Inquisition by vindicating the subjection of a
+Dominican to his episcopal Inquisition. If the twenty-eight articles
+finally condemned by John XXII. as heretical be correctly extracted from
+Eckart's teachings, there can be no doubt that he was deeply infected
+with the pantheistic speculations of the Brethren of the Free Spirit,
+that he admitted the common divinity of man and God, and shared in the
+dangerous deductions which proved that sin and virtue were the same in
+the eyes of God. To a hierarchy founded on sacerdotalism, moreover,
+nothing could be more revolutionary than the rejection of external cult,
+which was the necessary conclusion from the doctrine that there is no
+virtue in external acts, but that only the internal operations of the
+soul are of moment; that no man should regret the commission of sin, or
+ask anything of God.[402]
+
+The importance of Eckart's views lies not so much in his own immediate
+influence as in that of his disciples. He was the founder of the school
+of German mystics, through whom the speculations of Amauri of Bene, in
+various dilutions, made a deep impression on the religious development
+of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. All the leaders in the
+remarkable association known as the "Friends of God" drew, directly or
+indirectly, their inspiration from Master Eckart, and all, to a greater
+or less extent, reveal their affinity to the Brethren of the Free
+Spirit, although they succeeded in keeping technically within the limits
+of orthodoxy.
+
+John of Rysbroek, humane and gentle as he was, regarded the Brethren of
+the Free Spirit with such horror that he deemed them worthy of the
+stake. Yet, though he avoided their pantheism, he taught, like them, the
+supreme end of existence in the absorption of the individual into the
+infinite substance of God; moreover, the Perfect, inflamed by divine
+love, are dead to themselves and to the world, and are thus incapable of
+sin. It is no wonder that Gerson regarded as dangerous these doctrines,
+so nearly akin to those of the Beghards, and though Rysbroek might
+hesitate to draw from them the conclusions inevitable to hardier
+thinkers, they were sufficient to render unsuccessful the attempt made,
+in 1624, to canonize him, in spite of the incontestable miracles wrought
+at his tomb. His most distinguished disciple was Gerard Groot, who
+partially outgrew the metaphysical subtleties of his teacher and turned
+his energies to the more practical directions out of which sprang the
+Brethren of the Common Life. Groot was equally severe upon the
+corruption of the clergy and the errors of the heretics. When the
+introduction of the Inquisition into Germany drove the Brethren of the
+Free Spirit to find new places of refuge, some of them came to Holland,
+where the prevalence of pantheistic mysticism gave opportunity of
+spreading their doctrines. Groot's own views sufficiently resembled
+theirs to render their bolder speculations doubly offensive to him, and
+he sought to repress them with especial zeal. The convent of Augustinian
+Hermits at Dordrecht had the reputation of being tainted with the
+heresy, and Groot was eager to detect and punish it. Bartholomew, one of
+the Augustinians, was particularly suspected, and Groot proposed to
+follow him secretly with a notary and take down his words. In this, or
+some other way, evidence was obtained; there was no Inquisition in
+Holland, and Groot procured his citation before Florent, Bishop of
+Utrecht, about the year 1380. The case was beard before the episcopal
+vicar; Bartholomew denied the expressions attributed to him and was let
+off with an injunction to publicly repeat the denial in Kampen and
+Zwolle, where he was said to have uttered his heresies. This unexpected
+lenity excited the indignation of Groot, who had sufficient influence to
+induce Bishop Florent to take up the case again and try it personally.
+Bartholomew endeavored to escape his persecutor by appearing a day in
+advance of the one set for his trial, but word was sent to Groot, who
+threw himself into a wagon, and by travelling all night reached Utrecht
+in time. On this occasion he was successful; Bartholomew was condemned
+as a heretic, abjured, and was sentenced to wear crosses in the form of
+scissors. The Augustinians did not lack friends, and they retaliated on
+those who had busied themselves in the matter. The magistrates of Kampen
+prosecuted some women who had served as witnesses and fined them, and
+they also banished for ten years Werner Keynkamp, a friend of Groot, who
+subsequently was thrice prior of houses of Brethren of the Common Life.
+Groot himself did not escape, for soon afterwards Bishop Florent, for
+the purpose of silencing him, issued an order withdrawing all
+commissions to preach. Groot then endeavored to procure from Urban VI.
+papal commissions as preacher and inquisitor, and sent to Rome ten
+florins to pay for the bulls. Fortunately for his fame, he died, in
+1384, before the return of his messenger, and Holland was spared the
+effects of his inconsiderate zeal, inflamed by strife and armed with the
+irresponsible power of the Inquisition. In his gentler capacity he left
+his mantle to Florent Radewyns, under whom were developed the
+communities of the Common Life. These spread rapidly throughout the
+Netherlands and Germany, and though occasionally the subject of
+inquisitorial persecution, they were covered by the decision of Martin
+V., when Matthew Grabon, at the Council of Constance, endeavored to
+procure the condemnation of the Beguines, of which more anon. After this
+they flourished without opposition, supporting themselves by
+disseminating culture, as educators and copiers of manuscripts. After
+the Reformation the communities rapidly died out, although the house of
+Emmerich, near Duesseldorf, remained to be closed by Napoleon, in 1811,
+and the four brethren then ejected from it continued to observe the
+rules, till the last one, Gerard Mulder, died at Zevenaar, March 15,
+1854. One branch of the brethren, however, adopted the Rule of the
+canons-regular of St. Augustin. Their convent of Windesheim became the
+model which was universally followed, and the order had the honor of
+training two such men as Thomas-a-Kempis and Erasmus. The Imitation of
+Christ is the final exquisite flower of the moderated mysticism of John
+of Rysbroek. Brought down to practical life, this mysticism contributed
+largely to the spiritual movement which culminated in the Reformation,
+for it taught the superfluity of external works and the dependence of
+the individual on himself alone for salvation. In this the Brethren of
+the Common Life were active. To them dogma became less important than
+the interior discipline which should fit men to be really children of
+God. Preaching among the people and teaching in the schools, such
+brethren as Henry Harphius, John Brugman, Denis Van Leeuwen, Jon Van
+Goch, and John Wessel of Groningen, were unwittingly undermining the
+power of the hierarchy, although they virtually escaped all imputation
+of heresy and danger of persecution.[403]
+
+Less lasting, though more noticeable at the time, was the association of
+Friends of God, which formed itself in the upper Rhinelands. The most
+prominent disciple of Master Eckart was John Tauler, who retained enough
+of his master's doctrines to render him amenable to the charge of heresy
+had there been in those days a German Inquisition in working order. That
+he escaped prosecution is the most conclusive evidence that the
+machinery of persecution was thoroughly out of gear. In the heights of
+his illuminated quietism all the personality of the devotee was lost in
+the abyss of Divinity. No human tongue could describe the resignation to
+God in which the whole being is merged so that it lost all sense of
+power of its own. No priestly ministrant or mediator was required. The
+individual could bring his soul into relations with the Godhead so
+intimate that it was virtually lost in the Divine Essence, and he could
+become so thoroughly under the influence of the Holy Ghost that he was,
+so to speak, inspired, and his acts were the acts of the Third Person
+of the Trinity. All this was possible for the layman without sacerdotal
+observance. Man was answerable for himself to himself alone, and could
+make himself at one with God without the intervention of the
+priest.[404]
+
+Great as was Tauler's renown as the foremost preacher of his day, he
+bowed as a little child before the mysterious layman known as the Friend
+of God in the Oberland. In the full strength of mature manhood, when at
+least fifty years of age and when all Strassburg was hanging on his
+words, a stranger sought his presence and probed to the bottom his
+secret weaknesses. He was a Pharisee, proud of his learning and his
+skill in scholastic theology; before he could be fit for the guidance of
+souls he must cast off all reliance on his own strength and become as an
+infant relying on God alone. Overcome by the mystic power of his
+visitor, the doctor of theology subdued his pride, and in obedience to
+the command of the stranger, who never revealed his name, Tauler for two
+years abstained from preaching and from hearing confessions. From this
+struggle with himself he emerged a new man, and formed one of the
+remarkable band of Friends of God whom the nameless stranger was engaged
+in selecting and uniting.[405]
+
+This association was not numerous, for only rare souls could rise to the
+altitude in which they would surely wish only what God wishes and
+dislike what God dislikes; but its adepts were scattered from the
+Netherlands to Genoa, and from the Rhinelands to Hungary. Terrible were
+the struggles and spiritual conflicts, the alternations of hope and
+despair, of ravishing ecstasies and hideous temptations, with which God
+tried the neophyte who sought to ascend into the serene atmosphere of
+mystic illuminism--struggles and conflicts which form a strangely
+resembling prototype of those which for long years tested the
+steadfastness of John Bunyan. When at length the initiation was safely
+endured, God drew them to him, he illuminated their souls so that they
+became one with him; they were gods by grace, even as he is God by
+nature. Then they were in a condition of absolute sinlessness, and could
+enjoy the assurance that it would continue during life, so that at death
+they would ascend at once to heaven with no preliminary purgatory.[406]
+
+In many of their tenets and practices there is a strange reverberation
+of Hinduism, all the stranger that there can be no possible connection
+between them, unless perchance there may be some elements derived from
+mystic Arabic Aristotelianism, which so strongly influenced scholastic
+thought.[407] As the old Brahmanic _tapas_, or austere meditation,
+enabled man to acquire a share of the divine nature, so the interior
+exercises of the Friends of God assimilated man to the Divinity, and the
+miraculous powers which they acquired find their prototypes in the
+Rishis and Rahats. The self-inflicted barbarities of the Yoga system
+were emulated in the efforts necessary to subdue the rebellious flesh;
+Rulman Merswin, for instance, used to scourge himself with wires and
+then rub salt into the wounds. The religious ecstasies of the Friends of
+God were the counterpart of the Samadhi or beatific insensibility of the
+Hindu; and the supreme good which they set before themselves was the
+same as that of the Sankhya school--the renunciation of the will and the
+freedom from all passions and desires, even that of salvation. Yet these
+resemblances were modified by the Christian sense of the omnipotence and
+omnipresence of God, and by the more practical character of the Western
+mind, which did not send its votaries into the jungle and forest, but
+ordered them, if laymen, to continue their worldly life; if rich, they
+were not to despoil themselves, but to employ their riches in good
+works, and to discharge their duties to man as well as to God. Rulman
+Merswin was a banker, and continued in active business while founding
+the community of the Gruen Woehrd and writing the treatises which were the
+support and the comfort of the faithful. Yet the chief of them all and
+his immediate disciples founded a hermitage in the wilderness, where
+they devoted themselves to propitiating the wrath of God. The
+unutterable wickedness of man called for divine vengeance. Earthquakes,
+pestilence, famine, had been disregarded warnings, and only the
+intercession of the Friends of God had obtained repeated reprieves. The
+Great Schism, in 1378, was a new and still greater calamity, and in 1379
+an angel messenger informed them that the final punishment was postponed
+for a year, after which they must not ask for further delay. Still, in
+1380, thirteen of them were mysteriously called to assemble in a
+"divine diet," to which an angel brought a letter informing them that,
+at the prayer of the Virgin, God had granted a respite of three years
+provided they would constitute themselves "prisoners of God," living
+the life of recluses in absolute silence, broken only two days in the
+week from noon to eve, and then only to ask for necessaries or to give
+spiritual counsel. To this they assented, and not long afterwards they
+disappear from view.[408]
+
+The Friends of God are noteworthy not only as a significant development
+of the spiritual tendencies of the age, but they have a peculiar
+interest for us from their relations with the Church on the one hand and
+with the Brethren of the Free Spirit on the other. They were an
+outgrowth of the latter, though they avoided the deplorable moral
+extravagances of the parent sect. The "Ninth Rock," which was the
+supreme height of ascetic illuminism of the Beghards, reappears in the
+same sense in the most notable of Rulman Merswin's works, attributed
+until recently to Henry Suso. It is no wonder that Nider confounded the
+Friends of God with the Beghards, though Merswin's "Baner Buechelin"
+was written for the purpose of denouncing the errors of the latter. In
+much, as we have seen, they differed from the current doctrines of the
+Church, carrying their aberrations further than those which in the
+seventeenth century were so severely repressed in Molinos and the
+Illuminati. To these they added special errors of their own. Many Jews
+and Moslems, they said, were saved, for God abandons none who seek him,
+and though they cannot enjoy Christian baptism, God himself baptizes
+them spiritually in the sufferings of the death-agony. In the same
+spirit they refused to denounce the heretic to human justice for fear of
+anticipating divine justice; they could tolerate him in the world as
+long as God saw fit to do so. Yet they had one saving principle which
+preserved them from the temporal and spiritual consequences of their
+errors, giving us a valuable insight into the relations between the
+Church and heresy. While denouncing in the strongest language the
+corruptions and worldliness of the establishment, they professed the
+most implicit obedience to Rome, and much could be overlooked or
+pardoned so long as the supremacy of the Holy See was not called in
+question. When, in June, 1377, the Friend of God in the Oberland was
+inspired to visit, with a comrade, Gregory XI., and warn him of the
+dangers which threatened Christendom, they spoke to him with the utmost
+freedom, and though he at first was angered, he finally recognized in
+them the envoys of the Holy Ghost and honored them greatly, urging them
+to resume their abandoned design of founding a great institution of
+their order. Gregory was relentless in the extermination of Waldenses,
+Beghards, and the remnants of the Cathari, but he saw nothing to object
+to in the mysticism and illuminism of his visitors. He did not even take
+offence when they threatened him with death within the twelvemonth if he
+did not reform the Church. In effect he died March 28, 1378; but, if we
+may believe Gerson, his dying regrets were not that he had neglected
+these warnings, but that by too credulously listening to the visions of
+male and female prophets he had paved the way for the Great Schism,
+which he foresaw would break out when he was removed from the
+scene.[409]
+
+After this hasty review of the more orthodox developments of mysticism
+we may return to the history of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, who
+maintained the pantheistic doctrine in all its crudity, and did not
+shrink from its legitimate deductions. Towards the close of the
+thirteenth century the transcendent merits of beggary, so long
+acknowledged, began to be questioned. In 1274 the Council of Lyons
+endeavored to suppress the unauthorized mendicant associations. In 1286
+Honorius IV. condemned the Segarellists, and some ten years later the
+persecution, by Boniface VIII., of the Celestines and stricter
+Franciscans showed that poverty was no longer to be regarded as the
+supreme virtue. About the same time he issued a bull ordering the active
+persecution of some heretics, whose teaching that perfection required
+men and women to go naked and not to labor with the hands would seem to
+identify them with the Brethren of the Free Spirit. The same feeling
+manifested itself contemporaneously in Germany. The first instance of
+actual persecution recorded is a curt notice that, in 1290, the
+Franciscan lector at Colmar caused to be arrested two Beghards and two
+Beguines, and several others at Basle whom he considered to be heretics.
+Two years later the Provincial Council of Mainz, held at Aschaffenburg,
+emphatically repeated the condemnation of the Beghards and Beguines,
+expressed by the previous council of 1259, and this was again repeated
+by another council of Mainz in 1310, while other canons regulating the
+recognized communities of Beguines show that the distinction was clearly
+drawn between those who led a settled life under supervision and the
+wandering beggars who preached in caverns and disseminated doctrines
+little understood, but regarded with suspicion.[410]
+
+It was Henry von Virnenburg, Archbishop of Cologne, however, who
+commenced the war against them which was to last so long. Elected in
+1306, he immediately assembled a provincial council, of which the first
+two canons are devoted to them with an amplitude proving how important
+they were becoming. They wore a long tabard and tunics with cowls
+distinguishing them from the people at large; they had the hardihood to
+engage in public disputation with the Franciscans and Dominicans, and
+the obstinacy to refuse to be overcome in argument, and, what was worse,
+their persistent beggary was so successful that it sensibly diminished
+the alms which were the support of the authorized Mendicants. All this
+shows the absence of any papal inquisition and an enjoyment of practical
+toleration unknown outside of the boundaries of Germany, but it may be
+assumed that the Beghards did not publicly reveal their more dangerous
+and repulsive doctrines, for the enumeration of their errors by the
+council presents them in a very moderate form. Still, the archbishop
+pronounced them excommunicated heretics, to be suppressed by the secular
+arm unless they recanted within fifteen days. A month was given them to
+abandon their garments and mode of life, after which they were to earn
+their bread by honest labor. This was well-intentioned legislation, but
+it seems to have remained wholly inoperative. The Beghards continued to
+assail the Mendicants with such ardor and success that the Franciscans,
+who were crippled by the death of their lector in 1305, applied for
+succor to their general, Gonsalvo. The necessity must have been
+pressing, for in 1308 he sent to their assistance the greatest schoolman
+of the Order, Duns Scotus. He was received with the enthusiasm which his
+eminence merited, but, unfortunately, he died in November of the same
+year, and the Beghards were able to continue their proselytism without
+efficient opposition.[411]
+
+About this time their missionary labors seem to have become particularly
+active and to have attracted wide attention. We have seen how, in 1310,
+the Beguine, Marguerite Porete of Hainault, was burned in Paris, and
+bore her martyrdom with unshrinking firmness. In the same year occurred
+the Council of Mainz already referred to, and also a council of Treves,
+in which their unauthorized exposition of Scripture was denounced, and
+all parish priests were required to summon them to abandon their evil
+ways within a fortnight, under pain of excommunication. In 1309 we hear
+of certain wandering hypocrites called Lollards, who, throughout
+Hainault and Brabant, had considerable success in obtaining converts
+among noble ladies.[412]
+
+This missionary fervor seems to have attracted attention to the sect,
+leading to special condemnation under the authority of the General
+Council of Vienne, which was assembled in November, 1311. The heresy had
+evidently been studied with some care, for the first tolerably complete
+account which we have of its doctrines is embodied in the canon
+proscribing it. Bishops and inquisitors were ordered to perform their
+office diligently in tracking all who entertained it, and seeing that
+they were duly punished unless they would freely abjure. Unfortunately,
+Clement's zeal was not satisfied with this. The pious women who lived in
+communities under the name of Beguines were not easily distinguishable
+from the heretical wanderers. In another canon, therefore, the
+Beguinages are described as infected with those who dispute about the
+Trinity and the Divine Essence and disseminate opinions contrary to the
+faith. These establishments are therefore abolished. At the same time
+there was evidently a feeling that this was inflicting a wrong, and the
+canon ends with the contradictory declaration that faithful women,
+either vowing chastity or not, may live together in houses and devote
+themselves to penitence and the service of God. There was a lamentable
+lack of clearness about this which left it for the local prelates to
+interpret their duty according to their wishes.[413]
+
+The Clementines, or book of canon law containing these provisions, was
+not issued during Clement's life, and it was not until November, 1317,
+that his successor, John XXII., gave them legal force by their
+authoritative publication. Apparently the bishops waited for this, for
+during the interim we hear nothing of persecution, until August, 1317,
+just before the issue of the Clementines, when John of Zurich, Bishop of
+Strassburg, suddenly took the matter up. He did not act under the canons
+of Vienne, but under those of 1310 adopted by the Council of Mainz, of
+which province he was a suffragan; but an allusion to the penalties
+decreed by the Holy See shows that the action at Vienne was known. The
+Beghards apparently had sought no concealment, for he threatened with
+excommunication all who should not within three days lay aside the
+distinguishing garments of the sect, and their fearless publicity is
+further shown by the bishop's confiscating the houses in which their
+assemblies were held, and forbidding any one to read or listen to or
+possess their hymns and writings, which were to be delivered up for
+burning within fifteen days. The fact that among them were many clerks
+in holy orders, monks, married folks, and others, shows that their
+opinions were widely held among those who were not mere wandering
+beggars--the latter probably being merely the missionaries who made
+converts and administered to the spiritual needs of the faithful. John
+of Zurich was not content with merely threatening. He made a visitation
+of his diocese, in which he found many of the sectaries. He organized an
+Inquisition of learned theologians, by whom they were tried; those who
+recanted were sentenced to wear crosses--the first authentic record in
+Germany of the use of this penance, so long since established
+elsewhere--and those who were obstinate he handed over to the secular
+arm to be burned. These active proceedings may be regarded as the first
+regular exercise of the episcopal Inquisition on German soil. Multitudes
+of Beghards fled from the diocese, and in June, 1318, the bishop had the
+satisfaction of reporting his success to his fellow-suffragans and
+urging them to follow his example. Yet this persecution, if sharp, was
+transitory, for in 1319 we find him again issuing letters to his clergy,
+saying that the Clementines had been enforced elsewhere, but not in the
+diocese of Strassburg. All incumbents are ordered, under pain of
+suspension, to require the Beguines to lay aside their vestments within
+fifteen days and to conform to the usages of the Church. If any refuse,
+the inquisitors will be instructed to inquire into their faith.[414]
+
+Meanwhile the publication of the Clementines had produced results not
+corresponding exactly to the intentions of Clement. The canon directed
+against the heretics received little attention, and five years elapse
+before we hear of any serious persecutions under it. The heretics were
+poor; there were no spoils to tempt episcopal officials to the thankless
+labor of tracking them and trying them, and few of the bishops had the
+zeal of John of Zurich to divert them from their temporal cares and
+pleasures. The Beguinages, however, were an easy prey; there was
+property to be confiscated in reward of intelligent activity. Besides,
+many of the establishments were under the supervision of the Mendicant
+Orders, and were virtually or absolutely Tertiary houses, the
+destruction of which gratified the inextinguishable jealousy between the
+secular clergy and the Orders; the struggle between John XXII. and the
+Franciscans, moreover, was commencing, and the Tertiaries of the latter,
+who were popularly known as Beguines in France, were fair game. The
+bishops for the most part, therefore, neglected the saving clause of the
+canon respecting the Beguinages, and construed literally and pitilessly
+the orders for their abolition. So eager were they to gratify their
+vindictiveness against the Mendicants that, when these interfered to
+save their Tertiaries, they were excommunicated as fautors and defenders
+of heresy. Thus arose a persecution which, though bloodless, was most
+deplorable. All through France and Germany and Italy the poor creatures
+were turned adrift upon the world, without means of support. Those who
+could, found husbands; many were driven to a life of prostitution,
+others, doubtless, perished of want and exposure. Even the
+quasi-conventual dress to which they were accustomed was proscribed, and
+they were forced to wear gay colors under pain of excommunication. In
+the history of the Church there have been many more cruel persecutions,
+but few which in suddenness and extent have caused greater misery, and
+none, we are safe to say, so wanton, causeless, and lacking even the
+shadow of justification. The impression made on the popular mind is
+seen in the current report that on his death-bed Clement bitterly
+repented of three things--that he had poisoned the Emperor Henry VII.
+and that he had destroyed the Orders of the Templars and of the
+Beguines.[415]
+
+The Church had declared, in the great Council of Lateran, that no
+congregations should be allowed to exist save under some approved rule.
+The Beguines had gradually, almost unconsciously, grown up in practical
+contravention of this canon. The solution of their present difficulties
+lay in attaching themselves to some recognized Order, and John XXII., in
+1319, recognizing the mischief wrought by the heedless legislation of
+Vienne, promised exemption from further persecution of those who would
+become Mendicant Tertiaries. Large numbers of them sought this refuge,
+though their adhesion was more nominal than real. They preserved their
+self-government, their habits of labor, and their ownership of
+individual property. In a bull of December 31, 1320, and others of later
+date, John drew the distinction between those who lived piously and
+obediently in their houses, and those who wandered around disputing on
+matters of faith. The former, he is told, amount to two hundred thousand
+in Germany alone, and he bitterly reproached the bishops who were
+disturbing them on account of the comparatively small number whose
+misconduct had drawn forth the misinterpreted condemnation of Clement.
+They are in future to be left in peace. This, at least, put an end, in
+1321, to the persecution of those of Strassburg.[416]
+
+The innocent Beguines thus obtained a breathing-space, and the gaps in
+their ranks were soon filled up. The obnoxious members, however, felt
+the effects of the Clementine canon as severely as the habitual sloth
+and indifference of the German prelates in such matters would permit.
+Archbishop Henry, of Cologne, was one of the few who manifested an
+active interest in the matter, and his exertions were rewarded with
+considerable success. The Lollards and Beghards no longer ventured to
+show themselves publicly, and in the absence of organized machinery it
+was not easy to detect them, but in 1322 the archbishop had the good
+fortune to capture the most formidable heresiarch of the region. Walter,
+known as the Lollard, was a Hollander, and was the most active and
+successful of the Beghard missionaries. He was not an educated man, and
+was ignorant of Latin, but he had a keen intelligence and ready
+eloquence, indefatigable enthusiasm and persuasiveness. His proselyting
+labors were facilitated by his numerous writings in the vernacular,
+which were eagerly circulated from hand to hand. He had been busy in
+Mainz, where he had numerous disciples, and came from there to Cologne,
+where he chanced to fall into the archbishop's hands. He made no secret
+of his belief, refused to abjure, and welcomed death in the service of
+his faith. The severest tortures were vainly employed to force him to
+reveal the names of his fellow-believers; his constancy was unalterable,
+and he perished in the flames with serene cheerfulness.[417]
+
+The episcopal Inquisition was not as efficient as the zeal of the
+archbishop might wish, but, such as it was, it pursued its labors with
+indifferent success. In 1323 we hear of a priest detected in heresy, who
+was duly degraded and burned. In 1325 greater results followed the
+accidental discovery of an assembly of Beghards. The story told is the
+legend common to other places, of a husband, whose suspicions were
+aroused, tracking his wife to the nocturnal conventicle and witnessing
+the sensual orgies which were popularly believed to be customary in such
+places. The episcopal Inquisition was rewarded with a large number of
+culprits, whose trial was speedy and sure. Those who would not abjure,
+about fifty in number, were put to death--some at the stake, and some
+drowned in the Rhine, a novel punishment for heresy, which shows how
+uncertain as yet were the dealings with heretics in Germany. It is quite
+probable that some of these poor creatures may have sought to shield
+their errors under the reputation of the great Dominican preacher,
+Master Eckart, and thus brought upon him the prosecution which worried
+him to death. It is possible, also, that pursuit of this higher game may
+have diverted the archbishop from the chase of the humbler quarry, for
+we hear of no further victims in the next few years, though we are told
+that the heresy was by no means suppressed.[418]
+
+Archbishop Henry died in 1331 without further success, so far as the
+records show, and his successor Waleran, Count of Juliers, took up the
+cause in more systematic fashion. He endeavored to organize a permanent
+episcopal Inquisition by appointing a commissioner whose duty it was to
+inquire after heretics, and who had power to reconcile and absolve those
+who should recant--in fact, an inquisitor under another name. The
+success of this attempt did not correspond to its deserts. In March,
+1335, Waleran was obliged to announce that the evil had greatly
+increased in both the city and diocese, and he called upon all his
+prelates and clergy to assist his Inquisition by rigidly enforcing the
+statutes of Archbishop Henry. This was as ineffective as the previous
+measures. The heretics were so bold that they openly wore the garments
+of the sect and followed its practices; nay, more, the inquisitor was
+either so negligent or so corrupt that he gave absolutions without
+requiring conformity. In October of the same year, therefore, the
+archbishop issued another pastoral epistle, in which he pronounced all
+such absolutions void, and deplored the constant spread of the
+heresy.[419]
+
+The zeal of the Archbishops of Cologne was not without imitators.
+Throughout Westphalia, Bishops Ludwig of Munster, Gottfrid of Osnabruck,
+Gottfrid of Minden, and Bernhard of Paderborn had been active in
+eradicating the heresy within their dioceses. In 1335 Bishop Berthold of
+Strassburg made a spasmodic effort to enforce the Clementines, and in
+the same year there were some victims burned in Metz. The Magdeburg
+Archbishop Otto was of more tolerant temper. In 1336 a number of
+"Brethren of the Lofty Spirit" were detected in his city, who did not
+hesitate, under examination, to admit their belief, which to pious ears
+sounded like the most horrible blasphemy; yet he liberated them after a
+few days' confinement on their simply recanting their errors verbally.
+In this same year, however, we have the first instance of a papal
+inquisitor at work in north Germany. Friar Jordan, an Augustinian
+eremite, held a commission as inquisitor in both sections of Saxony. He
+was not well versed in the inquisitorial process, for when at Angermuende
+in the Uckermark he came upon a nest of Luciferans, he humanely offered
+them the opportunity of canonical purgation. Fourteen of them failed to
+procure the requisite number of conjurators, and were duly burned. From
+Angermuende Friar Jordan seems to have hastened to Erfurt, where he was
+present at the trial of a Beghard named Constantine, though the
+proceedings were carried on by the vicar of the Archbishop of Mainz.
+There was no desire to punish the heretic, who bore a good reputation
+and was useful as a writer of manuscripts. He asserted himself to be the
+Son of God, and that he would arise three days after death, so there was
+ample ground for the endeavor humanely made by his judges to prove him
+insane. A long respite was given him for this purpose, but he
+persistently declared his sanity, refused all attempts at conversion,
+and perished in the flames.[420]
+
+When the effort was made to find heretics there seems to have been
+plenty of them to reward the search. In this same year, 1336, we hear of
+the discovery in Austria of a numerous sect who, from the description,
+were probably Luciferans. The rites of their nocturnal subterranean
+assemblies bear a considerable resemblance to those revealed by the
+penitents of Conrad of Marburg, showing how the tradition was handed
+down to the outbreak of witchcraft. We are told that they had
+contaminated innumerable souls, but they were exterminated by the free
+use of the stake and other cruel torments. The next year, in
+Brandenburg, many simple folk were seduced into demonolatry by three
+evil spirits who personated the Trinity; and though these were driven
+off by a Franciscan with the host, the dupes persisted in their error,
+and preferred burning to recantation. Even divested of its supernatural
+embroidery, the heresy, probably Luciferan, must have been one which
+excited enthusiasm in its followers, for at the place of execution they
+declared that the flames lighted to consume them were golden chariots to
+carry them to heaven. Another instance of Luciferanism occurred at
+Salzburg, in 1340, when a priest named Rudolph, in the cathedral, cast
+to the ground the cup containing the blood of Christ, a sacrilege which
+he had previously committed at Halle. Under examination, he denied
+transubstantiation, and asserted the final salvation of Satan and his
+angels. He was obstinate to the last, and consequently was burned.[421]
+
+The Brethren of the Free Spirit had by no means been suppressed. In 1339
+three aged heresiarchs of the sect were captured at Constance and tried
+by the bishop. Disgusting practices of sensuality were proved against
+them, and they described their abhorrence of the rites of the Church in
+the most revolting terms. Their constancy held good until they were
+brought to the place of execution, when it failed them; they recanted,
+and were sentenced to imprisonment for life in a dungeon on bread and
+water. In 1342, at Wuerzburg, two more were forced to recantation.
+Persecution, however, was spasmodic, and in many places toleration
+practically existed. Thus, in Suabia, in 1347, we are told that the
+heresy of the Beghards spread without let or hindrance. It was
+impossible to eradicate it, even had there been efforts made to suppress
+it, which there were not, and it would eventually have overturned the
+Church had there not finally arisen theologians able and willing to
+combat it.[422]
+
+About this period flourished Conrad of Montpellier, a canon of Ratisbon,
+one of the most learned men of the day, who wrote a tract against the
+sect. In spite of the condemnation uttered by the Council of Vienne, he
+says it continues to increase and multiply, as there are no prelates
+found to oppose it. The heretics are mostly ignorant peasants and
+mechanics, who wander around wearing the distinctive garments of the
+sect, which are also frequently used as a disguise by Waldenses. They
+seek hospitality of the Beguines, whom they corrupt by persuading them
+that man, through piety, can become the equal of Christ. At Ratisbon,
+Conrad met one of these, who was not suffered to enjoy security, for the
+bishop arrested him, and, on his obstinately maintaining his errors,
+cast him in a dungeon, where he perished. Another, named John of
+Mechlin, preached his heresy publicly through upper Germany, where his
+eloquence gained him crowds of followers, including nobles and
+ecclesiastics, though Conrad declares that, on arguing with him, he
+proved to be utterly ignorant. There would appear to have been equal
+toleration in the Netherlands, for about this period, at Brussels, a
+woman named Blomaert, who wrote several treatises on the Spirit of
+Liberty and on Love, was reverenced as something more than human, and
+when she went to take the Eucharist she was said by her disciples to be
+attended by two seraphim. She vanquished the most learned theologians,
+until John of Rysbroek succeeded in confuting her.[423]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Since the disputed election of Louis of Bavaria, in 1314, the relations
+between the empire and the papacy had been strained. The victory of
+Muehldorf, in 1322, which assured to Louis the sovereignty, had been
+followed, in 1323, by an open rupture with John XXII., after which the
+strife had been internecine. Each declared his enemy a heretic who had
+forfeited all rights, and the interdicts which John showered over
+Germany had been met by Louis with cruel persecution of all
+ecclesiastics obeying them, wherever he could enforce his power.[424]
+Such a state of affairs had not been favorable for the persecution of
+heresy; it may, partially at least, explain the immunity enjoyed in so
+many places by heretics, and the impossibility of introducing the
+Inquisition in any form of general organization. Though the papacy
+assumed that the imperial throne was vacant, and asserted that, during
+such vacancy, the government of the empire devolved upon the pope, these
+pretensions could not practically be made good. With the death of Louis,
+in 1347, and the recognition of his rival, Charles IV.--the "priest's
+emperor"--Rome might fairly hope that all obstacles would be removed;
+that the opposition of the episcopate to the Inquisition would be broken
+down, and that the field would be open for a persistent and systematic
+persecution, which would soon relieve Germany of the reproach of
+toleration. When Clement VI., in 1348, could paternally reprove the
+young emperor for lack of dignity in the fashion of his garments, which
+were too short and too tight for his imperial station, the youth could
+surely be relied upon to obey whatever instructions might be sent him
+with regard to the suppression of heresy. The same year saw the
+appointment of John Schandeland, doctor of the Dominican house at
+Strassburg, as papal inquisitor for all Germany.[425]
+
+Scarcely, however, had the pope and emperor felt their positions
+assured, and preparations had been thus made to take advantage of the
+situation, when a catastrophe supervened which defied all human
+calculation. The weary fourteenth century was nearing the end of its
+first half when Europe was scourged with a calamity which might well
+seem to fulfil all that apocalyptic prophets had threatened of the
+vengeance of God on the sins of man. In 1347 the plague known as the
+Black Death invaded Europe from the East, making leisurely progress
+during 1348 and 1349 through France, Spain, Hungary, Germany, and
+England. No corner of Europe was spared, and on the high seas it is said
+that vessels with rich cargoes were found floating, of which the crews
+had perished to the last man. Doubtless there are exaggerations in the
+contemporary reports which assert that two thirds or three quarters or
+five sixths of the inhabitants of Europe fell victims to the pest; but
+Boccaccio, as an eye-witness, tells us that the mortality within the
+walls of Florence from March to July, 1348, amounted to one hundred
+thousand souls; that in the fields the harvests lay ungathered; that in
+the city palaces were tenantless and unguarded; that parents forsook
+children and children parents. In Avignon the mortality was estimated at
+one hundred thousand; Clement VI. shut himself up in his apartments in
+the sacred palace, where he built large fires to ward off the
+pestilence, and would allow none to approach him. In Paris fifty
+thousand were said to have perished; in St. Denis sixteen thousand; in
+Strassburg sixteen thousand. That these figures, though vague, are not
+improbable, is shown by the case of Beziers, where, in 1348, Mascaro,
+who was chosen _escudier_ to fill a vacancy, records in his diary that
+all the consuls were carried off, all their _escudiers_ or assistants,
+and all the _clavars_ or tax-collectors, and that out of every thousand
+inhabitants only a hundred escaped. As though Nature did not cause
+sufficient misery, man contributed his share by an uprising against the
+Jews. They were accused of causing the plague by poisoning the waters
+and the pastures, and the blind wrath of the population did not stop to
+consider that they drank from the same wells as the Christians, and
+suffered with them in the pestilence. From the Atlantic to Hungary they
+were tortured and slain with sword and fire. At Erfurt three thousand
+are said to have perished, and in Bavaria the number was computed at
+twelve thousand.[426]
+
+It was not only by the massacre of the Jews that the people sought to
+placate the wrath of God. The gregarious enthusiasm of which we have
+seen so many instances was by no means extinct. In 1320 France had seen
+another assemblage of the Pastoureaux, when the dumb population arose,
+armed only with banners, for the conquest of the Holy Land, and an
+innumerable multitude wandered over the land, peaceably at first, but
+subsequently showing their devotion by attacking the Jews, and finally
+manifesting their antagonism to the hierarchy by plundering the
+ecclesiastics and the churches, until they were dispersed with the sword
+and put out of the way with the halter. In 1334 the great Dominican
+preacher, Venturino da Bergamo, roused the population of Lombardy to so
+keen a sense of the necessity of propitiating God that he organized a
+pilgrimage to Rome for the sake of obtaining pardons, variously
+estimated as consisting of from ten thousand to three millions of
+penitents. Clothed in white, with black cloaks bearing on one side a
+white dove and olive-branch, and on the other a white cross, they
+marched peaceably in bands to the holy city, though when Venturino went
+to John XXII., in Avignon, to get the pardons for his followers, he was
+accused of heresy, and had to undergo a trial by the Inquisition.[427]
+
+Such being the popular tendencies of the age, it is no wonder that the
+profound emotions caused by the fearful scourge of the Black Death found
+relief in a gregarious outburst of penitence. Germany had suffered less
+than the rest of Europe, only one fourth of the population being
+estimated as perishing, but the religious sensibilities of the people
+had been stirred by the interdicts against Louis of Bavaria, and the
+pestilence had been preceded by earthquakes, which were portents of
+horror. It well might seem that God, wearied with man's wickedness, was
+about to put an end to the human race, and that only some extraordinary
+effort of propitiation could avert his wrath. In this state of mental
+tension it needed but a touch to send an impulse through the whole
+population. Suddenly, in the spring of 1349, the land was covered with
+bands of Flagellants, like those whom we have seen nearly a century
+before, expiating their sins by public scourging. Some said that the
+example was set in Hungary; others attributed it to different places,
+but it responded so thoroughly to the vague longings of the people, and
+it spread so rapidly, that it seemed to be the result of a universal
+consentaneous impulse. All the proceedings, at least at first, were
+conducted decently and in order. The Flagellants marched in bands of
+moderate size, each under a leader and two lieutenants. Beggary was
+strictly prohibited, and no one was admitted to fellowship who would
+not promise obedience to the captain, and who had not money to defray
+his own expenses, estimated at four pfennige per diem, though the
+hospitality universally offered in the towns through which they passed
+was freely accepted to the extent of lodging and meals; but two nights
+were never to be spent in the same place. Monks and priests, nobles and
+peasants, women and children were marshalled together in common
+contrition to placate an offended God. They chanted rude hymns--
+
+    "Nue tretent herzu die bussen wellen.
+     Fliehen wir die heissen hellen.
+     Lucifer ist ein bose geselle," etc.--
+
+and scourged themselves at stated times, the men stripping to the waist
+and using a scourge knotted with four iron points, so lustily laid on
+that an eye-witness says that he had seen two jerks requisite to
+disengage the point from the flesh. They taught that this exercise,
+continued for thirty-three days and a half, washed from the soul all
+taint of sin, and rendered the penitent pure as at birth.
+
+From Poland to the Rhine the processions of Flagellants met with little
+opposition, except in a few towns, such as Erfurt, where the magistrates
+prohibited their entrance, and in the province of Magdeburg, where
+Archbishop Otho suppressed them. They spread through Holland and
+Flanders, but when they invaded France, Philippe de Valois interfered,
+and they penetrated no farther than Troyes. The guardians of public
+order, indeed, could not look without dread upon such a popular
+demonstration, which by organization might become dangerous. When the
+Flagellants of Strassburg proposed to form a permanent confraternity,
+Charles IV., who was in that city, peremptorily forbade it. Already
+dangerous characters were attracted to the wandering bands; in many
+places their zeal had led to the merciless persecution of the Jews, and
+there were not lacking symptoms of a significant antagonism to the
+Church, manifesting itself in attacks upon ecclesiastics and clerical
+property. The Church, in fact, looked askance upon a religious
+manifestation not of her prescription, and her susceptibilities were not
+soothed by the daily reading, amid the flagellation, of a letter brought
+by an angel to the Church of St. Peter, in Jerusalem, relating that
+God, incensed at the non-observance of Sundays and Fridays, had scourged
+Christendom, and would have destroyed the world but for the intercession
+of the angels and the Virgin. This was accompanied by a message that
+general flagellation for thirty-three and a half days would cause him to
+lay aside his wrath. There was danger, indeed, of open antagonism and
+insubordination. The Mendicants, who endeavored to discourage this
+independent popular penitence, incurred the bitterest hostility, which
+had no scruple in finding expression. At Tournay the orator of the
+Flagellants denounced them as scorpions and antichrists, and on the
+borders of Misnia two Dominicans, who endeavored to reason with a band
+of Flagellants, were set upon with stones; one had sufficient agility to
+escape, but the other was lapidated to death.[428]
+
+When in Basle about a hundred of the principal citizens organized
+themselves into a confraternity, and made a flagellating pilgrimage to
+Avignon, they excited great admiration among the citizens, and most of
+the cardinals were disposed to think highly of the new penitential
+discipline. Clement VI. penetrated deeper below the surface, and
+recognized the danger to the Church of allowing irregular and
+independent manifestations of zeal, and of permitting unauthorized
+associations and congregations to form themselves. Moreover, what was to
+become of the most serviceable and profitable function of the Holy See
+in administering the treasures of salvation, if men could cleanse
+themselves of sin by self-prescribed and self-inflicted penance? The
+movement bore within it the germ of revolution, as threatening and as
+dangerous as that of the Poor Men of Lyons, or of any of the sects which
+had thus far been successfully combated, and self-preservation required
+its prompt suppression at any cost. From the standpoint of worldly
+wisdom this reasoning was unanswerable, but members of the Sacred
+College were obstinate. They prevailed upon Clement not to execute his
+first intention of casting the Flagellants into prison, and the
+discussion on the policy to be pursued must have been protracted, for it
+was not until October 20, 1349, that the papal bull of condemnation was
+issued. This took the ground that it was a disregard of the power of the
+keys and a contempt of Church discipline for these new and unauthorized
+associations to wear distinctive garments, to form assemblies governed
+by self-dictated statutes, and performing acts contrary to received
+observances. Allusion was made to the cruelties exercised on the Jews,
+and the invasion of ecclesiastical property and jurisdiction. All
+prelates were ordered to suppress them forthwith; those who refused
+obedience were to be imprisoned until further orders, and the aid of the
+secular arm was to be called upon if necessary.[429]
+
+Clement was correct in his anticipation of the effects of the new
+discipline on the minds of the faithful. When the subject came up for
+discussion at the Council of Constance, in 1417, and San Vicente Ferrer
+was inclined to regard it with favor, his lofty reputation and his
+services in procuring the abandonment of Peter of Luna (Benedict XIII.)
+by Spain rendered it impossible not to treat him with respect, but
+Gerson took him delicately to task and wrote a tract to show the evils
+resulting from the practice. Experience, he said, had shown that the
+members of the sect of Flagellants were led to look with contempt on
+sacramental confession and the sacrament of penitence, for they exalted
+their peculiar form of penance, not only over that prescribed by the
+Church, but even over martyrdom, because they shed their own blood,
+while the blood of martyrs was shed by others. This led directly to
+insubordination and to destroying the reverence due to the Church, and
+was the fruitful parent of heresy. From some of his allusions, indeed,
+we may gather that it frequently caused collisions between the people
+and the priesthood, in which the latter were apt to be roughly
+handled.[430]
+
+This shows how inefficient had been Clement's prohibition, and how
+obstinately the practice had maintained itself until it had risen to
+the rank of a new heresy. When his bull was received by the German
+prelates they fully comprehended the dangers which it sought to avert,
+and addressed themselves vigorously to its enforcement. The Flagellants
+were denounced from the pulpit as an impious sect, condemned by the Holy
+See. Those who would humbly return to the Church would be received to
+mercy, while the obdurate would be made to experience the full rigor of
+the canons. This thinned the ranks considerably, but there were enough
+of persistent ones to furnish a new harvest of martyrs. Many were
+executed, or exposed to various forms of torment, and not a few rotted
+to death in the dungeons in which they were thrown. Even ecclesiastics
+could not be prevented from adhering to the obnoxious sect. William of
+Gennep, Archbishop of Cologne, in a provincial council excommunicated
+all clerks who joined the Flagellants; yet this was so completely
+disregarded that in his vernal synod of 1353 he was obliged to order all
+deans and rectors of churches to assemble their chapters, read his
+letters, and make provision for the public excommunication by name of
+all the disobedient, to be followed within a fortnight by their
+suspension. We shall see hereafter with what persistent obstinacy the
+outbreak of flagellation recurred from time to time, and how it was
+regarded as heresy, pure and simple, by the Church. Meanwhile, it is not
+to be doubted that the Brethren of the Free Spirit took full advantage
+of the excitement prevailing in men's minds, and of the upturning which
+resulted, both spiritually and socially. When the bands of Flagellants
+first made their appearance they were joined in many places, we are
+told, by the heretics known as Lollards, Beghards, and Cellites.
+Involved in common persecution, they grew to have common interests, and
+they became too intimately associated together not to lend each other
+mutual support.[431]
+
+Thus far the faith had not gained the advantage which had naturally been
+expected to follow the undisputed domination of the pious Charles IV. At
+the end of 1352 Innocent VI. ascended the papal throne and promptly
+repeated the attempt to introduce the papal Inquisition in Germany by
+renewing, in July, 1353, the commission as inquisitor of Friar John
+Schandeland, and writing earnestly to the German prelates to lend him
+all assistance. The pestiferous madness of the Beghards, he said, was
+blazing forth afresh, and efforts were requisite for its suppression. As
+in their dioceses the Inquisition had no prisons of its own, they were
+required to give it the free use of the episcopal jails. We are told in
+general terms that Friar John was energetic and successful, but no
+records remain to prove his activity or its results, and it is fair to
+conclude that the bishops, as usual, gave him the cold shoulder. There
+is no proof even that he was concerned in the condemnation of the
+Beghard heresiarch Berthold von Rohrback, who in 1356 expiated his
+heresy in the flames. Berthold had previously been caught in Wuerzburg,
+and had recanted through dread of the stake. He ought to have been
+imprisoned for life, but the German spiritual courts, as usual, were
+unversed in the penalties for heresy, and he was allowed to go free,
+when he secretly made his way to Speier. There he was successful in
+propagating his doctrines until he was again arrested. As a relapsed
+heretic, under the rules of the Inquisition, there was no mercy for him,
+but the rules were imperfectly understood in Germany, and again he was
+treated more leniently than the canons allowed, and was offered
+reconciliation. This time his courage did not fail him. "My faith," he
+said, "is the gift of God, and I neither ought nor wish to reject his
+grace." That Innocent's attempt to introduce the Inquisition proved a
+failure may be gathered from the action of William of Gennep, in his
+vernal synod of Cologne in 1357. While deploring the increase of the
+pernicious sect of Beghards, which threatens to infect his whole city
+and diocese, he makes no allusion whatever to the papal Inquisition and
+the canons. The measures of his predecessors are referred to, in
+accordance with which all parish priests are directed to proceed against
+the heretics, under threat of prosecution for remissness, and
+excommunication is pronounced against those who aid the Beghards with
+alms.[432]
+
+Undeterred by ill-success the effort was renewed. From a MS. sentence of
+June 6, 1366, printed by Mosheim, we learn that the Dominican, Henry de
+Agro, was at that time commissioned as inquisitor of the province of
+Mainz and the diocese of Bamberg and Basle, the latter of which belonged
+to the province of Besancon. He was conducting an active inquisition in
+the diocese of Strassburg, whose bishop, John of Luxembourg, had
+gratified episcopal jealousy by not allowing him to perform his office
+independently, but had adjoined to him his vicar, Tristram, who acted in
+the matter not simply as representing the bishop in the sentence, but as
+co-inquisitor. According to the rules of the Inquisition, the judgment
+was rendered in an assembly of experts. The victim in this case was a
+woman, Metza von Westhoven, a Beguine, who had been tried and who had
+abjured in the persecution under Bishop John of Zurich, nearly half a
+century before. As a relapsed heretic there was no pardon for her, and
+she was duly relaxed.[433]
+
+Thus far whatever hopes might have been based upon the zeal of Charles
+IV. had not been realized. He seems to have taken no part in the efforts
+of the papacy, and without the imperial exequatur the commissions issued
+to inquisitors had but moderate chance of enjoying the respect and
+obedience of the prelates. In 1367 Urban V. returned to the work by
+commissioning two inquisitors for Germany, the Dominicans Louis of
+Willenberg and Walter Kerlinger, with powers to appoint vicars. The
+Beghards were the only heretics alluded to as the object of their
+labors; prelates and magistrates were ordered to lend their efficient
+assistance and to place all prisons at their disposal until the German
+Inquisition should have such places of its own. This was the most
+comprehensive measure as yet taken for the organization of the Holy
+Office in Germany, and it proved the entering wedge, though at first
+Charles IV. does not seem to have responded. The choice of inquisitors
+was shrewd. Of Friar Louis we hear little, but Friar Walter (variously
+named Kerling, Kerlinger, Krelinger, and Keslinger) was a man of
+influence, a chaplain and favorite of the emperor, who had the temper of
+a persecutor and the opportunity and ambition to magnify his office. In
+1369 he became Dominican Provincial of Saxony, and continued to perform
+the duplicate functions until his death, in 1373. He lost no time in
+getting to work, for in 1368 we hear of a Beghard burned in Erfurt, and
+to his unwearied exertions is generally attributed the temporary
+suppression of the sect.[434]
+
+Still there was at first no appearance of any hearty support from either
+the spiritual or temporal potentates of Germany, and without this the
+business of persecution could only languish. When, however, the emperor
+made his Italian expedition, in 1368, the opportunity was utilized to
+arouse him to a sense of his neglected duties. It was rare indeed for an
+emperor to have the cordial support of the papacy, and we may reasonably
+assume that Charles was made to see that through their union the
+Inquisition might be rendered serviceable to both in breaking down the
+independence of the great prince-bishops. Thus it happened that when
+that institution was falling into desuetude in the lands of its birth,
+it was for the first time regularly organized in Germany and given a
+substantive existence. From Lucca, on June 9 and 10, 1369, the emperor
+issued two edicts which excel all previous legislation in the unexampled
+support accorded to inquisitors--the extravagance of their provisions
+probably furnishing a measure of the opposition to be overcome. All
+prelates, princes, and magistrates are ordered to expel and treat as
+outlaws the sect of Beghards and Beguines, commonly known as _Wilge
+Armen_ or _Conventschwestern_, who beg with the vainly prohibited
+formula "_Brod durch Gott!_" At the command of Walter Kerlinger and
+his vicars or other inquisitors, all who give alms to the proscribed
+class shall be arrested and so punished as to serve as a terror to
+others. With special significance the prelates are addressed and
+commanded to use their powers for the extermination of heresy; in the
+strongest language, and under threats of condign punishment to be
+visited on them in person and on their temporalities, they are ordered
+to obey with zeal the commands of Friar Kerlinger, his vicars, and all
+other inquisitors as to the arrest and safekeeping of heretics; they are
+to render all possible aid to the inquisitors, to receive and treat them
+kindly and courteously, and furnish them with guards in their movements.
+Moreover, all inquisitors are taken under the special imperial favor and
+protection. All the powers, privileges, liberties, and immunities
+granted to them by preceding emperors or by the rulers of any other
+land are conferred upon them, and confirmed, notwithstanding any laws or
+customs to the contrary. To enforce these privileges, two dukes (Saxony
+and Brunswick), two counts (Schwartzenberg and Nassau), and two knights
+(Hanstein and Witzeleyeven) are appointed conservators and guardians,
+with instructions to act whenever complaint is made to them by the
+inquisitors. They shall see that one third of the confiscations of
+heretic Beghards and Beguines are handed over to the Inquisition, and
+shall proceed directly and fearlessly, without appeal, against any one
+impeding or molesting it in any manner, making examples of them, both in
+person and property. Any contravention of the edict shall entail a mulct
+of one hundred marks, one half payable to the fisc and one half to the
+party injured. Besides this, any one impeding or molesting any of the
+inquisitors or their agents, directly or indirectly, openly or secretly,
+is declared punishable with confiscation of all property for the benefit
+of the imperial treasury, and deprivation of all honors, dignities,
+privileges, and immunities.[435]
+
+These portentous edicts provided for the _personnel_ of the Inquisition
+and the exercise of its powers, but to render it a permanent institution
+there were still lacking houses in which it could hold its tribunals,
+and prisons in which to keep its captives. The imperial resources were
+not adequate to this, and nothing was to be expected from the piety of
+princes and prelates. Somebody must be despoiled for its
+benefit--somebody too defenceless to resist, yet possessed of property
+sufficient to be tempting. These conditions were exactly filled by the
+orthodox Beghards and Beguines, who, since their temporary persecution
+after the publication of the Clementines, had continued to prosper and
+to enjoy the donations of the pious. They were accordingly marked as the
+victims, and, a week after the issue of the edicts just described,
+another was published in which these poor creatures are described as
+cultivating a sacrilegious poverty, which they assert to be the most
+perfect form of life, and their communities, if left undisturbed, will
+become seminaries of error. Moreover, the Inquisition has no house,
+domicile, or strong tower for the detention of the accused and for the
+perpetual incarceration of those who abjure, whereby many heretics
+remain unpunished and the seed of evil is scattered. Therefore the
+houses of the Beghards are given to the Inquisition to be converted into
+prisons; those of the Beguines are ordered to be sold and the proceeds
+divided into thirds, one part being assigned to repairing roads and the
+walls of the towns, another to be given to inquisitors, to be expended
+on pious uses, among which is included the maintenance of prisoners. But
+three days' notice is given to the victims prior to expulsion from
+their homes.[436]
+
+If the Inquisition could have been permanently established in Germany
+this unscrupulous measure would have accomplished the object. What
+between the imperial favor and Kerlinger's energy it at last had a fair
+start. The last edict alludes to two additional inquisitors whom
+Kerlinger was authorized to appoint and to his successful labors, by
+which the heretic Brethren of the Free Spirit had been completely
+destroyed in the provinces of Magdeburg and Bremen, and in Thuringia,
+Hesse, Saxony, and elsewhere. Probably this is exaggerated, but we learn
+from other sources that Kerlinger was zealously active and that his
+labors were rewarded with success. In Magdeburg and Erfurt he burned a
+number of heretics and forced the rest to outward conformity or to
+flight. We hear of him at Nordhausen in 1369, where he captured forty
+Beghards; of these seven were obdurate and were burned, and the rest
+abjured and accepted penance. This is probably a fair example of his
+work, and we may believe Gregory XI. when, in 1372, he says that the
+Inquisition had destroyed heresy and heretics in the central provinces
+and driven them to the outlying districts of Brabant, Holland, Stettin,
+Breslau, and Silesia, where they are gathered in such multitudes that
+they hope to be able to maintain themselves; wherefore he earnestly
+calls upon the prelates and nobles to bring the good work to an end by
+efficiently supporting the Holy Office in its final labors. Apparently
+Kerlinger had not been anxious to divide his authority by exercising his
+power to appoint two additional colleagues, and Gregory now intervened
+to relieve him of this duty and place the German Inquisition on a
+permanent footing by assimilating its organization to that of the
+institution elsewhere. He increased the number of Inquisitors to five
+and placed their appointment and removal in the hands of the Dominican
+master and provincial, or either of them. Kerlinger and Louis, however,
+were to remain as two of the five, and no power, whether imperial or
+episcopal, should have authority to interfere with the free exercise of
+their functions.[437]
+
+A further extension of the power of the Inquisition granted by Charles
+IV. was of no great importance at the time, but has the highest interest
+to us as the first indication of what was to come. A leading feature of
+the Beghard propaganda was the circulation among the laity of written
+tracts and devotional works. Composed in the vernacular, they reached a
+class which was not wholly illiterate and yet was unable to profit by
+the orthodox works of which Latin was the customary vehicle. For the
+suppression of this effective method of missionary work the Inquisition
+was intrusted with a censorship of literature, to which further
+reference will be made hereafter. Less interesting to us, but probably
+more important at the time, was the permission granted to the
+inquisitors to appoint notaries. It will be remembered how jealously
+these appointments were guarded, and this concession was evidently
+looked upon as a special favor. The inquisitors apparently had been
+trammelled by the lack of notaries, and they were now authorized to
+appoint one in each diocese, and to replace him when removed by death or
+disability.[438]
+
+As regards the seizure of the Beguinages, it was ruthlessly carried out
+by Kerlinger. Those of Muehlhausen had been very flourishing, and on
+February 16, 1370, four of them were delivered by him to the magistrates
+to be converted to public uses--probably the city's share of the
+plunder. It would seem, however, that obstacles were thrown in his way.
+The jealousy of the bishops was not likely to look with favor upon this
+permanent establishment of the Inquisition in their dioceses, with
+prisons and landed property that would render it independent. Mosheim
+judiciously suggests that as these houses were benevolent gifts for
+pious uses the bishops could assert them to be under their jurisdiction
+and not subject to an imperial edict; nobles and citizens, moreover, had
+been trained to regard their inoffensive inmates with favor, and were
+not eager to share in the spoils. Whatever may have been their motives,
+Kerlinger could not have found the way open to the general confiscation
+that he desired. In 1371 he was obliged to petition Gregory XI.,
+reciting the existence of heretics called Beghards and Beguines, and the
+imperial edict confiscating their conventicles, the confirmation of
+which he desired. There was nothing to lead Gregory to suppose that
+there was in this anything but the well-understood confiscation of
+heretical property, and he willingly gave the desired confirmation.[439]
+
+Thus, after a desultory struggle lasting for nearly a century and a
+half, the Inquisition finally established itself in Germany as an
+organized body. For a while, at least, the office of inquisitor was kept
+regularly filled as vacancies occurred. When Kerlinger died, in 1373,
+his successor in the Provincialate of Saxony, Hermann Hetstede, is
+qualified as being an inquisitor, and the same title is given to Henry
+Albert, who followed Hetstede in 1376. The Holy Office seems to have
+been almost exclusively in Dominican hands, and we rarely hear of its
+functions as performed by Franciscans. The good work proceeded apace. In
+1372 Kerlinger had a heretic of higher rank than usual to deal with in
+the person of Albert, Bishop of Halberstadt, who publicly taught
+fatalistic doctrines--possibly some form of predestination such as
+Wickliff was commencing to formulate. This resulted in a great decrease
+in pious works, for it struck at the root of the invocation of saints,
+masses for the dead, and liberality to the clergy, and the consequences
+threatened to be so serious that Gregory XI. ordered Kerlinger, together
+with Hervord, Provost of Erfurt, and an Augustinian named Rodolph, to
+force the bishop to an abjuration, and in case of disobedience to
+transmit him to the papal court for judgment. In the same year Gregory
+recounts with much satisfaction the success of the inquisitors in
+driving the Beghards out of central and northern Germany; he stimulated
+the emperor to support their labors with fresh zeal, and sent
+encyclicals to the princes, prelates, and magistrates, commanding them
+to use every effort to render the work complete, by exterminating the
+heretics in the regions where they had taken refuge. Early in the next
+year he commissioned the Dominican, John of Boland, an imperial
+chaplain, as inquisitor in the dioceses of Treves, Cologne, and Liege,
+the Beghards and Beguines being the objects specially indicated; and
+Charles hastened to invest him with all the powers specified in his
+letters of 1369, ordering the Dukes of Luxembourg, Limburg, Brabant, and
+Juliers, the Princes of Mons and Cleves, and the Counts of La Marck,
+Kirchberg, and Spanheim to serve as conservators and guardians of the
+edict.[440]
+
+Although the Brethren of the Free Spirit were the chief objects of all
+this inquisitorial activity, the Flagellants were not neglected. In 1361
+a demonstration of these enthusiasts in far-off Naples awakened the
+solicitude of Innocent VI. In 1369 we hear of an outbreak of women
+coming from Hungary, which was summarily suppressed in Saxony. In 1372
+Flagellants reappeared in various parts of Germany, asserting the
+peculiar efficacy of their penance as replacing the sacraments of the
+Church, so that Gregory XI. felt it necessary to direct the inquisitors
+to exterminate them. In 1373 and 1374 this irrepressible tendency took a
+new shape, known as the Dancing Mania, which broke out at the
+consecration of a church in Aix-la-Chapelle. Bands of both sexes, mostly
+consisting of poor and simple folk, poured into Flanders from the
+Rhinelands, dancing and singing as though possessed by the Furies. Under
+intense spiritual excitement the performer would leap and dance until he
+fell to earth with convulsions, when his comrades would revive him by
+jumping upon him, or a cloth which he wore, tied around the belly, would
+be tightly twisted with a stick. This was generally looked upon as a
+kind of demoniacal possession until a multitude of these dancers
+assembled at Herestal and consulted together as to the best plan for
+slaying all the priests, canons, and clergy of Liege, when the madness
+was recognized as no longer harmless. Still it spread over a large
+portion of Germany and lasted for several years. Though not in itself a
+heresy, it led in some places to heretical opinions on the sacraments,
+for it was popularly explained by attributing it to defective baptism,
+caused by the universal practice among priests of keeping
+concubines.[441]
+
+Scarce had the Inquisition been fairly organized and had settled to its
+work, when its arbitrary proceedings awakened active opposition. As the
+heretic Beghards and Beguines were the principal objects of its
+activity, and the orthodox ones of its cupidity, the sufferings of the
+latter speedily awoke compassion which found expression in terms so
+decided that Gregory XI. could not refuse to listen. Accordingly, in
+April, 1374, he wrote to the Archbishops of Mainz, Treves, and Cologne,
+reciting these complaints and ordering a report about the life and
+conversation of the persons concerned, who should be protected and
+cherished if innocent, and be punished if guilty. At least from Cologne
+and Worms, probably from the other prelates, came answers that the
+persecuted communities were composed of faithful Catholics. In Cologne
+the magistrates intervened and complained energetically to the pope that
+a Dominican inquisitor was vexing the poor folk, and they asked that his
+proceedings be stopped. The victims, they said, were people of little
+culture, who were interrogated with questions so difficult that the most
+skilful theologians could scarce answer them, while their edifying lives
+had led the clergy to protect them against the threats of the
+Inquisition. Proceedings were thus checked, but still the peculiar
+garments which the devotees had always worn furnished an excuse for
+continued persecution, and another appeal was made to Gregory, to which
+he responded in December, 1377, by ordering the prelates not to permit
+their molestation on this account so long as they were good Catholics
+and obedient to the ecclesiastical authorities. The German bishops were
+thus fully armed with papal authority to restrict the operations of the
+inquisitors, and those who, like Bishop Lambert of Strassburg, were
+themselves disposed to persecution, did not dare to proceed further. The
+regular communities of Beghards and Beguines were assured of toleration,
+and if the heretical Brethren of the Free Spirit managed to share in
+this immunity, it probably did not give the prelates much concern.[442]
+
+All this was discouraging to the zeal of inquisitors whose institution
+had hardly yet taken root in the land, but worse was still to follow. In
+1378 died both Gregory XI. and Charles IV. The election of Urban VI.
+gave rise to the Great Schism, and Wenceslas, the son and successor of
+Charles, was notoriously indifferent to the interest of religion as
+represented by the Church. Thus deprived of its two indispensable
+supporters, the Inquisition could not make head against episcopal
+jealousy. In 1381 there could have been no inquisitors in the extensive
+dioceses of Ratisbon, Bamberg, and Misnia, for we find the Archbishop of
+Prague as papal legate ordering the bishops to appoint them, and
+threatening to do so himself in case of disobedience. Still the
+Inquisition did not entirely pretermit its labors. In 1392 we hear of a
+papal inquisitor named Martin who travelled through Suabia to Wuerzburg,
+finding in the latter place a number of peasants and simple folk
+belonging to the sect of Flagellants and Beghards. They had not in them
+the stuff of martyrs, and accepted the penance imposed upon them of
+joining in a crusade then preaching against the Turks--the first time
+for nearly a century that we meet with this penalty. Then Martin went to
+Erfurt--always a heretical centre--where he came upon numerous heretics
+of the same kind. Some of these were obstinate and were duly burned,
+others accepted penance, and the rest sought safety in flight. The
+following year there was burned at Cologne, by the papal inquisitor,
+Albert, a leading Beghard known as Martin of Mainz, a former Benedictine
+monk and a disciple of the celebrated Nicholas of Basle; and in his
+trial there are allusions to others of the sect executed not long before
+at Heidelberg.[443]
+
+About this period, after a long interval, we again become cognizant of
+the existence of Waldenses. The Beghards had succeeded in concentrating
+upon themselves the attention of the papal and episcopal inquisitions,
+and the followers of Peter Waldo had remained unnoticed, doubtless owing
+their safety to outward conformity, though by absenting themselves from
+their parishes about the Easter tide they sometimes managed to escape
+taking communion for five or six years in succession. Thus laboring
+quietly and peacefully, preaching by night in cellars, mills, stables,
+and other retired places, they gained numerous converts among the
+peasants and artisans, who saw in the sanctity of their lives, as sadly
+admitted by the so-called Peter of Pilichdorf, the strongest contrast
+with the scandalous license of the clergy.[444] Thus they multiplied
+in secret until all Germany was full of them, including the
+closely-related sect of Winkelers. About 1390 they were discovered in
+Mainz, where for a hundred years they had lurked undisturbed. The
+Archbishop, Conrad II., kept the matter in his own hands. In 1392 he
+issued a commission, as episcopal inquisitors, to Frederic, Bishop of
+Toul, Nicholas of Saulheim, the Dean of St. Stephen, and John Wasmod, of
+Homburg, a priest of the cathedral, to whom the papal inquisitor could
+adjoin himself if he so chose. These inquisitors were armed with full
+authority to arrest, try, torture, sentence, and abandon to the secular
+arm all heretics, and were instructed to proceed in accordance with the
+practice of the Inquisition. They zealously discharged their duty. A
+number of Waldenses were already in the episcopal prison, and they made
+diligent perquisition after the rest. By free use of torture they
+obtained the necessary avowals and evidence. Those who were obstinate
+were handed over to the secular arm, and an _auto de fe_ celebrated at
+Bingen in 1392, where six-and-thirty wretches were burned, proved that
+the papal Inquisition itself could not have been more effective. A
+little tract on the examination of Waldenses, evidently written on this
+occasion, shows that the inquisitorial process was fairly well
+understood, and that the episcopal officials had not much to learn from
+their rivals.[445]
+
+When attention was once attracted to this secret heresy, it was not long
+before Waldenses were discovered everywhere. In a short list of them,
+dated 1391, Poland, Hungary, Bavaria, Suabia, and Saxony are
+represented. The author of the tract which passes under the name of
+Peter of Pilichdorf, who took an energetic part both with the pen and in
+action in suppressing this suddenly discovered heresy, informs us, in
+1395, that the Netherlands, Westphalia, Prussia, and Poland were not
+infected with it, while Thuringia, Misnia, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria,
+and Hungary numbered their heretics by thousands. Curiously enough, in
+this list he omits Pomerania, where, along the Baltic regions, the
+Waldenses were thickly scattered from Stettin to Koenigsberg. The heresy
+had been deeply rooted there for at least a century, and the local
+priesthood seem to have borne no ill-will to the harmless sectaries, who
+conformed outwardly to the orthodox observances. Even when in confession
+intimations of the heresy escaped, as sometimes happened, they were
+wisely and mercifully overlooked. Yet there is evidence of previous
+persecution in the confession of Sophia Myndekin, of Fleit, who said
+that she had been fifty years in the sect, that her husband had been
+burned at Angermuende, and that she had only escaped on account of
+pregnancy, while all their little property was confiscated. They were
+poor folk, mostly peasants and laborers, and though there are occasional
+allusions in the trials to men of gentle blood, the tenets of the sect
+excluded all who owed feudal military service, war and bloodshed being
+strictly forbidden. They were visited yearly by their ministers, some of
+whom were mechanics, and others learned men skilled in Holy Writ,
+probably from Bohemia, who preached, heard confessions, and granted
+absolution, the utmost secrecy being observed in these ministrations.
+Moreover, collections were made and remitted to the headquarters of the
+sect, showing that they formed part of the great Waldensian
+organization.[446]
+
+They had long been unmolested when one of their ministers, known as
+Brother Klaus, who had visited them in 1391 and had heard many
+confessions, apparently became frightened at the movement against them.
+He apostatized, and seems to have betrayed the names of his penitents.
+The Church made haste to secure the fruits of his repentance. Brother
+Peter, Provincial of the Celestinian Order, was appointed papal
+inquisitor, and early in 1393 he came to Stettin armed with full powers
+from the Archbishop of Prague and the Bishops of Lebus and Camin to
+represent them. He issued citations, both general ones from the pulpits
+of the infected region, and special summonses to individuals. This
+naturally caused great excitement, and some of the suspects fled; in
+Klein-Wurbiser, indeed, there was a faint demonstration made against the
+inquisitorial apparitors, but there was no resistance, and the great
+majority submitted to the inevitable. Friar Peter, as customary, was
+lenient with those who spontaneously confessed and abjured; all took the
+oaths, including that of persecuting heresy and heretics, with only an
+occasional manifestation of hesitancy. Torture seems to have been
+unnecessary; there was no exhibition of obstinacy, and no burnings. They
+were condemned to wear crosses and perform other penance, and when, as
+was usually the case, their parents had died in the sect, they were
+required to indicate the place of burial, presumably for exhumation.
+From January, 1393, until February, 1394, Friar Peter was engaged in
+this work. One of his registers, comprising four hundred and forty-three
+cases, was in the hands of Flacius Illyricus, fragments of which have
+recently been discovered and described by Herr Wattenbach.[447]
+
+From Pomerania, Friar Peter hastened to the south, where he found
+Waldenses as numerous, and less inclined to submission. He has left a
+brief memorial of his labors, written in 1395, in which he expresses his
+fears that the heresy would become dominant, as the Waldenses were
+resorting to force, and were employing arson and homicide to intimidate
+the orthodox. His only evidence of this, however, is that on September
+8, those of Steyer, to punish the parish priest for receiving the
+inquisitors in his house, burned his barn, and affixed to the town
+gates, by night, a warning in the shape of a half-burned brand and a
+bloody knife. This offence was cruelly avenged, for in 1397, at Steyer,
+more than a hundred Waldenses of either sex were burned. In this
+relentless persecution the case of a child of ten condemned to wear
+crosses shows how unsparing were the tribunals, while others in which
+the culprits were burned for relapse, having already abjured before the
+inquisitor, Henry of Olmuetz, indicate that this was not the first effort
+made to exterminate the heresy. How extended it was, and how vigorous
+its repression, may be gathered from the pseudo Peter of Pilichdorf, who
+tells us that from Thuringia to Moravia a thousand converts were made in
+two years, and that the inquisitors who were busy in Austria and Hungary
+expected soon to have a thousand more.[448]
+
+About the year 1400, in Strassburg, there was active persecution against
+a sect known as Winkelers, who were discovered to have four assemblies
+in the city, and others in Mainz and Hagenau. In their confessions they
+alluded to their comrades in many other places, such as Nordlingen,
+Ratisbon, Augsburg, Tischengen, Soleure, Berne, Weissenberg, Speier,
+Holzhausen, Schwaebisch-Woerth, Friedberg, and Vienna. Although, strictly
+speaking, not Waldenses, they had so many traits in common that the
+distinction is rather one of organization than of faith. In 1374 one of
+their number returned to the Church, and the fear of his betraying the
+little community led to his deliberate murder, the assassins being paid,
+and undergoing penance to obtain absolution. Some years later the
+inquisitor, John Arnoldi, was threatened with similar vengeance and left
+the city. In the final persecution some thirty families were put on
+trial, while many succeeded in remaining concealed. There was but one
+noble among them, Blumstein, who abjured, and who, some twenty years
+later, is found filling important civic posts. Though reference is made
+in one of the trials to members of the sect who had been burned at
+Ratisbon, those of Strassburg were more fortunate. The inquisitor,
+Boeckeln, is said to have received bribes for assigning private penance
+to some of the guilty; and though the Dominicans demanded the burning of
+the heretics, the magistrates interceded with the episcopal official,
+and banishment was the severest penalty inflicted. Torture, however, had
+been freely used in obtaining confessions. After this, nothing more is
+heard in Strassburg of either Winkelers or Waldenses until the burning
+of Frederic Reiser in 1458.[449]
+
+There evidently was ample work for the Inquisition in Germany, but it
+seems to have been more anxious to repair its defeat in the contest with
+the Beghards than to operate against the Waldenses. In the general
+excitement on the subject of heresy it was not difficult to render the
+Beghards objects of renewed suspicion and persecution. To some extent
+the bishops and most of the inquisitors joined in this, but the suspects
+had friends among the prelates, who wrote, towards the close of 1393, to
+Boniface IX., eulogizing their piety, obedience, and good works, and
+asking protection for them. To this Boniface responded, January 7, 1394,
+in a brief addressed to the German prelates, ordering them to
+investigate whether these persons are contaminated with the errors
+condemned by Clement V. and John XXII., and whether they follow any
+reproved religious Order; if not, they are to be efficiently protected.
+An exemplified copy of this brief, given by the Archbishop of Magdeburg,
+October 20, 1396, shows that it continued to be used and was relied upon
+in the troubles which followed, soon after, through a sudden change of
+policy by Boniface. The Inquisition did not remain passive under this
+interference with its operations. It represented to Boniface that for a
+hundred years heresies had lurked under the outward fair-seeming of the
+Beghards and Beguines, in consequence of which, almost every year,
+obstinate heretics had been burned in the different cities of the
+empire, and that their suppression was impeded by certain papal
+constitutions which were urged in their protection. Boniface was easily
+moved to reversing his recent action, and by a bull of January 31, 1395,
+he restored to vigor the decrees of Urban V., Gregory XI., and Charles
+IV., under which he ordered the Inquisition to prosecute earnestly the
+Beghards, Lollards, and _Zwestriones_. This gave full power to molest
+the orthodox associations as well as the heretic Brethren of the Free
+Spirit, and a severe storm of persecution burst over them. Even some of
+the bishops joined in this, as appears from a synod held in Magdeburg
+about this time, which ordered the priests to excommunicate and expel
+them. Yet this again aroused their friends, and Boniface was induced to
+reissue his bull with an addition which, like the contradictory
+provisions of the Clementines, shows the perplexity caused by the
+admixture of orthodoxy and heresy among the Beguines. After repeating
+his commands for their suppression, he adds that there are pious
+organizations known as Beghards, Lollards, and _Zwestriones_, which
+shall be permitted to wear their vestments, to beg, and to continue
+their mode of life, excommunication being threatened against any
+inquisitor who shall molest them, unless they have been convicted by the
+ordinaries of the diocese.[450]
+
+This left the matter very much to the discretion of the local
+authorities, but the spirit of persecution was fairly revived, and the
+Inquisition made haste to fortify its position. Under pretext that the
+bulls of Gregory XI. were becoming worn by age and use, it procured
+their renewal from Boniface IX., in 1395, though the pope is careful to
+express that he grants no new privileges. In 1399 it succeeded in having
+the number of inquisitors increased to six for the Dominican province of
+Saxony alone, on the plea that its wide extent and populous cities
+rendered the existing force insufficient. This was not without reason,
+for the province embraced the great archiepiscopal districts of Mainz,
+Cologne, Magdeburg, and Bremen, to which were added Ruegen and Camin.
+Camin belonged to the province of Gnesen, and Ruegen formed part of the
+diocese of Roskild, which was suffragan to the metropolitan of Luenden in
+Sweden, thus furnishing the only instance of inquisitorial jurisdiction
+in any region that can be called Scandinavian, save a barren attempt
+made, in 1421, under the stimulus of the Hussite troubles. A few weeks
+later Boniface issued another bull, ordering the prelates and secular
+rulers of Germany to give all aid and protection to Friar Eylard
+Schoeneveld and other inquisitors, and especially to lend the use of
+their prisons, as the Inquisition in those parts is said to have none of
+its own, which shows that Kerlinger's scheme of obtaining them from the
+property of the Beghards had not proved a success. Eylard set vigorously
+to work in the lands adjoining the Baltic, which from their remoteness
+had probably escaped his predecessors. At Lubec, in 1402, he procured
+the arrest of a Dolcinist named Wilhelm by the municipal officials,
+showing that he had no familiars of his own; the accused was examined
+several times in the presence of numerous clerks, monks, and laymen,
+showing that the secrecy of the inquisitorial process was unknown or
+unobserved, and he was finally burned. He had a comrade named Bernhard,
+who fled to Wismar, whither Schoeneveld followed him and had him burned
+in 1403. The same year he seized a priest at Stralsund, who rejected all
+solicitations to abjure, and was burned as a persistent heretic; and at
+Rostock he condemned for heresy a woman who drove away with the
+bitterest reproaches her son, a Cistercian monk, when he urged her to
+recant, and who likewise perished in the flames.[451]
+
+About this period heresy appears to have had also to contend with a
+reaction on the part of the secular authorities. When, in 1400, the
+Flagellants made a demonstration in the Low Countries, the magistrates
+of Maestricht expelled them, and when the people took their side the
+energetic interference of the Bishop of Liege put an end to the
+insubordination; besides, the Sire de Perweis threw a band of
+Flagellants into his dungeons and Tongres closed its gates upon them, so
+that the epidemic was checked. With the year 1400 the comparative peace
+which the Beguines had enjoyed for some fifteen years came to an end.
+Their most dreaded enemy was the Dominican, John of Muehlberg, whose
+purity of life and energy in battling with the moral and spiritual
+errors of his time won him a wide reputation throughout Germany, so that
+when he died in exile, driven from Basle by the clergy whom his attacks
+had embittered, he was long regarded by the people as a saint and a
+martyr. About 1400 he stirred up in Basle a struggle with the Beguines,
+which for ten years kept the city in an uproar. Primarily an episode in
+the hostility between the Dominicans and Franciscans, it extended to the
+clergy and magistrates, and finally to the citizens at large. In 1405
+the Beguines were expelled, but the Franciscans obtained from the papacy
+bulls ordering their restoration, and the retraction of all that had
+been said against them. At last, in 1411, Bishop Humbert and the town
+council, excited by a fiery sermon of John Pastoris, abolished the
+associations, which were forced to abandon their living in common and
+their vestments, or to leave the place. The city of Berne followed this
+example, and the magistrates of Strassburg took the same course, when
+some of the Beguines adopted the former alternative and some the
+latter. Many of these took refuge secretly at Mainz. They were
+discovered, and the archbishop, John II., holding them to be heretics,
+ordered them to be prosecuted. The matter was intrusted to Master Henry
+von Stein, who set vigorously about it. The refugees from Strassburg,
+mostly women, were thrown into prison; we also hear of a nun who was
+likewise incarcerated, and of a youth from Rotenburg, who was mounted on
+a hogshead in the public square, and in the presence of the populace was
+obliged to accept the penance of crosses, in an _auto de fe_ much less
+impressive than those which Bernard Gui was wont to celebrate.[452]
+
+It was not long before this that the Brethren of the Free Spirit were
+deprived of their greatest leader, Nicholas of Basle. As a wandering
+missionary he had for many years been engaged in propagating the
+doctrines of the sect, and had gained many proselytes. The Inquisition
+had been eagerly on his track, but he was shrewd and crafty, and had
+eluded its pursuit. Forced, probably about 1397, to fly to Vienna with
+two of his disciples, John and James, they were discovered and seized.
+The celebrated Henry of Hesse (Langenstein) undertook their conversion,
+and flattered himself that he had succeeded, but they all relapsed and
+were burned. As Peter, the Celestinian abbot, was at this time
+Inquisitor of Passau, he probably had the satisfaction of ridding the
+Church of this dangerous heresiarch, whose belief in his own divine
+inspiration was such that he considered his will to be equal to that of
+God.
+
+Not long after a similar martyrdom occurred at Constance, where a
+Beghard, named Burgin, had founded a sect of extreme austerity. Captured
+with his disciples by the bishop, he would not abandon his doctrines,
+and was duly relaxed. Gerson's numerous allusions to the Turelupins and
+Beghards show that at this period the sect was attracting much attention
+and was regarded as seductively dangerous. With all his tendency to
+mysticism, Gerson could recognize the peril incurred by those whom he
+describes as deceived through too great a desire to reach the sweetness
+of God, and who mistake the delirium of their own hearts for divine
+promptings: thus disregarding the law of Christ, they follow their own
+inclinations without submitting to rule, and are precipitated into guilt
+by their own presumption. He was especially averse to the spiritual
+intimacy between the sexes, where devotion screened the precipice on the
+brink of which they stood. Mary of Valenciennes, he says, was especially
+to be avoided on this account, for she applied what is set forth about
+the divine fruition to the passions seething in her own soul, and she
+argues that he who reaches the perfection of divine love is released
+from the observance of all precepts. Thus the Brethren of the Free
+Spirit were practically the same in the fifteenth century as in the
+times of Ortlieb and Amauri.[453]
+
+Giles Cantor, who founded in Brussels the sect which styled itself Men
+of Intelligence, was probably a disciple of Mary of Valenciennes, and
+the name was adopted merely to cover its affiliation with the proscribed
+Brethren of the Free Spirit. Its doctrines were substantially the same
+in their mystic pantheism and illuminism; and their practical
+application is seen in the story that on one occasion Giles was moved by
+the spirit to go naked for some miles when carrying provision to a poor
+person. So open a manifestation would have insured his prosecution had
+there been any machinery for persecution in efficient condition in
+Brabant; but he was allowed to propagate his doctrines in peace until he
+died. He was succeeded in the leadership of the sect by a Carmelite
+known as William of Hilderniss, and at length it attracted, in 1411, the
+attention of Cardinal Peter d'Ailly, Bishop of Cambrai. Fortunately for
+William, the bishop chose to direct the proceedings himself, and they
+show complete disregard of inquisitorial methods. He appointed special
+commissioners, who made an inquisition; both the names and the testimony
+of the witnesses were submitted to William, who made what defence he
+could. In rendering judgment d'Ailly called in the Dominican Prior of
+St. Quentin, who was inquisitor of the district of Cambrai, and the
+sentence was as irregular as the proceedings. William had no desire for
+martyrdom, and abjured the heresy; he was required to purge himself with
+six compurgators, after which he was to undergo the penance of three
+years' confinement in a castle of the bishop's, while if he failed in
+his purgation he was to be imprisoned in a convent of his order during
+the archbishop's pleasure--a most curious and illogical medley. He
+succeeded in finding the requisite number of compurgators, but though he
+disappeared from the scene his sect was by no means extinguished, and we
+hear of the persecution of a heresiarch as late as 1428.[454]
+
+That Clement VI. did not err when he foresaw the dangerous errors
+lurking under the devotion of the Flagellants was demonstrated in 1414.
+The sect still existed, and its crude theories as to the efficacy of
+flagellation had gradually been developed into an antisacerdotal heresy
+of the most uncompromising character. A certain Conrad Schmidt was the
+constructive heresiarch who gave to its belief an organized
+completeness, and his death made no diminution of the zeal of his
+disciples, nor did the failure of his prophecy of the end of the world
+in 1309. The curious connection between the Flagellants and the Beghards
+is indicated by the fact that these Flagellant Brethren, or Brethren of
+the Cross, as they styled themselves, regarded Conrad as the incarnation
+of Enoch, and a certain Beghard, who had been burned at Erfurt about
+1364, as Elias--an angel having brought their souls from heaven and
+infused them into Schmidt and this Beghard while yet in the womb.
+Schmidt was to preside at the approaching Day of Judgment, which was
+constantly believed to be at hand, Antichrist being the pope and the
+priests, whose reign was drawing to an end.
+
+When, in 1343, the letter commanding flagellation, to which I have
+already alluded, was brought by an angel and laid on the altar of St.
+Peter, God withdrew all spiritual power from the Church and bestowed it
+on the Brethren of the Cross. Since then all sacraments had lost their
+virtue, and to partake of them was mortal sin. Baptism had been replaced
+by that of the blood drawn by the scourge; the sacrament of matrimony
+only defiled marriage; the Eucharist was but a device by which the
+priests sold a morsel of bread for a penny--if they believed it to be
+the body of Christ they were worse than Judas, who got thirty pieces of
+silver for it; flagellation replaced them all. Oaths were a mortal sin,
+but to avoid betraying the sect the faithful could take them and receive
+the sacraments, and then expiate it by flagellation. The growth of such
+a belief and the mingled contempt and hatred manifested for the clergy
+prove that to the people the Church was as much a stranger and an
+oppressor as it had been in the twelfth century. It had learned nothing,
+and was as far from Christ as ever.
+
+Conrad Schmidt had promulgated his errors in Thuringia, where his
+sectaries were discovered, in 1414, at Sangerhausen. Thither sped the
+inquisitor Schoeneveld--called Henry by the chroniclers, but probably the
+same as the Eylard, whom we have seen at work some years before on the
+shores of the Baltic. The princes of Thuringia and Misnia were ordered
+to assist him, and they were eager to share in the suppression of a
+heresy which threatened to revolutionize the social order. The
+proceedings must have been more energetic than regular. Torture must
+have been freely used to gather into the net so many victims; nor can a
+patient hearing have been given to the accused. Their shrift was short,
+and before Schoeneveld had left the scene of action he had caused the
+burning of ninety-one at Sangerhausen, forty-four in the neighboring
+town of Winkel, and many more in other villages. Yet such was the
+persistence of the heresy that even this wholesale slaughter did not
+suffice for its suppression. Two years later, in 1416, its remains were
+discovered, and again Schoeneveld was sent for. He examined the accused.
+To those who abjured he assigned penances, and handed over the obstinate
+to the secular arm. His assizes must have been hurried, for he did not
+stay to witness the execution of those whom he had condemned, and after
+his departure the princes gathered all together, both penitents and
+impenitents, some three hundred in number, and burned the whole of them
+in one day. This terrible example produced the profound impression that
+was desired, and hereafter the sect of Flagellants may be regarded as
+unimportant. Some discussion, as we have seen, took place the next year
+at the Council of Constance, when San Vicente Ferrer expressed his
+approbation of this form of discipline, and Gerson mildly urged its
+dangers; but when, in 1434, a certain Bishop Andreas specified, among
+the objects of the Council of Basle, the suppression of the heresies of
+the Hussites, Waldenses, Fraticelli, Wickliffites, the Manichaeans of
+Bosnia, the Beghards, and the schismatic Greeks, there is no allusion in
+the enumeration to Flagellants. Yet the causes which had given rise to
+the heresy continued in full force and it was still cherished in secret.
+In 1453 and 1454 Brethren of the Cross were again discovered in
+Thuringia, and the Inquisition was speedily at work to reclaim them.
+Besides the errors propagated by Conrad Schmidt, it was not difficult to
+extort from the accused the customary confessions of foul sexual
+excesses committed in dark subterranean conventicles, and even of
+Luciferan doctrines, teaching that in time Satan would regain his place
+in heaven and expel Christ; though when we hear that they alleged the
+evil lives of the clergy as the cause of their misbelief we may
+reasonably doubt the accuracy of these reports. Aschersleben,
+Sondershausen, and Sangerhausen were the centres of the sect, and at the
+latter place, in 1454, twenty-two men and women were burned as
+obstinate heretics. In 1481 a few were punished in Anhalt, and the sect
+gradually disappeared.[455]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The case of the Beghards and Beguines came before the Council of
+Constance in several shapes. To guard themselves from the incessant
+molestations to which they were exposed they had, to a large extent,
+affiliated themselves, nominally at least, as Tertiaries, to the
+Mendicant Orders, chiefly to the Franciscan, whose scapular they
+adopted. In a project of reform, carefully prepared for action by the
+council, this is strongly denounced; they are said to live in forests
+and in cities, free from subjection, indulging in indecent habits, not
+without suspicion of heresy, and though able of body and fit to earn
+their livelihood by labor, they subsist on alms, to the prejudice of the
+poor and miserable. It was therefore proposed to forbid the wearing of
+the scapular by all who were not bound by vows to the Orders and
+subjected to the Rules. It was also pronounced necessary to make
+frequent visitations of their communities on account of the
+peculiarities of their life, and magistrates and nobles were to be
+ordered not to interfere with such wholesome supervision under pain of
+interdict. It was possibly to meet this attack that numerous testimonial
+letters from the clergy and magistrates of Germany certifying to the
+orthodoxy, piety, and usefulness of the associations were sent to Martin
+V., who submitted them to Angelo, Cardinal of SS. Peter and Marcellus,
+and received from him a favorable report. Towards the close of the
+council, in 1418, a more formidable assault was made upon them by
+Matthew Grabon, a Dominican of Wismar, who laid before Martin V.
+twenty-four articles to prove that all such associations outside of the
+approved religious orders ought to be abolished. To accomplish this,
+after the approved style of scholastic logic, he was obliged to assert
+such absurd general principles as that it was equivalent to suicide, and
+therefore a mortal sin, for any secular person to give away his property
+in charity, and that the pope had no power to grant a dispensation in
+such cases. Grabon's propositions and conclusions were referred to
+Antonio, Cardinal of Verona, who submitted them to Cardinal Peter
+d'Ailly and Chancellor Gerson. The former reported that the paper was
+heretical and should be burned, while the jurists should be called upon
+to decide what ought to be done to its writer. The latter, that the
+doctrine was pestiferous and blasphemous, and that its author, if
+obstinate, should be arrested. Grabon was glad to escape by publicly
+abjuring some of his articles as heretical, others as erroneous, and
+others as scandalous and offensive to pious ears. The triumph of the
+Beguines was decisive, and they might at last hope for a respite from
+persecution. The associations increased and flourished accordingly, and
+under their shelter the Brethren of the Free Spirit continued to
+propagate their heresy.[456]
+
+From this time forward the attention of the Church was mainly directed
+to Hussitism, the most formidable enemy that it had encountered since
+the Catharism of the twelfth century. This will be considered in a
+following chapter, and meanwhile I need only say that its secret but
+threatening progress throughout Germany called for active means of
+repression and led to more thorough organization of the Inquisition. The
+bull of Martin V., issued February 22, 1418, against Wickliffites and
+Hussites, is addressed not only to prelates but to inquisitors
+commissioned in the dioceses and cities of Salzburg, Prague, Gnesen,
+Olmuetz, Litomysl, Bamberg, Misnia, Passau, Breslau, Ratisbon, Cracow,
+Posen, and Neutra. While of course this is not to be taken literally, as
+though there were an organized tribunal of the Holy Office in each of
+these places, still it indicates that in the districts infected or
+exposed to infection the Church was arming itself with its most
+effective weapons. The growing danger, moreover, was leading the bishops
+to abandon somewhat their traditional jealousy. In this same year, 1418,
+the council of the great province of Salzburg not only urged the bishops
+to extirpate heresy and to enforce the canons against the secular powers
+neglecting their duty in this respect, but commanded all princes and
+potentates to seize and imprison all who were designated as suspect of
+heresy by the prelates and the inquisitors. Thus at last the episcopate
+recognized the Inquisition and came to its support.[457]
+
+Yet the attention of the persecutors was not so exclusively directed to
+the Hussites as to allow the Brethren of the Free Spirit to escape, and
+in their zeal they continued to molest the orthodox Beguines in spite of
+the action of Martin V. at Constance. In 1431 Eugenius IV. found himself
+obliged to intervene for their protection. In a bull, addressed to the
+German prelates, he recites the favorable action of his predecessors and
+the troubles to which, in spite of this, they were exposed by the
+inquisitors. Those who wander around without fixed habitations he orders
+to be compelled to dwell in the houses of the confraternity, and those
+who reside quietly and piously are to be efficiently protected. This
+bull affords perhaps the only instance in which the episcopal power is
+rendered superior to the Inquisition, for the bishops are authorized to
+enforce its provisions by the censures of the Church, without appeal,
+even if those who interfere with the Beguines enjoy special immunities,
+thus subjecting the inquisitors to excommunication by the prelates. This
+stretch of papal power exasperated Doctor Felix Hemmerlin, Cantor of
+Zurich, who detested the Beguines. He wrote several bitter tracts
+against them, and explained the favor shown them by Eugenius by
+irreverently stating that the pope had himself been once a Beghard at
+Padua. In one of his numerous assaults upon them, written probably about
+1436, he alludes to several recent cases within a limited region, which
+would indicate that in spite of the papal protection of the Beguines,
+the Brethren of the Free Spirit were actively persecuted, and that, if
+the statistics of the whole empire could be procured, the number of
+victims would be found not small. Thus in Zurich a certain Burchard and
+his disciples were tried and penanced with crosses; but they were
+subsequently found to be relapsed and were all burned. At Uri, Charles
+and his followers were similarly burned. At Constance Henry de Tierra
+was forced to abjure. At Ulm, John and a numerous company were subjected
+to public penance. In Wuertemberg there was a great heresiarch punished,
+whose conviction was only secured after infinite pains. Then from
+Bohemia there come Beghards every year who seduce a countless number to
+heresy in Berne and Soleure. This leads one to think that Hemmerlin, in
+his passion, may confound Hussites with Beghards, and this is confirmed
+by his assertion that there is in Upper Germany no heresy save that
+introduced by the foxes of this pernicious sect. Nider, in fact, writing
+immediately after the Council of Basle had effected a settlement with
+the Hussites, when, for a time at least, in Germany they were no longer
+considered enemies of the Church, declares that heretics were few and
+powerless, skulking in concealment and not to be dreaded, although he
+had, in describing the errors of the Brethren of the Free Spirit, stated
+that they were still by no means uncommon in Suabia. It was evidently a
+member of this sect whom he describes as seeing at Ratisbon when
+proceeding with the Archdeacon of Barcelona on a mission from the
+Council of Basle to the Hussites. She was a young woman of spotless
+character, who made no effort to propagate her faith, but she could not
+be induced to recant. The archdeacon advised that she be tortured to
+break her spirit, which was done without success and without forcing her
+to name her confederates; but when Nider visited her in her cell during
+the evening, he found her exhausted with suffering, and he readily
+brought her to acknowledge her error, after which she made a public
+recantation. This shows us that there could have been no Inquisition in
+Ratisbon, and that the local authorities had even lost the memory of
+inquisitorial proceedings.[458]
+
+In 1446 the Council of Wuerzburg found it necessary to repeat the canon
+of that of Mainz in 1310, ordering the expulsion of all wandering
+Beghards using the old cry of "_Brod durch Gott_" and preaching in
+caverns and secret places, showing the maintenance of the traditional
+customs and also the absence of more active persecution. In 1453
+Nicholas V. formally adjoined them to the Mendicant Orders as
+Tertiaries. Some of them obeyed and formed a distinct class, known as
+Zepperenses, from their principal house at Zepper. They diminished
+greatly in number, however, and in 1650 Innocent X. united them with the
+Tertiaries of Italy, under the General Master residing in Lombardy. The
+female portion of the associations, which became distinctively known as
+Beguines, were more fortunate. They were able to preserve their identity
+and their communities, which remain flourishing to the present day,
+especially in the Netherlands, where in 1857 the great Beguinage of
+Ghent contained six hundred Beguines and two hundred locataires or
+boarders.[459]
+
+Still there remained a considerable number both of heretic Brethren of
+the Free Spirit and of orthodox Beghards of both sexes who recalcitrated
+of being thus brought under rule and deprived of their accustomed
+independence. Thus it is related of Bernhard, who was elected Abbot of
+Hirsau in 1460, that among other reforms he ejected all the Beguines
+from their house at Altburg, on account of their impurity of life, and
+replaced them with Dominican Tertiaries. This aroused the hostility of
+the Beghards who dwelt in hermitages in the forest of Hirsau, and they
+conspired against the abbot, but only to their own detriment. In 1463
+the Synod of Constance complains of the unlawful wearing of the
+Franciscan scapular by Lollards and Beguines; all who do so are required
+to prove their right or to lay it aside, and able-bodied Lollards are
+ordered to live by honest labor and not by beggary. This latter practice
+was ineradicable, however, and twenty years later another synod was
+compelled to repeat the command. In 1491 a synod of Bamberg refers to
+the provisions of the Clementines against the Beguines as though their
+enforcement was still called for; and Friar John of Moravia, who died at
+Bruenn in 1492, is warmly praised as a fierce and indefatigable
+persecutor of Hussites and Beghards. These insubordinate religionists
+continued to exist under almost constant persecution, until the
+Reformation, when they served as one of the elements which contributed
+to the spread of Lutheranism.[460]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It was impossible that Hussitism should triumph in Bohemia without
+awakening an echo throughout Germany, or that the Hussites should
+abstain from missionary and proselyting efforts, but the spread of the
+heresy through the Teutonic populations was sternly and successfully
+repressed. In 1423 the Council of Siena, under the presidency of papal
+legates, showed itself fully alive to the danger. It sharply reproved
+both inquisitors and episcopal ordinaries for the supineness which alone
+could explain the threatening spread of heresy. They were urged to
+constant and unsparing vigilance under pain of four months' suspension
+from entering a church and such other punishment as might seem
+opportune. They were further ordered to curse the heretics with bell,
+book, and candle every Sunday in all the principal churches. Holy Land
+indulgences were offered to all who would assist them in capturing
+heretics, as well as to rulers who, unable to capture them, should at
+least expel them from their territories. The earnest tone of the council
+reflects the alarm that was everywhere felt, and it unquestionably led
+to renewed exertions, though only a few instances of successful activity
+chance to be recorded. Thus, in 1420, a priest, known as Henry Gruenfeld,
+who had embraced Hussite doctrines, was burned at Ratisbon, where
+likewise, in 1423, another priest named Henry Rathgeber met the same
+fate. In 1424 a priest named John Draendorf suffered at Worms, and in
+1426 Peter Turman was burned at Speier. Even after the Council of Basle
+had recognized the Hussites as orthodox, and under the Compactata they
+enjoyed toleration in states where they held temporal authority, they
+were still persecuted as heretics elsewhere. About 1450 John Mueller
+ventured to preach Hussite doctrines throughout Franconia, where he met
+with much acceptance and gained a numerous following, but he was forced
+to fly, and one hundred and thirty of his disciples were seized and
+carried to Wuerzburg. There they were persuaded to recant by the Abbot
+John of Grumbach and Master Anthony, a preacher of the cathedral. More
+tragic was the fate of Frederic Reiser, a Suabian, educated in
+Waldensianism. Under the guise of a merchant he had served as a preacher
+among the Waldensian churches which maintained a secret existence
+throughout Germany. At Heilsbronn he was captured in a Hussite raid,
+when, carried to Mount Tabor, he recognized the practical identity of
+the faiths and received ordination at the hands of the Taborite Bishop
+Nicholas. He labored to bring about a union of the churches, and
+wandered as a missionary through Germany, Bohemia, and Switzerland.
+Finally he settled at Strassburg, which was always a heretic centre, and
+gathered a community of disciples around him. He called himself
+"Frederic, by the grace of God bishop of the faithful in the Roman
+Church who spurn the Donation of Constantine." He was detected in 1458
+and arrested with his followers. Under torture he confessed all that was
+required of him, only to withdraw it when removed from the
+torture-chamber. The burgomaster, Hans Drachenfels, and the civic
+magistracy earnestly opposed his execution, but they were obliged to
+yield, and he was burned, together with his faithful servant, Anna
+Weiler, an old woman of Nuernberg.[461]
+
+Reiser had been specially successful with the descendants of the
+Pomeranian Waldenses who, as we have seen, abjured before the inquisitor
+Peter in 1393. They appear to have by no means abandoned their heresy,
+and were easily brought to the modifications which assimilated them to
+the Hussites--.the adoption of bishops, priests, and deacons, the
+communion in both elements, and the honoring of Wickliff, Huss, and
+Jerome of Prague. In this same year, 1458, a tailor of Selchow, named
+Matthew Hagen, was arrested with three disciples and carried to Berlin
+for trial by order of the Elector Frederic II. He had been ordained as a
+priest in Bohemia by Reiser, and had returned to propagate the doctrines
+of the sect and administer its sacraments. His followers weakened and
+abjured, but he remained steadfast, and was abandoned to the secular
+arm. To root out the sect, Dr. John Canneman, who had tried Hagen, was
+sent to Angermuende as episcopal inquisitor; he found many sectaries but
+no obstinacy, for they willingly submitted and abjured.[462]
+
+There was, in fact, enough in common between the doctrines of the more
+radical Hussites and those of the Waldenses to bring the sects
+eventually together. The Waldenses had by no means been extirpated, and
+when, in 1467, the remnant of the Taborites known as the Bohemian
+Brethren opened communication with them, the envoys sent had no
+difficulty in finding them on the confines between Austria and Moravia,
+where they had existed for more than two centuries. They had a bishop
+named Stephen, who speedily called in another bishop to perform the rite
+of ordination for the Brethren, showing that the heretic communities
+were numerous and well organized. The negotiations unfortunately
+attracted attention, and the Church made short work of those on whom it
+could lay its hands. Bishop Stephen was burned at Vienna and the flock
+was scattered, many of them finding refuge in Moravia. Others fled as
+far as Brandenburg, where already there were flourishing Waldensian
+communities. These were soon afterwards discovered, and steel, fire, and
+water were unsparingly used for their destruction, without blotting them
+out. A portion of those who escaped emigrated to Bohemia, where they
+were gladly received by the Bohemian Brethren and incorporated into
+their societies. The close association thus formed between the Brethren
+and the Waldenses resulted in a virtual coalescence which gave rise to a
+new word in the nomenclature of heresy. When, in 1479, Sixtus IV.
+confirmed Friar Thomas Gognati as Inquisitor of Vienna, he urged him to
+put forth every exertion to suppress the Hussites and Nicolinistae. These
+latter, who took their name from Nicholas of Silesia, were evidently
+Bohemian Brethren who adhered to the extreme doctrine common to both
+sects, that nothing could justify putting a human being to death. Thus
+the struggle continued, and though the danger was averted which had once
+seemed threatening, of the widespread adoption of Hussite theories,
+there remained concealed enough Hussite and Waldensian hostility to Rome
+to serve as a nucleus of discontent and to give sufficient support to
+revolt when a man was found, like Luther, bold enough to clothe in words
+the convictions which thousands were secretly nursing.[463]
+
+Signs, indeed, were not wanting in the fifteenth century or the
+inevitable rupture of the sixteenth. Prominent among those who boldly
+defied the power of Rome was Gregory of Heimburg, whom Ullman well
+designates as the citizen-Luther of the fifteenth century. He first
+comes into view at the Council of Basle, in the service of AEneas
+Sylvius, who was then one of the foremost advocates of the reforming
+party, and he remained steadfast to the principles which his patron
+bartered for the papacy. A forerunner of the Humanists, he labored to
+diffuse classical culture, and with his admiration for the ancients he
+had, like Marsiglio of Padua, imbibed the imperial theory of the
+relations between Church and State. With tongue and pen inspired by
+dauntless courage he was indefatigable to the last in maintaining the
+rights of the empire and the supremacy of general councils. The power of
+the keys, he taught, had been granted to the apostles collectively;
+these were represented by general councils, and the monopoly in the
+hands of the pope was a usurpation. His free expression of opinion
+infallibly brought him into collision with his early patron, and the
+antagonism was sharpened when Pius II. convoked the assembly of princes
+at Mantua to provide for a new crusade. Gregory, who was there as
+counsellor of the princes, boldly declared that this was only a scheme
+to augment the papal power and drain all Germany of money. When Nicholas
+of Cusa, a time-server like Pius, was appointed Bishop of Brixen and
+claimed property and rights regarded by Sigismund of Austria as
+belonging to himself, Sigismund, under Gregory's advice, arrested the
+bishop. Thereupon Pius, in June, 1460, laid Sigismund's territories
+under interdict, and induced the Swiss to attack him. Gregory drew up an
+appeal to a general council, which Sigismund issued, although Pius had
+forbidden such appeals, and he further had the hardihood to prove by
+Scripture, the fathers, and history, that the Church was subject to the
+State. It was no wonder that Gregory shared his master's
+excommunication. In October, 1460, he was declared a heretic, and all
+the faithful were ordered to seize his property and punish him. To this
+he responded in vigorous appeals and replications, couched in the most
+insolent and contemptuous language towards both Pius and Nicholas. In
+October, 1461, Pius sent Friar Martin of Rotenburg to preach the faith
+and preserve the faithful from the errors of Sigismund and his
+heresiarch Gregory, and, professing to believe that Martin was in
+personal danger, he offered an indulgence of two years and eighty days
+to all who would render him assistance in his need. He also ordered the
+magistrates of Nuernburg to seize Gregory's property and expel him or
+deliver him up for punishment. We next find Gregory aiding Diether,
+Archbishop of Cologne, in his quarrel with Pius over the unprecedented
+and extortionate demand of the Holy See for annates; but Diether
+resigned, Sigismund made his peace, and Gregory was abandoned to his
+excommunication, even the city of Nuernburg withdrawing its protection.
+He then took refuge in Bohemia with George Podiebrad, whom he served
+efficiently as a controversialist, earning a special denunciation as a
+heretic of the worst type from Paul II., in 1469; but Podiebrad died in
+1471. Gregory then went to Saxony, where Duke Albert protected him and
+effected his reconciliation with Sixtus IV. He was absolved at Easter,
+1472, only to die in the following August, after spending a quarter of a
+century in ceaseless combat with the papacy.[464]
+
+If Gregory of Heimburg embodies the revolt of the ruling classes against
+Rome, Hans of Niklaushausen shows us the restless spirit of opposition
+to sacerdotalism which was spreading among the lower strata of society.
+Hans Boeheim was a wandering drummer or fifer from Bohemia, who chanced
+to settle at Niklaushausen, near Wuerzburg. He doubtless brought with him
+the revolutionary ideas of the Hussites, and he seems to have entered
+into an alliance with the parish priest and a Mendicant Friar or
+Beghard. He began to have revelations from the Virgin which suited so
+exactly the popular wishes that crowds speedily began to assemble to
+listen to him. She instructed him to announce to her people that Christ
+could no longer endure the pride, the avarice, and the lust of the
+priesthood, and that the world would be destroyed in consequence of
+their wickedness, unless they promptly showed signs of amendment. Tithes
+and tribute should be purely voluntary, tolls and customs dues were to
+be abolished, and game was no longer to be preserved. As the fame of
+these revelations spread, crowds flocked to hear the inspired teacher,
+from the Rhinelands, Bavaria, Thuringia, Saxony, and Misnia, so that at
+times he addressed an audience of twenty thousand to thirty thousand
+souls. So great was the reverence felt for him that those who could
+touch him deemed themselves sanctified, and fragments of his garments
+were treasured as relics, so that his clothes were rent in pieces
+whenever he appeared, and a new suit was requisite daily. That no one
+doubted the truth of the Virgin's denunciations of the clergy shows the
+nature of the popular estimation of the Church, for the vast crowds who
+came eagerly to listen were by no means composed of the dangerous
+elements of society. They were peaceful and orderly; men and women slept
+in the neighboring fields and woods and caves without fear of robbery or
+violence; they had money to spend, moreover, for the offerings of gold
+and silver, jewels, garments, and wax were large--large enough, indeed,
+to tempt the greed of the potentates, for after the downfall of Hans the
+spoils were divided between the Count of Wertheim, suzerain of
+Niklaushausen, the Bishop of Wuerzburg, and his metropolitan, the
+Archbishop of Mainz. The latter used a portion of his plunder in
+building a citadel near Mainz, the destruction of which soon afterwards
+by fire was generally regarded as indicating the displeasure of the
+Virgin.
+
+Bishop Rudolph of Wuerzburg repeatedly forbade the pilgrimage to
+Niklaushausen, but in vain, and at length he was led to take more
+decided steps. The great festivity of the region was the feast of St.
+Kilian, the martyr of Wuerzburg, falling on July 8. On the Sunday
+previous, July 6, 1476, Hans significantly told his audience to return
+the following Saturday armed, but to leave their women and children at
+home. Matters were evidently approaching a crisis, and the bishop did
+not wait for the result, but sent a party of guards, who seized Hans and
+conveyed him to a neighboring stronghold. The next day about six
+thousand of his deluded followers, including many women and children,
+set out for the castle, without arms, believing that its walls would
+fall at their demand. They refused to disperse when summoned, but were
+readily scattered by a sally of men-at-arms, supported by a discharge
+from the cannon of the castle, in which many were slain. Hans was easily
+forced by torture to confess the falsity of his revelations and the
+deceits by which he and his confederates had stimulated the excitement
+by false miracles; but his confession did not avail him, and he was
+condemned to be burned. At the place of execution his followers expected
+divine interference, and to prevent enchantment the executioner shaved
+him from head to foot. He walked resolutely to the stake, singing a
+hymn, but his fortitude gave way and he shrieked in agony as the flames
+reached him. To prevent his ashes from being treasured as relics, they
+were carefully collected and cast into the river. The priest and Beghard
+who had served as his confederates sought safety in flight, but were
+caught and confessed, after which they were discharged; but two
+peasants--one who had suggested the advance upon the castle and one who
+had wounded the horse of one of the guards who captured Hans--were
+beheaded.[460]
+
+If Gregory of Heimburg and Hans of Niklaushausen represent the
+antagonism to Rome which pervaded the laity from the highest to the
+lowest, John von Ruchrath of Wesel indicates that even in the Church the
+same spirit was not wanting. One of the most eminent theologians and
+preachers of whom Germany could boast, celebrated in the schools as the
+"Light of the World" and the "Master of Contradictions," he was a
+hardy and somewhat violent disputant, who in his sermons had no scruple
+in presenting his opinions in the most offensive shape. Like Luther, of
+whom he was the true precursor, he commenced by an assault upon
+indulgences, moved thereto by the Jubilee of 1450, when pious Europe
+precipitated itself upon Rome to take heaven by assault. Step by step he
+advanced to strip the Church of its powers, and was led to reject the
+authority of tradition and the fathers, recurring to Scripture as the
+sole basis of authority. He even banished from the creed the word
+"_Filioque_," and his predestinarian views deprived the Church of all
+the treasures of salvation. How little he recked of the feelings of
+those whose faith he assailed is seen in his remark that if fasting was
+instituted by St. Peter, it was probably to obtain a better market for
+his fish.
+
+It shows how rusty had become the machinery of persecution and the
+latitude allowed to free speech that John of Wesel was permitted so
+long, without interference, to ripen into a heresiarch and to
+disseminate from the pulpit and professorial chair these opinions, as
+dangerous as any emitted by Waldenses, Wickliffites, or Hussites. In
+fact, but for the bitter quarrel between the Realists and Nominalists,
+which filled the scholastic world with strife, it is probable that he
+would have been unmolested to the end and enabled to close his days in
+peace. He was a leader of the Nominalists, and the Dominican Thomists of
+Mainz were resolved to silence him. The Archbishop of Mainz was Diether
+of Isenburg, who had been forced to abandon his see in 1463, but had
+resumed it in 1475 on the death of his competitor, Adolph of Nassau; he
+did not wish another conflict with Rome, to which he was exposed in
+consequence of his public denunciations of the papal auctions of the
+archiepiscopal pallium; he was threatened with this unless he would
+surrender John of Wesel as a victim, and he yielded to the pressure in
+1479.
+
+In the great province of Mainz there was no inquisitor; trial by the
+regular episcopal officials would be of uncertain result; and as there
+was a Dominican inquisitor at Cologne, in the person of Friar Gerhard
+von Elten, he was sent for. He came, accompanied by Friar Jacob
+Sprenger, not yet an inquisitor, but whom we shall see hereafter in that
+capacity busy in burning witches. With him came the theologians from the
+universities of Heidelberg and Cologne, who were to sit as experts and
+assessors, and so carefully were they selected that one of the
+Heidelberg doctors, to whom we are indebted for an account of the
+proceedings, tells us that among them all there was but one Nominalist.
+He evidently regards the whole matter as an incident in the scholastic
+strife, and says that the accused would have been acquitted had he been
+allowed counsel and had he not been so harshly treated.
+
+The proceedings are a curious travesty of the inquisitorial process,
+which show that, however much its forms had been forgotten, the
+principle was rigidly maintained of treating the accused as guilty in
+advance. There was no secrecy attempted; everything was conducted in an
+assembly consisting of laymen as well as ecclesiastics, prominent among
+whom we recognize the Count of Wertheim, fresh from the plunder of Hans
+of Niklaushausen. After a preliminary meeting, when the assembly
+convened for business, February 8, 1479, the inquisitor von Elten
+presided, with Archbishop Diether under him, and opened the proceedings
+by suggesting that two or three friends of the accused should warn him
+to repent of his errors and beg for mercy, in which case he should have
+mercy, but otherwise not. A deputation was thereupon despatched, but
+their mission was not speedily performed; the inquisitor chafed at the
+delay, and began blustering and threatening. A high official was sent to
+hurry the matter, but at that moment John of Wesel entered, pallid, bent
+with age, leaning on his staff, and supported by two Franciscans. He was
+made to sit on the floor; von Elten repeated to him the message, and
+when he attempted to defend himself he was cut short, badgered and
+threatened, until he was brought to sue for pardon. After this he was
+put through a long and exhausting examination, and was finally remanded
+until the next day. A commission consisting principally of the Cologne
+and Heidelberg doctors was appointed to determine what should be done
+with him. The next day he was again brought out and examined afresh,
+when he endeavored to defend his views. "If all men renounce Christ,"
+he said, "I will still worship him and be a Christian," to which von
+Elten retorted, "So say all heretics, even when at the stake." Finally
+it was resolved that three doctors should be deputed, piously to exhort
+him to abandon his errors. As in the case of Huss, it was not his death
+that was wanted, but his humiliation.
+
+On the 10th the deputies labored with him. "If Christ were here," he
+told them, "and were treated like me, you would condemn him as a
+heretic--but he would get the better of you with his subtlety." At
+length he was persuaded to acknowledge that his views were erroneous, on
+the deputies agreeing to take the responsibility on their own
+consciences. He had long been sick when the trial was commenced, all
+assistance was withheld from him; age, weakness, and the dark and filthy
+dungeon from which he had vainly begged to be relieved broke down his
+powers of resistance, and he submitted. He publicly recanted and
+abjured, his books were burned before his face, and he was sentenced to
+imprisonment for life in the Augustinian monastery of Mainz. He did not
+long survive his mortification and misery, for he died in 1481. The
+trial excited great interest among all the scholars of Germany, who
+were shocked at this treatment of a man so eminent and distinguished.
+Yet his writings survived him and proved greatly encouraging to the
+early Reformers. Melanchthon enumerates him among those who by their
+works kept up the continuity of the Church of Christ.[466]
+
+It is evident from this case that the Inquisition, though not extinct in
+Germany, was not in working order, and that even where it existed
+nominally a special effort was requisite to make it function. Still we
+hear occasionally of the appointment of inquisitors, and from the career
+of Sprenger we know that their labors could be fruitfully directed to
+the extirpation of witchcraft. Sorcery, indeed, had become the most
+threatening heresy of the time, and other spiritual aberrations were
+attracting little attention. In the elaborate statutes issued by the
+Synod of Bamberg, in 1491, the section devoted to heresy dwells at much
+length on the details of witchcraft and magic, and mentions only one
+other doctrinal error--the vitiation of sacraments in polluted
+hands--and it directs that all who neglect to denounce heretics are to
+be themselves treated as accomplices, but it makes no allusion to the
+Inquisition. Still there is an occasional manifestation showing that
+inquisitors existed and sometimes exercised their powers. I shall
+hereafter have occasion to refer to the case of Herman of Ryswick, who
+was condemned and abjured in 1499, escaped from prison, and was burned
+as a relapsed by the inquisitor at The Hague, in 1512, and only allude
+to it here as an evidence of continued inquisitorial activity.[467]
+
+The persecution of John Reuchlin, like that of John of Wesel, sprang
+from scholastic antagonisms, but its development shows how completely,
+during the interval, the inquisitorial power had wasted away. Reuchlin
+was a pupil of John Wessel of Groningen; as the leader of the Humanists,
+and the foremost representative in Germany of the new learning, he was
+involved in bitter controversy with the Dominicans, who, as traditional
+Thomists, were ready to do battle to the death for scholasticism. The
+ferocious jocularity with which Sebastian Brandt dilates, in his most
+finished Latinity, upon the torture and burning of four Dominicans at
+Berne, in 1509, for frauds committed in the controversy over the
+Immaculate Conception, indicates the temper which animated the hostile
+parties, even as its lighter aspect is seen in the unsparing satire of
+Erasmus and of the _Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum_. When, therefore,
+Reuchlin stood forward to protect Jews and Jewish literature against the
+assaults of the renegade Pfefferkorn, the opportunity to destroy him was
+eagerly seized. In 1513 a Dominican inquisitor, the Prior Jacob von
+Hochstraten, came from Cologne to Mainz on an errand precisely similar
+to that of his predecessor von Elten. Unlike John of Wesel, however,
+Reuchlin felt that he could safely appeal to Rome, where Leo X. was
+himself a man of culture and a Humanist. Leo was well disposed, and
+commissioned the Bishop of Speier to decide the question, which was in
+itself a direct blow at the inquisitorial power. Still more
+contemptuously damaging was the bishop's judgment. Reuchlin was declared
+free of all suspicion of heresy, the prosecution was pronounced
+frivolous, and the costs were put upon Hochstraten, with a threat of
+excommunication for disobedience. This was confirmed at Rome, in 1415,
+where silence was imposed on Reuchlin's accusers under a penalty of
+three thousand marks. The Humanists celebrated their victory with savage
+rejoicing. Eleutherius Bizenus printed a tract summoning, in rugged
+hexameters, all Germany to assist in the triumph of Reuchlin, in which
+Hochstraten--that thief, who as accuser and judge persecutes the
+innocent--marches in chains, with his hands tied behind his back, while
+Pfefferkorn, with ears and nose cut off, is dragged by a hook through
+his heels, face downwards, until his features lose the semblance of
+humanity. The Dominicans are characterized as worse than Turks, and more
+worthy to be resisted, and the author wonders what unjust pope and
+cowardly emperor had enabled them to impose their yoke on the land.
+These were brave words, but premature. The quarrel had attracted the
+attention of all Europe, the Dominican Order itself and all it
+represented were on trial, and it could not afford to submit to defeat.
+Hochstraten hastened to Rome; the Dominicans of the great University of
+Cologne did not hesitate to say that if the pope maintained the sentence
+they would appeal to the future council, they would refuse to abide by
+his decision, they would pronounce him to be no pope and organize a
+schism, and much more, which shows upon what a slender tenure the papacy
+held the allegiance of its Janissaries. Leo cowered before the storm
+which he had provoked, and in 1416 he issued a mandate superseding the
+sentence, but the spirit of insubordination was growing strong in
+Germany, and Franz von Sickingen, the free-lance, compelled its
+observance. As the Lutheran revolt grew more threatening, however, the
+support of the Dominicans became more and more indispensable, and in
+1420 Leo settled the matter by setting aside the decision of the Bishop
+of Speier, imposing silence on Reuchlin, and laying all the costs on
+him. Hochstraten, moreover, was restored to his office.[468]
+
+The reparation came too late to render the Inquisition of any service,
+now that its efficiency was more sorely needed than ever before. Had it
+existed in Germany in good working order, Luther's career would have
+been short. When, October 31, 1517, he nailed his propositions
+concerning indulgences on the church-door of Wittenberg, and publicly
+defended them, an inquisitor such as Bernard Gui would have speedily
+silenced him, either destroying his influence by forcing him to a public
+recantation, or handing him over to be burned if he proved obstinate.
+Hundreds of hardy thinkers had been thus served, and the few who had
+been found stout enough to withstand the methods of the Holy Office had
+perished. Fortunately, as we have seen, the Inquisition never had struck
+root in German soil, and now it was thoroughly discredited and useless.
+Hochstraten's hands were tied; Doctor John Eck, inquisitor for Bavaria
+and Franconia, was himself a Humanist, who could argue and threaten, but
+could not act.
+
+In France the University had taken the place of the almost forgotten
+Inquisition, repressing all aberrations of faith, while a centralized
+monarchy had rendered--at least until the Concordat of Francis I.--the
+national Church in a great degree independent of the papacy. In Germany
+there was no national Church; there was subjection to Rome which was
+growing unendurable for financial reasons, but there was nothing to
+take the place of the Inquisition, and a latitude of speech had become
+customary which was tolerated so long as the revenues of St. Peter were
+not interfered with. This perhaps explains why the significance of
+Luther's revolt was better appreciated at Rome than on the spot. After
+he had been formally declared a heretic by the Auditor-general of the
+Apostolic Chamber at the instance of the promoter fiscal, the legate,
+Cardinal Caietano, wrote that he could terminate the matter himself, and
+that it was rather a trifling affair to be brought before the pope. He
+did not fulfil his instructions to arrest Luther and tell him that if he
+would appear before the Holy See, to excuse himself, he would be treated
+with undeserved clemency. After the scandal had been growing for a
+twelvemonth, Leo again wrote to Caietano to summon Doctor Martin before
+him, and, after diligent examination, to condemn or absolve him as might
+prove requisite. It was now too late. Insubordination had spread, and
+rebellion was organizing itself. Before these last instructions reached
+Caietano, Luther came in answer to a previous summons, but, though he
+professed himself in all things an obedient son of the Church, he
+practically manifested an ominous independence, and was conveyed away
+unharmed. The legate trusted to his powers as a disputant rather than to
+force; and had he attempted the latter, he had no machinery at hand to
+frustrate the instructions given by the Augsburg magistrates for
+Luther's protection. In the paralysis of persecution the inevitable
+revolution went forward.[469]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+BOHEMIA.
+
+
+There is no historical foundation for the legend that Peter Waldo's
+missionary labors carried him into Bohemia, where he died, but there can
+be no question that the Waldensian heresy found a foothold among the
+Czechs at a comparatively early date. Bohemia formed part of the great
+archiepiscopal province of Mainz, whose metropolitan could exercise but
+an ineffective supervision over a district so distant. The supremacy of
+Rome pressed lightly on its turbulent ecclesiastics. In the last decade
+of the twelfth century a papal legate, Cardinal Pietro, sent thither to
+levy a tithe for the recovery of the Holy Land, was scandalized to find
+that the law of celibacy was unknown to the secular priesthood; he did
+not venture to force it on those already in orders, and his efforts to
+make postulants take the vow of continence provoked a tumult which
+required severe measures of suppression. In a Church thus partially
+independent the abuses which stimulated revolt elsewhere might perhaps
+be absent, but the field for missionary labor lay open and
+unguarded.[470]
+
+We have seen how the Inquisitor of Passau, about the middle of the
+thirteenth century, describes the flourishing condition of the
+Waldensian churches in Austria, along the borders of Bohemia and
+Moravia, and the intense zeal of propagandism which animated their
+members. Close to the west, moreover, they were to be found in the
+diocese of Ratisbon. That the heresy should cross the boundary line was
+inevitable, and it ran little risk of detection and persecution by a
+worldly and slothful priesthood, until it gained strength enough to
+declare itself openly. The alarm was first sounded by Innocent IV. in
+1245, who summoned the prelates of Hungary to intervene, as those of
+Bohemia apparently were not to be depended upon, and there was evidently
+no inquisitorial machinery which could be employed. Innocent describes
+the heresy as established so firmly and widely that it embraced not only
+the simple folk, but also princes and magnates, and it was so
+elaborately organized that it had a chief who was reverenced as pope.
+These are all declared excommunicate, their lands confiscated for the
+benefit of the first occupant, and any who shall relapse after
+recantation are to be abandoned to the secular arm without a hearing, in
+accordance with the canons.[471]
+
+We have no means of knowing whether any action was taken in consequence
+of this decree, but if efforts were made they did not succeed in
+eradicating the heresy. In 1257 King Premysl Otokar II. applied to
+Alexander IV. for aid in its suppression, as it continued to spread, and
+to this request was due the first introduction of the Inquisition in
+Bohemia. Two Franciscans, Lambert the German and Bartholomew lector in
+Bruenn, received the papal commission as inquisitors throughout Bohemia
+and Moravia. It is fair to assume that they did their duty, but no
+traces of their activity have reached us, nor is there any evidence that
+their places were filled when they died or retired. The Inquisition may
+be considered as non-existent, and when, after a long interval, we again
+hear of persecution, it is in a shape that shows that the Bishop of
+Prague, like his metropolitan of Mainz, was not disposed to invite papal
+encroachments on his jurisdiction. In 1301 a synod of Prague deplored
+the spread of heresy and ordered every one cognizant of it to give
+information to the episcopal inquisitors, from which we may infer that
+heretics were active, that they had been little disturbed, and that the
+elaborate legislation elsewhere in force for the detection and
+punishment of heresy was virtually unknown in Bohemia.[472]
+
+In 1318 John of Drasic, the Bishop of Prague, was summoned to Avignon by
+John XXII. to answer accusations brought against him by Frederic of
+Schoenberg, Canon of Wyschehrad, as a fautor of heresy. The complaint set
+forth that heretics were so numerous that they had an archbishop and
+seven bishops, each of whom had three hundred disciples. The description
+of their faith would seem to indicate that there were both Waldenses and
+Luciferans--the latter forming part of the sect which we have seen
+described about this time as flourishing in Austria, where they are said
+to have been introduced by missionaries from Bohemia--and that their
+doctrines have been commingled. They are described as considering oaths
+unlawful; confession and absolution could be administered indifferently
+by layman or priest; rebaptism was allowed; the divine unity and the
+resurrection of the dead were denied; Jesus had only a phantasmic body;
+and Lucifer was expected finally to reign. Of course there were also the
+customary accusations of sexual excesses committed in nocturnal
+assemblies held in caverns, which only proves that there was sufficient
+dread of persecution to prevent the congregations from meeting openly.
+The good bishop, it appears, only permitted these wretches to be
+arraigned by his inquisitors after repeated pressure from John of
+Luxembourg, the king. Fourteen of them were convicted and handed over to
+the secular arm, but the bishop interfered, to the great disgust of the
+king, and forcibly released them, except a physician named Richard, who
+was imprisoned; the bishop, moreover, discharged the inquisitors, who
+evidently were his own officials and not papal appointees. These were
+serious offences on the part of a prelate, and he expiated his lenity by
+a confinement of several years in Avignon. Possibly his hostility to the
+Franciscans may have rendered him an object of attack.[473]
+
+Papal attention being thus called to the existence of heresy in the
+east of Europe, and to the inefficiency of the local machinery for its
+extermination, steps were immediately taken for the introduction of the
+Inquisition. In 1318 John XXII. commissioned the Dominican Peregrine of
+Oppolza and the Franciscan Nicholas of Cracow as inquisitors in the
+dioceses of Cracow and Breslau, while Bohemia and Poland were intrusted
+to the Dominican Colda and the Franciscan Hartmann. As usual, the
+secular and ecclesiastical powers were commanded to afford them
+assistance whenever called upon. Poland, doubtless, was as much in need
+as Bohemia of inquisitorial supervision, for John Muscata, the Bishop of
+Cracow, was as negligent as his brother of Prague, and drew upon himself
+in 1319 severe reprehension from John XXII. for the sloth and neglect
+which had rendered heresy bold and aggressive in his diocese. This does
+not seem to have accomplished much, for in 1327 John found himself
+obliged to order the Dominican Provincial of Poland to appoint
+inquisitors to stem the flood of heresy which was infecting the people
+from regions farther west. Germany and Bohemia apparently were sending
+missionaries, whose labors met with much acceptance among the people.
+King Ladislas was especially asked to lend his aid to the inquisitors;
+he promptly responded by ordering the governors of his cities to support
+them with the civil power, and their vigorous action was rewarded with
+abundant success.[474]
+
+Among these heretics there may have been Brethren of the Free Spirit,
+but they were probably for the most part Waldenses, who at this time had
+a thoroughly organized Church in Bohemia, whence emissaries were sent to
+Moravia, Saxony, Silesia, and Poland. They regarded Lombardy as their
+headquarters, to which they sent their youth for instruction, together
+with moneys collected for the support of the parent Church. All this
+could not be concealed from the vigilance of the inquisitors appointed
+by John XXII. No doubt active measures of repression were carried out
+with little intermission, though chance has only preserved an indication
+of inquisitorial proceedings about the year 1330. Saaz and Laun are
+mentioned as the cities in which heresy was most prevalent. With the
+open rupture between the papacy and Louis of Bavaria its repression
+became more difficult, although Bohemia under John of Luxembourg
+remained faithful to the Holy See. Heretics increased in Prague and its
+neighborhood; after a brief period of activity the Inquisition seems to
+have disappeared; John of Drasic, whose tolerance we have seen, was
+still Bishop of Prague, and fresh efforts were necessary. In 1335
+Benedict XII. accordingly appointed the Franciscan Peter Naczeracz as
+inquisitor in the diocese of Olmuetz and the Dominican Gall of Neuburg
+for that of Prague. As usual, all prelates were commanded to lend their
+aid, and King John was specially reminded that he held the temporal
+sword for the purpose of subduing the enemies of the faith. His son, the
+future Emperor Charles IV., at that time in charge of the kingdom, was
+similarly appealed to.[475]
+
+In the subject province of Silesia, about the same period, a bold
+heresiarch known as John of Pirna made a deep impression. He was
+probably a Fraticello, as he taught that the pope was Antichrist and
+Rome the Whore of Babylon and a synagogue of Satan. In Breslau the
+magistrates and people espoused his doctrines, which were openly
+preached in the streets. Breslau was ecclesiastically subject to Poland,
+and in 1341 John of Schweidnitz was commissioned from Cracow as
+inquisitor to suppress the growing heresy. The people, however, arose,
+drove out their bishop and slew the inquisitor, for which they were
+subsequently subjected to humiliating penance, and John of Pirna's bones
+were exhumed and burned. The unsatisfied vengeance of Heaven added to
+their punishment by a conflagration which destroyed nearly the whole
+city, during which a pious woman saw an angel with a drawn sword casting
+fiery coals among the houses.[476]
+
+Bohemia and its subject provinces were thus thoroughly infected with
+heresy, mostly Waldensian, when several changes took place which
+increased the prominence of the kingdom and stimulated vastly its
+intellectual activity. In 1344 Prague was separated from its far-off
+metropolis of Mainz and was erected into an archbishopric, for which the
+piety of Charles, then Margrave of Bohemia, provided a zealous and
+enlightened prelate in the person of Arnest of Pardubitz. Two years
+later, in 1346, Charles was elected King of the Romans by the Electors
+of Treves and Cologne in opposition to Louis of Bavaria, as the
+supporter of the papacy; and a month later he succeeded to the throne of
+Bohemia through the knightly death of the blind King John at Crecy.
+Still more influential and far-reaching in its results was the founding
+in 1347 of the University of Prague, to which the combined favor of pope
+and emperor gave immediate lustre. Archbishop Arnest assumed its
+chancellorship, learned schoolmen filled its chairs; students flocked to
+it from every quarter, and it soon rivalled in numbers and reputation
+its elder sisters of Oxford, Paris, and Bologna.[477]
+
+During the latter half of the century, Bohemia, under these auspices,
+was one of the most flourishing kingdoms of Europe. Its mines of the
+precious metals gave it wealth; the freedom enjoyed by its peasantry
+raised them mentally and morally above the level of the serfs of other
+lands; culture and enlightenment were diffused from its university. It
+was renowned throughout the Continent for the splendor of its churches,
+which in size and number were nowhere exceeded. At the monastery of
+Koenigsaal, where the Bohemian kings lay buried, around the walls of the
+garden the whole of the Scriptures, from Genesis to Revelations, was
+engraved, with letters enlarging in size with their distance from the
+ground, so that all could be easily read. In the bitter struggles of
+after generations the reign of King Charles was fondly looked back upon
+as the golden age of Bohemia. Wealth and culture, however, were
+accompanied with corruption. Nowhere were the clergy more worldly and
+depraved. Concubinage was well-nigh universal, and simony pervaded the
+Church in all its ranks, the sacraments were sold and penitence
+compounded for. All the abuses for which clerical immunity furnished
+opportunity nourished, and the land was overrun by vagrants whose
+tonsure gave them charter to rob and brawl, and dice and drink. The
+influences from above which moulded the Bohemian Church may be estimated
+from a single instance. In 1344 Clement VI. wrote to Arnest, then simple
+Bishop of Prague, calling attention to the numerous cases in his
+diocese wherein preferment had been procured for minors either by force
+or simony. The horror which the good pope expresses at this abuse is
+significantly illustrated by his having not long before issued
+dispensations to five members of one family in France, aged respectively
+seven, eight, nine, ten, and eleven years, to hold canonries and other
+benefices. Apparently the Bohemians had not taken the proper means to
+obtain the sanction of the curia for such infraction of the canons, so
+Clement ordered Arnest to dispossess the incumbents in all such cases,
+and to impose due penance on them. But he was also instructed, in
+conjunction with the papal collector, to force them to compound with the
+papal camera for all the revenues which they had thus illegally
+received, and after they had undergone this squeezing process he was
+authorized to reinstate them.[478]
+
+Such unblushing exhibitions of rapacious simony did not tend either to
+the purity of the Bohemian Church, or to enhance its respect for the
+Holy See, especially as the frequently recurring papal exactions
+strained to the last degree the relations between the papacy and the
+German churches. When, in 1354, Innocent VI., to carry on his Italian
+wars, suddenly demanded a tenth of all the ecclesiastical revenues of
+the empire, it threw, for several years, the whole German Church into an
+uproar of rage and indignation. Some prelates refused to pay, and, when
+legal proceedings were commenced against them, formulated appeals which
+were contemptuously rejected as frivolous. The Bishops of Camin and
+Brandenburg were only compelled to yield by the direct threat of
+excommunication. Others pleaded poverty, and were mockingly reminded of
+the large sums which they had succeeded in exacting from their miserable
+subjects; others made the best bargain they could, and compounded for
+yearly payments; others banded together and formed associations mutually
+pledged to resist to the last. Frederic, Bishop of Ratisbon, took the
+audacious step of seizing the papal collector and conveying him away to
+a convenient castle. An ambush was laid for the Bishop of Cavaillon, the
+papal nuncio charged with the business, and his life, and that of his
+assistant, Henry, Archdeacon of Liege, were only saved by the active
+interposition of William, Archbishop of Cologne. When, in 1372, the levy
+was repeated by Gregory XI., the same spirit of resistance was aroused.
+The clergy of Mainz bound themselves to each other in a solemn
+engagement not to pay it, and Frederic, Archbishop of Cologne, promised
+his clergy to give them all the assistance he safely could in their
+refusal to submit. Trifling incidents such as these afford us a valuable
+insight into the complex relations between the Holy See and the churches
+of Christendom. On the one hand, there was the superstitious awe
+generated by five centuries of unquestioned domination as the
+representative of Christ, and there was, moreover, the dread of the
+material consequences of unsuccessful revolt. On the other, there was
+the indignation born of lawless oppression ever exciting to rebellion,
+and the clear-sighted recognition of the venality and corruption which
+rendered the Roman curia a source of contagion for all Europe. There was
+ample inflammable material, which the increasing friction might at any
+moment kindle into flame.[479]
+
+Bohemia was peculiarly dangerous soil, for it was thoroughly
+interpenetrated with the leaven of heresy. We hear nothing of papal
+inquisitors after those commissioned by Benedict XII. in 1335, and it is
+presumable that for a while the heretics had peace. Archbishop Arnest,
+however, soon after his accession, set resolutely to work to purify the
+morals of his Church and to uproot heresy. He held synods frequently, he
+instituted a body of Correctors whose duty it was to visit all portions
+of the province and punish all transgressions, and he organized an
+episcopal Inquisition for the purpose of tracking out and suppressing
+heresy. In the fragmentary remains of his synodal acts, the frequency
+and earnestness with which this latter duty is insisted upon serve as a
+measure of its importance, and of the numbers of those who had forsaken
+the Church. In the earliest synod whose proceedings have reached us the
+first place is given to this subject; the archdeacons were directed to
+make diligent perquisition in their respective districts, both
+personally and through the deans and parish priests, without exciting
+suspicion, and all who were found guilty or suspect of heresy were to be
+forthwith denounced to the archbishop or the inquisitor. Similar
+instructions were issued in 1355; and after Arnest's death, in 1364, his
+successor, John Ocko, was equally vigilant, as appears from the acts of
+his synods in 1366 and 1371. The neighborhood of Pisek was especially
+contaminated, and from the acts of the Consistory of 1381 it appears
+that a priest named Johl, of Pisek, could not be ordained because both
+his father and grandfather had been heretics. What was this heresy that
+thus descended from generation to generation is not stated, but it was
+doubtless Waldensian. In this same year Archbishop John, as papal legate
+for his own province and for the dioceses of Ratisbon, Bamberg, and
+Misnia, held a council at Prague, in which he mournfully described the
+spread of the Waldenses and Sarabites--the latter probably Beghards. He
+sharply reproved the bishops who, through sloth or parsimony, had not
+appointed inquisitors, and threatened that if they did not do so
+forthwith, he would do it himself. When, ten years later, the Church
+took the alarm and acted vigorously, the Waldenses of Brandenburg, who
+were prosecuted, declared that their teachers came from Bohemia.[480]
+
+In all this activity for the suppression of heresy it is worthy of note
+that the episcopal Inquisition alone is referred to. In fact there was
+no papal Inquisition in Bohemia. The bull of Gregory XI., in 1372,
+ordering the appointment of five inquisitors for Germany, confines their
+jurisdiction to the provinces of Cologne, Mainz, Utrecht, Magdeburg,
+Salzburg, and Bremen, and pointedly omits that of Prague, although the
+zeal of Charles IV. might have been expected to secure the blessings of
+the institution for his hereditary realm.[481] This is the more curious,
+moreover, since the intellectual movement started by the University of
+Prague was producing a number of men distinguished not only for learning
+and piety, but for their bold attacks on the corruptions of the Church,
+and their questioning of some of its most profitable dogmas. The
+appearance of these precursors of Huss is one of the most remarkable
+indications of the tendencies of the age in Bohemia, and shows how the
+Waldensian spirit of revolt had unconsciously spread among the
+population.
+
+Conrad of Waldhausen, who died in 1369, is reckoned the earliest of
+these. He maintained strict orthodoxy, but his denunciation in his
+sermons of the vices of the clergy, and especially of the Mendicants,
+created a deep sensation. More prominent in every way was Milicz of
+Kremsier, who, in 1363, resigned the office of private secretary to the
+emperor, the function of Corrector intrusted to him by Archbishop
+Arnest, and several rich preferments, in order to devote himself
+exclusively to preaching. His sermons in Czech, German, and Latin were
+filled with audacious attacks on the sins and crimes of clergy and
+laity, and the evils of the time led him to prophesy the advent of
+Antichrist between 1365 and 1367. In the latter year he went to Rome in
+order to lay before Urban V. his views on the present and future of the
+Church. While awaiting Urban's advent from Avignon, he affixed on the
+portal of St. Peter's an announcement of a sermon on the subject, which
+led the Inquisition to throw him into prison, but in October, on the
+arrival of the pope, he was released and treated with distinction. On
+his return to Prague he preached with greater violence than ever. To get
+rid of him the priesthood accused him to the emperor and archbishop, but
+in vain. Then they formulated twelve articles of accusation against him
+to the pope, and obtained, in January, 1374, from Gregory XI., bulls
+denouncing him as a persistent heresiarch who had filled all Bohemia,
+Poland, Silesia, and the neighboring lands with his errors. According to
+them, he taught not only that Antichrist had come, that the Church was
+extinct, that pope, cardinals, bishops and prelates showed no light of
+truth, but he permitted to his followers the unlimited gratification of
+their passions. Milicz undauntedly pursued his course until an
+inquisitorial prosecution was commenced against him, when he appealed to
+the pope. In Lent, 1374, he went to Avignon, where he readily proved
+his innocence, and on May 21 was admitted to preach before the
+cardinals, but he died June 29, before the formal decision of his case
+was published. It is highly probable that he was a Joachite--one of
+those who, as we shall see hereafter, reverenced the memory and believed
+in the apocalyptic prophecies of the Abbot Joachim of Flora.[482]
+
+The spirit of indignation and disquiet did not confine itself to
+denunciations of clerical abuses. Men were growing bolder, and began to
+question some of the cherished dogmas which gave rise to those abuses.
+In the synod of 1384 one of the subjects discussed was whether the
+saints were cognizant of the prayers addressed to them, and whether the
+worshipper was benefited by their suffrages--the mere raising of such a
+question showing how dangerously bold had become the spirit of inquiry.
+The man who most fitly represented this tendency was Mathias of Janow,
+whom the Archbishop John of Jenzenstein utilized in his efforts to
+reform the incurable disorders of the clergy. Mathias was led to trace
+the troubles to their causes, and to teach heresies from the
+consequences of which even the protection of the archbishop could not
+wholly defend him. In the synod of 1389 he was forced to make public
+recantation of his errors in holding that the images of Christ and the
+saints gave rise to idolatry, and that they ought to be banished from
+the churches and burned; that relics were of no service, and the
+intercession of saints was useless; while his teaching that every one
+should be urged to take communion daily foreshadowed the eucharistic
+troubles which play so large a part in the Hussite excitement. Yet he
+was allowed to escape with six months' suspension from preaching and
+hearing confessions outside of his own parochial church, a mistaken
+lenity which he repaid by continuing to teach the same errors more
+audaciously than ever, and even urging that the laity be admitted to
+communion in both elements. Mathias was not alone in his heterodoxy, for
+in the same synod of 1389 a priest named Andreas was obliged to revoke
+the same heresy respecting images, and another named Jacob was suspended
+from preaching for ten years for a still more offensive expression of
+similar beliefs, with the addition that suffrages for the dead were
+useless, that the Virgin could not help her devotees, and that the
+archbishop had erred in granting an indulgence to those who adored her
+image, and that the utterances of the holy doctors of the Church are not
+to be received.[483]
+
+Other earnest men who prepared the way for what was to follow were Henry
+of Oyta, Thomas of Stitny, John of Stekno, and Matthew of Cracow. Step
+by step the progress of free thought advanced, and when, in 1393, a
+papal indulgence was preached in Prague, Wenceslas Rohle, pastor of St.
+Martin's in the Altstadt, ventured to denounce it as a fraud, though
+only under his breath, for fear of the Pharisees. All this, it is
+evident, could only be favorable to the growth of Waldensianism, as is
+seen in the activity of the sectaries. It was missionaries from Bohemia
+who founded the communities in Brandenburg and Pomerania; and, as we
+have seen, a well-informed writer, in 1395, asserts that they were
+numbered by thousands in Thuringia, Misnia, Bohemia, Moravia, Austria,
+and Hungary, notwithstanding that a thousand of them had been converted
+within two years in the districts extending from Thuringia to
+Moravia.[484]
+
+While Bohemia was thus the scene of an agitation the outcome of which no
+man could foretell, a similar movement was running a still more rapid
+course in England, which was destined to exercise a decisive influence
+on the result. The assaults of John Wickliff were the most serious
+danger encountered by the hierarchy since the Hildebrandine theocracy
+had been established. For the first time a trained scholastic intellect
+of remarkable force and clearness, informed with all the philosophy and
+theology of the schools, was led to question the domination which the
+Church had acquired over the life, here and hereafter, of its members.
+It was not the poor peasant or artisan who found the Scriptures in
+contradiction to the teaching of the pulpit and the confessional, and
+with the practical examples set by the sacerdotal class; but it was a
+man who stood in learning and argumentative power on a level with the
+foremost schoolmen of the Middle Ages; who could quote not only Christ
+and the apostles, but the fathers and doctors of the Church, the
+decretals and the canons, Aristotle and his commentators; who could
+weave all these into the dialectics so dear to students and masters of
+theology, and who could frame a system of philosophy suited to the
+intellectual wants of the age. It is true that William of Ockham had
+been bold in his attacks on the overgrown papal system, but he was a
+partisan of Louis of Bavaria, and, with Marsiglio of Padua, his aim had
+merely been to set the State above the Church. With the subjection of
+the empire to the papacy the works of both had perished and their labors
+had been forgotten. The infidelity of the Averrhoists had never taken
+root among the people, and had been wisely treated by the Church with
+the leniency of contempt. It was the secret of Wickliff's influence that
+he had worked out his conclusions in single-hearted efforts to search
+for truth; his views developed gradually as he was led from one point to
+another; he spared neither prince nor prelate; he labored to instruct
+the poor more zealously perhaps than to influence the great, and men of
+all ranks, from the peasant to the schoolman, recognized in him a leader
+who sought to make them better, stronger, more valiant in the struggle
+with Apollyon. It is no wonder that his work proved not merely
+ephemeral; that his fame as a heresiarch filled all the schools and
+became everywhere synonymous with rebellion against the sacerdotal
+system; that simple Waldenses in Spain and Germany became thereafter
+known as Wickliffites. Yet the endurance of his teachings was due to his
+Bohemian disciples; at home, after a brief period of rapid development,
+they were virtually crushed out by the combined power of Church and
+State.
+
+As the heresy of Huss was in nearly all details copied from his master,
+Wickliff, it is necessary, in order to understand the nature of the
+Hussite movement, to cast a brief glance at the views of the English
+reformer. About four years after his death, in 1388 and 1389,
+twenty-five articles of accusation were brought against his followers,
+whose reply gives, in the most vigorous English, a summary of his
+tenets. Few documents of the period are more interesting as a picture of
+the worldliness and corruption of the Church, and of the wrathful
+indignation aroused by the hideous contrast between the teaching of
+Christ and the lives of those who claimed to represent him. It is
+observable that the only purely speculative error admitted is that
+concerning the Eucharist; all the others relate to the doctrines which
+gave to the Church control over the souls and purses of the faithful, or
+to the abuses arising from the worldly and sensual character of the
+clergy. It was an essentially practical reform, inspired for the most
+part with rare common-sense and with wonderfully little exaggeration,
+considering the magnitude of the evils which pressed so heavily upon
+Christendom.
+
+The document in question shows the Wickliffite belief to be that the
+popes of the period were Antichrist; all the hierarchy, from the pope
+down, were accursed by reason of their greed, their simony, their
+cruelty, their lust of power, and their evil lives. Unless they give
+satisfaction "thai schul be depper dampned then Judas Scarioth." The
+pope was not to be obeyed, his decretals were naught, and his
+excommunication and that of his bishops were to be disregarded. The
+indulgences so freely proffered in return for money or for the services
+of crusaders in slaying Christians were false and fraudulent. Yet the
+power of the keys in pious hands was not denied--"Certes, as holy
+prestis of lyvynge and cunnynge of holy writte han keyes of heven and
+bene vicaris of Jesus Crist, so viciouse prestis, unkonnynge of holy
+writte, ful of pride and covetise, han keyes of helle and bene vicaris
+of Sathanas." Though auricular confession might be useful, it was not
+necessary, for men should trust in Christ. Image-worship was unlawful,
+and representations of the Trinity were forbidden--"Hit semes that this
+offrynge ymages is a sotile cast of Antichriste and his clerkis for to
+drawe almes fro pore men.... Certis, these ymages of hemselfe may do
+nouther gode nor yvel to mennis soules, but thai myghtten warme a man's
+body in colde if thai were sette upon a fire." The invocation of saints
+was useless; the best of them could do nothing but what God ordained,
+and many of those customarily invoked were in hell, for in modern times
+sinners stood a better chance of canonization than holy men. It was the
+same with their feast-days; those of the apostles and early saints might
+be observed, but not the rest. Song was not to be used in divine
+service, and prayer was as efficient anywhere as in church, for the
+churches were not holy--"all suche chirches bene gretely poluted and
+cursud of God, nomely for sellynge of leccherie and fals swering upon
+bokus. Sithen tho chirches bene dunnus of thefis and habitacionis of
+fendis." Ecclesiastics must not live in luxury and pomp, but as poor
+men "gyvynge ensaumple of holynes by ther conversacion." The Church
+must be deprived of all its temporalities, and whatever was necessary
+for the support of its members must be held in common. Tithes and
+offerings were not to be given to sinful priests; it was simony for a
+priest to receive payment for his spiritual ministrations, though he
+might sell his labor in honest vocations, such as teaching and the
+binding of books, and though no one was forbidden to make an oblation at
+mass, provided he did not seek to obtain more than his share in the
+sacrifice. All parish priests and vicars who did not perform their
+functions were to be removed, and especially all who were non-resident.
+All priests and deacons, moreover, were to preach zealously, for which
+no special license or commission was required.
+
+All these tenets of which they were accused the Wickliffites admitted
+and defended in the most incisive fashion, but there were two articles
+which they denied. Wickliff's teaching so closely resembled that of the
+Waldenses that it was natural that the orthodox should attribute to him
+the two Waldensian errors which regarded all oaths as unlawful, and held
+that priests in mortal sin could not administer the sacraments. To the
+former, his followers replied that, though they rejected all unnecessary
+swearing, they admitted that "If hit be nedeful for to swere for a
+spedful treuthe men mowe wele swere as God did in the olde lawe." As to
+the latter, they said that the sinful priest can give sacraments
+efficient to those who worthily receive them, though he receive
+damnation unto himself. The prominence of the Fraticelli also suggested
+the imputation that the Wickliffites believed the entire renunciation of
+property to be essential to salvation; but this they denied, saying that
+a man might make lawful gains and hold them, but that he must use them
+well.[485]
+
+All these antisacerdotal teachings flowed directly from the
+resoluteness with which Wickliff carried out to its logical conclusion
+the Augustinian doctrine of predestination, thus necessarily striking at
+the root of all human mediation, the suffrages of the saints,
+justification by works, and all the machinery of the Church for the
+purchase and sale of salvation. In this, as in the rest, Huss followed
+him, though the distinction between his principles and the orthodox ones
+of the Thomists and other schoolmen was too subtle to render this point
+one which the Church could easily condemn.[486]
+
+The one serious speculative error of Wickliff lay in his effort to
+reconcile the mystery of the Eucharist with the stubborn fact that after
+consecration the bread remained bread and the wine continued to be wine.
+He did not deny conversion into the body and blood of Christ; they were
+really present in the sacrifice, but his reason refused to acknowledge
+transubstantiation, and he invented a theory of the remanence of the
+substance coexisting with the divine elements. Into these dangerous
+subtleties Huss refused to follow his master. It was the one point on
+which he declined to accept the reasoning of the Englishman, and yet, as
+we shall see, it served as a principal excuse for hurrying him to the
+stake.
+
+Wickliff's career as a heresiarch was unexampled, and its peculiarities
+serve to explain much that would otherwise be incomprehensible in the
+growth and tolerance of his doctrines in Bohemia, and in the simplicity
+with which Huss refused to believe that he could himself be regarded as
+a heretic. Although, as early as 1377, the assistance which Wickliff
+rendered to Edward III. in diminishing the papal revenues moved Gregory
+XI. to command his immediate prosecution as a heretic, yet the political
+situation was such as to render ineffectual all efforts to carry out
+these instructions; he was never even excommunicated, and was allowed to
+die peacefully in his rectory of Lutterworth on the last day of the year
+1384. No further action was taken by Rome until the question of his
+heresy was raised in Prague. Although, in 1409, Alexander V. ordered
+Archbishop Zbinco not to permit his errors to be taught or his books to
+be read, yet when, in 1410, John XXIII. referred his writings to a
+commission of four cardinals, who convoked an assembly of theologians
+for their examination, a majority decided that Archbishop Zbinko had not
+been justified in burning them. It was not until the Council of Rome, in
+1413, that there was a formal and authoritative condemnation pronounced,
+and it was left for the Council of Constance, in 1415, to proclaim
+Wickliff as a heresiarch, to order his bones exhumed, and to define his
+errors with the authority of the Church Universal. Huss might well, to
+the last, believe in the authenticity of the spurious letters of the
+University of Oxford, brought to Prague about 1403, in which Wickliff
+was declared perfectly orthodox, and might conscientiously assert that
+his books continued to be read and taught there.[487]
+
+The marriage of Anne of Luxembourg, sister of Wenceslas of Bohemia, to
+Richard II., in 1382, led to considerable intercourse between the
+kingdoms until her death, in 1394. Many Bohemians visited England during
+the excitement caused by Wickliff's controversies, and his writings were
+carried to Prague, where they found great acceptance. Huss tells us that
+about 1390 they commenced to be read in the University of Prague, and
+that they continued thenceforth to be studied. No orthodox Bohemian had
+hitherto ventured as far as the daring Englishman, but there were many
+who had entered on the same path, to say nothing of the secret
+Waldensian heretics, and the general feeling excited throughout Germany
+by the reckless simony and sale of indulgences which marked the later
+years of Boniface IX. Thus the movement which had been in progress since
+the middle of the century received a fresh impulsion from the
+circumstances under which the works of Wickliff were perused and
+scattered abroad in innumerable copies. All of his treatises were
+eagerly sought for. A MS. in the Hofbliothek of Vienna gives a catalogue
+of ninety of them which were known in Bohemia, and it is to those
+regions that we must look for the remains of his voluminous labors, the
+greater part of which were successfully suppressed at home. In time he
+came to be reverenced as the fifth Evangelist, and a fragment of stone
+from his tomb was venerated at Prague as a relic. Still more suggestive
+of his commanding influence is the fidelity with which Huss followed his
+reasoning, and oftentimes the arrangement, and even the words, of his
+treatises.[488]
+
+John of Husinec, commonly known as Huss, who became the leading exponent
+and protomartyr of Wickliffitism in Bohemia, is supposed to have been
+born in 1369, of parents whose poverty forced him to earn his own
+livelihood. In 1393 he obtained the degree of bachelor of arts; in 1394
+that of bachelor of theology; in 1396 that of master of arts; but the
+doctorate he never attained, though in 1398 he was already lecturing in
+the university; in 1401 he was dean of the philosophical faculty, and
+rector in 1402. Curiously enough, he embraced the Realist philosophy,
+and won great applause in his combats with the Nominalists. So little
+promise did his early years give of his career as a reformer that, in
+1392, he spent his last four groschen for an indulgence, when he had
+only dry crusts for food. In 1400 he was ordained as priest, and two
+years later he was appointed preacher to the Bethlehem chapel, where his
+earnest eloquence soon rendered him the spiritual leader of the people.
+The study of Wickliff's writings, begun shortly after this, quickened
+his appreciation of the evils of a corrupted Church, and when Archbishop
+Zbinco of Hasenburg, shortly after his consecration in 1403, appointed
+him as preacher to the annual synods, Huss improved the opportunity to
+address to the assembled clergy a series of terrible invectives against
+their worldliness and filthiness of living, which excited general
+popular hatred and contempt for them. After one of peculiar vigor, in
+October, 1407, the clamor among the ecclesiastics grew so strong that
+they presented a formal complaint against him to Archbishop Zbinco, and
+he was deprived of the position. By this time he was recognized as the
+leader in the effort to purify the Church, and to reduce it to its
+ancient simplicity, with such men as Stephen Palecz, Stanislas of Znaim,
+John of Jessinetz, Jerome of Prague, and many others eminent for
+learning and piety as his collaborators. To some of these he was
+inferior in intellectual gifts, but his fearless temper, his unbending
+rectitude, his blameless life, and his kindly nature won for him the
+affectionate veneration of the people and rendered him its idol.[489]
+
+Discussion grew hot and passions became embittered. Old jealousies and
+hatreds between the Teutonic and Czech races contributed to render the
+religious quarrel unappeasable. The vices and oppression of the clergy
+had alienated from them popular respect, and the fiery diatribes of the
+Bethlehem chapel were listened to eagerly, while the Wickliffite
+doctrines, which taught the baselessness of the whole sacerdotal system,
+were welcomed as a revelation, and spread rapidly through all classes.
+King Wenceslas was inclined to give them such support as his indolence
+and self-indulgence would permit, and his queen, Sophia, was even more
+favorably disposed. Yet the clergy and their friends could not submit
+quietly to the spoliation of their privileges and wealth, although the
+Great Schism, in weakening the influence of the Roman curia, rendered
+its support less efficient. Preachers who assailed their vices were
+thrown into prison as heretics and were exiled, and the writings of
+Wickliff, which formed the key of the position, were fiercely assaulted
+and desperately defended. The weak point in them was the substitution of
+remanence for transubstantiation; and although this was discarded by
+Huss and his followers, it served as an unguarded point through which
+the whole position might be carried. The synod of 1405 asserted the
+doctrine of transubstantiation in its most absolute shape; any one
+teaching otherwise was pronounced a heretic, and was ordered to be
+reported to the archbishop for punishment. In 1406 this was repeated in
+a still more threatening form, showing that the Wickliffite views had
+obstinate defenders; as, indeed, is to be seen by a tract of Thomas of
+Stitny, written in 1400. Already, in 1403, a series of forty-five
+articles extracted from Wickliff's works was formally condemned by the
+university. Around these the battle raged with fury; the condemnation
+was repeated in 1408, and in 1410 Archbishop Zbinco solemnly burned in
+the courtyard of his palace two hundred of the forbidden books, while
+the populace revenged itself by singing through the streets rude rhymes,
+in which the prelate is said to have burned books which he could not
+read; for his ignorance was notorious, and he was reported to have first
+acquired the alphabet after his elevation.[490]
+
+In the strife between rival popes it suited the policy of King
+Wenceslas, in 1408, to maintain neutrality, and he induced the
+university to send envoys to the cardinals who had renounced allegiance
+to both Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. In this mission were included
+Stephen Palecz and Stanislas of Znaim, but the whole party fell, in
+Bologna, into the hands of Balthasar Cossa, the papal legate (afterwards
+John XXIII.), who threw them all in prison as suspect of heresy, and it
+required no little effort to secure their release. This adventure cooled
+the zeal of Stephen and Stanislas; they gradually changed sides, and
+from the warmest friends of Huss they became, as we shall see, his most
+dangerous and implacable enemies.[491]
+
+In this affair the university had not seconded the wishes of the king
+with the alacrity which he had expected, and Huss took advantage of the
+royal displeasure to effect a revolution in that institution, which had
+hitherto proved the chief obstacle in the progress of reform. It was
+divided, in the ordinary manner, into four "nations." As each of these
+nations had a vote, the Bohemians constantly found themselves
+outnumbered by the foreigners. It was now proposed to adopt the
+constitution of the University of Paris, where the French nation had
+three votes, and all the foreign nations collectively but one. The
+vacillation of Wenceslas delayed decision, but in January, 1409, he
+signed the decree which ordered the change. The German students and
+professors bound themselves by a vow to procure the revocation of the
+decree or to leave the university. Failing in the former alternative,
+they abandoned the city in vast numbers, founding the University of
+Leipsic, and spreading throughout Europe the report that Bohemia was a
+nest of heretics. The dyke was broken down, and the flood of
+Wickliffitism poured over the land with little to check its progress. In
+vain did Alexander V. and John XXIII. command Archbishop Zbinco to
+suppress the heresy, and in vain did the struggling prelate hold
+assemblies and issue comminatory decrees. The tide bore all before it,
+and Zbinco at last, in 1411, abandoned his ungrateful see to appeal to
+Wenceslas's brother Sigismund, then recently elected King of the Romans,
+but died on the journey.[492]
+
+This removed the last obstacle. The new archbishop, Albik of Unicow,
+previously physician to Wenceslas, was old and weak, and more given to
+accumulating money than to defending the faith. He was said to carry the
+key of his wine-cellar himself, to have only a wretched old crone for a
+cook, and to sell habitually all presents made to him. Thoroughly
+unfitted for the crisis, he resigned in 1413, and was succeeded by
+Conrad of Vechta, who, after some hesitation, cast his lot with the
+followers of Huss. Yet, during these troubles, the papal Inquisition
+seems to have been established in Prague, and, strangely enough, to have
+seen nothing in the Hussite movement to call for its interference,
+though it could act against Waldenses and other recognized heretics.
+When, in 1408, the king ordered Archbishop Zbinco to make a thorough
+perquisition after heresy, Nicholas of Vilemonic, known as Abraham,
+priest of the Church of the Holy Spirit in Prague, was tried before the
+inquisitors Moritz and Jaroslav for Waldensianism, and was thrown into
+prison for asserting that he could preach under authority from Christ
+without that of the archbishop. Huss interposed in his favor, but his
+liberation was postponed through his refusal to repeat, on the Gospels,
+an oath which he had already sworn by God. One of the accusations
+brought against Huss at Constance was the favor which he showed to
+Waldensian and other heretics; and yet, when he was about to depart on
+his fateful journey to Constance, the papal inquisitor Nicholas, Bishop
+of Nazareth, gave him a formal certificate, attested by a notarial act,
+to the effect that he had long known him intimately, and had never heard
+an heretical expression from him, and that no one had ever accused him
+of heresy before the tribunal. The Hussite and Waldensian movements were
+too nearly akin for Huss not to sympathize with the acknowledged
+heretics, and in the virtual spiritual anarchy of these tumultuous years
+Waldensian influence must have made itself more and more felt, and the
+sectaries must have been emboldened to show themselves ever more
+openly.[493]
+
+Everything thus conspired to accelerate the progress of the revolution.
+Huss, who had hitherto, for the most part, confined himself to assaults
+upon the local ecclesiastical establishment, began to direct his attacks
+at the papacy itself, and in the writings of Wickliff he found ample
+store of arguments, which he used with great effect. He also made use of
+another of Wickliff's methods by the employment of itinerant priests.
+This was peculiarly well adapted to accomplish the object in view, for
+the Bohemians were given to listening to sermons, and the unlicensed
+preaching for which the negligence of the established clergy gave
+opportunity had been a frequent source of complaint since the year 1371.
+The repetition of the prohibitions shows their ineffectiveness; the
+popular craving for spiritual instruction, which the Church could have
+turned to such good account, was abandoned to the agitators; the people
+flocked in crowds to hear them, in spite of priestly anathemas, and the
+great mass of the nation, from nobles to peasants, eagerly adopted the
+new doctrines, and were prepared to support them to the death.[494]
+
+Matters were rapidly tending to an open rupture with Rome. In 1410 John
+XXIII., soon after his accession, referred to Cardinal Otto Colonna the
+complaints which came to Rome against Huss. On September 20 Colonna
+summoned him to appear in person. He sent deputies, who appealed from
+the cardinal to the pope, but they were thrown into prison and severely
+handled; and while the appeal was pending, in February, 1411, Colonna
+excommunicated him. On March 15 the excommunication was published in all
+the churches of Prague save two; the people stood by Huss, and an
+interdict was extended over the city, which was generally disregarded,
+and Huss continued to preach. While affairs were in this threatening
+position a new cause of trouble led to an explosion. Just as Wickliff
+had been stirred to fresh hostility against the papacy by the crusade
+which, under orders from Urban VI., the Bishop of Norwich had preached
+against France for its support of the rival pope Clement VII.; just as
+Luther was to be aroused from his obscurity by the indulgence-selling of
+Tetzel when Leo X. wanted money, so the Bohemians were stimulated to
+active opposition when John XXIII., towards the close of 1411,
+proclaimed a crusade with Holy Land indulgences against Ladislas of
+Naples, who upheld the claims of Gregory XII. Stephen Palecz, till then
+associated with Huss, was dean of the theological faculty. His
+experience of the Bolognese prison rendered him timorous about
+withstanding John XXIII., and he declared that there was no authority to
+prevent the publication of the indulgence. Huss was bolder, and a
+controversy arose between them which converted their former friendship
+into an enmity destined to bear bitter fruits. June 16, 1412, he held in
+the Carolinum a disputation which was a very powerful and eloquent
+attack upon the power of the keys, which lay at the foundation of the
+whole papal system. Absolution was dependent on the subjective condition
+of the penitent; as many popes who concede indulgences are damned, how
+can they defend their pardons before God? the sellers of indulgences are
+thieves, who take by cunning lies that which they cannot seize by
+violence; the pope and the whole Church Militant often err, and an
+unjust papal excommunication is to be disregarded. This was followed by
+other tracts and sermons which aroused popular enthusiasm to a lofty
+pitch. Wenceslas Tiem, the Dean of Passau, to whom the preaching of the
+crusade in Bohemia was confided, farmed out the indulgences to the
+highest bidders, and their sale to the people was accompanied by the
+usual scandals, which were well calculated to excite indignation.[495]
+
+A few days after the disputation a crowd led by Wok of Waldstein, a
+favorite of King Wenceslas, carried the papal bulls of indulgence to the
+pillory and publicly burned them. The well-known legend attributes to
+Jerome of Prague a leading part in this, and relates that the bulls were
+strung around the neck of a strumpet mounted on a cart, who solicited
+the favor of the mob with lascivious gestures. No punishment was
+inflicted on the participants, and Wok of Waldstein continued to enjoy
+the royal favor. The defiance of the pope was complete, and the temper
+of the people was shown on July 12, when in three several churches three
+young mechanics named Martin, John, and Stanislas, interrupted the
+preachers proclaiming the indulgences, and declared them to be a lie.
+They were arrested and beheaded in spite of Huss's intercession; many
+others were imprisoned, and some were exposed to torture. Then the
+people assumed a threatening aspect; the three who had been executed
+were reverenced as martyrs; tumults occurred, and the prisoners were
+released. Soon afterwards a Carmelite was begging at the doors of his
+church with an array of relics displayed upon a table, with the
+indulgences attached to them to excite the liberality of the pious. A
+disciple of Huss denounced the affair as a fraud and kicked over the
+table, and when he was seized by the friars a band of armed men broke
+into the house and released him, not without bloodshed.[496]
+
+John XXIII. could not avoid taking up the gage of battle thus thrown
+down. The Bohemian clergy appealed to him piteously, representing the
+oppression to which they were subjected, and stating that many of them
+had been slain. He promptly responded. The major excommunication, to be
+published in all its awful solemnity in Prague, was pronounced against
+Huss; the Bethlehem chapel was ordered to be levelled with the earth;
+his followers were excommunicated, and all who would not within thirty
+days abjure heresy were summoned to answer in person before the Roman
+curia. In spite of this Huss continued to preach, and when an attempt
+was made to arrest him in the pulpit the threatening aspect of the
+congregation prevented its execution. He appealed to a general council,
+and then to God, in a protest which, in lofty terms, asserted the
+nullity of the sentence pronounced against him. In his treatise "De
+Ecclesia," which followed not long after, he attacked the papacy in
+unmeasured language borrowed from Wickliff. The pope is not a pope and a
+true successor of Peter unless he imitates Peter; a pope given to
+avarice is the vicar of Judas Iscariot. So of the cardinals; if they
+enter save by the door of Christ they are thieves and robbers. Yet the
+clergy, for the most part gladly, obeyed the bull of excommunication,
+and Huss's presence in Prague led to a cessation of all church
+observances; divine service was suspended, the new-born were not
+baptized, and the dead lay unburied. At the request of the king, to
+relieve the situation of its tension, Huss left Prague and retired to
+Kosi hradek, whence he directed the movements of his adherents in the
+city and busied himself in active controversial writing, the chief
+product of which was the "De Ecclesia," which was publicly read in the
+Bethlehem chapel on July 8, 1413.[497]
+
+King Wenceslas had vainly tried to bring about a pacification of the
+troubles in which passions were daily growing wilder, complicated by the
+race hatred between Teuton and Czech. A confused series of disputations
+and conferences and controversial tracts occupied the first half of the
+year 1413, which only embittered those who took part in them and
+rendered harmony more distant than ever. In fact there was no possible
+middle term, no compromise in which the disputants could unite. It was
+no longer a question of reforming the morals of the clergy, as to the
+necessity of which all were agreed. The controversy had drifted to the
+causes of clerical corruption, springing, as Wickliff and Huss and their
+disciples clearly saw, from the very principles on which the whole
+structure of Latin Christianity was based. Either the power of the keys
+was a truth vital to the salvation of mankind, or it was a lie cunningly
+invented and boldly utilized to gratify the lust of power and the greed
+of avarice. Between these two antagonistic postulates dialectic subtlety
+was powerless to frame a project of reconciliation, and argument only
+hardened each side in its belief. One or the other must triumph utterly,
+and force alone could decide the controversy. Wearied at last with his
+unavailing efforts, Wenceslas finally cut the matter short by banishing
+the leaders of the conservatives, Stephen Palecz, Stanislas of Znaim,
+Peter of Znaim, and John Elias. Stanislas retired to Moravia, where,
+after incredible industry in controversial writing, he died on the road
+to the Council of Constance; Stephen survived him and revenged them
+both.[498]
+
+Huss and his adherents were now masters of the field; and though he
+abstained from returning to Prague, except an occasional visit
+incognito, until his departure for Constance, he could truly say, when
+he stood up in the council to meet his accusers, "I came hither of my
+own free will. Had I refused to come neither the king nor the emperor
+could have forced me, so numerous are the Bohemian lords who love me and
+who would have afforded me protection." And when the Cardinal Peter
+d'Ailly indignantly exclaimed, "See the impudence of the man," and a
+murmur ran around the whole assembly, John of Chlum calmly arose and
+said, "He speaks the truth, for though I have little power compared
+with others in Bohemia, I could easily defend him for a year against the
+whole strength of both monarchs. Judge, then, how much more could they
+whose forces are greater and whose castles are stronger than
+mine."[499]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+While thus in Bohemia the upholders of the old order of things were
+silenced and reformation in the morals of the clergy was enforced with
+no gentle hand, the news spread around Christendom that the long-desired
+general council was to be convoked at last for the settlement of the
+Great Schism, the reformation of the Church from its head downwards, and
+the suppression of heresy. Many strivings had there been to effect
+this, but the policy of the Italian popes, as at Pisa, had thus far
+successfully eluded the dreaded decision. The pressure grew, however,
+until it became overwhelming. With the rival vicars of Christ each
+showering perdition upon the adherents of the others, the spiritual
+condition of the faithful was most anxious and a solution of the
+tremendous question was the most pressing necessity for all who believed
+what the Latin Church had assiduously taught for a thousand years. The
+politics of Europe, moreover, were hopelessly complicated by the strife,
+and no peace was to be expected while so dangerous an element of discord
+continued to exist. This was especially the case in Germany, where
+independent princes and prelates each selected for himself the pope of
+his preference, leading to bitter and intricate quarrels. Second only in
+importance to this was the reform of the abuses and corruption, the
+venality and license of the clergy, which made themselves felt
+everywhere, from the courts of the pontiffs to the meanest hamlet.
+Heresy likewise was to be met and suppressed, for though England could
+deal single-handed with the Lollardry within her shores, the aspect of
+matters in Bohemia was threatening, and Sigismund, the emperor-elect, as
+the heir of his childless brother Wenceslas, was deeply concerned in the
+pacification of the kingdom. In vain John XXIII. endeavored to have the
+council held in Italy, where he could control it. The nations insisted
+on some place where the free parliament of Christendom could convene
+unshackled and debate unchecked. Sigismund selected the episcopal city
+of Constance; John, hard pressed by Ladislas of Naples and driven from
+Rome, was forced to yield, and, December 9, 1413, issued his bull
+convoking the assemblage for the first of the following November. Not
+only were all prelates and religious corporations ordered to be
+represented, but all princes and rulers were commanded to be there in
+person or by deputy. Imperial letters from Sigismund, which accompanied
+the bull, gave assurance that the powers of State and Church would be
+combined to reach the result desired by all.[500]
+
+No such assemblage had been seen in Christendom since Innocent III., two
+centuries before, in the plenitude of his power, had summoned the
+representatives of Latin Christianity to sit with him in the Lateran.
+The later council might boast fewer mitred heads than the earlier, but
+it was a far more important body. Called primarily to sit in judgment on
+the claims of rival popes, its mere convocation was a recognition of its
+supremacy over the successor of Peter. From its decision there could be
+no appeal, and the questions to be submitted to it were far more weighty
+than those which had tasked the consciences of the Lateran fathers. From
+every part of Europe the Church sent its best and worthiest to take
+counsel together in this crisis of its fate--men like Chancellor Gerson
+and Cardinal Peter d'Ailly of Cambrai, as earnest for reform and as
+sensible of existing wrongs as Wickliff or Huss themselves. The
+universities poured forth their ablest doctors of theology and canon
+law. Princes and potentates were there in person or by their
+representatives, and crowds of every rank in life, from the noble to the
+juggler. The mere magnitude of the assemblage produced a powerful effect
+on the minds of all contemporaries, and the wildest estimates were
+current of the numbers present. One chronicler assures us that there
+were, besides members of the council, sixty thousand five hundred
+persons present, of whom sixteen thousand were of gentle blood, from
+knights and squires up to princes. The same authority informs us that
+there were four hundred and fifty public women, but an official census
+of the council, carefully taken, reports that the number was not less
+than seven hundred, and even _succubi_ were popularly said to have
+joined in the nefarious trade. Thus the strength and the weakness, the
+virtue and the vice of the fifteenth century were gathered together to
+find relief as best they might for the troubles which threatened to
+overwhelm the Church. After many doubts and much hesitation John XXIII.
+fulfilled his promise to be present, relying upon his stores of gold to
+win a triumph over his adversaries and over the council itself.[501]
+
+It was inevitable that Huss should tempt his fate at Constance. To both
+Sigismund and Wenceslas it was of the utmost importance that some
+authoritative decision should put an end to the strife within the
+Bohemian Church. The reformers had always professed their desire to
+submit their demands to a free general council, and Huss himself had
+appealed to such a council from the papal sentence of excommunication.
+To hesitate now would be to abandon his life's work, to admit that he
+dared not face the assembled piety and learning of the Church, and to
+confess himself a heretic. The host of adversaries in the Bohemian
+clergy whom his bitter invectives had inflamed and whose preferment had
+been forfeited through the agitation which he had led would surely be
+there to blacken him and to misrepresent his cause, and all would be
+lost if he were not present to defend it in person. They had long jeered
+him for not daring to present himself to the Holy See in obedience to
+its summons, and had pronounced blasphemous his appeal to Christ from
+its excommunication. To hesitate to submit his cause to the council
+would give his adversaries an inestimable advantage. Besides, incredible
+as it may seem in view of the violence of his assaults upon the doctrine
+which rendered the high places in the hierarchy profitable, and his
+persistent denial of the validity of his excommunication, he believed
+himself to be in full communion with the Church, that he would find the
+council in sympathy with his views, and that certain sermons which he
+had prepared would, when delivered before the assembled prelates, be
+efficient in bringing about the reforms which he advocated. In his
+singleness of mind he could not comprehend that men who had thundered as
+vehemently as himself against current abuses and corruptions, but who
+had not dared to assail the principles from which those evils sprang,
+would shrink back aghast from his bolder doctrinal aberrations, and
+would regard him as a heretic subject to the inquisitorial rule
+prescribing the naked alternative of recantation or the stake.[502]
+
+When, therefore, the imperial and royal wishes for his presence at
+Constance were signified to him, with a promise of safe-conduct and full
+security, he willingly assented, and so anxious was he to be present at
+the opening of the council that he did not even wait for the promised
+safe-conduct, which reached him only after his arrival there. That some
+discussion took place among his friends as to the danger to be incurred
+there can be no doubt. Jerome of Prague, when on his trial, asserted
+that he had persuaded Huss to go, and Huss in one of his letters from
+prison alludes to the warnings which he had received. He himself was
+evidently not wholly without misgivings. A sealed letter left with his
+disciple, Master Martin, not to be opened till news should be received
+of his death, alludes to the persecution which he had suffered for
+restraining the inordinate lives of the clergy, and his expectation that
+it would soon reach its consummation. He makes disposition of his
+slender effects--his gray gown, his white gown, and sixty grossi, which
+comprise the whole of his worldly gear--and expresses his remorse for
+the time wasted before his ordination, when he used to play chess to the
+loss of his own temper and that of others. The unaffected simplicity and
+pure-heartedness of the man shine like a divine light through the brief
+words of his last request. A letter in the vernacular to his disciples
+also announces his fear that his enemies may seek in the council to take
+his life by false testimony. He asks the prayers of his friends that he
+may have eloquence to uphold the truth and constancy to endure to the
+last. Still, he did not wholly neglect precautions. Not only did he
+procure from the inquisitor Nicholas, Bishop of Nazareth, the
+certificate of his orthodoxy already alluded to, but he posted, August
+26, throughout Prague a notice in Latin and Bohemian that he would
+appear before the archbishop, then holding a convocation of the Bohemian
+clergy, and challenged all who impugned his faith to come forward and
+accuse him either there or at Constance, asserting his readiness to
+submit to the punishment of heresy in case he was convicted, but that
+accusers who failed should be subjected to the talio. When John of
+Jessinetz, his representative, presented himself the next day at the
+door of the convocation, he was refused admission on the pretext that
+the body was deliberating on national affairs, and he was told to come
+back another time. In the assembly of nobles, however, Huss obtained an
+audience of the archbishop, who was also papal legate, and who declared
+that he knew of nothing to render Huss guilty except that he ought to
+purge himself of the excommunication. Of this a certified notarial
+instrument was sent to Sigismund by Huss with the statement that under
+the imperial safe-conduct he was ready to go to Constance to defend
+publicly the faith for which he was prepared, if necessary, to die.[503]
+
+Huss set out, October 11, 1414, under the escort and protection of John
+and Henry of Chlum and Wenceslas of Duba, all his friends, and delegated
+for the purpose by Sigismund. The cavalcade consisted of more than
+thirty horse and two carriages. It was preceded, a day in advance, by
+the Bishop of Lubec, who announced that Huss was being carried in chains
+to Constance, and warned the people not to look at him, as he could read
+men's minds. Already his name had filled all Germany, and this
+advertisement was an additional incentive for crowds to gather and gaze
+on him as he passed. His reception served to foster the fatal illusions
+which he nursed. Everywhere, he wrote to his friends, he was treated as
+an honored guest and not as an excommunicate; no interdict was
+proclaimed where he stopped to rest, and he held discussions with
+magistrates and ecclesiastics. In all cities he posted notices on the
+church-doors that he was on his way to Constance to defend his faith,
+and that any one who desired to assail it was invited to do so before
+the council. On reaching Nuremburg, October 19, in place of deflecting
+to seek King Sigismund and obtain the promised safe-conduct, he
+proceeded direct to Constance, while Wenceslas of Duba went to the court
+and brought the document to him there a few days after his arrival. It
+was dated October 18.[504]
+
+On November 2 Huss reached Constance, to be greeted by a crowd of twelve
+thousand men assembled to look upon the dreaded reforming heretic. The
+council had not yet been opened. On the 10th a letter from one of the
+party states that as yet no ambassadors from any of the kings had
+arrived, and though John XXIII. was there with his cardinals, no
+representatives from his rivals, Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., had
+presented themselves. What to do with the Bohemian Wickliffite was a
+problem which puzzled pope and cardinal, and after much discussion it
+was determined to suspend his excommunication, and permit him to
+frequent the churches freely, at the same time requesting him not to be
+present at the solemnities of the council, lest it might lead to
+disorder. Considerable apprehension, moreover, was felt as to a sermon
+to the clergy which he was understood to propose delivering. Huss
+himself was utterly blind as to the position which he occupied. On
+November 4, the day before the council was opened, he wrote to his
+friends at home that overtures had been made to him to settle matters
+quietly, but that he expected to win a great victory after a great
+fight. On the 16th he mentioned that when the pope was celebrating mass
+every one but himself had assigned to him some function in the ceremony,
+and he characterized the omission as neglect, evidently considering that
+his position entitled him to recognition and distinction.[505]
+
+He knew that his opponents had not been idle, but he did not fear them.
+He had been preceded in Constance by two of his bitterest
+enemies--Michael of Deutschbrod, known as de Causis, and Wenceslas Tiem,
+Dean of Passau--and these, in a few days, were reinforced by a more
+formidable antagonist, Stephen Palecz, fully equipped with most
+dangerous extracts from Huss's writings. Wenceslas Tiem had been the
+bearer to Prague of the bull offering indulgences for the crusade
+against Ladislas of Naples, and his profitable trade had been broken up
+by Huss. Michael de Causis had been priest of the Church of St. Adalbert
+in the Neustadt of Prague; he had gained the confidence of King
+Wenceslas by pretending that he could render profitable some abandoned
+gold-mines near Iglau, and the king had intrusted him with a
+considerable sum of money for the purpose. After working a few days at
+the mines he decamped to Rome with the funds, which enabled him to
+purchase a commission as papal procurator "_de causis fidei_," whence
+his appellation. He had already, in 1412, sent to Rome charges against
+Huss, which the latter pronounced to be lies. The day after Huss's
+arrival in Constance, Michael posted on the church-doors that he would
+accuse him to the council as an excommunicate and suspect of heresy, but
+Huss treated the matter very lightly, and adopted the advice of his
+friends to take no notice of it until the arrival of Sigismund, who was
+not expected until Christmas. Meanwhile Huss himself gave ample cause
+for adverse comment. So perfect was his sense of innocence and security
+that he could not be content with prudent obscurity. Almost immediately
+on his arrival he began to celebrate mass in his lodgings. This
+attracted the people in crowds, and was necessarily a cause of scandal.
+Otto, Bishop of Constance, sent John Tenger, his vicar, and Conrad
+Helye, his official, to request Huss to cease, as he had long been under
+papal excommunication; but he refused, saying that he did not consider
+himself excommunicated, and that he would celebrate mass as often as he
+pleased. Although thus defied, the bishop, to avoid disturbance,
+contented himself with forbidding the people from attendance. Soon after
+this Huss placed himself, with some provisions, in a covered
+forage-wagon which was to be sent for hay. When the knights who were
+responsible for him could not find him, Henry of Lastenbock (Chlum)
+rushed to the burgomaster and demanded that he be searched for. The city
+was in an uproar; the gates were closed, horse and foot were sent in
+every direction to find him, and the circumstance was easily magnified
+into an attempt to escape.[506]
+
+The sturdy Bohemian was evidently a troublesome subject to deal with. In
+the eyes of the faithful it was quite scandal enough to see at liberty a
+priest who had openly defied a papal excommunication, and had defended
+the recognized errors of Wickliff; there was, moreover, every
+probability that he would carry out his audacious design of preaching to
+the clergy a sermon in which the vices of the papal court and the
+shortcomings of the whole ecclesiastical body would be pitilessly and
+eloquently exposed, and it would be proved from Scripture that the whole
+system had no warrant in the law of Christ. The path which the pope and
+his cardinals had to tread in managing the council was likely to be
+tortuous and thorny enough without this additional element of
+disturbance and turbulence. It was far safer to disarm him at once, to
+anticipate his attacks by treating him legally as one accused of heresy
+and awaiting trial. Stephen Palecz and Michael de Causis, and a crowd of
+other Bohemian doctors and priests whom Huss had roughly handled, had
+already furnished ample material for his indictment, and in the
+inquisitorial process the first step was to make sure that the accused
+should not escape. Even had the case been one in which bail could be
+taken, Huss had the whole kingdom of Bohemia at his back; bail to any
+amount would be furnished and forfeited, and, once safe at home, he
+would have laughed to scorn a condemnation for contumacy. Such might
+reasonably be the arguments of the cardinals when the resolve was taken
+to arrest him, but the execution of the design was either inexcusably
+insidious, or the manifestation of irresolution which reached its
+conclusion only by degrees. On November 28 the cardinals, in consistory
+with the pope, sent to Huss's lodgings the Bishops of Augsburg and
+Trent, with Henry of Ulm, the burgomaster of Constance, to summon him at
+once before them to defend his faith. The envoys greeted him kindly, and
+though both he and John of Chlum protested that the summons was a
+violation of the safe-conduct, he immediately consented to go, although
+he said he had come to Constance to appear openly in the council, and
+not secretly before the cardinals. He added that he could not be
+imprisoned because he had a safe-conduct. John of Chlum and some friends
+accompanied him to the palace occupied by the pope. When the cardinals
+told him he was accused of disseminating many heresies, he replied that
+he would rather die than be convicted of a single one; he had come with
+alacrity to Constance, and if he was found in error he would willingly
+abjure. To this the cardinals said, "You have answered well." No
+further examination was had, but John XXIII., whose policy was to
+embroil the council with Sigismund, took occasion to ask John of Chlum
+whether Huss had an imperial safe-conduct, to which Chlum replied,
+"Holy father, you know that he has." Again the pope asked the question
+and received the same answer, but none of the cardinals requested to see
+the document. When the morning session was over, guards were placed over
+Huss and John of Chlum. The weary afternoon wore away in suspense, while
+the cardinals held another session in which Stephen Palecz and Michael
+de Causis were busy. The tedium of detention was only broken by a
+simple-looking Franciscan, who accosted Huss and asked for instruction
+on the subject of transubstantiation, and, on being satisfactorily
+answered, inquired about the union of humanity and divinity in Christ.
+Huss recognized that he was no simple inquirer, for he had asked the
+most difficult question in theology; he declined further colloquy, and
+on the retiring of the friar was informed by the guards that he was
+Master Didaco, renowned as the subtlest theologian of Lombardy. About
+nightfall John of Chlum was allowed to depart, while Huss was detained,
+and soon after Stephen and Michael came exultingly and told him that he
+was now in their power, and should not escape till he had paid the last
+penny. He was taken under guard to the house of the precentor of the
+cathedral, in charge of the Bishop of Lausanne, regent of the apostolic
+chamber, and after eight days was transferred to the Dominican convent
+on the Rhine. Here he was confined in a cell adjoining the latrines,
+where a fever soon caused his life to be despaired of. His sudden death
+would have been a most untoward event, and the pope sent his own
+physicians to restore him. It was in vain that his friends in Prague
+procured from Archbishop Conrad a declaration affirming that he had
+never found Huss to vary from the faith in a single word. His fate had
+already been virtually decided.[507]
+
+John of Chlum's first thought on regaining his liberty was to hasten to
+the pope and to expostulate with him. When the safe-conduct had reached
+Constance, Chlum had at once exhibited it to John XXIII., who is
+reported to have declared, on reading it, that if his own brother had
+been slain by Huss the latter should be safe while in Constance so far
+as he was concerned. Now he disclaimed all responsibility and threw the
+blame on the cardinals.[508] This question as to the safe-conduct and
+its violation has been the subject of so warm a discussion, and it
+illustrates so completely a phase of the relations between the Church
+and heretics, that its brief consideration here is not out of place.
+
+The imperial safe-conduct issued to Huss was in the ordinary form,
+without limitation or condition. It was addressed to all the princes and
+subjects of the empire, ecclesiastical and secular, and to all nobles
+and magistrates and officials, informing them that Huss was taken into
+the protection of the king and of the empire, and ordering that he be
+permitted to pass, remain, and return without impediment, and that all
+help which he might require should be extended to him. Thus it was not a
+simple _viaticum_ for protection during the journey from Bohemia, and it
+was not so regarded by any one. That it was intended as a safeguard
+during the council and the return home is shown by its issue, October
+18, after Huss's departure from Prague, and its reaching him in
+Constance after his arrival there. That his imprisonment was at once
+looked upon as a gross violation of the imperial pledge is seen in the
+protests which John of Chlum affixed to the church doors on December 15,
+probably as soon as Sigismund could be heard from, and again on the
+24th, when the king was near Constance and was to arrive the next day.
+This paper recited that Huss had come under the imperial protection and
+safe-conduct to answer in public audience all who might question his
+faith. That, in the absence of Sigismund, who would not have permitted
+it, and in contempt of his safe-conduct, Huss had been thrown into
+prison. That the imperial ambassadors had vainly demanded his release,
+and that when Sigismund comes he should plainly make known to all men
+his grief and indignation at this violation of the imperial pledge.[509]
+
+The suggestion that the safe-conduct was a mere passport designedly
+insufficient to protect Huss is a recent discovery which would not have
+been left to the ingenuity of modern times if it could have been alleged
+during the warm debate which raged over the question at Constance. That
+nobody thought of it then is sufficient proof that such an excuse is
+untenable. Such an assertion would have been all-sufficient when, May
+13, 1415, the Bohemians in Constance presented a memorial to the council
+in which they referred to the treatment of Huss as a violation of the
+safe-conduct. Yet in its answer the council had no thought of making
+such an allegation, while at the same time Sigismund's services in the
+quarrel with John XXIII. were too recent, and still too necessary, for
+the good fathers to inflict on him the disgrace of publicly declaring
+that they had righteously overruled his attempt to protect a heretic.
+They therefore had recourse to a lie manufactured for the occasion, by
+asserting, in spite of the notorious existence of the safe-conduct in
+Constance at the time of Huss's arrest, that witnesses worthy of credit
+had proved that it had not been procured until fifteen days after that
+occurrence, and therefore that no public faith had been violated in the
+proceedings. This argument, which Sigismund himself asserted to be false
+in the public session of June 7, is an admission that the public faith
+was violated. A single fact such as this outweighs all the special
+pleadings of modern apologists.[510]
+
+Sigismund at first fully justified the confidence reposed in him by Huss
+and John of Chlum. He made no attempt to say that his letters were not
+intended to protect Huss from prosecution, but treated them as having
+been wrongfully violated. As soon as he had heard of the arrest he had
+ordered Huss's release with a threat to break open the prisons in case
+of refusal. On his arrival at Constance, on Christmas Day, his
+indignation was boundless and there was consequently great excitement.
+He protested that he would leave Constance, and, in fact, made a show of
+doing so; he even threatened to withdraw the imperial protection from
+the council, but was plainly told by the cardinals that they would
+themselves break it up unless he yielded. The hopes of Christendom had
+been raised to too high a pitch as to the results expected from the
+assemblage for him to venture on such a risk. Naturally faithless, his
+insistence was a matter of pride, and self-interest easily won the day.
+We have better materials for estimating his character than that of any
+other prince of the century, and from first to last we find fully
+justified the opinion of his contemporaries that he was wholly unworthy
+of trust. During the long negotiations between the Council of Basle and
+the Hussites, in which he took part, we see him endeavoring impartially
+to deceive both sides, making solemn engagements with no intention of
+fulfilling them, and regarded by all parties as utterly devoid of honor.
+Unfortunate in war and chronically impecunious, he was ever ready to
+adopt any temporary expedient to evade a difficulty, and to sacrifice
+his plighted word to obtain an advantage.[511]
+
+It cost him little, therefore, to withdraw from the assertion of his own
+honor, and the matter was so speedily arranged that when on January 1,
+1415, the council formally asked him that free course of justice be
+allowed in the case of Huss, in spite of the pretext of safe-conduct, he
+at once issued a decree declaring the council free in all matters of
+faith and capable of proceeding against all who were defamed for heresy;
+moreover, he pledged himself to set at naught the threats which were
+freely uttered of defending Huss at all hazards. Yet the discussion
+still continued during January, and the pressure on him from Bohemia was
+so strong that for a while he still fluctuated irresolutely, but, April
+8, he formally revoked all letters of safe-conduct. Huss himself had no
+hesitation in declaring that he had been betrayed and that Sigismund had
+promised his safe return. His friends took the same position. In
+February an assembly of the magnates of Bohemia and Moravia, gathered at
+Mezeritz, sent an address to Sigismund pointing out in language more
+forcible than courtly the disgrace and humiliation attendant upon the
+disregard of the imperial faith. Again, in May, after the flight of
+John XXIII. had inspired new hopes as to the action of the council, two
+similar assemblages held at Bruenn and Prague approached him with even
+stronger representations. It was all in vain. Sigismund had finally
+taken his position, and he redeemed his hesitation with great show of
+zeal. When, on June 7, Huss had his second hearing before the council,
+Sigismund thanked the prelates for their consideration for him as shown
+in their leniency to Huss, whom he sternly advised to submit, for he
+could look for no human help; "We will never protect you in your errors
+and pertinacity. Rather, indeed, than do so we will prepare the fire for
+you with our own hands." In the final session of July 6, Huss declared,
+"I came freely to the council under the public faith promised by the
+emperor, here present, that I should be free from all constraint, to
+bear witness to my innocence and to answer for my faith to all who call
+it in question." With this he fixed his eyes on Sigismund, who blushed
+deeply. The impression made in Bohemia by Sigismund's calculated
+faithlessness was ineffaceable. When, in 1433, the legates of the
+Council of Basle sought to throw the responsibility of the result at
+Constance on the false witnesses, John Rokyzana pertinently asked them
+how, if the council was inspired by the Holy Ghost, it could have been
+misled by perjurers, and he alluded to the violation of the safe-conduct
+in terms showing that it had been neither forgotten nor forgiven. This
+had been practically manifested a year earlier, in September, 1432, when
+the Council of Basle was eager to have Hussite deputies come to it, and
+the Bohemians would not stir without the most exaggerated provisions to
+guarantee their safety. Three safe-conducts had been furnished them--one
+from Sigismund, one from the council, and one from the city of Eger, but
+they still required others, from the city of Basle, the Margrave of
+Brandenburg, and the Counts Palatine Dukes of Bavaria, one of whom was
+the protector of the council. These were very different from that which
+had satisfied the simplicity of Huss. Thus Frederic of Brandenburg and
+John of Bavaria pledged themselves to furnish sufficient troops to
+conduct the Bohemians safely to Basle, to guard them while there, and to
+bring them back to any designated place in Bohemia. The princes,
+moreover, guaranteed the safe-conducts of Sigismund and the council, and
+agreed to forfeit honors and lands, to be entered upon and taken in
+possession by the Bohemians in case of any unredressed violation of the
+pledge. These precautions were superfluous, for the envoys had at their
+back the terrible Bohemian levies which could enforce respect for
+plighted faith; but when reconciliation had taken place and Sigismund
+was seated on the throne of his fathers, his guarantees were again
+regarded as valueless. In April, 1437, he urged John Rokyzana to visit
+the council, and on the latter alleging fear that he might be treated as
+was Huss at Constance, the emperor was greatly moved and exclaimed, "Do
+you think that for you or for this city I would do aught against mine
+honor? I have given a safe-conduct and so also has the council;" but
+Rokyzana was not to be tempted by this appeal to the forfeited imperial
+honor, and steadfastly refused to go.[512]
+
+The explanation of the controversy over the violation of the
+safe-conduct is perfectly simple. Germany and especially Bohemia knew so
+little about the Inquisition and the systematic persecution of heresy
+that surprise and indignation were excited by the application to the
+case of Huss of the recognized principles of the canon law. The council
+could not have done otherwise than it did without surrendering those
+principles. To allow a heresiarch who had become conspicuous to all
+Christendom, like Huss, to evade the punishment due to his crimes on so
+flimsy a pretext as that of his having confided himself to them on a
+promise of safety to which the public faith was pledged, would have
+seemed to the most conscientious jurists of the council the most absurd
+of solecisms. In point of fact, the best men who were there--the
+Gersons, the Peter d'Aillys, the Zabarellas--were as unflinching as the
+worst creatures of the curia. It had been, as we have seen, too long a
+principle of inquisitorial practice that the heretic had no rights, and
+that the man accused of heresy by sufficient witnesses was to be treated
+as a heretic until he could clear himself, for any one to hesitate about
+putting it in force in this case. When Sigismund complained that he was
+dishonored by the imprisonment of Huss, the canonists of the council
+promptly assured him, in the words of a contemporary orthodox burgher of
+Constance, that "it could not and might not be in any law that a
+heretic could enjoy a safe-conduct," and though this was prejudging the
+case, we have seen how customary that was in all inquisitorial trials.
+These words Sigismund himself virtually repeated in his address to Huss
+in the session of June 7: "Many say that we cannot, under the law,
+protect a heretic or one suspect of heresy." When Huss's execution
+aroused the wildest indignation throughout Bohemia, expressed to the
+council in missives of scant courtesy, the council asserted its position
+in a decree formally adopted September 23, 1415, that no safe-conduct
+from any secular potentate could work prejudice to the Catholic faith,
+or could prevent any competent tribunal from trying, judging, and
+condemning a heretic or suspected heretic, even though, if trusting to
+the safe-conduct, he had come to the place of judgment and would not
+have come without it. So thoroughly did the council cause this to be
+recognized that, in 1432, in the Convention of Eger, stipulating the
+bases of negotiation between the Hussites and the Council of Basle, it
+was expressly agreed that no canons or decretals should be alleged to
+derogate, infringe, or annul the safe-conducts under which the Bohemian
+envoys were to appear before the council.[513]
+
+The trial of Huss has been the subject of much indignant eloquence. It
+is the most conspicuous instance of an inquisitorial process on record,
+and to those unacquainted with the system of procedure which had grown
+up in the development of the Holy Office, its practical denial of
+justice has seemed a wilful perversity on the part of the council, while
+the sublimely pathetic figure of the sufferer has necessarily awakened
+the warmest sympathy. Yet, in fact, the only deviations of the council
+from the ordinary course of such affairs were special marks of lenity
+towards the accused. He was not subjected to the torture, as in the
+customary practice in such cases he should have been, and, at the
+instance of Sigismund, he was thrice permitted to appear before the
+whole body and defend himself in public session. When, therefore, we see
+how inevitable was his condemnation, how he could have saved himself
+only at the cost of burdening his soul with perjury and converting his
+remaining years into a living lie, we obtain a measure of the infamy of
+the system, and can in some degree estimate the innumerable wrongs
+inflicted on countless thousands of obscure and forgotten victims. In
+this aspect the trial is worthy of examination, for though it presents
+no novel points of procedure, except the concessions made to Huss, it
+affords an instructive example of the manner in which the inquisitorial
+process described in preceding chapters was practically applied.
+
+The case against Huss was rendered stronger, almost at the outset, by
+the action of his friends at home. It must have been shortly after his
+arrival in Constance that Jacobel of Mies, who had succeeded Michael de
+Causis in the Church of St. Adalbert, commenced to administer communion
+in both elements to the laity, and thus gave rise to the most
+distinguishing and obstinate feature of Bohemian heresy. Zeal for the
+Eucharist had long been a marked peculiarity of religious devotion in
+Bohemia. The synod of 1390 promised an indulgence of forty days to all
+who bent the knee on the elevation of the host; and the frequent
+partaking of the sacrament was repeatedly and strenuously urged by those
+who have been classed as the precursors of Huss. Mathias of Janow had
+even ventured to recommend that the cup should be restored to the laity,
+but the question had never reappeared during the stormy years in which
+Huss and his friends had been battling for the Wickliffite doctrines.
+According to AEneas Sylvius, a certain Peter of Dresden, infected with
+Waldensian errors, had left Prague with the other Germans in 1409, but
+was driven from home on account of his heresy and took refuge again in
+Prague, where he supported himself as a teacher of children. He it was
+who suggested to Jacobel the return to the ancient practice of the
+Church; the heretics, delighted to find a question in which they were
+clearly in the right, eagerly embraced it. The custom spread to the
+churches of St. Michael, St. Martin, the Bethlehem Chapel, and
+elsewhere, in spite of the opposition of King Wenceslas and Archbishop
+Conrad, who vainly threatened secular punishments and ecclesiastical
+interdicts. Huss was speedily communicated with. He approved of the
+custom, as indeed he could not well help doing, and his tract in its
+favor, when conveyed to the disciples, gave a fresh impetus to the
+movement. It was in vain that on June 15, 1415, the council condemned
+the use of the cup by the laity, pronounced heretics all priests so
+administering the sacrament, ordered them to be handed over to the
+secular arm, and commanded all prelates and inquisitors to prosecute as
+heretics those who denied the propriety of communion in one element. For
+more than a century the Utraquists, or Calixtins, as they called
+themselves, were the ruling party in Bohemia. The consciousness of being
+in the wrong and of having to justify itself by all manner of trivial
+excuses rendered the council additionally eager to crush the
+insubordination of which Huss was the representative. [514]
+
+We have seen that Huss was arrested November 28, 1414. Michael de
+Causis, Stephen Palecz, and others of his enemies had presented formal
+articles of accusation against him. These, drawn up in the name of
+Michael, accused him of maintaining the remanence of the substance in
+the Eucharist after consecration, of asserting the vitiation of the
+sacraments in the hands of sinful priests and denying the power of the
+keys under the same conditions, of holding that the Church should have
+no temporal possessions, of disregarding excommunication, of granting
+the cup to the laity, of defending the forty-five condemned articles of
+Wickliff, of exciting the people against the clergy, so that if he were
+allowed to return to Prague there would be a persecution such as had not
+been seen since the days of Constantine, and of other errors and
+offences. This was more than sufficient to justify his trial, and the
+process was commenced without delay by the appointment, December 1, of
+commissioners to examine him. These commissioners were, in fact,
+inquisitors, and the council at large served as the assembly of experts
+in which, as it will be remembered, final assent was given to the
+judgment. One of the commissioners at least, Bernardo, Bishop of Citta
+di Castello, was already familiar with the matter, for only the year
+before, as papal nuncio in Poland, he had assisted in driving away
+Jerome of Prague. In addition to the articles of Michael de Causis there
+was a kind of indictment against Huss presented to the commissioners by
+the procurators and promoters of the council, reciting the troubles at
+Prague, his excommunication, and his teaching of Wickliffite
+heresies.[515]
+
+At first the proceedings were pushed with a vigor which seemed to
+promise a speedy termination of the case. As soon as Huss recovered from
+his first sickness there was submitted to him a series of forty-two
+errors extracted from his writings by Palecz. To these he replied
+_seriatim_ in writing, explaining the false constructions which he
+asserted had been placed on some passages, defending some, and limiting
+and conditioning others. As he was denied the use of books, even of the
+treatises which were the source of the charges, these answers manifest a
+wonderful retentiveness of memory and quickness and clearness of
+intellect. Sometimes he was visited in his prison by the commissioners
+and personally interrogated. A Carthusian, writing from Constance, May
+19, relates that the day before he had been present at such an
+examination and had never seen so bold and audacious a scoundrel or one
+who could so cautiously conceal the truth. On the other hand, we have
+his own account of one of these interviews. The commissioners were
+accompanied by Michael and Stephen to prompt them. Each article was read
+to him and he was asked if such was his belief; he replied, explaining
+the sense in which he held it. Then he would be asked if he would defend
+it, and he would answer no, but that he would stand to the decision of
+the council. Nothing could well seem more submissive or more orthodox,
+and under any other system of jurisprudence conviction might well appear
+impossible. Heresy, however, as we have seen, was a crime; once
+committed, even through ignorance, a simple return to the Church was not
+enough; belief in the errors must be admitted and then abjured, before
+the criminal could be considered as penitent and entitled to the
+substitution of perpetual imprisonment for the death-penalty. Huss was
+condemned on heresies which he had not held rather than those which he
+had taught.[516]
+
+Thousands of miserable wretches had been convicted on a tithe of the
+evidence now brought against him. Stephen Palecz, a man of the highest
+repute, swore before the commissioners that since the birth of Christ
+there had been no more dangerous heretics than Wickliff and Huss, and
+that all who customarily attended the sermons of the latter believed in
+the remanence of the substance of bread in the Eucharist. What Palecz
+testified there were scores of others to substantiate and amplify.
+Witnesses were there in abundance to prove that he believed in the
+remanence of the bread, that the sacraments were vitiated in the hands
+of sinful priests, that indulgences were of no avail, that the Church of
+Rome was the synagogue of Satan, that heresy was to be overcome by
+disputation and not by force, that a papal excommunication was to be
+disregarded. Many of these errors he indignantly denied having
+entertained, but it was in vain. In vain he wrote out in prison, as
+early as March 5, 1415, his tract, "_De Sacramento Corporis et
+Sanguinis_," in which he declared that full transubstantiation took
+place; that God worked the miracle irrespective of the merits of the
+celebrant; that the body and blood of Christ were both in the bread and
+in the wine, and that he had taught this doctrine since 1401, before he
+was a priest. In vain, shortly before his execution, his devotion burst
+forth in a hymn in which he exclaimed:
+
+    "O quam sanctus panis iste,
+     Tu es solus Jesu Christe,
+     Caro, cibus, sacramentum,
+     Quo non majus est inventum!"
+
+In vain during his public audience of June 8 he disputed earnestly in
+favor of the same belief. The witnesses swore to the contrary. He had no
+right to call rebutting testimony, and could only appeal to God and his
+conscience. He was proved a heretic who must confess and abjure or be
+burned.[517]
+
+His only possible line of defence, as has been shown above (Vol. I. p.
+446) would have lain in disabling the witnesses for mortal enmity--for
+enmity such as would lead them to seek his life--and even this would not
+have been available against the errors which the commissioners had
+extracted, falsely, as he asserted, from his writings. As regards the
+witnesses, the commissioners made an unusual concession to him when,
+during his sickness in December, some fifteen of them were taken to his
+cell that he might see them sworn. Some of them, it is said, declared
+that they knew nothing; others were bitterly hostile to him. To this
+extent he knew some of the names, and others he was acquainted with
+because they were attached to depositions taken in advance at Prague for
+Michael de Causis, which by some means had fallen into the hands of Huss
+before he started for Constance. Some of these names, probably on this
+account, were attached to the article on the subject of remanence
+presented in the hearing of June 7, but in the final sentence no names
+are mentioned; the witnesses to each article are designated simply by
+titles, such as a canon of Prague, a priest of Litomysl, a master of
+arts, a doctor of theology, etc., and when Huss asked the name of one of
+them it was refused. This was strictly in accordance with rule.[518]
+
+Yet the hostility of those who testified against him was notorious. At
+the place of execution he declared that he was convicted of errors which
+he did not entertain, on the evidence of false witnesses. The Bohemians
+in Constance, in their memorial of May 31, 1415, to the council,
+declared that the testimony against him was given by those who were his
+mortal enemies. At one time he or his friends thought of disabling them
+on this account, but when he asked the commissioners to permit him to
+employ an advocate who could take the necessary exceptions to the
+evidence, although they at first assented they finally refused, saying
+that it was against the law for any one to defend a suspected heretic.
+This, as we have seen, was strictly true, and if the maintenance of the
+rule may seem harsh, we must remember on the other hand that the friends
+of Huss were allowed unexampled liberty in working in his behalf. Their
+repeated memorials to the council and their efforts with Sigismund made
+them guilty of the crime of fautorship, and if there had been any
+disposition to enforce the law they could have been reduced to instant
+silence and have been grievously punished.[519]
+
+It had not taken long to secure evidence more than ample for Huss's
+conviction, and if his burning had been the object desired it might have
+been speedily accomplished. We have seen, however, how much the
+Inquisition preferred a penitent convert to a cremated heretic, and in
+this case, perhaps more than in any other on record, confession and
+submission were supremely desirable. Huss, as a self-confessed
+heresiarch, would be deprived of all importance, and his disciples might
+be expected to follow his example: as a martyr, there was no predicting
+whether the result would be terror or exasperation. The milder customary
+methods of the Inquisition were therefore brought to bear to break down
+his stubborn obstinacy by procrastination, solitude, and despair. Had
+his judges desired to be harsh they could have had recourse to torture,
+which was the ordinary mode of dealing with similar cases. In this they
+would have been fully justified by law and custom. The less violent but
+equally efficient device of prolonged starvation could likewise have
+been employed, but was mercifully forborne. Yet the slower but not less
+wearing torture of indefinite imprisonment was not spared him. He was
+kept in the Dominican convent until March 24. Although his petition to
+be allowed to see his friends was refused, they were permitted to
+furnish him with writing materials, and he employed his enforced leisure
+in composing a number of tracts which, written without the aid of books,
+show his extensive and accurate acquaintance with Scripture and the
+Fathers. His sweet temper won the good-will of all who were brought in
+contact with him, and he gratefully alludes to the kindness with which
+he was treated both by his guards and by the clerks of the papal
+chamber. The winning nature of the man, as well as the gold of his
+friends, probably explains the correspondence which at this period he
+was able to maintain with them, though all communication with him was
+forbidden. Letters were conveyed back and forth clandestinely, sometimes
+carried in food, in spite of the vigilance of his enemies. Michael de
+Causis hovered around the gate, saying, "By the grace of God we shall
+burn that heretic who has cost me so many florins," and procuring that
+the wives of the guards, whom he suspected as letter-carriers, should be
+excluded. All this ceased when the quarrel between pope and council
+culminated. On March 20 John XXIII. secretly fled from Constance, when
+the guards placed over Huss delivered the keys to Sigismund and followed
+their master. The council then handed Huss over to the custody of the
+Bishop of Constance, who carried him in chains by night to the castle of
+Gottlieben, some miles from the city across the Rhine. His friends had
+requested that he should have a more airy prison, and the request was
+more than granted, for he was now confined in a room at the top of a
+tall tower. Though his feet were fettered he was able to move about
+during the day, but at night his arm was chained to the wall. As escape
+was impossible, the confinement was evidently intended to be punitive.
+Here he was completely isolated from all intercourse with his
+fellow-beings and left to his own dreary introspection. Disease added to
+the harshness of his prison. From the foul Dominican cell to the windy
+turret-room of Gottlieben, he was exposed to every variety of
+unwholesome conditions. Stone, an affection hitherto unknown to him,
+tormented him greatly. Toothache and headache combined to increase his
+sufferings. On one occasion a severe attack of fever, accompanied by
+excessive vomiting, so prostrated him that his guards carried him out of
+his cell thinking him about to die. Yet throughout all his letters from
+prison the beautiful patience of the man shines forth. For the enemies
+who were pursuing him to the death there is only forgiveness; for the
+trials with which God has seen fit to test his servant there is only
+submission. He overflows with gratitude for the steadfast affection of
+his friends, and sends touching requests of remembrance to them all; he
+teaches charity and gently points out the way to moral and spiritual
+improvement. There is neither the pride of martyrdom nor the desire for
+retribution; all is pious resignation and love and humility. Since
+Christ, no man has left behind him a more affecting example of the true
+Christian spirit than John Huss, while fearlessly awaiting the time when
+he should suffer for what he believed to be truth. He was one of the
+chosen few who exalt and glorify humanity. Yet he was but human, and the
+final victory was not won without the agony of self-conquest; while at
+times he comforted himself with dreams that God would not suffer him to
+perish, but that like Daniel and Jonah and Susannah he would be rescued
+when all help seemed vain.[520]
+
+Hope seemed justified when the rupture occurred between the pope and the
+council. No sooner was Huss made aware of the flight of John XXIII. than
+he begged his friends to see Sigismund instantly and procure his
+liberation. The answer was his transfer to the tower of Gottlieben. When
+the pope was brought back a prisoner to the same castle of Gottlieben,
+and the council proceeded to try and condemn him as a simonist and
+dilapidator who was ruining the Church, while his personal vices and
+crimes, unfit for description, were a scandal to Christendom, such
+confirmation of all that the Wickliffites had urged might well seem to
+justifiy the expectation that Huss would be released with honor. John
+XXIII., however, with the wisdom of the children of the world, essayed
+no defence; he confessed all that was laid to his charge, submitted to
+the council, and was eventually, after a few years of imprisonment,
+rewarded by Martin V. with the lofty post of Dean of the Sacred College.
+Huss, with the constancy of the children of light, refused to perjure
+himself by confession, and there could be no escape for him.[521]
+
+The council had been assembled to reform the Church, and was performing
+its duty in its own way, but nothing could be further from the thoughts
+of its most zealous members than the revolutionary reform of Wickliff
+and Huss, which would reduce the Church to apostolic poverty and deprive
+it of all temporal power. Besides the doctrinal errors, attested by
+abundant witnesses, there was ample material in Huss's writings to prove
+him a most dangerous enemy of the whole ecclesiastical system. He had
+written his tract "_De Ablatione Bonorum_" in defence of one of the
+forty-five condemned Wickliffite articles which asserted that the
+temporal lord could at will deprive of their temporalities ecclesiastics
+who were habitual delinquents. His tract "_De Decimis_" defended
+another of the articles, contending that no one in mortal sin could be a
+temporal lord, a prelate, or a bishop. John Gerson, one of the leading
+members of the council, had, as Chancellor of the University of Paris,
+before coming to Constance, drawn up a series of twenty such dangerous
+errors, extracted from Huss's treatise "_De Ecclesia_," and had urged
+Archbishop Conrad of Prague to extirpate the Wickliffite heresy by
+calling in the secular arm. Huss, in his deductions from the Wickliffite
+doctrines of predestination, had overthrown the very foundations of the
+hierarchical system. Among the cardinals in the council, Ottone Colonna
+had fulminated the papal excommunication which Huss had disregarded;
+Zabarella and Brancazio had been actively concerned in the proceedings
+against him before the curia--all of these and many others were
+thoroughly familiar with his revolutionary doctrines. What was to become
+of the theocracy founded by Hildebrand if such teachings were to pass
+unreproved, if their assertor was to be allowed to defend them and was
+only to be adjudged a heretic when overcome in scholastic disputation?
+The whole structure of sacerdotalism would be undermined and the whole
+body of canon law would be disregarded if so monstrous a proposition
+should be conceded. To the fathers of the council nothing could well
+seem more preposterous. Then Michael de Causis had intercepted a letter,
+written by Huss from prison, in which the ministers of the council were
+alluded to as the servants of Antichrist, and when this was brought to
+him by the commissioners he acknowledged its authenticity. Besides all
+this, he had remained under excommunication for suspicion of heresy
+during long years, during which he had constantly performed divine
+service, and he had called the pope an Antichrist whose anathema was to
+be disregarded. This of itself, as we have seen, constituted him a
+self-convicted heretic.[522]
+
+It thus was idle to suppose that the council, because it had deposed
+John XXIII., would set free so contumacious a heretic, whose very
+virtues only rendered him the more dangerous. The inquisitorial process
+must go on to the end. Even during the bitterest and most doubtful
+portion of the contest, before the pope had been brought back to
+Constance, the successive steps of the trial received due attention. On
+April 17 four new commissioners were appointed to replace the previous
+ones, whose commissions from the pope were held to have expired, and the
+new commission was expressly granted power to proceed to final sentence.
+The only doubt arising was whether the condemnation of Wickliff, with
+which the case of Huss was inextricably related, should be uttered in
+the name of the pope or in that of the council, and its publication, May
+4, in the latter form, showed that the assembly had no hesitation as to
+its duty in stamping out the heresy of the master and of the disciple.
+The active measures also, which during this period were taken against
+Jerome of Prague, were an indication not to be mistaken of the purposes
+of the council. Yet how little the friends of Huss understood the real
+position of affairs, and how false hopes had been excited by the rupture
+with the pope, is seen in their efforts at this juncture to press the
+trial to a conclusion. Under the procrastinating policy of the
+Inquisition it is quite possible that Huss would have been left to his
+solitary musings for a time indefinitely longer, in hopes that his
+resolution would at last give way, but for the efforts of his friends,
+who hoped to secure his release. On May 13 they presented a memorial
+complaining of his treatment, imprisoned in irons and perishing of
+hunger and thirst, without trial or conviction, in violation of the
+safe-conduct and of the pledged faith of the empire. They also
+remonstrated against the stories which were circulated to prejudice the
+case, that in Bohemia the blood of Christ was carried around in bottles,
+and that cobblers heard confession and celebrated mass. On May 16 the
+council replied to the effect that as far back as 1411 Huss had had a
+hearing before the Holy See and had been excommunicated, and had since
+then not only proved himself a heretic, but a heresiarch, by remaining
+under excommunication and preaching forbidden doctrines, even in
+Constance itself. As for the safe-conduct, we have seen how it was
+pretended to have been procured after the arrest. This elusive answer
+might have shown how the case was already prejudged by those who were to
+decide it; yet again, on May 18, the Bohemians presented a rejoinder
+urging promptitude. It was fully expected in Constance that a session
+would be held on the 22d, at which Huss would be condemned; but about
+this time attention was engrossed by the trial of John XXIII., who was
+at length deposed, May 29, and notified of his deposition on the 31st.
+Sigismund was now preparing for the voyage to Spain, which was expected
+to take place in June, and if anything was to be done with Huss before
+his departure further delay was inadmissible. Probably the Bohemians
+imagined that in some indefinable way he would yet save their leader. On
+May 31, therefore, they presented another memorial, reiterating their
+complaints about the safe-conduct and asking for a speedy public
+hearing. Sigismund entered during the discussion and strenuously urged
+the public audience, which was finally promised. Huss's friends further
+urged that he should be brought from his prison and be allowed a few
+days to recover from his harsh incarceration, and a show was made of
+complying with the request. On the same day John of Chlum had the
+satisfaction of forwarding to Gottlieben an order for the transmission
+of Huss to Constance. The next day, June 1, a special deputation from
+the council followed and presented to him the thirty articles which had
+been proved against him. They reported that he submitted himself to the
+council; but he maintained that he only agreed to do so on such points
+as he could be proved to have taught erroneously. At last he was brought
+to Constance in chains and confined in the Franciscan convent.[523]
+
+In the routine of the inquisitorial process there was no necessity for
+further parley with the accused. The articles of heresy were proved
+against him, and if he continued obstinately to deny them delivery to
+the secular arm was a matter of course. There had been no intention of
+permitting such an innovation on the regular procedure as a public
+audience, but Sigismund could see, if the council could not, that its
+denial would have a most unfortunate influence on public opinion in
+Bohemia, where, in the prevailing ignorance as to the inquisitorial
+rules, it would be claimed that the council was afraid to face their
+champion and was forced to condemn him unheard. It could, in reality,
+have no influence on the result, for the case was already virtually
+decided, but Huss's friends could not recognize this, and an attempt was
+made, without success, to speculate on their eagerness, by a demand for
+two thousand florins to defray the alleged expenses. The audiences which
+followed were thus wholly irregular, and may be briefly dismissed as in
+no sense entitled to the importance which has commonly been ascribed to
+them.[524]
+
+On June 5 a congregation of the council was held in the Franciscan
+convent. At first the intention was to carry out the ordinary
+inquisitorial procedure by considering, in the absence of Huss, the
+articles proved against him, but Peter Mladenowic hastened to John of
+Chlum and Wenceslas of Duba, who forthwith appealed to Sigismund. The
+latter at once sent the Palsgrave Louis and Frederic Burggrave of
+Nuremberg to the council, with orders that nothing should be done until
+Huss was present and his books were before them for verification. At
+length, therefore, he had the long-desired opportunity of meeting his
+adversaries, and defending himself in public debate. The books from
+which his errors had been extracted were laid before him--his treatise
+"_De Ecclesia_" and his tracts against Stephen Palecz and Stanislaus
+of Znaim--and he acknowledged them to be his. The articles were taken up
+in succession. He was required to answer to each a simple yea or nay,
+and when he desired to explain anything a scene of indescribable
+confusion arose. When he asked to be taught wherein he had erred he was
+told that he must first recant his heresies, which was strictly in
+accordance with the law. The day wore away in the discussion, and it had
+to be renewed on the 7th, and again on the 8th--Sigismund being present
+on these latter occasions. Huss defended himself gallantly, with
+wonderful quickness of thought and dialectical skill, but nothing could
+be more unlike the free debate which he had deluded himself into
+anticipating when he left Prague. Although the Cardinal of Ostia, who
+presided, endeavored to show fairness, the assembly at times became a
+howling mob with shouts of "Burn him! Burn him!" Interruptions were
+incessant, he was baited on all sides with questions, and frequently his
+replies were drowned in clamor. As a judicial act it was a mockery, but
+it served the purpose desired by Sigismund, and the Church had shown
+itself not afraid of public discussion with the heresiarch. At the end
+of the third day of this tumultuous wrangling Huss was exhausted almost
+to fainting. The night before toothache had deprived him of sleep, an
+attack of fever supervened, and six months of harsh imprisonment had
+left him little physical endurance. The proceedings terminated with the
+cardinals urging him to recant and promising him merciful treatment if
+he would throw himself upon the mercy of the council. He asked for
+another hearing, saying that he would submit if his arguments and
+authorities were insufficient. To this Cardinal Peter d'Ailly replied
+that the unanimous decision of the doctors was that he must confess his
+error in publishing the articles ascribed to him, he must swear never in
+future to believe or teach them, and must recant them publicly. Huss
+begged the council for the love of God not to force him to wrong his
+conscience, for abjuration meant the renunciation of an error previously
+entertained, and many of those brought against him he had never held.
+Sigismund asked him why he could not renounce errors which he said had
+been ascribed to him through perjury, and Huss had to explain to him the
+technical meaning of abjuration. One member of the council even objected
+to the accused being admitted to recantation, because he was not to be
+trusted, but this would have been wholly illegal. Even in the case of
+relapse the heretic always had a right to confess and recant, and the
+council was not to be betrayed into so manifest a denial of justice. It
+was impossible, in such a crowd of eager persecutors, to maintain the
+legal forms in all strictness, and there followed a number of volunteer
+accusations by individuals, on which an irregular discussion could not
+be repressed. Finally, as Huss was withdrawn, John of Chlum succeeded in
+giving him a friendly grasp of the hand and a word of sympathy. To the
+forlorn and despised heretic that touch and voice were a solace which
+nerved him for the yet harder trials of the succeeding weeks.[525]
+
+His conscientious endurance was now to be tested to the uttermost. The
+wise general policy of the Inquisition, which preferred a confessed
+penitent to a martyr, was specially applicable in this case, for though
+Sigismund and the council underestimated the Bohemian fervor and
+obstinacy, the dullest could see that Huss confessing to having taught
+heresy and humbly seeking reconciliation would dispirit his followers,
+while no one could guess the extent of the conflagration which might
+spread from his pyre. Accordingly efforts were redoubled to induce him
+to confess and recant. Sigismund had prepared the way by assuring him
+during the public audience that no mercy would be shown him and that
+persistent denial would bring him to the stake, while he was not
+notified that behind the bland promises of mercy for submission there
+lay a sentence, which, while expressing joy at his humbly seeking
+absolution, pronounced him to be pernicious, scandalous, and seditious,
+and condemned him to degradation from the priesthood and to perpetual
+imprisonment. The council could do no otherwise, for this, as we have
+seen, was the punishment provided by the canons for repentant heretics,
+and yet in estimating the noble firmness of Huss we must bear in mind
+that no intimation of it seems to have been made to him.[526]
+
+The obstacle in the way of Huss's abjuration lay not so much in the
+heresies which he had taught, as in those which he had not taught. On
+legal testimony his judges had found him guilty of all, but the worst of
+them, such as the remanence of the substance and the vitiation of the
+sacraments in polluted hands, he denied energetically ever to have held
+or expressed. Many of the errors extracted from his works, moreover, he
+repudiated, asserting that the passages had been garbled and perverted.
+In the eye of the law this denial was mere contumacy which only
+aggravated his guilt. The first condition of reconciliation was
+confessing under oath that he was guilty of having held these errors and
+then abjuring them. This was committing perjury to God in the most
+solemn fashion, and to a tender conscience like that of Huss it was
+worse than death. From this dilemma there was no escape. On the one hand
+lay the legal system, contrived with Satanic ingenuity and unalterable;
+on the other lay the purity of character which led Huss to reject
+without hesitation all the specious subterfuges suggested to beguile
+him.[527]
+
+For a month the struggle continued, and no human soul ever bore itself
+with loftier fortitude or sweeter or humbler charity. He asked for a
+confessor, and intimated that he would prefer Stephen Palecz, the enemy
+who had hounded him to the death. Palecz came and heard his confession,
+and then urged him to abjure, saying that he ought not to mind the
+humiliation. "The humiliation of condemnation and burning is greater,"
+replied Huss, "how then can I fear humiliation? But advise me: what
+would you do if you knew for certain that you did not hold the errors
+imputed to you? Would you abjure?" Palecz burst into tears and could
+only stammer, "It is difficult." He wept again freely when Huss begged
+his pardon for harsh words used in the heat of strife, and especially
+for calling him a falsifier. Another confessor was sent to him, who
+listened to him kindly and gave him absolution without insisting on
+preliminary abjuration, which was a most irregular concession--indeed,
+almost incredible. Many others were allowed to visit him in the hope of
+persuading him to confess and recant. One learned doctor urged his
+submission, saying, "If the council told me I had but one eye, I would
+confess it to be so, though I know I have two," but Huss was impervious
+to such example. An Englishman adduced the precedent of the English
+doctors who had, without exception, abjured the heresies of Wickliff
+when required to do so; but when Huss offered to swear that he had never
+held or taught the heresies imputed to him, and that he would never hold
+or teach them, his baffled advisers withdrew.[528]
+
+The most formidable effort, however, was of an official character. At
+the final hearing of June 8, Cardinal Zabarella had promised him that a
+recantation in a form strictly limited would be submitted to him, and
+the promise was fulfilled in a paper skilfully drawn up, so as to
+satisfy his scruples. It represented him as protesting anew that much
+had been imputed to him which he had never believed, but that
+nevertheless he submitted himself in everything to the correction and
+orders of the council in abjuring, revoking, and retracting, and in
+accepting whatever merciful penance the council might prescribe for his
+salvation. Carefully as this was phrased to elude the difficulty, Huss
+rejected it without hesitation. In some matters, he said, he would be
+denying the truth, in others he would be perjuring himself. It were
+better to die than to fall into the hands of the Lord in the effort to
+escape momentary suffering. Then one of the fathers of the
+council--supposed to be the Cardinal of Ostia, the highest in rank of
+the Sacred College--addressed him as his "dearest and most cherished
+brother," with the most honeyed persuasiveness, begging him not to
+confide too absolutely in his own judgment. In making the abjuration it
+will not be he that condemns truth, but the council; as for perjury, if
+perjury there be, it will fall on the heads of those who exact it. Yet
+Huss was not to be enticed with such allurements; he could not quiet his
+conscience with casuistry such as this, and he deliberately chose death.
+In daily expectation of the dreadful sentence, he quietly put his simple
+affairs in order. Peter Mladenowic, the notary, had rendered him
+zealous service and should be paid out of his sixty grossi. His little
+debts were to be settled, and his books, apparently his only other
+property, were to be distributed. Kind remembrances were sent to his
+numerous friends, and they were told if they had learned any good of him
+to hold fast to it; if they had seen in him aught reprehensible to cast
+it aside. It was not that he was insensible, for he describes in moving
+terms the mental conflicts and agony which he endured in his hopeless
+prison, expecting each day to be led forth to an agonizing death, but
+the spirit rose superior to the flesh and remained victor in the
+struggle. Solicitous to retain the good opinion of his disciples, he
+managed to transmit to them, on June 18, a copy of the articles proved
+against him, together with a report of what his defence had been. Of
+those drawn from his writings he retracted none, although many he
+declared to be false and garbled. Those alleged against him by witnesses
+he mostly asserted to be lies, and he pathetically concluded, "It only
+remains for me to abjure and revoke and undergo fearful penance or to
+burn. May the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost grant me the spirit of wisdom
+and fortitude to persevere to the end and to escape the snares of
+Satan!"[529]
+
+In hope of his weakening, the end was postponed until the approaching
+departure of Sigismund rendered further delay impossible. Yet effort was
+not abandoned till the last. On July 1 a deputation of prelates
+endeavored to persuade him that he could reasonably recant, but he
+handed them a written confession calling God to witness that he had
+never taught many of the articles; as for the rest, if there were error
+in them he detested it, but he could not abjure any of them. Puzzled by
+his unexpected tenacity of purpose, and earnestly desirous of avoiding
+the catastrophe, a final and unprecedented concession was agreed upon.
+On July 5 Zabarella and Peter d'Ailly sent for him and offered to let
+him deny the heresies proved by witnesses if he would abjure those
+extracted from his books. This was, in fact, an abandonment of all
+inquisitorial precedent, but Huss had persistently declared that most
+of the latter were fraudulently drawn, so as to attribute to him errors
+which he had never held, and he was immovable. As a last resource, later
+in the same day, Sigismund sent his friends John of Chlum and Wenceslas
+of Duba, with four bishops, to ask him whether he would persevere or
+recant, but his answer was as firm as ever. To the friendly adjuration
+of John of Chlum he replied with tears that he would willingly revoke
+anything in which he could be proved to have erred. The bishops
+pronounced him obstinate in error and left him.[530]
+
+Thus the extraordinary efforts of the council to save itself and him
+were vain, and nothing remained but the inevitable final act of the
+tragedy. The next day, July 6, saw the most gorgeous _auto de fe_ on
+record. The cathedral of Constance was crowded with Sigismund and his
+nobles, the great officers of the empire with their insignia, the
+prelates in their splendid robes. While mass was sung, Huss, as an
+excommunicate, was kept waiting at the door; when brought in he was
+placed on an elevated bench by a table on which stood a coffer
+containing priestly vestments. After some preliminaries, including a
+sermon by the Bishop of Lodi, in which he assured Sigismund that the
+events of that day would confer on him immortal glory, the articles of
+which Huss was convicted were recited. In vain he protested that he
+believed in transubstantiation and in the validity of the sacrament in
+polluted hands. He was ordered to hold his tongue, and on his persisting
+the beadles were told to silence him, but in spite of this he continued
+to utter protests. The sentence was then read in the name of the
+council, condemning him both for his written errors and those which had
+been proved by witnesses. He was declared a pertinacious and
+incorrigible heretic who did not desire to return to the Church; his
+books were ordered to be burned, and himself to be degraded from the
+priesthood and abandoned to the secular court. Seven bishops arrayed
+him in priestly garb and warned him to recant while yet there was time.
+He turned to the crowd, and with broken voice declared that he could not
+confess the errors which he had never entertained, lest he should lie to
+God, when the bishops interrupted him, crying that they had waited long
+enough, for he was obstinate in his heresy. He was degraded in the usual
+manner, stripped of his sacerdotal vestments, his fingers scraped; but
+when the tonsure was to be disposed of an absurd quarrel arose among the
+bishops as to whether the head should be shaved with a razor or the
+tonsure be destroyed with scissors. Scissors won the day, and a cross
+was cut in his hair. Then on his head was placed a conical paper cap, a
+cubit in height, adorned with painted devils and the inscription, "This
+is the heresiarch." In accordance with the universal custom no
+proceedings by the secular authorities were regarded as necessary. As
+soon as the ecclesiastical court had pronounced him a heretic and handed
+him over, the laws against heresy operated of themselves. Sigismund, it
+is true, might have delayed the execution for six days, but this would
+have been so unusual as to have excited most unfavorable comment. There
+had already been afforded ample opportunity for resipiscence, and the
+convict could always still recant up to the lighting of the fagots.
+Nothing could reasonably be hoped from further postponement, and
+Sigismund's approaching departure counselled promptitude. He therefore
+briefly ordered the Palsgrave Louis to take charge of the culprit and to
+do to him as to a heretic. Louis called to Hans Hazen, the imperial vogt
+of Constance, "Vogt, take him as judged of both of us and burn him as a
+heretic." Then he was led forth, and the council calmly turned to other
+business, unconscious that it had performed the most momentous act of
+the century.[531]
+
+The place of execution was a meadow near the river, to which he was
+conducted by two thousand armed men, with Palsgrave Louis at their
+head, and a vast crowd, including many nobles, prelates, and cardinals.
+The route followed was circuitous, in order that he might be carried
+past the episcopal palace, in front of which his books were burning,
+whereat he smiled. Pity from man there was none to look for, but he
+sought comfort on high, repeating to himself, "Christ Jesus, Son of the
+living God, have mercy upon me!" and when he came in sight of the stake
+he fell on his knees and prayed. He was asked if he wished to confess,
+and said that he would gladly do so if there were space. A wide circle
+was formed, and Ulrich Schorand, who, according to custom, had been
+providently empowered to take advantage of any final weakening, came
+forward, saying, "Dear sir and master, if you will recant your unbelief
+of heresy, for which you must suffer, I will willingly hear your
+confession; but if you will not, you know right well that, according to
+canon law, no one can administer the sacrament to a heretic." To this
+Huss answered, "It is not necessary: I am no mortal sinner." His paper
+crown fell off and he smiled as his guards replaced it. He desired to
+take leave of his keepers, and when they were brought to him he thanked
+them for their kindness, saying that they had been to him rather
+brothers than jailers. Then he commenced to address the crowd in German,
+telling them that he suffered for errors which he did not hold, sworn to
+by perjured witnesses; but this could not be permitted, and he was cut
+short. When bound to the stake and two cartloads of fagots and straw
+were piled up around him the palsgrave and vogt for the last time
+adjured him to abjure. Even yet he could have saved himself, but he only
+repeated that he had been convicted by false witnesses of errors never
+entertained by him. They clapped their hands and then withdrew, and the
+executioners applied the fire. Twice Huss was heard to exclaim, "Christ
+Jesus, Son of the living God, have mercy upon me!" then a wind
+springing up and blowing the flames and smoke into his face checked
+further utterance, but his head was seen to shake and his lips to move
+while one might twice or thrice recite a paternoster. The tragedy was
+over; the sorely-tried soul had escaped from its tormentors, and the
+bitterest enemies of the reformer could not refuse to him the praise
+that no philosopher of old had faced death with more composure than he
+had shown in his dreadful extremity. No faltering of the voice had
+betrayed an internal struggle. Palsgrave Louis, seeing Huss's mantle on
+the arm of one of the executioners, ordered it thrown into the flames
+lest it should be reverenced as a relic, and promised the man to
+compensate him. With the same view the body was carefully reduced to
+ashes and thrown into the Rhine, and even the earth around the stake was
+dug up and carted off; yet the Bohemians long hovered around the spot
+and carried home fragments of the neighboring clay, which they
+reverenced as relics of their martyr. The next day thanks were returned
+to God, in a solemn procession in which figured Sigismund and his queen,
+the princes and nobles, nineteen cardinals, two patriarchs,
+seventy-seven bishops, and all the clergy of the council. A few days
+later Sigismund, who had delayed his departure for Spain to see the
+matter concluded, left Constance, feeling that his work was done.[532]
+
+The long-continued teaching of the Church, that persistent heresy was
+the one crime for which there could be no pardon or excuse, seemed to
+deprive even the wisest and purest of all power of reasoning where it
+was concerned. There was no hesitation in admitting that the pestilent
+heresy of the Hussites was caused by the simoniacal corruptions of the
+Roman curia, whereby many Christian souls were led to eternal perdition,
+and that it could not be eradicated until a thorough reformation was
+effected. Yet in place of drawing from this the necessary deduction, the
+feeling of the council is reflected by its historian in the blasphemous
+representation of Christ as recording with satisfaction the hideous
+details of the execution, and as saying that the wicked soul of the
+heretic commenced in temporal flame the torment which it would suffer
+through eternity in hell. The trial, in fact, had been conducted in
+accordance with the universally received practice in such cases, the
+only exceptions being in favor of the accused. If the result was
+inevitable, it was the fault of the system and not of the judges, and
+their consciences might well feel satisfied.[533]
+
+Great was the disgust of the orthodox when they learned that this pious
+view of the matter was not entertained in Prague, and it required the
+most positive assurances of eye-witnesses to make them believe the
+incredible fact that, from king to peasant in Bohemia, there was
+practical unanimity in the belief that he who had been condemned and
+executed as a heretic was a martyr; that the popular songs sung in the
+streets represented him as one who had shed his blood for Christ, and
+that he was inserted in the calendar of saints, with his feast on July
+6, the day of his execution. The good fathers, however, were not long in
+finding, from indubitable evidence, that they had made a grave mistake
+as to the Bohemian temper, and that they had only succeeded in inflaming
+the disease which they had sought to eradicate. As soon as the defiance
+excited in Bohemia could be learned in Constance, the council made haste
+to write, July 26, to the authorities there, protesting that Huss and
+Jerome of Prague had been treated with all tenderness, that the
+persistent heresy of the former had forced his delivery to the secular
+court for judgment, and that all similar heretics would be treated in
+the same manner. The Bohemians were exhorted to justify, by similar
+persecution, the good opinion of their orthodoxy which the council had
+formed from the report of the Bishop of Litomysl, whose popular name of
+Iron John sufficiently indicates his inflexibility. This good opinion
+was not sustained when a protest was received from the barons of Bohemia
+and Moravia, hastily drawn up as soon as the news of the execution had
+reached them--a protest which the council promptly ordered to be burned.
+Its letter of July 26 led to the convocation of a national assembly, in
+which an address was framed and received the signatures of nearly five
+hundred barons, knights, and gentlemen. In this they asserted their
+belief in Huss's purity and orthodoxy; that he had unjustly been put to
+death without confession or lawful conviction; that Jerome they supposed
+had shared the same fate; that the defamation of the kingdom for heresy
+was the work of liars, and that any one who asserted it, saving
+Sigismund, lied in his throat, was the vilest of traitors and the worst
+of heretics, and as such they would prosecute him before the future
+pope. A more dangerous symptom of rebellion was a pledge signed by the
+magnates, agreeing that all priests should be allowed to preach freely
+the truths of Scripture, that no bishop should be permitted to interfere
+with them unless they taught errors, and that no excommunications or
+interdicts from abroad should be received or observed.[534]
+
+This was firing at long range with no result but mutual exacerbation,
+and it was probably the stimulus of Bohemian disaffection which led the
+council about this time to act vigorously in the case of Jerome of
+Prague, whom the Bohemian nobles had erroneously believed to have shared
+the fate of Huss.
+
+Jerome of Prague stands before us as one of those meteoric natures which
+would be dismissed by the student as half mythical, if the substantial
+facts which are on record did not fix the details of his career with an
+exactness leaving no room for doubt. Born at Prague, his early training
+was received at a time when men's minds were beginning to waver in the
+confusion of the Great Schism, and under the impulsion of the
+Wickliffite writings. About the year 1400 he was brought under the
+influence of Huss, and thereafter he continued to be the steadfast
+adherent and supporter of the great protestant against the corruptions
+of the Church. Already, at Paris, Cologne, Heidelberg, and Cracow--at
+all of which he had been decorated with the honors of the
+universities--he had disturbed the philosophic calm of the schools with
+his subtleties on the theory of universals; at Paris, indeed, the
+disturbance had gone so far that John Gerson, the chancellor of the
+university, had driven him forth, perhaps retaining a grudge which
+explains his zeal in the prosecution of his old antagonist. His restless
+spirit left scarce a region of the known civilized world unvisited. At
+Oxford, attracted by the reputation of Wickliff, he had copied with his
+own hand the Dialogus and the Trialogus, and had carried those
+outpourings of revolt to Prague, where they added fresh fuel to the
+rapidly rising fires of Bohemian insubordination. On a second visit he
+had been seized as a heretic, and had escaped through the intervention
+of the University of Prague. In Palestine he had trodden in the
+footsteps of the Saviour and had bent in reverence at the Holy
+Sepulchre. In Lithuania he had sought to convert the heathen. In Russia
+he had endeavored to win over the schismatic Greek. In Poland and
+Hungary he had scattered the doctrines of Wickliff and Huss. Driven out
+of Hungary, in 1410, he was arrested and thrown in prison in Vienna, by
+the papal inquisitor and episcopal official, for teaching Hussitism and
+infecting with it the university of that city. His trial was commenced
+and a day was set for its hearing, prior to which he was allowed his
+liberty on his oath not to leave the city, under pain of
+excommunication. Claiming that an extorted oath was of no force, he
+escaped, and from Olmuetz wrote a free-and-easy letter to the Bishop of
+Passau, suggesting that the prosecutors and witnesses may be sent to
+Prague, where the trial can be finished. The excommunication, indeed,
+followed him to Prague, but in the tumultuous condition of Bohemia it
+gave him no trouble, though the University of Vienna wrote to the
+University of Prague that by remaining more than a year under the
+excommunication he had incurred the guilt of heresy, for which he ought
+to be condemned; and meanwhile the converts whom he had made in Vienna
+continued to give occupation to the Inquisition, and the university
+which interfered in their behalf incurred the suspicion of heresy. In
+the stirring events which followed, his restless and aggressive spirit
+would not allow him to be inactive, and the popular impression of his
+reckless audacity is shown in the story of his hanging the papal bulls
+of indulgence around the neck of a strumpet and carrying her to the
+place where they were to be burned. In 1413 he again visited Poland,
+where in a short time he succeeded in causing an unprecedented
+excitement, and was speedily sent back to Prague. His whole life had
+been spent in intellectual digladiation, from his youthful philosophic
+contests to the maturer struggles with the overwhelming forces of the
+hierarchy. A layman, not in holy orders and unfurnished with priestly
+gown and tonsure, he had preached to admiring crowds of Majjars, Poles,
+and Czechs; nor was he wholly unskilled in the use of the arms of the
+flesh. On his trial he admitted that he had once been drawn into a
+quarrel with some monks in a monastery, when two of them attacked him
+with swords, and he defended himself successfully with a weapon hastily
+snatched from the hand of a bystander. His enemies, indeed, accused him
+of having, on another occasion, drawn a dagger on a Dominican friar, and
+of having been only prevented by force from stabbing him to the death.
+All of his contemporaries bear testimony to his wonderful powers. His
+commanding presence, his glittering eyes, his sable hair and flowing
+beard, his deep and impressive voice, his persuasive accents, enabled
+him to throw his influence over all with whom he came in contact; while
+his miraculous stores of learning, his unmatched readiness, and the
+subtlety of his intellect, rendered him an enemy of the Church only one
+degree less dangerous than the steadfast and irreproachable Huss.[535]
+
+Jerome had watched from Prague the fate of his friend with daily
+increasing anxiety, and when the rupture between pope and council seemed
+to promise immunity for the opponents of hierarchical corruption he
+could not resist the temptation to aid in his rescue, and to assist in
+what appeared to be the approaching overthrow of the evils which he had
+so long combated. April 4, 1415, he came secretly to Constance, but
+speedily found how groundless were his hopes and how dangerous was the
+atmosphere of the place. Christann of Prachaticz, one of Huss's chief
+disciples, had recently ventured to visit Constance, had been arrested,
+and articles of accusation had been presented against him, when on the
+intervention of the Bohemian ambassadors he had been liberated under
+oath to present himself when summoned--an oath which he had forfeited by
+promptly escaping to Bohemia. Jerome contented himself with posting a
+notice on the walls affirming the orthodoxy of Huss; he withdrew at once
+to Ueberlingen and asked for a safe-conduct. The response was ambiguous,
+but, like a moth hovering around the fatal candle-flame, he returned to
+Constance, where, April 7, he affixed another notice on the church
+doors addressed to Sigismund and the council. It stated that he had come
+of his own free will to answer all accusations of heresy, and if
+convicted he was ready to endure the penalty, but he asked a
+safe-conduct in coming and going, and if incarcerated or treated with
+violence during his stay the council would be committing injustice of
+which he could not suspect so many learned and wise men. This senseless
+bravado is only to be explained by his erratic temperament, and it did
+not prevent him from taking precautions as to his safety. He suddenly
+changed his mind, and on April 9, after obtaining from the Bohemians at
+Constance testimonial letters, he escaped from the city, none too soon,
+for the officials were in search of his lodgings, which they discovered
+a few days after at the Gutjar, in St. Paul Street, where in his haste
+he had left behind him the significant memento of a sword. This time he
+no longer trifled with fate, but travelled rapidly towards Bohemia. At
+Hirsau, however, his impetuous temper led him into a discussion in which
+he stigmatized the council as a synagogue of Satan. He was seized April
+24, and the papers found upon him betrayed him. John of Bavaria threw
+him into the castle of Sulzbach, notified the council of his capture,
+and in obedience to its commands he was forthwith carried thither in
+chains.[536]
+
+Meanwhile the council had responded to his appeal by publishing, April
+18, a formal inquisitorial citation summoning him, as a suspected and
+defamed heretic, the suppression of whom was its chief duty, to appear
+for trial within fifteen days, in default of which he would be proceeded
+against in contumacy. A safe-conduct was offered him, but it was
+expressly declared subject to the exigencies of the faith. Unaware of
+his capture, on May 2 a new citation was published and his trial as
+contumacious was ordered, and this was repeated on the 4th. On May 24
+his captors brought him to the city loaded with chains, and took him to
+the Franciscan convent, where a tumultuous congregation of the council
+greeted his arrival. Here Gerson gratified his rancor against his old
+opponent, loudly berating him for having taught falsely at Paris,
+Heidelberg, and Cologne, and the rectors of the two latter universities
+corroborated the accusations. His replies were sharp and ready, but were
+drowned in the roar of fresh charges, mingled with shouts of "Burn him!
+Burn him!" Thence he was carried to a dungeon in the Cemetery of St.
+Paul, where he was chained hand and foot to a bench too high for him to
+sit on, and for two days he was fed on bread and water, until his
+friends ascertained his place of imprisonment and made interest with the
+jailer to give him better food. He soon fell dangerously sick and asked
+for a confessor, after which he was less rigorously fettered, but he
+never left the prison except for audience and execution.[537]
+
+Stephen Palecz, Michael de Causis, and the rest were ready with their
+accusations, nor could there be difficulty in accumulating a mass of
+testimony sufficient to convict twenty such men as Jerome. His trial
+proceeded according to the regular inquisitorial process, the
+commissioners finding him much more learned and skilful than Huss; but,
+brilliant as was his defence when under examination, his nervous
+temperament unfitted him to bear, like Huss, the long-protracted agony.
+Sometimes with dialectic subtlety he turned his examiners to ridicule,
+at others he vacillated between obduracy and submission. Finally he
+weakened under the strain, while the rebellious attitude of the
+Bohemians doubtless led the council to increase the pressure. On
+September 11 he was brought before the assembly, where he read a long
+and elaborate recantation. Huss's sweetness of temper, he said, had
+attracted him, and his earnest exposition of Scripture truths had led
+him to believe that such a man could not teach heresy. He could not
+believe that the thirty articles condemned by the council were really
+Huss's, until he had obtained a book in Huss's own hand-writing, and on
+comparing them article by article he found them to be so. He therefore
+spontaneously and of free will condemned them, some of them as
+heretical, others as erroneous, others as scandalous. He also condemned
+the forty-five articles of Wickliff; he submitted himself wholly to the
+council, he condemned whatever it condemned, and he asked for fitting
+penance to be assigned him. He did not even shrink from a deeper
+degradation. He wrote to Bohemia that Huss had been justly executed,
+that he had become convinced of his friend's errors and could not
+defend them.[538]
+
+This was not a strictly formal abjuration such as was customarily
+required of prisoners of the Inquisition, yet it might have sufficed. It
+was read before a private congregation of the council, and some more
+public humiliation was needed. At the next general session, therefore,
+September 23, Jerome was placed in the pulpit, where he repeated his
+recantation, with an explanation of an expression in it, adding a
+recantation of his theory of Universals, and winding up by a solemn oath
+of abjuration in which he invoked an eternal anathema on all who
+wandered from the faith and on himself if he should do so. He had been
+told that he would not be allowed to return to Bohemia, but might select
+some Swabian monastery in which to reside, on condition that he should
+write home, over his hand and seal, that his teaching and that of Huss
+were false and not to be followed. This he promised to do, as, indeed,
+he had already done, but he was remanded to his prison, though his
+treatment was somewhat less harsh than before.[539]
+
+Had the council been wise, it would have treated him as leniently as
+possible. A dishonored apostate, his power of evil was gone, and
+generosity would have been policy. The canons, however, prescribed harsh
+prison for converted heretics, whose conversion was always regarded as
+doubtful, and the assembled fathers were too bigoted to be wise. The
+zealots converted the apostate to a martyr, whose steadfast constancy
+redeemed his temporary weakness, and regained for him the forfeited
+influence over the imagination of his disciples.
+
+His remorse was not long in showing itself. Stephen Palecz, Michael de
+Causis, and his other enemies who were still hovering around his prison,
+soon got wind of his self-accusation. John Gerson, whose hostility
+seems to have been insatiable, readily made himself their mouthpiece,
+and in a learned dissertation on the essentials of revocations called
+the attention of the council, October 29, to the unsatisfactory
+character of that of Jerome. Some Carmelites, apparently arriving from
+Prague, furnished new accusations, and demands were made that he be
+required to answer additional articles. Some of the Cardinals,
+Zabarella, Pierre d'Ailly, Giordano Orsini, Antonio da Aquileia, on the
+other hand, labored with the council to procure his liberation, but on
+being actively opposed by the Germans and Bohemians and accused of
+receiving bribes from the heretics and King Wenceslas, they abandoned
+the hopeless defence. Accordingly, February 24, 1416, a new commission
+was appointed to hold an inquisition on him. The whole ground was gone
+over again in examining him, from the Wickliffite heresies to his
+exciting rebellion in Prague and contumaciously enduring the
+excommunication incurred in Vienna. April 27 the commissioners made
+their report, and the _Promotor Haereticae Pravitatis_, or prosecutor for
+heresy, accompanied it with a long indictment enumerating his offences.
+Jerome, resolved on death, had recovered his audacity; he not only, in
+spite of his recantation, denied that he was a heretic, but complained
+of unjust imprisonment and claimed to be indemnified for expenses and
+damages. His marvellous dialectical dexterity had evidently nonplussed
+the slower intellects of his examiners, who had found themselves unable
+to cope with his subtlety, for the council was asked, in conclusion, to
+diminish the diet on which he was described as feasting gluttonously,
+and by judicious starvation, the proper torment of heretics, to bring
+him to submission. Moreover, authority was asked to use torture and to
+force him to answer definitely yes or no to all questions as to his
+belief. If then he continues contumaciously to deny what has been or may
+be proved against him, he is to be handed over to the secular arm, in
+accordance with the canon law, as a pertinacious and incorrigible
+heretic. Thus with Jerome, as with Huss, the invariable principle of
+inquisitorial procedure was applied, that the denial of heretical
+opinions was simply an evidence and an aggravation of guilt.[540]
+
+In this case, more than in that of Huss, the council seems to have taken
+upon itself the part of an inquisitorial tribunal, with its
+commissioners simply as examiners to take testimony, possibly because
+Jerome had refused to accept them as judges on account of enmity towards
+him. There is no evidence that it consented to the superfluous infamy of
+torturing, or even of starving its victim. The commissioners were left
+to their own devices as to extracting a confession, and May 9 they made
+another report of the whole case from beginning to end, for what object
+is not apparent, unless to demonstrate their helplessness. Having thus
+wearied them out, Jerome finally promised to answer categorically before
+the council. Perhaps it was curiosity to hear him, perhaps the precedent
+set in the case of Huss weighed with the fathers. The concession was
+made to him, and at a general session held May 23 he was brought in and
+the oath was offered to him. He refused to take it, saying that he would
+do so if he would be allowed to speak freely, but if he was only to say
+yes or no he would not. As the articles were read over he remained
+silent as to a portion, while to the rest he answered affirmatively or
+negatively, occasionally making a distinction, and answering with
+admirable readiness the clamors and interruptions which assailed him
+from all sides. The day wore away in this, and the completion of the
+hearing was adjourned till the 26th. Again the same scene occurred till
+the series of articles was exhausted, when the chief of the
+commissioners, John, Patriarch of Constantinople, summed up, saying that
+Jerome was convicted of fourfold heresy; but as he had repeatedly asked
+to be heard he should be allowed to speak, in order to silence absurd
+reflections on the council; moreover, if he was prepared to confess and
+repent, he still would be received to mercy, but if obdurate, justice
+must take its course.[541]
+
+Of the scene which followed we have a vivid account in a letter to
+Leonardo Aretino from Poggio Bracciolini, who attended the council as
+apostolic secretary. Poggio had already been profoundly impressed with
+the quickness and readiness of a man who for three hundred and forty
+days had lain in the filth and squalor of a noisome dungeon, but now he
+breaks forth in unqualified admiration--"He stood fearless, undaunted,
+not merely despising death, but longing for it, like another Cato. O man
+worthy of eternal remembrance among men! If he held beliefs contrary to
+the rules of the Church I do not praise him, but I admire his learning,
+his knowledge of so many things, his eloquence, and the subtlety of his
+answers." In the midst of that turbulent and noisy crowd, his eloquence
+was so great that Poggio evidently thinks he would have been acquitted
+had he not courted death.[542]
+
+His address was a most skilful vindication, gliding with seemingly
+careless negligence over the dangerous spots in his career--for his
+whole life had been made the subject of indictment--and giving most
+plausible explanations of that which could not be suppressed, as though
+the Bohemian troubles had been solely due to political differences. As
+for his recantation, his judges had promised him kindly treatment if he
+would throw himself on the mercy of the council. He was but a man, with
+a human dread of a dreadful death by fire; he had weakly yielded to
+persuasion, he had abjured, he had written to Bohemia as required, he
+had condemned the teaching of John Huss. Here he rose to the full height
+of his manly and self-devoted eloquence. Huss was a just and holy man,
+to whom he would cleave to the last; no sin that he had ever committed
+so weighed upon his conscience as his cowardly abjuration, which now he
+solemnly revoked. Wickliff had written with a profounder truth than any
+man before him, and dread of the stake alone could have induced him to
+condemn such a master, saving only the doctrine on the sacrament, of
+which he could not approve. Then he burst forth into a ringing invective
+on the vices of the clergy, and especially of the Roman curia, which had
+stimulated Wickliff and Huss to their efforts for reform. The good
+fathers of the council might be stunned for a moment by the fierce
+self-sacrifice of the man who thus deliberately threw away his life, but
+they soon recovered themselves, and quietly assigned the following
+Saturday for his definite sentence. Although, as a self-confessed
+relapsed, he was entitled to no further consideration, they proposed,
+with unusual mercy, to give him four days to reconsider and repent, but
+he had been addressing an audience far beyond the narrow walls of the
+Cathedral of Constance, and his words were seeds which sprouted forth in
+armed warriors.[543]
+
+On May 30 the final acts of the tragedy were hurried through; the
+council assembled early, and by ten o'clock Jerome was at the stake.
+After the mass, the Bishop of Lodi preached a sermon. He had been
+selected to perform the same office at the condemnation of Huss, and the
+brutality of his triumph over the unfortunate prisoner on this occasion
+even exceeded his former effort. The charity and tenderness with which
+Jerome had been treated ought to have softened his heart, even had the
+recollection of his crimes failed to do so. A comparison was drawn
+between the favor shown him and the severity customary with suspected
+heretics. "You were not tortured--I wish you had been, for it would
+have forced you to vomit forth all your errors; such treatment would
+have opened your eyes, which guilt had closed." The nobles present were
+called upon to mark how Huss and Jerome, two base-born men, plebeians of
+the lowest rank and unknown origin, had dared to trouble the noble
+kingdom of Bohemia, and what evils had sprung from the presumption of
+those two peasants. Then Jerome in a few dignified sentences replied,
+asserting his conscientiousness and deploring his condemnation of
+Wickliff and Huss. Cardinal Zabarella, he said, was winning him over
+when his judges were changed and he would not plead to new ones. His
+abjuration was read to him; he acknowledged it; he said it had been
+extorted by the dread of fire. Then the prosecutor asked for a definite
+sentence in writing against him, and the head commissioner, John of
+Constantinople, read a long one condemning him as a supporter of
+Wickliff and Huss, and ending with the declaration that he was a
+relapsed heretic and anathematized excommunicate. To this the council
+unanimously responded "_Placet_." There was no pretence of asking
+mercy for him. He was handed over to the secular power with a command
+that it should do its duty under the sentence rendered. Not being in
+orders, there was no ceremony of degradation to be performed, but a tall
+paper crown with painted devils was brought. He tossed his cap among the
+prelates and put on the crown, saying, "Our Lord Jesus Christ, when
+about to die for me, wore a crown of thorns. In place of that, I gladly
+bear this for his sake," and with this he was hurried off to execution
+on the same spot where Huss had suffered.[544]
+
+The details of the execution were much the same, except that Jerome was
+stripped and a cloth tied around his loins. He sang the Creed and a
+litany, and when his voice could no longer be heard in the flames his
+lips were still seen to move as though praying to himself; after his
+beard was burned off, a blister the size of an egg was seen to form
+itself, showing that he still was alive, and his agony was unusually
+prolonged, through his extraordinary strength and vitality. One
+eye-witness says that he shrieked awfully, but other unfriendly
+witnesses declare that he continued praying till his voice was checked
+by the fire, and Poggio, who was present, was much impressed with his
+cheerful courage to the last. When bound to the stake, the executioner
+offered to light the fire from behind, where he could not see it, but he
+refused: "Come forward," he said, "and light the fire where I can see
+it. Had I feared this, I would not have been here." AEneas Sylvius
+likewise couples him with Huss for the unsurpassed constancy of his
+death. After it was over, his bedding, shoes, cap, and all his personal
+effects were brought from his dungeon and thrown upon the pile, that no
+relic of him might be left, and the ashes were cast into the Rhine.[545]
+
+It only remained to secure the submission of John of Chlum, the
+courageous defender of Huss. He had remained in Constance and was in the
+power of the council. What means were adopted for his abasement do not
+appear, but, on July 1, he swore to maintain the faith, admitted that
+Huss and Jerome had suffered justly, and desired letters of his
+declaration to be made, that he might send them to Bohemia.[546]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+THE HUSSITES.
+
+
+The Council of Constance, after eighteen months of labor, had disposed
+of Huss and Jerome. The methods employed had been the only ones known to
+the Church, the only ones possible to the council. Two centuries earlier
+the corruptions of the Church were recognized as the cause and excuse of
+the revolt of the Albigenses and Waldenses, but the revolt was
+ruthlessly put down without an effective effort to remove the cause. Now
+again unchecked corruption had produced another revolt and the same
+policy was followed--to leave untouched the profitable abuses and punish
+those who refused to tolerate them, and who rejected the principles out
+of which such abuses inevitably sprang. The council could do no
+otherwise; the traditions of procedure established in the subjugation of
+the Albigenses and the succeeding heresies furnished the only precedent
+and machinery through which it could act. Again a religious revolt had
+been provoked, and again that revolt was nursed and intensified till its
+only recognized cure lay in the sword of the crusader.
+
+The prelates and doctors assembled in Constance could not hesitate for a
+moment as to their duty. Canon law and inquisitorial practice had long
+established the principle that the only way to meet heresy--and
+opposition to the constituted authorities of the Church was heresy--was
+by force, as soon as argument was found ineffective. The disobedient son
+of the Church who would not submit was to be cast out, after due
+admonition, and casting out meant that he should have in this world a
+wholesome foretaste of the wrath to come, in order to serve as an
+edifying example. Accordingly the council addressed itself, as a matter
+of course, to the task of widening the breach with Bohemia, of
+consolidating and intensifying the indignation caused by the execution
+of Huss and Jerome, and to stigmatizing as heresy the belief which was
+now professed by the majority of Bohemians.
+
+The council had proposed to follow up the execution of Huss by an
+immediate application of inquisitorial methods to the whole Bohemian
+kingdom, but, at the instance of John, Bishop of Litomysl, it had
+commenced by the expedient of giving notice in its letter of July 26,
+1415. This, as we have seen, only added to the exasperation of Bohemia,
+and on August 31 it issued to Bishop John letters commissioning him with
+inquisitorial powers to suppress all heresy in Bohemia; if he could not
+perform his office in safety elsewhere he was authorized to summon all
+suspect to his episcopal seat at Litomysl. Wenceslas dutifully issued to
+him a safe-conduct, but the irate Bohemians were already ravaging his
+territories, and he consulted prudence in not venturing his person
+there. The canons evidently could not be enforced amid a people so
+exasperated; so, on September 23, after listening to the recantation of
+Jerome, the council tried a further expedient, by a decree appointing
+John, Patriarch of Constantinople, and John, Bishop of Senlis, as
+commissioners (or, rather, inquisitors) to try all Hussite heretics.
+They were empowered to summon all heretics or suspects to appear before
+them in the Roman curia by public edict, to be posted in the places
+frequented by such heretics, or in the neighboring territories if it
+were dangerous to attempt it at the residences of the accused, and such
+edicts might be either general in character or special. This was
+strictly according to rule, and if the object had been to secure the
+legal condemnation _in absentia_ of the mass of the Bohemian nation, it
+was well adapted for the purpose; but as the nation was seething in
+revolt, and was venerating Huss and Jerome with as much ardor as was
+shown in Rome to St. Peter and St. Paul, its only effect was to
+strengthen the hands of the extremists. This was seen when, on December
+30, 1415, an address was delivered to the council, signed by four
+hundred and fifty Bohemian nobles, reiterating their complaints of the
+execution of Huss, and withdrawing themselves from all obedience. This
+hardy challenge was accepted February 20, 1416, by citing all the
+signers and other supporters of Huss and Wickliff to appear before the
+council within fifty days and answer to the charge of heresy, in default
+of which they were to be proceeded against as contumacious. As it was
+not safe to serve this citation on them personally, or, indeed,
+anywhere in Bohemia, it was ordered to be affixed on the church doors at
+Constance, Ratisbon, Vienna, and Passau. This was followed up with all
+the legal forms; the citations were affixed to the church doors, and
+record made in Constance May 5, in Passau May 3, in Vienna May 10, and
+in Ratisbon June 14, 21, and 24. On June 3 the offenders were declared
+to be in contumacy, and on September 4 the further prosecution of the
+matter was intrusted to John of Constantinople.[547]
+
+Here the affair seems to have dropped, for it had long been evident that
+the inquisitorial methods were of no avail when the accused constituted
+the great body of a nation. As early as March 27, 1416, the council had,
+without waiting to see the result of its judicial proceedings, resolved
+to appeal to force, if yet there was sufficient zeal for orthodoxy in
+Bohemia to render such appeal successful. The fanatic John of Litomysl
+was armed with legatine powers, and despatched with letters to the lords
+of Hazemburg, John of Michaelsburg, and other barons known as opponents
+of the popular cause. The council recited in moving terms its patience
+and tenderness in dealing with Huss, who had perished merely through his
+own hardness of heart. In spite of this, his followers had addressed to
+the council libellous and defamatory letters, affording a spectacle at
+once horrible and ludicrous. Heresy is constantly spreading and
+contaminating the land, priests and monks are despoiled, expelled,
+beaten, and slain. The barons are therefore summoned, in conjunction
+with the legate, to banish and exterminate all these persecutors,
+regardless of friendship and kinship. Bishop John's mission was a
+failure, in spite of letters written by Sigismund, March 21 and 30, in
+which he thanked the Catholic nobles for their devotion, and warned the
+Hussite magnates that, if they persisted, Christendom would be banded
+against them in a crusade. The University of Prague responded, May 23,
+with a public declaration, certifying to the unblemished orthodoxy and
+supereminent merits of Huss. His whole life spent among them had been
+without a flaw; his learning and eloquence had been equalled by his
+charity and humility; he was in all things a man of surpassing sanctity,
+who sought to restore the Church to its primitive virtue and simplicity.
+Jerome, also, whom the university seems to have supposed already
+executed, was similarly lauded for his learning and strict Catholic
+orthodoxy, and was declared to have in death triumphed gloriously over
+his enemies. In this the university represented with moderation the
+prevailing opinion in Bohemia. The more earnest disciples did not
+hesitate to declare that the Passion of Christ was the only martyrdom
+fit to be compared with that of Huss.[548]
+
+There was evidently no middle term which could reconcile conflicting
+opinions so firmly entertained; and, as the Catholic nobles of Bohemia
+could not be stimulated to undertake a devastating civil war, the
+council naturally turned to Sigismund. In December, 1416, a doleful
+epistle was addressed to him, complaining that the execution of Huss and
+Jerome, in place of repressing heresy, had rendered it more violent than
+ever. As though men condemned to Satan by the Church were the chosen of
+God, the two heretics were venerated as saints and martyrs, their
+pictures shrined in the churches, and their names invoked in masses. The
+faithful clergy were driven out, and their lot rendered more miserable
+than that of Jews. The barons and nobles refuse obedience to the
+mandates of the council, and will not allow them to be published.
+Communion in both elements is taught to be necessary to salvation, and
+is everywhere practised. Sigismund is therefore requested to do his
+duty, and reduce by force these rebellious heretics. Sigismund replied
+that he had forwarded the document to Wenceslas, and that if the latter
+had not power to suppress the heretics he would assist him with all his
+force. Sigismund was in no position to undertake the task, but after
+waiting for nine months he saw an opportunity of attacking his brother,
+who had been utterly powerless to control the storm. In a circular
+letter of September 3, 1417, addressed to the faithful in Bohemia, he
+drew a moving picture of the excesses committed on the Bohemian clergy,
+compelled by Neronian tortures to abjure their faith. His brother was
+suspected of favoring the heretics, as no one could conceive that such
+wickedness could be committed under so powerful a king without his
+connivance, and the council had decided to proceed against him, but had
+consented to delay at the instance of Sigismund, who for three years had
+been strenuously endeavoring to avert the prosecution. He warns every
+one, in conclusion, not to aid the heresy, but to exert themselves for
+its suppression.[549]
+
+Shortly after this, November 11, 1417, the weary schism was closed by
+the election to the papacy of Martin V. Under the impulsion of a capable
+and resolute pontiff, who, as Cardinal Ottone Colonna, had, in 1411,
+condemned and excommunicated Huss, the reunited Church pressed eagerly
+forward to render the conflict inevitable. In February, 1418, the
+council published a series of twenty-four articles as its ultimatum.
+King Wenceslas must swear to suppress the heresy of Wickliff and Huss.
+Minute directions were given to restore the old order of things
+throughout Bohemia; priests and Catholics who had been driven out were
+to be reinstated and compensated; image and relic worship to be resumed,
+and the rites of the Church observed. All infected with heresy were to
+abjure it, while their leading doctors, John Jessenitz, Jacobel of Mies,
+Simon of Rokyzana, and six others, were to betake themselves to Rome for
+trial. Communion in both elements was to be specially abjured, and all
+who held the doctrines of Wickliff and Huss, or regarded Huss and Jerome
+as holy men, were to be burned as relapsed heretics; that is, without
+opportunity of recantation or hope of pardon. Finally, every one was
+required to lend assistance to the episcopal officials when called upon,
+under pain of punishment as fautors of heresy. It was simply the
+application of existing laws, as we have so many times already seen them
+brought to bear on offending communities. To enforce it, Sigismund
+promised to visit the rebellious region with four bishops and an
+inquisitor, and to burn all who would not recant.[550]
+
+This was speedily followed, February 22, 1418, by a bull of Martin V.,
+addressed to the prelates and inquisitors, not only of Bohemia and
+Moravia, but of the surrounding territories, Passau, Salzburg, Ratisbon,
+Bamberg, Misnia, Silesia, and Poland. The pope expressed his grief and
+surprise that the heretics had not been brought to repentance by the
+miserable deaths of Huss and Jerome, but had been excited by the devil
+to yet greater sins. The prelates and inquisitors were ordered to track
+them out and deliver them to the secular arm; and such as proved
+themselves remiss in the work were to be removed, and replaced with more
+energetic successors. Secular potentates were commanded to seize and
+hold in chains all heretics, and to punish them duly when convicted, and
+a long series of instructions was given as to trials, penalties, and
+confiscations, in strict accordance with the inquisitorial practice
+which had so long been current. If this was intended to give countenance
+to Sigismund's promised expedition it proved useless, for the royal
+promise ended as Sigismund's were wont to do, and the next we hear of
+him is a letter of December, 1418, to Wenceslas, threatening that
+unlucky monarch with a crusade if he shall not suppress heresy.[551]
+
+The glimpse into the condition of Bohemia afforded by these documents
+is, perhaps, somewhat highly colored, yet on the whole not incorrect.
+The kingdom was almost wholly withdrawn from obedience to the Church,
+although the German miners in the mountains of Kuttenberg were already
+slaying the native heretics. The Wickliffite doctrines adopted by Huss
+were triumphant, and the pressure of central authority being removed,
+men were naturally using the unaccustomed liberty to develop further and
+further the ruling hostility to the sacerdotal system. Utraquism, or
+communion in both elements, had been received with a frenzy of welcome
+which seems almost inexplicable; it aroused universal enthusiasm, which
+was only stimulated by the interdict pronounced on it by Archbishop
+Conrad, November 1, 1415, and repeated February 1, 1416. When, in 1417,
+the University of Prague issued a solemn declaration in its favor and
+pronounced void any human ordinance modifying the command of Christ and
+the custom of the early Church, it speedily became the distinguishing
+mark which separated the Hussite from the Catholic. Other innovations
+had already been introduced, and it was impossible that all should
+agree on the bounds to be set between conservatism and progress. As
+early as 1416 Christann of Prachatitz remonstrated with Wenceslas
+Coranda for denying purgatory and the utility of prayers for the dead
+and the suffrages of saints, for refusing adoration to the Virgin, for
+casting out relics and images, for administering the Eucharist to
+newly-baptized infants, for discarding all rites and ceremonies, and
+reducing the Church to the simplicity of primitive times. Others taught
+that divine service could be celebrated anywhere as well as in
+consecrated churches; that baptism could be performed by laymen in ponds
+and running streams. Already there was forming the sect which, in
+carrying out the views of Wickliff, came to be known as Taborites. The
+more conservative element, which adopted the name of Calixtins, or
+Utraquists, satisfied with what had been acquired, endeavored to set
+bounds to the zeal which threatened to remove all the ancient landmarks.
+Parties were beginning to range themselves, and on January 25, 1417,
+probably not long before its declaration in favor of Utraquism, the
+University issued a letter reciting that there were frequent disputes as
+to the existence of purgatory and the use of benedictions and other
+church observances; to put an end to these it pronounced obligatory on
+all to believe in purgatory and in the utility of suffrages, prayers,
+and alms for the dead, of images of Christ and the saints, of incensing,
+aspersions, bell-ringing, the kiss of peace, of benediction of the holy
+font, salt, water, wax, fire, palms, eggs, cheese, and other eatables.
+Any one teaching otherwise was not to be listened to until he should
+prove the truth of his doctrine to the satisfaction of the University.
+In September, 1418, it was obliged to renew the declaration, with the
+addition of condemning the doctrines which pronounced against all oaths,
+judicial executions, and sacraments administered by sinful priests,
+showing that Waldensian tenets were making rapid progress among the
+Taborites.[552]
+
+All this indicates the questions which were occupying men's minds and
+the differences which were establishing themselves. Opinions were too
+strongly held, and mutual toleration was too little understood for
+peaceful discussion, and excitement daily grew higher, leading to
+tumults and bloodshed. In the spirit of unrest which was abroad, men and
+women of the more advanced views from all parts of the kingdom began
+assembling on a mountain near Bechin, to which they gave the name of
+Tabor, where they received the sacrament in both kinds. These
+assemblages were larger on feast days, and on the day of Mary Magdalen,
+July 22, 1419, the multitude was computed at forty thousand. Numbers
+gave courage, and there was even talk of deposing King Wenceslas and
+replacing him with Nicholas Lord of Hussinetz, whose popularity had been
+increased by his banishment for advocating their cause with the monarch.
+From this they were dissuaded by their chief spiritual leader, the
+priest Wenceslas Coranda, who pointed out that as the king was an
+indolent drunkard, permitting them to do what they liked, they would
+scarce benefit themselves by a change. The abandonment of this project,
+however, did not assure peace. On July 30 there was a tumult in the
+Neustadt of Prague; at command of the king, the authorities endeavored
+to prevent the progress of a procession bearing the sacrament; the
+people rose, and under the lead of John Ziska, whose fiery zeal and cool
+audacity were rapidly bringing him to the front, they rushed into the
+town-hall and cast out of the windows such of the magistrates as they
+found there, who were promptly slain by the mob below. The agitation and
+alarm caused by this affair brought on King Wenceslas an attack of
+paralysis, of which he died August 15.[553]
+
+Feeble as had been the royal authority, it yet had served as a restraint
+upon the hostile sects eager to tear each other to pieces. With the
+death of the king the untamable passions burst forth. Two days
+afterwards the churches and convents were mobbed, the images and organs
+were broken, and those in which the cup had been refused to the laity
+were the objects of special vengeance. Priests and monks were taken
+prisoners, and within a few days the Dominican and Carthusian convents
+were burned. Queen Sophia endeavored, in vain, to maintain order with
+such of the barons as remained loyal; civil war broke forth, until, on
+November 13, the queen concluded with the cities of Prague a truce to
+last until April 23, 1420, the queen promising to maintain the law of
+God and communion in both elements, while the citizens pledged
+themselves to refrain from image-breaking and the destruction of
+convents. Mutual exasperation, however, was too great to be restrained.
+Ziska came to Prague and destroyed churches and monasteries in the city
+and neighborhood; Queen Sophia laid siege to Pilsen; a neighborhood war
+broke out in which shocking cruelties were perpetrated on both sides;
+German miners of Caurzim and Kuttenberg threw into abandoned mines all
+the Calixtins on whom they could lay their hands, and some Bavarians who
+were coming to the assistance of Rackzo of Ryzmberg tied to a tree and
+burned the priest Naakvasa, a zealous Calixtin. Ziska was not behindhand
+in this, and in burning convents not infrequently allowed the monks to
+share the fate of their buildings. In the desultory war which raged
+everywhere both sides cut off the hands and feet of prisoners.[554]
+
+Sigismund was now the lawful King of Bohemia, and he came to claim his
+inheritance. As a preliminary step he sent envoys to Prague offering to
+leave the use of the cup as it had been under Wenceslas, to call a
+general assembly of the nation, and after consultation to refer any
+questions to the Holy See. A meeting of the barons and clergy was held
+which agreed to accept the terms. On Christmas Day, 1419, he came to
+Bruenn, and thither flocked the magnates and representatives of the
+cities to tender their allegiance. The envoys of Prague, it is true,
+persisted in using the cup, and there was an interdict in consequence
+placed on Bruenn during their stay, but when he ordered them to remove
+the chains from the streets of Prague, and destroy the fortifications
+which they had raised against the castle, there was no refusal, and on
+their return, January 3, 1420, his commands were obeyed. His natural
+faithlessness soon showed itself. He changed all the castellans and
+officials who were favorable to the Hussites; the Catholics who had fled
+or been expelled returned and commenced to triumph over their enemies;
+and a royal edict was issued, in obedience to the decrees of Constance,
+commanding all those in authority to exterminate the Wickliffites and
+Hussites and those who used the sacramental cup. Still, the kingdom made
+no sign of organized opposition to him, except that the provident Ziska
+and his followers, seeing the wrath to come, diligently set to work to
+fortify Mount Tabor. Strong by nature, it soon was made virtually
+impregnable, and for a generation it remained the stronghold of the
+extremists who became renowned throughout the world as Taborites. Mostly
+peasant-folk, they showed to the chivalry of Europe what could be done
+by freemen, animated by religious zeal and race hatred; their rustic
+wagons made a rampart which the most valiant knights learned not to
+assail; armed sometimes only with iron-shod flails, the hardy zealots
+did not hesitate to throw themselves upon the best-appointed troops, and
+often bore them down with the sheer weight of the attack. Wild and
+undisciplined, they were often cruel, but their fanatic courage rendered
+them a terror to all Germany.[555]
+
+Nothing, probably, could have averted an eventual explosion; but, for
+the moment, it seemed that Sigismund was about to enter on peaceable
+possession of his kingdom, and any subsequent rebellion would have been
+attempted under great disadvantages. Suddenly, however, an act of
+inconsiderate and gratuitous fanaticism set all Bohemia aflame. Some
+trouble in Silesia had called Sigismund to Breslau, where he was joined
+by a papal legate armed by Martin V. with power to proclaim a crusade
+with Holy Land indulgences. John Krasa, a merchant of Prague, who
+chanced to be there, talked over boldly about the innocence of Huss; he
+was arrested, persisted in his faith, and was condemned by the legate
+and prelates who were with Sigismund to be dragged by the heels at a
+horse's tail to the place of execution and burned. While lying in prison
+he was joined by Nicholas of Bethlehem, a student of Prague, who had
+been sent by the city to Sigismund to offer to receive him if he would
+not interfere with the use of the cup to the laity. In place of
+listening to him he was tried as a heretic and thrown into prison to
+await the result. Krasa encouraged him to endure to the last, and both
+were brought forth on March 15, 1420, to undergo the punishment. As the
+feet of Nicholas were about to be attached to the horse, his courage
+gave way and he recanted. Krasa was undaunted; the legate followed him,
+as he was dragged to the place of execution, exhorting him to repent,
+but in vain; he was attached half-dead to the stake and duly burned. Two
+days later, March 17, the legate proclaimed the crusade. The die was
+cast; the Church so willed it, and a new Albigensian war was
+inevitable.[556]
+
+There was wavering no longer in Bohemia. The events at Breslau united
+all, with the exception of a few barons and such Germans as were left,
+in resistance against Sigismund. The preachers thundered against him as
+the Red Dragon of the Apocalypse. By April 3 the citizens of Utraquist
+Prague had bound themselves by a solemn oath with the Taborites to
+defend themselves against him to the last, and were busy in preparations
+to sustain a siege. Sigismund's forces were wholly inadequate for the
+conquest of a virtually united kingdom. After an advance to Kuttenberg
+he was forced to withdraw and await the assembling of the crusade, which
+took long to organize, and did not burst in its fury over Bohemia until
+the following year, 1421. It was on a scale to crush all resistance. In
+its mass of one hundred and fifty thousand men all Europe was
+represented, from Russia to Spain and from Sicily to England. The
+reunited Church aroused all Christendom to stamp out the revolt, and the
+treasures of salvation were poured lavishly forth to exterminate those
+who dared to maintain the innocence of Huss and Jerome, and to take the
+Eucharist as all Christians had done until within two hundred years. The
+war was waged with desperation. Five times during 1421 the crusaders
+invaded Bohemia, and five times they were beaten back disastrously. The
+gain to the faith was scarce perceptible, for Sigismund stripped the
+churches of all their precious ornaments, declaring that he was not
+impelled by lack of reverence, but by a prudent desire to prevent their
+falling into the hands of the Hussites. Both sides perpetrated cruelties
+happily unknown save in the ferocity of religious wars. During the siege
+of Prague all Bohemians captured were burned as heretics whether they
+used the cup or not; and on July 19 the besieged demanded of the
+magistrates sixteen German prisoners, whom they took outside of the
+walls and burned in hogsheads in full sight of the invading army. We can
+estimate the mercilessness of the strife when it was reckoned among the
+good deeds of George, Bishop of Passau, who accompanied Albert of
+Austria, that by his intercession he saved the lives of many Bohemian
+captives.[557]
+
+It is not our province to follow in detail this bloody struggle, in
+which for ten years the Hussites successfully defied all the forces that
+Martin and Sigismund could raise against them. When the crusaders came
+they presented a united front, but within the line of common defence
+they were torn with dissensions, bitter in proportion to their
+exaltation of religious feeling. The right of private judgment when once
+established, by admitting the doctrines of Wickliff and Huss, was not
+easily restrained, nor could it be expected that those who were
+persecuted would learn from persecution the lesson of tolerance. In the
+wild tumult, intellectual, moral, and social, which convulsed Bohemia,
+no doctrines were too extravagant to lack believers.
+
+In 1418 it is related that forty Pikardi with their wives and children
+came to Prague, where they were hospitably received and cared for by
+Queen Sophia and other persons of rank. They had no priest, but one of
+their number used to read to them out of certain little books, and they
+took communion in one element. They vanish from view without leaving a
+trace of their influence, and were doubtless Beghards driven from their
+homes and seeking a refuge beyond the reach of orthodoxy. Yet their name
+remained, and was long used in Bohemia as a term of the bitterest
+contempt for those who denied transubstantiation. Subsequently, however,
+there was a more portentous demonstration of the Brethren of the Free
+Spirit. A stranger, said to come from Flanders, whose name,
+"Pichardus," shows evidently that he was a Beghard, disseminated the
+doctrine of the Brethren, and among other things that nakedness was
+essential to purity, which we have seen was one of the extravagances of
+the sect. The practice was one which in a more settled state of society
+could not have been ventured on, but in Bohemia he found little
+difficulty in obtaining quite a large following of both sexes, with whom
+he settled on an island in the river Luznic, and dignified them with the
+name of Adamites. Perhaps they might have flourished undisturbed had not
+fanaticism, or possibly retaliation for aggression, led them to make a
+foray on the mainland and slay some two hundred peasants, whom they
+styled children of the devil. Ziska's attention being thus drawn to
+them, he captured the island and exterminated them. Fifty of them, men
+and women, were burned at Klokot, and those who escaped were hunted down
+and gradually shared the same fate, which they met with undaunted
+cheerfulness, laughing and singing as they went to the stake.[558]
+
+In the sudden removal of ecclesiastical repression of free thought it
+was inevitable that unbalanced minds should riot in extravagant
+speculation. Among the zealots who subsequently developed into the sect
+of the Taborites there was at first a strong tendency to apocalyptic
+prophecy suited to the times. First, there was to be a period of
+unsparing vengeance, during which safety could be found only in five
+specified cities of refuge, after which would follow the second advent
+of Christ, and the reign of peace and love among the elect, and earth
+would become a paradise. At first, the destruction of the wicked was to
+be the work of God, but as passions became fiercer it was held to be the
+duty of the righteous to cut them off without sparing. These Chiliasts
+or Millenarians had for their leader Martin Huska, surnamed Loquis, on
+account of his eloquence, and numbered among them Coranda and other
+prominent Taborite priests. Waldensian influence is visible in some
+features of their faith, and they rendered themselves peculiarly
+obnoxious by the denial of transubstantiation. For this they were
+exposed to pitiless persecution wherever their adversaries could
+exercise it. One of their leading members, a cobbler of Prague, named
+Wenceslas, was burned in a hogshead, July 23, 1421, for refusing to rise
+at the elevation of the host, and soon afterwards three priests shared
+the same fate because they refused to light candles before the
+sacrament. Martin Loquis himself was arrested in February of the same
+year, but was released at the intercession of the Taborites, and set out
+with a companion to seek Procopius in Moravia. At Chrudim, however, the
+travellers were arrested, and were burned at Hradisch after two months
+of torture vainly inflicted to wean them from their errors and force
+them to reveal the names of their associates. As a distinct sect the
+Chiliasts speedily disappear from view, but their members remained a
+portion of the Taborites, the development of whose opinions they
+profoundly influenced. In the delegation sent to Basle, in 1433, Peter
+of Zatce, who represented the Orphans, had been a Chiliast.[559]
+
+Thus these minor sects vanished as parties organized themselves in a
+permanent form, and the Bohemian reformers are found divided into two
+camps--the moderates, known as Calixtins or Utraquists, from their chief
+characteristic, the administration of the cup to the laity, and the
+extremists, or Taborites.
+
+The Calixtins virtually regarded the teachings of Huss and Jacobel of
+Mies, as a finality. When, after the death of Wenceslas, the necessity
+of some definite declaration of principles was felt, the University of
+Prague, on August 1, 1420, adopted, with but one dissenting voice, four
+articles which became for more than a century the distinguishing
+platform of their sect. As concisely enunciated by the University they
+appeared simple enough: I. Free preaching of the Word of God; II.
+Communion in both elements for the laity; III. The clergy to be deprived
+of all dominion over temporal possessions, and to be reduced to the
+evangelical life of Christ and the apostles; IV. All offences against
+divine law to be punished without exception of person or condition.
+These four articles were speedily accepted by the strongly Calixtin
+community of Prague, and were proclaimed to the world in various forms
+which added to their completeness and rendered their purport definite.
+Any one was declared a heretic who did not accept the Apostles',
+Athanasian, and Nicene creeds, the seven sacraments of the Church, and
+the existence of purgatory. Offences against the law of God were
+declared to be worthy of death, both of the offender and those who
+connived at them, and were defined to be, among the people, fornication,
+banqueting, theft, homicide, perjury, lying, arts superfluous,
+deceitful, and superstitious, avarice, usury, etc.: among the clergy,
+simoniacal exactions, such as fees for administering the sacraments, for
+preaching, burying, bell-ringing, consecration of churches and altars,
+as well as the sale of preferment; also concubinage and fornication,
+quarrels, vexing and spoiling the people with frivolous citations,
+greedy exactions of tribute, etc.[560]
+
+Upon this basis the Calixtin Church proceeded to organize itself in a
+council held at Prague in 1421. Four leading doctors, John of Przibram,
+Procopius of Pilsen, Jacobel of Mies, and John of Neuberg, were made
+supreme governors of the clergy throughout the kingdom, with absolute
+power of punishment. No one was to teach any new doctrine without first
+submitting it to them or to a provincial synod. Transubstantiation was
+emphatically affirmed as well as the seven sacraments. The daily use of
+the Eucharist was recommended to all, including infants and the sick.
+The canon of the mass was simplified and restored to primitive usage.
+Auricular confession was prescribed, as well as the use of the chrism
+and of holy water in baptism. Clerks were to be distinguished by
+tonsure, vestments, and conduct. Every priest was to possess a copy of
+the Scriptures, or at least of the New Testament, and stringent
+regulations were adopted for the preservation of priestly morality,
+including the prohibition of their protection by any layman after
+conviction.[561]
+
+Thus the Calixtin Church kept as close as possible to the old lines. It
+accepted all Catholic dogmas, even the power of the keys in sacramental
+penance, and only was a protest and revolt against the abuses which had
+grown out of the worldly aspirations of the clergy. It was a Puritan
+reform, and it founded a Puritan society. When, after the reconciliation
+effected at Basle, on the basis of the four articles, Sigismund, in
+1436, held his court in Prague, the Bohemians speedily complained that
+the city was becoming a Sodom with dicing, tavern-haunting, and public
+women. It must have sounded strange to them to be coolly told by a
+Christian prelate, the Bishop of Coutances, who was the legate of the
+council empowered to enforce the settlement, that it would be well if
+public sins could be eradicated, but that strumpets must be tolerated to
+prevent greater evils.[562]
+
+The Calixtins thus sought to keep themselves strictly within the pale of
+orthodoxy, and deemed themselves greatly injured and insulted by the
+appellation of heretic. After the reconciliation of 1436 one of their
+most constant causes of complaint was that they were still stigmatized
+as heretics, and that the Council of Basle would not issue letters
+proclaiming to Christendom that they were regarded as faithful sons of
+the Church. In 1464, after successive popes had repeatedly refused to
+ratify the pacification of Basle and had excommunicated as hardened
+heretics George Podiebrad and all who acknowledged him as king, when
+George sent an embassy to Louis XI. of France, Kostka of Postubitz, the
+envoy, and his attendants were more than once surprised and annoyed to
+find that the people of the towns through which they passed were
+disposed to regard them as heretics. The position of the Bohemian
+Calixtins was an anomalous one which has no parallel in the history of
+mediaeval Christendom.[563]
+
+In the intellectual and spiritual excitement which stirred Bohemia to
+the depths, it was impossible that all earnest souls should thus pause
+on the threshold. The old Waldensian heretics, who had hailed the
+progress of Wickliffite and Hussite doctrines, would naturally seek to
+prevent the arrested development of the Calixtins from prevailing, and,
+as we have seen, there were plenty of zealots who were ready to throw
+aside all the theology of sacerdotalism. Under the energetic leadership
+of Ziska, Coranda, Nicholas of Pilgram, and other resolute men, the
+progressive elements were rapidly moulded into a powerful party, which
+after sloughing off impracticable enthusiasts presented itself with a
+definite creed and purpose, and became known as the Taborites. Of late
+years there has been an active controversy as to whether the Waldenses
+were the teachers or the disciples of the Taborites. Without denying
+that the fearless vigor of the latter lent added strength to the
+development of the former, I cannot but think that the secret
+Waldensianism of Bohemia had much to do both with the revolt of Huss and
+with the carrying out of that revolt to its logical consequences.
+Certain it is that there were close and friendly relations between
+Waldensian and Taborite, while the very name of the former was regarded
+by all other Bohemians as a term of reproach--in fact there was so much
+in common between Wickliffite and Waldensian doctrine that this could
+scarce be otherwise. I have already alluded to the contributions made to
+the Hussites in 1432 by the Waldensian churches of Dauphine, and to the
+virtual coalescence of Hussitism and Waldensianism throughout Germany.
+When Procopius the Great, in 1433, was taking leave of the Council of
+Basle, he had the hardihood to inject into his address a good word for
+the Waldenses, saying that he had heard them well spoken of for
+chastity, modesty, and similar virtues. Persecution in 1430 so thinned
+them out that they had neither bishop nor priests; Nicholas of Pilgram,
+the Taborite bishop, had enjoyed consecration in the Roman Church, and
+thus had the right to transmit the apostolic succession, and he, in
+1433, in Prague consecrated for the Waldenses as bishops two of their
+number, Frederic the German, and John the Italian. When, in 1451, AEneas
+Sylvius passed a night in Mount Tabor, and wrote a picturesque
+description of what he observed, he states that while all heresies had a
+refuge there, the Waldenses were held in chief honor as the vicars of
+Christ and enemies of the Holy See.[564]
+
+When the Calixtins, in 1421, defined their position, the Taborites did
+the same. Various special Waldensian errors were attracting attention
+and obtaining currency among the people--the denial of purgatory, the
+vitiation of the sacrament in sinful hands, the absolute rejection of
+the death-punishment and of the oath--showing the influences at work.
+The position assumed by the Taborites was so strikingly similar to the
+beliefs ascribed in 1395 to the Waldenses in Austria by the Celestinian
+inquisitor, Peter, that it is impossible not to recognize the connection
+between them. While the Taborites accepted the four articles of the
+Calixtins they reduced the Church to a state of the utmost apostolic
+simplicity. Tradition was wholly thrown aside; all images were to be
+burned; there was no outward sign of distinction between layman and
+priest, the latter wearing beards, rejecting the tonsure, and using
+ordinary garments; all priests, moreover, were bishops, and could
+perform the rite of consecration; they baptized in running water,
+without the chrism, celebrated mass anywhere, reciting the simple words
+of consecration and the Paternoster in a loud voice and in the
+vernacular, administering the body in fragments of bread and the blood
+in any vessel which might be handy; all consecrations of sacred vessels,
+oil, and water was forbidden; purgatory, which Huss had accepted, was
+denied, and to manifest their contempt for the suffrages of the saints
+they ate more than usual on fast-days and saints'-days; auricular
+confession was derided--for venial sins confession to God sufficed, for
+mortal ones, public confession before the brethren, when the priest
+would assign a penalty commensurate with the offence. At the same time
+the rude and uncultured vigor of the Taborites led them to regard all
+human learning as a snare. Those who studied the liberal arts were
+regarded as heathen and as sinning against the Gospel, and all writings
+of the doctors, save what were expressly contained in the Bible, were to
+be destroyed.[565]
+
+What were their views with respect to the Lord's Supper cannot be stated
+with precision. Laurence of Brezowa, a Calixtin bitterly hostile to
+them, says that they consecrated the elements in a loud voice and in the
+vulgar tongue, that the people might be assured that they were receiving
+the real body and the real blood, which infers belief in
+transubstantiation. In 1431 Procopius the Great and other leaders of the
+Taborites issued a proclamation defining their position, in which they
+asserted their disbelief in purgatory, in the intercessory power of the
+Virgin and saints, in masses for the dead, in absolution through
+indulgences, etc., but said nothing against transubstantiation. When, in
+1436, the legates of the Council of Basle complained of the
+non-observance of the Compactata, one of their grievances was that
+Bohemia still sheltered Wickliffites who believed in the remanence of
+the substance of the bread, but they said nothing about the existence of
+any worse form of belief. On the other hand, the Taborite Bishop,
+Nicholas of Pilgram, strongly asserted that Christ was only present
+spiritually, that no veneration was due to the consecrated elements, and
+that there was less idolatry in those who of old adored moles and bats
+and snakes than in Christians who worshipped the host, for those things
+at least had life. During the negotiations, in January, 1433, the
+legates of the council presented a series of twenty-eight articles,
+attributed to the Bohemians, and asked for definite answers, yea or nay.
+One of these was a denial of transubstantiation, and the Bohemians could
+never be induced to make the desired reply. Peter Chelcicky reproached
+the Taborites with concealing their belief on the subject, but it is
+probable that there was no absolute accord among them. The Chiliast
+leaven doubtless spread the denial of transubstantiation; others
+probably adopted the Wickliffite doctrine of remanence; others again may
+have preserved the orthodox faith, and all resented the appellation of
+Pikards, with which the Bohemians designated those who disbelieved in
+the absolute conversion of the elements. Certain it is that the question
+did not come up with any prominence in the negotiations with the
+Council of Basle; and in the description which AEneas Sylvius gives, in
+1451, of the Taborites of Mount Tabor he simply says that some of them
+are so foolish that they hold the doctrine of Berenger, that the body of
+Christ is only figuratively in the sacrament.[566]
+
+It was impossible that harmony could be preserved between Taborite and
+Calixtin when there was so marked a divergence of religious conviction.
+They quarrelled and held conferences and persecuted each other, but they
+presented a united front to the levies of crusaders which Europe
+repeatedly sent against them, and Sigismund's hope of reconquering the
+throne of his fathers grew more and more remote. The death of Ziska, in
+1424, made little difference, save that his immediate followers
+organized themselves into a separate party under the name of Orphans,
+but continued in all things to co-operate with the Taborites. He was
+succeeded in the leadership by the warrior-priest Procopius Rasa, or the
+Great, whose military skill continued to hold banded Europe at bay.
+Hussitism, moreover, was spreading into the neighboring lands,
+especially to the south and east, requiring, as we shall see hereafter,
+the strenuous efforts of the Inquisition to eradicate it from Hungary
+and the Danubian provinces. In Poland its missionary efforts called
+forth an edict from King Ladislas V., April 6, 1424, ordering all his
+subjects to join in exterminating heretics; every Pole who returned from
+a sojourn in Bohemia was subjected to examination by the inquisitors or
+episcopal officials, and all who should not return by June 1 were
+declared heretics, their estates confiscated, and their children
+subjected to the customary disabilities.[567] The Church was completely
+baffled. It had triumphed over a similar revolt in Languedoc, and had
+shown the world, in characters of blood and fire, how it utilized its
+triumphs. It now had a different problem to solve. Force having failed,
+it was obliged to discover some formula of reconciliation which should
+not too nearly peril its claim to infallibility.
+
+To do it justice, it did not yield without compulsion. Tired of standing
+on the defensive against assaults whose repetition seemed endless,
+Procopius, in 1427, adopted the policy of aggression. He would win peace
+by making the coterminous states feel the miseries of war, and in a
+series of relentlessly destructive raids, continued till 1432, he
+carried desolation into all the surrounding provinces. Thus in a foray
+of 1429, which cut a swath through Franconia, Saxony, and the Vogtland,
+over a hundred castles and fortified towns were captured, and an immense
+booty was carried back to Bohemia. Misnia, Lusatia, Silesia, Bavaria,
+Austria, and Hungary in turn felt the weight of the Hussite sword, while
+the prompt retirement of the invaders in every case showed that
+retaliation and not conquest was their object. It was no wonder that a
+general cry for peace went up among those who bore the brunt of the
+effort to reassert the papal supremacy.[568]
+
+Meanwhile the Church was perplexed with another yet more vexatious
+question. Christendom never ceased to clamor for the reform of which it
+had been cheated at Constance. Skilful procrastination had wearied the
+reforming fathers, and they had consented, in 1418, to the dissolution
+of the council, hoping that the promises made in the election of Martin
+V. would be fulfilled. They took the precaution, however, to provide for
+an endless series of councils, which might be expected to resume and
+complete their unfinished work, and the plan which they laid out shows
+how deep-seated was the distrust entertained of the papacy. Another
+general council was ordered to be held in five years, then one in seven
+years thereafter, and finally a perpetual succession at intervals of ten
+years, with careful provisions to nullify the expected evasions of the
+popes.[569]
+
+As far as relates to Germany, Martin endeavored to perform the two
+duties for which he had been elected--the suppression of heresy and the
+reformation of the Church--by sending, in 1422, Cardinal Branda thither
+as legate. To accomplish the former object the legate was directed to
+preach another crusade, that of 1421 having ended so disastrously. As
+regards the latter feature of his mission, the papal commission and the
+decree issued in conformity with it by Branda describe the vices of the
+German clergy in terms quite as severe as those employed by Huss and his
+followers, and furnish a complete justification of the Bohemian revolt.
+The only wonder is that pope or kaiser could expect the populations to
+rest satisfied with the ministrations of men who assumed to be gifted
+with supernatural power and to speak in the name of the Redeemer, while
+steeped to the lips in every form of greed, uncleanness, and lust. The
+constitution which Branda issued to cure these evils only prescribed a
+repetition of remedies which had vainly been applied for centuries. It
+simply attacked the symptoms and not the cause of the disease, and it
+consequently remained inoperative.[570]
+
+Five years had elapsed since the ending of the Council of Constance.
+Nothing had been accomplished to suppress heresy or reform the Church,
+and when in due time the Council of Siena assembled, in 1423, it
+remained to be seen whether the unfinished work of Constance could be
+completed. Under the presidency of four papal legates it was held that
+the attendance of prelates and princes was too small to permit the work
+of reformation to be undertaken, but it was sufficient to justify the
+council in confirming the promises made by Martin of forgiveness of sins
+for all who should assist in exterminating the heretics. All Christian
+princes were summoned to lend their aid in the good work without delay
+if they wished to escape divine vengeance and the penalties provided by
+law. All commerce of every kind with the heretics was forbidden,
+especially in victuals, cloth, arms, gunpowder, and lead; every one
+trading with them, or any prince permitting communication with them
+over his lands was pronounced subject to the punishments decreed against
+heresy. Bohemia was to be isolated and starved into submission by a
+material blockade enforced by spiritual censures.[571]
+
+As for reformation, it was found that all efforts seriously to consider
+it were skilfully blocked by the legates. This is not surprising, as the
+Church was to be reformed in its head as well as in its members, and the
+head was recognized as the chief source of infection. A project
+presented by the Gallican deputies described in indignant bitterness the
+abuses of the curia--the sale of preferments and dignities to the
+highest bidder, irrespective of fitness, with the consequent destruction
+of benefices and plunder of the people; the papal dispensations which
+enabled the most incongruous pluralities to be held by individuals, and
+the other devices whereby Rome was enriched at the cost of religion; the
+centralizing of all jurisdiction in Rome to the spoliation of the
+indigent who dwelt at a distance; the papal decrees which set aside the
+salutary regulations of general councils--showing how nugatory had been
+the reformatory regulations wherewith Martin, when elected, had parried
+the attacks of the Council of Constance. The disappointment of the
+Council of Siena at the baffling of its efforts was leading to a tension
+of feeling that grew dangerous. A French friar, Guillaume Joselme,
+preached a sermon in which he demonstrated that the pope was the servant
+and not the master of the Church. The legates denounced him as a
+heretic, and ordered the magistrates of Siena to arrest him, but they,
+unlike Sigismund, replied that they had given a safe-conduct to all the
+members of the council, and could not go behind it. Finally, finding
+that under the control of the papacy no reformatory action was possible,
+the attempt was made to shorten to two or three years the seven years'
+interval that was to elapse before the next council. All the several
+nations had agreed to it when its enactment was prevented by the legates
+suddenly dissolving the council, March 8, 1424, in spite of a protest
+intimating very plainly that they had prevented all reformatory
+legislation. The seven years' interval was preserved, and the next
+council was indicated for Basle, in 1431. The reformers consoled
+themselves by pointing out that, of the four papal representatives
+concerned in thus strangling the council, three died within a year, of
+terrible deaths, manifestly the divine vengeance on their wickedness.
+Martin made a show of supplementing this lack of performance by
+appointing a commission of three cardinals to carry on the work of
+reform, and requested all complaints and suggestions to be sent to
+them--a measure which was as profitless in result as it was intended to
+be. Equally illusory was a constitution issued shortly after,
+restraining the ostentation and extravagance of the cardinals, and
+prohibiting them from assuming the "protection" of any prince or
+potentate, or asking favors except for the poor or for their own
+retainers and kindred, thus reducing the importance of the Sacred
+College as a factor of the Holy See and exalting his own.[572]
+
+The time fixed for the assembling of the Council of Basle, March, 1431,
+was rapidly drawing nigh without any action on the part of Martin
+looking to its convocation. He who owed his election to a general
+council was notorious for abhorring the very name of council. At length,
+on November 8, 1430, there appeared on the doors of the papal palace,
+and in the most conspicuous places in Rome, an anonymous notice,
+purporting to be issued by two Christian kings, reciting the necessity
+of holding a council in obedience to the decrees of Constance, and
+appending some conclusions of a threatening character, to the effect
+that if the pope and cardinals impede it, or even evade promoting it,
+they are to be held as fautors of heresy; that if the pope does not open
+the council himself or by his deputies, those who may be present will be
+compelled by divine law to withdraw obedience from him, and Christendom
+will be bound to obey them, and that they will be forced to proceed
+summarily to his deposition and that of the cardinals as fautors of
+heresy. It was evident that Christendom was determined to have the
+council, with the pope or without him, and Martin, after holding out
+till the last moment, was compelled to yield. He had appointed, January
+11, 1431, Cardinal Giuliano Cesarini as legate to preach another crusade
+with plenary indulgences against the Hussites, and to him he issued,
+February 1, a commission to open and preside at the council. One of
+those most earnest in bringing this about was the Cardinal of Siena. Had
+he been able to forecast the future he would have tempered his zeal.
+Within three weeks Martin was dead, and on March 3 the Cardinal of Siena
+was elected his successor, taking the name of Eugenius IV.[573]
+
+Cardinal Giuliano went on his double mission and preached the fifth
+crusade against the Hussites. The Bohemian forays had stimulated Germany
+to an earnest effort to crush the troublesome rebels, and he found
+himself at the head of an army variously estimated at from eighty
+thousand to one hundred and thirty thousand men. The Bohemians applied
+to the Emperor Sigismund for a safe-conduct to Basle, offering to submit
+the questions at issue to debate on the basis of Scripture. This was
+refused, and they were told that they must agree to stand to the
+decisions of the council without limitation. They preferred the
+arbitrament of arms, and issued a protest to the Christian world in
+which, with coarse good sense, they defined their position, attacked the
+temporal power of the papacy, and ridiculed the indulgences issued for
+their subjugation. This document was received by the council on August
+10, very nearly on the day on which, at Taas, the crusaders fled without
+striking a blow, on hearing the battle-hymn of the dreaded Hussite
+troops. As a military leader Cardinal Giuliano was evidently a failure,
+and it only remained for him to try peaceful measures. The German
+princes, alarmed and exhausted, showed evident signs of determination to
+come to terms with their unconquerable neighbors. It was a hard
+necessity, but there was no alternative, and on October 15 the council
+resolved to invite the Bohemians to a conference and to give them a
+safe-conduct, although the letters were not forwarded until November
+26.[574]
+
+Meanwhile the inevitable quarrels between pope and council had broken
+out with bitterness. But three weeks after the invitation to the
+Bohemians had been despatched, on December 18, Eugenius took the extreme
+step of dissolving the council and calling another to be held in
+eighteen months at Bologna, where he would preside in person. At this
+action Germany was aghast. Sigismund remonstrated energetically, and the
+council, assured of his support, refused to obey. Cardinal Giuliano was
+won over and made himself its mouthpiece. He had had an opportunity of
+observing the condition of men's minds north of the Alps, and he knew to
+what a storm the bark of St. Peter would be exposed. It may safely be
+said that since the papacy became dominant over the Church few popes
+have received from a subordinate so vigorous a reproof as that in which
+Giuliano gave his reasons for disobedience, and it contains so vivid a
+picture of the times that a brief abstract of it cannot well be spared.
+Clerical wickedness, he says, in Germany is such that the laity are
+irritated to the last degree against the Church, wherefore it is greatly
+to be feared that if there is no reformation they will execute their
+public threats of rising, like the Hussites, against the clergy. This
+turpitude has given great audacity to the Bohemians and lends color to
+their heresy, and if the clergy cannot be reformed the suppression of
+this heresy would lead only to the breaking-out of another. The
+Bohemians have been invited to the council; they have replied and are
+expected to come. If the council is dissolved, what will the heretics
+say? Will not the Church confess herself defeated when she dares not
+await those whom she has invited? Will not the hand of God be seen in
+it? A host of warriors has fled before them, and now the Church
+universal flies! Behold, they cannot be overcome either by arms or
+arguments! Alas for the wretched clergy wherever they be! Will they not
+be deemed incorrigible and determined to live in their filth? So many
+councils have been held in our days from which no reformation has come!
+From this one the nations have expected some fruit. If it be thus
+dissolved, we shall be said to laugh at God and man, and when there is
+no hope of our correction the laity will justly assail us, like the
+Hussites. Already there are reports of it, already they begin to spit
+forth the venom which is to destroy us. They will think to offer a
+welcome sacrifice to God when they slay or despoil us, who will then be
+odious both to God and man, and whereas now there is little respect for
+us, there will then be none. The council was some restraint upon them,
+but when they lose all hope they will persecute us publicly, and the
+whole blame will be thrown upon the Roman curia, which breaks up the
+assembly convened to effect reform. Latterly the city of Magdeburg has
+expelled her archbishop and clergy; the citizens march with wagons like
+the Bohemians, and are said to have sent for a Hussite captain, and they
+have, moreover, a league with many other communities of those parts. The
+people of Passau have driven out their bishop and are besieging one of
+his castles. Both cities are near to Bohemia, and if, as is to be
+feared, they unite they will have a following of many other towns. At
+Bamberg there is fierce discord between the citizens on the one side and
+the bishop and chapter on the other, which is especially dangerous by
+reason of the neighborhood of the heretics. If the council is dissolved
+these quarrels will increase, and many other communities will be drawn
+in.[575]
+
+Making due allowance for inevitable rhetorical exaggeration this picture
+is a true one. Hussite ideas were rapidly spreading through Germany, and
+finding a congenial soil in the aversion born of incurable clerical
+corruption. About this time Felix Hemmerlin complains of the countless
+souls seduced to heresy by the emissaries who, every year, come from
+Bohemia to Berne and Soleure. Numerous executions of heretics are
+recorded at this period in Flanders, where persecution had been for
+centuries almost unknown, and we may be sure that Hussite missionaries
+were busily carrying on an equally successful propaganda elsewhere. If
+the hopes which were built on the council were destroyed, the Church
+might well expect a general revolt. Sustained by the united support of
+Cismontane Christendom, the council resolutely went its way. Sigismund
+urged it to stand firm, and in November, 1432, he issued an imperial
+declaration that he would sustain it against all assailants. Eugenius
+held out until February, 1433, when he assented to its continuance, but
+in July he again dissolved it, and in September repeated the command.
+Then the council commenced active proceedings to arraign and try him,
+and in December he revoked these bulls. In the subsequent quarrel the
+council decreed his suspension in January, 1439, and his deposition in
+June, while the election of Amedeo of Savoy as Felix V. was confirmed in
+November of the same year.[576]
+
+Into the details of the interminable negotiations which followed between
+the council and the Hussites it is not worth while to enter. The latter
+carried their point, and, in a conference held at Eger, May 18, 1439, it
+was agreed that the questions should be debated on the basis of the
+Scriptures and the writings of the early fathers. The four articles
+which were the common ground of Calixtins and Taborites were put forward
+as their demands, and to these they steadily adhered through all the
+dreary discussions in Basle, Prague, Bruenn, Stuhlweissenberg, to the
+final conference of Iglau in July, 1436. The discussions were ofttimes
+hot and angry, and the good fathers of Basle were sometimes scandalized
+at the freedom of speech of the Bohemian delegates. When John of Ragusa
+alluded to the Hussites as heretics, John Rokyzana, one of the Calixtin
+delegates, indignantly denied it, and demanded that if any one accused
+them of heresy he should offer the _talio_ and prove it. Procopius, who
+represented the Taborites, joined in and declared that he would not have
+come to Basle had he known that he would be thus insulted. Time and
+skill were required to pacify the Bohemians, and John of Ragusa and the
+Archbishop of Lyons were forced to apologize formally. On another
+occasion the Inquisitor Henry of Coblentz, a Dominican doctor,
+complained that Ulric of Znaim, a deputy of the Orphans, had said that
+monks were introduced by the devil. Ulric denied it, and Procopius
+intervened, saying that he had remarked to the legate that if the
+bishops came from the apostles, and priests from the seventy-two
+disciples, the others could have had no other source but the devil. This
+sally raised a general laugh, which was increased when Rokyzana called
+to the inquisitor, "Doctor, make Dom Procopius provincial of your
+order." These trifles have their significance when compared with the
+shouts of "Burn him! Burn him!" which assailed Huss at Constance. In
+fact the Hussites were urged to incorporate themselves with the council,
+but they were too shrewd to fall into the snare.[577]
+
+By unbending firmness the Bohemians carried their point, and secured the
+recognition of the four articles, which became celebrated in history as
+the Compactata--the Magna Charta of the Bohemian Church until swept away
+by the counter-Reformation. This was agreed to in Prague, November 26,
+1433, and confirmed by mutual clasp of hands between the legates of the
+council and the deputies of the three Bohemian sects, but matters were
+by no means settled. The four articles were brief and simple
+declarations which admitted of unlimited diversity of construction. The
+dialecticians of the council had no difficulty in explaining them away,
+until they practically amounted to nothing; the Hussites, on the other
+side, with equal facility, expanded them to cover all that they could
+possibly wish to claim. Hardly was the handclasping over when it was
+found that the Bohemians asserted that the permission of communion in
+both elements meant that they were to continue to administer it to
+infants, and to force it proscriptively on every one--positions to which
+the council could by no means assent. This will serve as an illustration
+of the innumerable questions which kept the negotiators busy during yet
+thirty dreary months. So far, indeed, was the matter as yet from being
+settled, that, in April, 1434, the council levied a half-tithe on
+Christendom for a crusade against the Hussites, which enabled it to
+stimulate with liberal payments the zeal of the Bohemian Catholic
+nobles.[578]
+
+It is not likely that any results would have been reached but for events
+which at first seemed to threaten the continuance of the negotiations.
+The Taborites could only have consented to treat on the basis, so
+inadequate to them, of the four articles, in the confidence that the
+practical application would cover a vastly wider sphere. After the
+preliminary agreement of November 26, the construction assumed by the
+legates of the council made them draw back. The affair was reaching a
+conclusion, and it was necessary to have a definite understanding of
+that to which they were binding themselves. After the departure of the
+legates from Prague, in January, 1434, hot discussions arose between
+them and the Calixtins as to the continuance of the negotiations. There
+were political as well as religious differences between them. The
+Taborites were mostly peasants and poor folk; they wanted no nobles or
+gentlemen in their ranks, and seem to have had republican tendencies, as
+they desired to add to the four articles two others, providing for the
+independence of Bohemia and for the retention of all confiscated
+property. Both parties became exasperated, and flew to arms for a
+contest decisive as to their respective mastery. The Taborites had for
+some time been besieging Pilsen, a city which held out for Sigismund.
+Learning that their friends in the Neustadt of Prague had been
+slaughtered without distinction of age or sex, to the number, it is
+said, of twenty-two thousand, they raised the siege, May 9, to take
+vengeance on the city, but after a demonstration before it, they
+withdrew towards Moravia. Meanwhile the Calixtins had formed an alliance
+with the Catholic barons, who had been liberally subsidized by the
+council, and followed them with a formidable force. The shock came at
+Lipan, on Sunday, May 30. All day and night the battle raged, and until
+the third hour of Monday morning. When it was over, Procopius, Lupus,
+and thirteen thousand of the bravest Taborites lay dead upon the field,
+and the murderous nature of the strife is seen in the fact that but
+seven hundred prisoners were taken, though we may question the claim of
+the victors that the battle cost them but two hundred men, and we may
+hope that there is exaggeration in the boast that they burned several
+thousand of those whom they subsequently captured. The power of the
+Taborites was utterly broken. It is true that they continued to hold
+Mount Tabor until finally crushed by George Podiebrad, in 1452; and that
+in the December following the battle their unconquerable spirit was
+again contemplating an appeal to arms, but after Lipan they were only a
+troublesome element of insubordination, and not a factor in the
+political situation. The congratulatory letters sent by some of the
+victors to Sigismund, and the effusive joy with which he communicated
+the news to the council, show that the victory was one for the
+Catholics.[579]
+
+Even after the virtual elimination of the Taborites there were ample
+subjects of dispute, and at one time the prospect seemed so unpromising
+that preliminary arrangements were set on foot, in August, 1434, for
+organizing a new crusade on the proceeds of the half-tithe levied
+shortly before. One source of endless trouble sprang from the personal
+ambition of Rokyzana. Learned, able, a hardy disputant, and a skilled
+man of affairs, he had determined to be Archbishop of Prague, and this
+object he pursued with unalterable constancy. He bore a leading part in
+the negotiations, and made himself as conspicuous as possible, shifting
+his ground with dexterity, interposing objections and smoothing them as
+the interest of the moment might dictate. At first he endeavored to have
+a clause inserted that the people and the clergy should be empowered to
+elect an archbishop, who should be acknowledged and confirmed by the
+emperor and the pope. This being rejected, he procured of Sigismund a
+secret agreement that the election should be held, and that the emperor
+would do all in his power to secure the confirmation by the pope,
+without cost for pallium, confirmation, or notarial fees. Although this,
+when discovered, was protested against by the legates of the council and
+refused by the council itself, he proceeded, in 1435, to obtain an
+election by the national assembly of Bohemia, to the great disgust of
+the orthodox, who reasonably dreaded this example of a return of the
+primitive methods of selecting prelates. Again Sigismund secretly
+accepted this, while the legates declared it to be invalid, and that, as
+an infraction of the Compactata, it must be annulled. On this question
+the whole negotiation was nearly wrecked, and it was only settled by
+Sigismund and his son-in-law and heir, Albert of Austria, promising to
+issue letters recognizing Rokyzana as archbishop, and to compel
+obedience to him as such. After this it required but a fortnight more of
+quarrelling to bring the matter to a termination, and signatures to the
+Compactata were duly exchanged July 5, 1436, amid general rejoicings.
+Sigismund, restored to the throne of his fathers, made a show of
+complying with his promise, by writing to the council a letter asking
+Rokyzana's confirmation, at the same time explaining to the legates that
+he considered the council ought to refuse, but that he did not wish to
+break with his new subjects too suddenly. Of course the confirmation
+never came, and although Rokyzana called God to witness that he did not
+wish the archbishopric, the policy of his long life was devoted to
+obtaining it. With all convenient speed Sigismund forgot the pledge to
+enforce obedience to him. His position became so dangerous that he
+secretly fled from Prague, June 16, 1437, and remained in exile until
+after the deaths of Sigismund and Albert, when he returned in 1440, and
+speedily became the most powerful man in Bohemia. This position he
+retained until his death, in 1471, administering the archbishopric,
+constantly seeking confirmation at the hands of successive popes, and
+subordinating the policy of the kingdom, internal and external, so far
+as he dared, to that object--not the least anomalous feature of the
+anomalous Calixtin Church.[580]
+
+A peace in which all parties distrusted each other and placed radically
+different interpretations on its conditions was not likely to heal
+dissensions so profound. The very day after the solemn ratification of
+the Compactata an ominous disturbance showed how superficial was the
+reconciliation. In the presence of an immense crowd, at the high altar
+of the church of Iglau, where the final conferences were held, the
+Bishop of Coutances, chief of the legation of the council, celebrated
+mass and returned thanks to God. After this the letters of agreement
+were read in Bohemian, and Rokyzana commented upon them in the same
+language, much to the discomfort of the legates. He had been celebrating
+mass at a side altar, and when the reading was finished he called out,
+"If any one wishes communion in both elements let him come to this
+altar and it will be given to him." The legates rushed over to him and
+twice forbade him, but he quietly disregarded them and administered the
+sacrament to eight or ten persons. The incident excited intense feeling
+on both sides. The Bohemians demanded that a church be assigned to them
+in Iglau where during their stay they could receive the sacrament in
+both kinds; the legates refused the request, although urged by the
+emperor, and finally, after threats of departure, the Bohemians were
+forced to content themselves with celebrating, as they had previously
+done, in private houses.[581]
+
+When Sigismund was fairly seated on the throne, there followed an
+endless series of bickerings, as the rites and ceremonies and usages of
+the Roman Church were restored, supplanting the simpler worship which
+had prevailed for twenty years. Consecrations, confirmations, images,
+relics, holy water, benedictions, were one by one introduced--even the
+hated religious orders were surreptitiously smuggled in. The canonical
+hours and chants were renewed in the churches, and every effort was made
+to accustom the people to a resurrection of the old order of things. On
+Corpus Christi day, May 30, 1437, a gorgeous procession swept through
+the streets of Prague bearing the host on high; the legate, the
+Archbishop of Kalocsa, and the Bishop of Segnia headed it, and were
+dutifully followed by the emperor and empress, the nobles and a mass of
+citizens. As a mute protest, Rokyzana met the splendid array, attended
+only by three priests, and bearing both host and cup. To the stern
+puritans who had so long struggled against the Scarlet Woman the
+imposing ceremony must have seemed a bitter mockery, for the Empress
+Barbara, who occupied a conspicuous position in the ranks, was a woman
+notorious for shameless licentiousness, and, moreover, was an avowed
+atheist, who disbelieved in the immortality of the soul.[582]
+
+Within three weeks of this celebration, Rokyzana was a fugitive, seeking
+the protection of George Podiebrad at Hradecz, not without reason, if
+AEneas Sylvius is correct in saying that Sigismund was about to arrest
+him and punish him condignly. Then the process of reaction went on
+apace. Had Sigismund lived, he might have overcome all resistance, and
+reduced the land to obedience to Rome. His power was constantly growing.
+In March the surrender of the Taborite stronghold of Konigingraetz filled
+the Hussites with consternation. Not long after siege was laid to Zion,
+the fastness of John Rohacz, a powerful baron who had refused
+submission. He was finally captured in it, brought to Prague, and hanged
+in the presence of the emperor with sixty of his followers and a priest.
+Tradition relates that on that very day Sigismund was attacked with an
+ulcer which grew constantly worse and ended his days in December. Almost
+simultaneous with this was the decision by the Council of Basle on the
+question of communion in both elements, in which it skilfully evaded the
+inconsistency of the prohibition of the cup, and pronounced it to be the
+law of the Church, not to be modified without authority. As Albert of
+Austria, the son-in-law and successor of Sigismund, was a zealous
+Catholic prince, the council was emboldened in January, 1438, to issue
+an edict reciting and ordering the strict enforcement of the implacable
+bull of February 22, 1418, by Martin V., directed against the errors of
+Wickliff, Huss, and Jerome. This evidence of what they were to expect as
+the outcome of the Compactata gave the Taborites and the disaffected
+parties in Bohemia new energy. After a fruitless appeal to the council
+an alliance was made with Poland, whose boy-king, Casimir, was elected
+as a competitor. Thus strengthened they offered effective resistance to
+Albert, who up to his sudden death, October 27, 1439, was unable to
+occupy the whole of his kingdom. Four months later, Ladislas, his
+posthumous son, was born, and a long minority, with its accompanying
+turbulence, enabled the Calixtins again to get the upper hand, over both
+the Taborites and the Catholics. In 1441 a council held at Kuttenberg
+organized the national Church on a Calixtin basis. Several conferences
+were held with the Taborites, and the points at issue were referred to
+the national diet held in January, 1444. Its emphatic decision in favor
+of the Calixtin doctrine broke up the Taborite organization. The cities
+still held by them surrendered one by one, and the members were
+scattered, for the most part joining the Calixtins. As a separate sect
+they may be said to have disappeared when, in 1452, George Podiebrad
+captured Mount Tabor and dispersed their remains.[583]
+
+After the death of Albert what central authority there was in Bohemia
+was lodged in the hands of two governors, Ptacek representing the
+Calixtins, and Mainhard of Rosenberg, the victor of Lipan, the
+Catholics. In October, 1443, we hear of the Emperor Frederic III. as
+about starting for Bohemia where he expected to receive the regency, but
+his hopes were frustrated. Ptacek died in 1445, when the choice for his
+succession fell upon George Podiebrad, a powerful baron, who, though
+only twenty-four, had acquired a high reputation for military ability
+and sagacity. He was largely under the influence of Rokyzana, to whom
+doubtless his election was due. After a long interval, Rome again
+appeared upon the scene. Nicholas V., who ascended the papal throne in
+1447, sent, in 1448, John, Cardinal of Sant' Angelo, to Prague as
+legate. The Bohemians earnestly urged him to ratify the Compactata and
+confirm Rokyzana as archbishop. He promised an answer, but finding the
+situation embarrassing, he secretly left Prague with Mainhard of
+Rosenberg. Popular indignation enabled George by a _coup d'etat_, in
+which there was considerable bloodshed, to render himself master of
+Prague and to cast Mainhard into prison, where he died soon after.
+George thus became the undisputed master of Bohemia. When Ladislas, in
+1452, was recognized as king, George secured the regency, and when the
+young monarch died towards the close of 1457, at the early age of
+eighteen, George's coronation as king soon followed. Under him, until
+just before his death in 1471, Rokyzana's influence was almost
+unbounded.[584]
+
+The situation of Bohemia, as a member of the Latin Church, was
+unprecedented. After the first break between Eugenius IV. and the
+Council of Basle the name of the pope disappears in the negotiations for
+the restoration of unity. These were carried on by both sides as though
+the conciliar authority was supreme, and the papal assent or
+confirmation was a matter of no moment, although a papal legate was
+present in January, 1436, at the conference at Stuhlweissenberg, where
+the matter was virtually settled. As the council drew to its weary end,
+powerless and discredited, the triumphant Eugenius was not disposed to
+recognize the validity of its acts or to ratify them gratuitously. The
+Bohemians alleged that he had confirmed the Compactata, but no positive
+evidence was forthcoming. To purchase the submission of Germany, in
+1447, he had ratified a portion of the acts of the council, but the
+Compactata could not be included in his carefully. guarded decrees. On
+the accession of Nicholas V., in 1447, the Bohemians sent to him a
+deputation offering him their allegiance, but we have seen how wary was
+the legate whom he despatched in return to Prague. It is true that to
+obtain the abdication of Felix V., Nicholas issued a bull, June 28,
+1449, approving all the acts of the council which might strictly be held
+to confirm the Compactata, but the character of the bull shows that it
+had in view rather the material interests involved in benefices and
+preferment. Whatever doubt the Bohemians may have had as to the papal
+intentions towards them was speedily dissipated.[585]
+
+Rome, in fact, had never proposed to recognize the compromise made by
+the council. While the latter was busy in endeavoring to win back the
+Hussites, Eugenius IV. was laboring for their extermination by the usual
+methods, in such regions as he could reach. The relations between
+Bohemia and Hungary had long been close, and Hussitism had spread widely
+throughout the latter kingdom as well as in the Slavic territories to
+the south. As early as 1413 we hear complaints of Wickliffite doctrines
+carried into Croatia by students returning from the University of
+Prague. As Sigismund was King of Hungary, the Compactata were supposed
+to cover the Hungarian Hussites, and were published in Hungarian as well
+as in Bohemian, German, and Latin. We have seen, however, how false he
+was to his Bohemian subjects, and those of Hungary he cheerfully
+abandoned to Rome. Six weeks after the signature of the Compactata at
+Iglau, on August 22, 1436, Eugenius commissioned the indefatigable
+persecutor, Fra Giacomo della Marca, as Inquisitor of Hungary and
+Austria. He was already on the ground, for in January of that year we
+catch a glimpse of him as present in the conference at Stuhlweissenberg.
+Fra Giacomo lost no time. Before the close of the year he had traversed
+Hungary from end to end, with merciless severity. The Archbishop of
+Gran, the Chapter of Kalocsa, the Bishop of Waradein, were loud in his
+praises. Their dioceses, they said, had been infected with heretics so
+numerous that a rising was anticipated which would have exceeded in
+horror the Bohemian wars, but this holy man had exterminated them. The
+numbers whom he put to death are not enumerated, but they must have been
+considerable from the expressions employed, and from the terror
+inspired, for his associates declared that in this expedition he had
+received the submission of fifty-five thousand converts. As the Bishop
+of Waradein rapturously declared, had the Apostle Paul accompanied him
+he could not have effected more. Earnestly the Bishops of Csanad and
+Transylvania appealed to him to visit their dioceses, which abounded in
+heretics; and as the latter prelate speaks of the Hussites having
+penetrated to his bishopric from Moldavia, it shows how widely the
+heresy had been diffused through southeastern Europe.[586]
+
+Suddenly, in 1437, Fra Giacomo's career was interrupted. He had crushed
+the Fraticelli of Italy, the wild Cathari of Bosnia, and the fiercer
+Hussites of Hungary, but when he attacked the orthodox concubinary
+priests of Fuenfkirchen, and strove to force them to abandon the illicit
+partners who were universally kept, they proved too strong for even his
+iron will and seasoned nerves, backed though he was by the power of pope
+and kaiser and the awful authority of the Inquisition. They raised such
+a storm at this attempted invasion of their accustomed privileges that
+he was obliged to abandon his work and fly for his life. He appealed to
+Eugenius, and Eugenius to Sigismund. The latter wrote to Henry, the
+Bishop of Fuenfkirchen, peremptorily ordering him to recall Giacomo and
+give him every aid, and also to Giacomo, assuring him of support. Thus
+assailed, Bishop Henry gave instructions that Giacomo should be supplied
+with all necessaries, but the attempt to enforce chastity on the
+priesthood seems to have been abandoned. The customary penalty in
+Hungary for such offences was five marks, and the synods of Gran in 1450
+and 1480 complain that the archdeacons not only keep these fines for
+themselves, but encourage the criminals in order to derive profit from
+them; in fact, they issued in Hungary, as in many other places, licenses
+to sin, which may, perhaps, explain the indignation caused by Giacomo's
+interference and its lack of success.[587]
+
+He appears to have meddled no longer with the private lives of the
+orthodox clergy, but to have devoted his energies to the easier work of
+exterminating heretics. Early in 1437 we hear of him south of the
+Danube, where the Bishop of Sreim praised his effective work; by putting
+to death all who could not be converted, he had saved the diocese from a
+rising of the Hussites, in which all the clergy would have been slain.
+Eugenius rewarded him by describing him as "a vigorous and most
+ruthless extirpator of heresy," and granting him the power of
+appointing subordinate inquisitors, thus rendering him an
+inquisitor-general in all the wide region confided to him. It was
+probably a result of the quarrel over the priestly concubines that led,
+in 1438, Simon of Bacska, Archdeacon of Fuenfkirchen, to excommunicate
+him; but that official was speedily forced to withdraw the anathema by
+the Emperor Albert and the Archbishop of Gran. For a while his labors
+were interrupted by a call to attend the Council of Ferrara, held in
+1438 by Eugenius IV., to offset the hostile assemblage at Basle, but he
+speedily returned to Hungary. It was doubtless owing to his efforts that
+in Poland the barons and cities entered into a solemn league and
+covenant to suppress heresy, April 25, 1438--just before Poland
+intervened in Bohemia to protect the Hussites from the Emperor Albert.
+In 1439 Giacomo's zeal received a check on the more immediate fields of
+his labors. In Sreim he delivered to the secular arm, as convicted
+heretics, a priest and three associates; their friends assembled in
+force, broke open the prison and carried off the culprits, and, what is
+difficult to understand, unless the heresy was merely concubinage, the
+Archbishop of Kalocsa, when appealed to, protected the criminals.
+Giacomo had recourse to the Emperor Albert, who wrote sharply to the
+archbishop in June; and this proving ineffectual, again in August. What
+was the result of the affair is not known, but Albert, as we have seen,
+died in October, to the great detriment of religion; and in 1440 Giacomo
+left Hungary on account of ill-health. He seems not to have been
+immediately replaced, and, in the absence of organized persecution, the
+tares speedily began to multiply again among the wheat. In January,
+1444, Eugenius IV., deploring the spread of Hussitism throughout the
+Danubian regions, appointed the Observantine Vicar Fabiano of Bacs as
+inquisitor for the whole Slavonian vicariate, which included Hungary,
+with power to appoint inquisitors under him. These were authorized to
+act in complete independence of the local prelates; Holy Land
+indulgences were promised to all who would aid them, and
+excommunication, removable only by pope or inquisitor, against all
+withholding assistance. In July, 1446, Eugenius again alludes to the
+flourishing condition of Hussitism in Hungary and Moldavia, in spite of
+the labors of the friars, and he recurs to the question which baffled
+Giacomo della Marca. Many parish priests, he says, in these regions not
+only keep concubines publicly, but teach that there is no sin in
+intercourse between unmarried persons; the question has been asked him
+whether this is heresy, justiciable by the Inquisition; this he answers
+in the affirmative, and authorizes Fabiano and his deputies to treat it
+as such. Apparently it was not the practice itself, but the
+justification of it, which was so heinous.[588]
+
+If Rome was thus active in repressing Hussitism, and thus regardless of
+the Compactata while crippled by the quarrel with the fathers of Basle,
+it may readily be imagined that, after the abdication of Felix V. and
+the restoration of unquestioned supremacy, Nicholas V. was not disposed
+to respect the bargain made by the council or to regard the Calixtins in
+any light but that of heretics. It was in vain that the Bohemians
+proffered obedience if only the Compactata were confirmed, with a tacit
+condition that Rokyzana's claims to the archbishopric should be
+recognized. Ostensibly the sole difficulty in the way of reunion lay in
+the use of the cup by the laity and the communion of infants; save this
+there was by this time but little to distinguish the Calixtins from the
+rest of the Latin churches, although occasionally the question of the
+sequestrated church lands emerged into view. The papacy had taken its
+position, however, and it would have plunged all Christendom into war,
+as, in fact, it more than once attempted, rather than admit that the
+Council of Basle had been justified in purchasing peace by conceding
+communion in both elements. Behind this, however, was the question of
+Rokyzana's confirmation. AEneas Sylvius informs us that in 1451 he
+convinced George Podiebrad of the impossibility of effecting this, and
+secured a promise that the attempt should be abandoned, he pledging
+himself that if George would present the names of several suitable
+persons the pope would select one, and peace would then be established.
+This treated the Compactata as of minor importance, and was doubtless
+wholly unauthorized. Neither George nor Rokyzana gave up their hopes;
+the effort was renewed again and again, now with the pope, now with the
+Emperor Frederic III., and now with the German Diet, but all to no
+purpose. Occasionally when there was an object to be gained hopes would
+be held out, only to be withdrawn. The papal emissaries represented
+Rokyzana to Rome as the most wicked and perfidious of heresiarchs, whose
+recognition would be the destruction of what remained of Catholicism in
+Bohemia, and there never was the slightest idea of confirming him.[589]
+
+When the overthrow of Mainhard of Rosenberg and the concentration of
+power in the hands of George Podiebrad showed that no further hopes were
+to be built on the Catholic party in Bohemia, Nicholas V. fell back upon
+the old methods and resolved to try what could be done by a missionary
+inquisitor. He had at hand an instrument admirably fitted for the work.
+Giovanni da Capistrano, vicar-general of the Observantine Franciscans,
+had commenced his career as an inquisitor in 1417; he was now in his
+sixty-sixth year, vigorous and implacable as ever. Small and
+insignificant in appearance, shrivelled by austerities until he seemed
+to consist only of skin and bone and nerves, he rarely tasted meat and
+allowed himself but four hours of sleep out of the twenty-four, the
+remainder being all too few for his restless and indefatigable activity.
+His saintly and self-denying life had gained him enviable powers as a
+thaumaturge, and his reputation as a preacher drew crowds to listen to
+his eloquence. In 1451 he was busy in exterminating the Fraticelli, but
+he suspended his bloody work at the call of Nicholas to undertake the
+conversion of the Hussites. Nothing was omitted that could contribute to
+the dramatic effect of his mission. Before assuming it he sought the
+divine assent by consulting the Virgin at Assisi, when the heavenly
+light diffused around him was a sign that his apostolate was confirmed;
+he accepted the enlarged powers which extended his inquisitorial
+commission to the Bohemian territories, and set forth. Everywhere on his
+road multitudes assembled to see and listen to the man of God, and
+everywhere his miraculous powers manifested the authenticity of his
+mission. At Brescia he addressed an assembly computed at one hundred and
+twenty thousand souls, and, though walls and trees were broken down by
+the masses of men gathered thickly upon them, not a human being was
+injured. At the crossing of the River Sile, near Treviso, the party,
+with true Observantine austerity, had no money to pay ferriage, and the
+surly ferryman refused free transportation; but Capistrano quietly took
+the habit of San Bernardino, which he carried with him, laid it upon the
+waters, and they shrank away till all had passed dry-shod, when they
+resumed their former volume. Thus heralded, his way through Venice and
+Vienna was a triumphal progress; crowds of sixty thousand or one hundred
+thousand to hear him preach were common; men came from a distance of
+five hundred miles to listen to him; at Vienna three hundred thousand
+were reckoned present; the sick were brought before him in thousands,
+and the miraculous cures which he wrought were computed by hundreds. The
+ecclesiastical machinery was evidently well-devised and effectively
+worked, and the desired impression was produced.[590]
+
+In vain the emperor asked permission for him to visit Prague. Podiebrad
+and Rokyzana refused it peremptorily, and Capistrano's zeal for
+martyrdom was not sufficient to prompt him to disregard their wishes.
+Furnished with imperial letters to the Catholic nobles and to their
+leader, Ulric Mainhard of Rosenberg, he turned in July to the safer
+region of Moravia, where presumably the influence of Podiebrad and
+Rokyzana was not so strong. Here his career indicates how little
+foundation there was for the persistent Catholic complaints of the
+proscriptive intolerance of the Calixtins. Though on Bohemian territory,
+Catholic and Hussite seem to have been dwelling together in mutual
+harmony; the Bishop of Olmuetz was a Catholic, and no hindrance seems to
+have been experienced by Capistrano in his labors for the conversion of
+the so-called heretics. Beginning at Bruenn, August 1, 1451, there is a
+register containing names and dates of more than eleven thousand
+conversions made by him up to May, 1452. Yet at the same time he was
+restricted to persuasion, and was not allowed to use inquisitorial
+methods. As his converts were voluntary, he smoothed the path of the
+repentant heretic, reconciling him to the Church with only the
+infliction of a salutary penance, and allowing him to retain all his
+possessions and dignities. Where the heretic was hardened, he was
+powerless, except through such miraculous power as he could wield. The
+situation was an anomalous one--unexampled, in fact, in the Middle
+Ages--of heretic and Catholic dwelling together in peace, the heretic in
+the ascendant, yet not only tolerating the Catholic, but allowing a man
+like Capistrano to wander through the land denouncing heretics and
+making conversions unmolested. To Capistrano the position was irritating
+in the extreme, insomuch as he was limited to the arts of persuasion,
+and was unable to enforce his arguments with the dungeon and the stake.
+This peculiar state of things is well illustrated by an adventure
+related of him at Breslau. Though Silesia had a Catholic bishop, it
+belonged to Bohemia, and mutual tolerance was established. In the summer
+of 1453 Capistrano came there and labored to convert the Hussites, but
+these sons of Belial, to ridicule his miraculous powers, placed a young
+man in a bier, carried him to where the inquisitor was preaching, and
+asked the latter to resuscitate the dead. Capistrano sternly replied,
+"Let him have his portion with the dead in eternity!" and went his
+way. Then the heretics said to the crowd, "We have holier men among
+us;" and one of them went to the coffin, calling to its inmate,
+"Peter, arise!" and then whispering, "It is time to get up;" but
+there was no response, and the unfortunate youth was found to be really
+dead. Yet at this very time Capistrano had no difficulty in exercising
+his inquisitorial office pitilessly when the victims were unfortunate
+Jews. A country priest was said to have sold them eight consecrated
+hosts for use in their infernal rites. Capistrano seized those
+implicated, tortured them to confession, and burned them, while a woman
+who was implicated was torn with red-hot pincers. An old Jewess embraced
+Christianity, and soon afterwards was slain. The Jews were accused of
+the murder, and also of that of a Christian boy. Capistrano made another
+onslaught on them, and this time burned no less than forty-one. It is
+easy to gather from this incident what would have been the fate of the
+Hussites had he been able to wreak his will on them. Those of Moldavia
+and Poland, whither he despatched three of his associate inquisitors
+under Ladislas the Hungarian, probably felt the full rigor of the
+canons.[591]
+
+During all this the Calixtin leaders had not been wholly indifferent. At
+the commencement of Capistrano's mission Rokyzana wrote to him in a
+friendly tone, remonstrating with him for condemning as a heresy the
+communion in both elements, which the Council of Basle had permitted to
+the Bohemians. Some correspondence ensued, in which Capistrano took high
+ground as to the use of the cup and the papal supremacy; there were
+negotiations for a conference, and at one time hopes were entertained of
+an accommodation. Capistrano, however, skilfully eluded a disputation on
+various pretexts, but really, as we learn from his confidential letter
+to the cardinal-legate, Nicholas of Cusa, because he knew that the
+Calixtins had on their side the weight of authority and tradition. Both
+parties gradually lost their temper and published against each other
+letters filled with scurrility. Having thus rendered amicable
+negotiations impossible, Capistrano could safely, in 1452, ask Podiebrad
+for a safe-conduct to Prague, and on its refusal summon him to render
+the aid and service due to him as apostolic commissioner and
+inquisitor.[592]
+
+When the German princes assembled in the Diet of 1452 the Bohemians
+addressed them, complaining that although they were living in peace and
+obedience to the Holy See, the provisions of the Compactata, which
+declared that no one should be stigmatized as a heretic for partaking in
+both elements, were violated by a friar named Capistrano, who, under the
+guise of an apostolic commissioner and inquisitor, was traversing their
+territories proclaiming that all Utraquists were heretics. The agreement
+which had cost so much blood was thus plainly infringed, and,
+notwithstanding their desire for peace, a persistence in this would
+revive all the old troubles. This was significant of strife, and
+Capistrano, on his side, was eagerly engaged in stimulating it. He wrote
+to the pope that certain propositions of accommodation entertained by
+the cardinal-legate were disgraceful, and spoke hopefully of
+negotiations which he was carrying on with the German princes for a new
+crusade against the Hussites. Nicholas of Cusa was effectually snubbed
+for daring to talk of conferences and terms of accommodation. He
+promptly threw himself on the other side and contributed his share
+towards provoking a fresh conflict, by issuing, in June, 1452, an
+encyclical to the Bohemians, in which he plainly told them that those
+who were not with the Church must be against it; that the Compactata
+must be thrown aside, as they had not effected the union for which they
+were designed, and that nothing save pure and simple obedience to the
+Holy See could be entertained. To render the irritation complete needed
+only the exquisite insolence with which he assured them that the Church
+was too pious a mother to concede to her children what she knew to be
+injurious.[593]
+
+Capistrano's busy mischief-making was bearing its fruits. The breach
+between Rome and Bohemia was constantly widening, and if the zeal of the
+German princes could be brought to correspond to the ardor of the
+missionary of strife, the horrors of the old Hussite wars might be
+hopefully looked for again. During the remainder of the year 1452 we
+find him travelling through Germany, probably with this charitable
+object, though at Leipsic he paused long enough for his eloquence to win
+for his rigid Order sixty professors and students.[594] His efforts to
+raise a crusade against Bohemia, however, were frustrated by the
+capture of Constantinople in May, 1453. The immense impression which
+this produced throughout Christendom, the universal alarm at the
+progress of the Turk, and the necessity of defending Europe against his
+approach, speedily threw into the shade all minor questions. A new
+crusade was imperatively wanted, but it could not be wasted upon Bohemia
+and the Utraquists.
+
+During the summer of 1453, as we have seen, Capistrano was tranquilly
+employing his enforced leisure in burning Jews at Breslau. Thence he
+went to Poland, where we find him at Cracow throwing into prison a
+physician, Master Paul, whom he suspected of being an emissary of
+Rokyzana. He applied again to Podiebrad for a safe-conduct to Prague,
+which was curtly refused on the ground that when it had been previously
+offered it had not been accepted, and that Ladislas did not want the
+peace of his kingdom disturbed. He left Cracow May 15, 1454, for Breslau
+and Olmuetz, whence he still hoped to accomplish something within the
+charmed circle of Bohemia, into which he had not been allowed to
+penetrate. Rokyzana at this time was inspired with hopes that the terror
+of the Turk and the need for Christian unity would enable him to realize
+his dream of the archbishopric. He made the large concessions alluded to
+above on many of the points of dissidence, and used every effort with
+the emperor to procure through him the papal confirmation. A letter from
+Ladislas, of June 13, to the Bishop of Olmuetz, asking him to restrain
+Capistrano from using such violent terms in denouncing Bohemians, as he
+was doing more harm than good, was evidently a move in the same game.
+Yet even the paramount interests of Christendom could not win for
+Rokyzana the coveted confirmation, although those interests soon
+diverted Capistrano's fiery energies from the heretic to the
+infidel.[595]
+
+A brief and clear-cut letter of AEneas Sylvius to Capistrano, dated July
+26, 1454, tells him to give up the dream of getting to Prague and go to
+Frankfort, where he will be useful. An assembly of princes had been held
+in Ratisbon, where a crusade had been agreed upon, and Philip of
+Burgundy had consented to lead it. Final arrangements were to be made in
+Frankfort in October, and there AEneas Sylvius wanted the aid of
+Capistrano's tireless ardor. Their correspondence at this juncture shows
+the terror which existed lest Europe should be overrun; the confusion
+and uncertainty which prevailed, and the selfish differences which
+threatened to neutralize effort. At Frankfort their worst fears were
+realized. The zeal of the princes had cooled, and they declared the
+purpose of the pope and emperor was to steal their money and not to
+fight. They demanded that the business should be conducted by a general
+council which should at the same time repress the Holy See--in fact,
+both parties were selfishly endeavoring to turn the agony of Europe to
+account; the pope to raise money, and the princes to recover their
+independence. All that AEneas and Capistrano could obtain was a promise
+that at the Pentecost of 1455 they would meet the emperor and determine
+what could be done. In February and March, 1455, they began to assemble
+at Neuburg, near Vienna, where Podiebrad again used every effort to
+procure Rokyzana's confirmation. As for the crusade, the energies of
+Christendom seemed paralyzed by the petty jealousies and ambitions of
+its rulers. At last, under the unflagging eloquence of AEneas and
+Capistrano, things appeared to be taking shape, when the news was
+received of the death of Nicholas V. on March 22. Everything fell to
+pieces, and the princes departed, postponing action until the next year.
+It was a forcible example of the utility of the papacy, which supplied a
+common head to the discordant forces of the time.[596]
+
+Capistrano's impetuous energies were now fairly enlisted in the strife
+with the Turk, and the Hussites had a respite. In fact, the situation
+was too alarming to permit of their persecution, and it is a remarkable
+instance of the unbending rigidity of Rome, that even in this perilous
+juncture the overtures and concessions of Podiebrad and Rokyzana availed
+them nothing.
+
+Calixtus III. was elected April 8, with a speed which showed how
+dangerous a papal interregnum was considered. He at once sent legates
+to preach the crusade throughout Europe, and commenced to build
+war-ships on the Tiber. The Hungarians, who were justly excited at the
+impending invasion of Mahomet II. begged Capistrano to come to them and
+use his eloquence. Calixtus gave him permission, confirmed all the
+powers conferred on him by Nicholas, and he undertook the task which was
+to complete his life's work. Yet even these new duties, which wrought
+his fiery soul to a higher tension than ever, did not wholly distract
+his attention from the hated Hussites. The juncture seemed favorable for
+a reconciliation, which every motive of policy dictated. Besides, AEneas
+Sylvius had just been promoted to the cardinalate, and that crafty
+diplomat had succeeded in making the Bohemians look upon him as their
+friend. They not only hoped to obtain the confirmation of the
+Compactata, but the cardinal's hat for Rokyzana. Hearing of this,
+Capistrano wrote, March 24, 1456, from Buda to Calixtus dissuading him
+in the most vigorous terms. The Hussites are the worst of mankind,
+fearing neither God nor man; the heart can scarce conceive the errors
+which they believe, or the abominations which they practise in secret.
+The Compactata are their sole bulwark; if these are confirmed, the
+Hussites, who abound secretly, not only in Bohemia but in Hungary,
+Transylvania, Moldavia, and the neighboring regions, will rise and
+declare themselves. The warning was sufficient and the overtures were
+rejected.[597]
+
+Suddenly the news came that the dreaded Mahomet II. was advancing, and
+had laid siege to Belgrade. Ladislas, who was King of Hungary as well as
+of Bohemia, was at Buda-Pesth, and with his uncle, the Count of Cillei,
+on pretext of a hunting-excursion, basely fled to Austria. John Hunyady,
+Count of Transylvania, who had been regent of the kingdom, organized the
+Hungarian forces, with some German crusaders who had come to his
+assistance, while Capistrano marched with him as papal commander of the
+crusade. Glorious in the annals of Hungary is the victory of Belgrade.
+"With a flotilla of boats on the Danube, Hunyady, on July 14, 1456, cut
+his way into the town through the beleaguering forces. Furious were the
+attack and the defence until the 22d, when a fierce assault by the Turks
+was repulsed, and the besieged followed the retreating enemy, burned
+one of their camps, spiking some of their cannon and carrying the rest
+back into the town, where they did good service during the rest of that
+memorable day. Mahomet gathered together his forces for a last desperate
+attempt, which was a failure, and during the night he fled, leaving
+twenty-four thousand men upon the field, and three hundred cannon. His
+army was utterly dispersed, and this disaster, aided by the heroic
+resistance of Scanderbeg in Albania, arrested the Turkish invasion and
+gave Europe a breathing-spell. It cost, however, the lives of the two
+heroes to whom it was due. The stench of the dead bodies sickened the
+army of the victors, and John Hunyady fell a victim, August 11, to the
+epidemic, which prevented the following up of the advantage. Capistrano
+had thrown himself into the work with all his self-forgetful enthusiasm.
+His eloquence had wrought the Christians up to the highest pitch of
+religious exaltation; the crusaders would obey no one but him, and his
+labors were incessant. He passed days without time for food, and nights
+without rest; for seventeen days, it is said, before the victory, he
+slept but seven hours in all. He was in his seventy-first year, with a
+frame weakened by habitual austerities, and when the strain was past
+exhausted nature paid the penalty. A slow fever set in, August 6, under
+which he wasted away, and died, October 23. He was perhaps the most
+perfect type which the age produced of the ideal son of the Church; a
+purely artificial creation, in which the weakness of humanity
+disappeared with some of its virtues, and the whole nature, with its
+rare powers, was concentrated in unselfish devotion to a mistaken
+purpose. Such men are the tools of the worldly and unscrupulous who know
+how to use them, and for forty years Capistrano had been thus employed
+to bring misery on his fellow-beings, unconscious of the evil which he
+wrought. Yet, as AEneas Sylvius shrewdly points out, there was one weak
+spot left in his nature. In the letters in which he and Hunyady
+described the victory of Belgrade neither chief gave credit to the
+other. As AEneas says, "Capistrano had despised the pomps of the world,
+he had fled from its delights, he had trampled down avarice, he had
+overcome lust, but he could not contemn glory."[598]
+
+No one could be found worthy to replace Capistrano but his friendly
+rival, Giacomo della Marca, who was accordingly despatched, in 1457, to
+the scene of his labors of twenty years previous, armed with the same
+powers, as inquisitor and crusader. The danger from the Turk was still
+too pressing for him to waste thought on the former function, and he
+devoted himself to stimulating and organizing the war against the Moslem
+until his health gave way, and he returned to Italy, where, as we have
+seen, he not long afterwards had to defend himself from a charge of
+heresy brought by his zealous Dominican brethren. He was replaced by his
+disciples, Giovanni da Tagliacozza and Michele da Tussicino, who were
+followed in 1461 by Fra Gabriele da Verona; but though Franciscans still
+continued for a generation to labor for the conversion of the Calixtins,
+they had little success in the absence of power to employ the customary
+inquisitorial methods, of which more hereafter.[599]
+
+In fact, the prospects of reducing Bohemia to obedience were steadily
+diminishing. In the wildest uproar of the Hussite wars there were
+powerful barons and cities who steadily held out for the pope and
+kaiser, and under the interregnum there had at first been a dual
+government, shared equally by Catholic and Calixtin. Under the firm hand
+of George Podiebrad the orthodox communities submitted one by one, and
+in spiritual matters Rokyzana was supreme. It is true that there was now
+little to distinguish the churches in doctrine or practice save the use
+of the cup; but independence served as a protection against the greed of
+the Roman curia, and there was small encouragement for a surrender of
+this independence in the clamor which was now going up from Germany. The
+Basilian regulations, confirmed by Eugenius, had for a time served as a
+safeguard to some extent, but now these were coolly treated as obsolete,
+and complaints were loud that all the old abuses were flourishing as
+vigorously as ever. Elections were set aside, or heavy sums were
+extorted for their confirmation, while the country was drained of money
+by the exaction of tenths and the sale of indulgences. Secure in their
+isolation, the Bohemians might well submit to some inconvenience to be
+spared the costly blessing of apostolic paternal care. The only hope of
+Rome lay in the approaching majority of the Catholic youth Ladislas; but
+when, on the eve of his marriage with the daughter of Charles VII. of
+France, he suddenly died, towards the close of 1457, not without
+suspicions of foul play, and George Podiebrad soon afterwards was
+elected and crowned, it might well seem that, short of Divine
+interposition, the peaceful return of Bohemia was not to be looked
+for.[600]
+
+Yet at first it looked as though an accommodation might be reached.
+Ladislas, shortly before his death, had proposed to send an embassy to
+Rome for the purpose of effecting a reconciliation, and Calixtus III.
+had asked of Podiebrad to gratify his vehement desire of seeing
+Rokyzana, whose high reputation was well known in Rome. Podiebrad,
+moreover, caused himself to be crowned according to the Roman rite;
+having no bishop of his own, he borrowed from his son-in-law, Matthias
+Corvinus of Hungary, those of Raab and Bacs, to perform his
+consecration; in his coronation oath he swore obedience to Calixtus and
+his successors, to restore the Catholic religion, and to persecute
+heretics; he wrote to Calixtus as a faithful son of the Church, and
+obtained from him letters recognizing him as King of Bohemia; he sent
+envoys to Rome, who held out promises that Rokyzana would follow, and
+settle on a lasting basis the submission of Bohemia. All this was mere
+skirmishing for position; but when, a few months later, Calixtus died,
+and was succeeded by AEneas Sylvius, who took the name of Pius II., men
+might hope that some reasonable accommodation could be reached. Since he
+had gone to Basle in the suite of Cardinal Capranica, and had become the
+mouth-piece of the antipapal party, influenced, as he himself says, by
+cupidity rather than by truth, and inspired by the hostility to the
+Church usually felt by the laity, the new pope had been occupied almost
+exclusively with German and Bohemian affairs, which he knew better than
+any living man; he had taken part in the negotiations resulting in the
+Compactata; he was shrewd, clear-headed, and troubled with few scruples,
+and, sharing fully in the papal anxiety to unite Christendom against the
+Turks, he might be expected to recognize the vital importance of
+reconciliation with Bohemia. George made haste to send an embassy to
+renew his protestations of obedience, and to ask for the confirmation of
+the Compactata. Pius, who took no shame in issuing a solemn bull
+condemning and disavowing all his early opinions uttered during his
+service with the council, was prepared to break with his own traditions
+rather than with those of his predecessors. He gave a dubious response;
+George could win his recognition as king by extirpating heresy, and he
+promised to send legates. They came, but the pope, although he addressed
+George as king and as his dearest son when soliciting his co-operation
+in the crusade, shortly afterwards took a step which, with his knowledge
+of Bohemia, he knew could not but provoke a rupture. Wenceslas, Dean of
+Prague, was a Catholic, and a bitter enemy of Rokyzana, and this man
+Pius appointed as administrator of the archbishopric, thus ousting
+Rokyzana. All at once was in uproar. Wenceslas endeavored to assert
+himself, but the power remained in Rokyzana's hands. George threw into
+prison Fantinus, who had been his procurator in the curia, and who had
+been sent with a commission as papal orator, and detained him there for
+three months. Frederic III., whom George, by a stroke of happy audacity,
+had recently liberated from a siege by his rebellious subjects in the
+castle of Vienna, interposed, and delayed the explosion of the papal
+wrath; but to his earnest request that George should be acknowledged as
+king Pius returned an absolute refusal. George was a heretic, incapable
+of the crown, and his subjects' oaths of allegiance were void; only by
+returning to the Church could he hope to be fitted for the royal
+dignity. In June, 1464, Pius, in full consistory, published a bull
+reciting all the griefs of the Church against Bohemia, pronouncing the
+Compactata void, as never having been confirmed by the Holy See, and
+summoning George before him to stand trial for heresy within three terms
+of sixty days each. In two months Pius was dead, but his successor, Paul
+II., carried forward the proceedings with the old inquisitorial weapons.
+Three cardinals were appointed in 1465 to try George as a relapsed
+heretic, and summoned him in August, as a private person, to appear
+before them within six months for judgment. Without waiting for the
+expiration of the term, early in December, Paul issued a bull absolving
+all George's subjects from their allegiance, alleging as a reason for
+haste that the sentence would grow more difficult by delay. The papal
+wrath increased with the obstinacy of the assumed heretic. In 1468
+another summons was issued to him to appear before the cardinals for
+judgment; and in February, 1469, his name was placed as that son of
+perdition, the Hussite George Podiebrad, together with those of Rokyzana
+and Gregory of Heimburg, in the curse of the Coena Domini, to be
+anathematized thrice a year, in the solemnities of the mass, in all
+cathedrals, both in Latin and in the vernacular.[601]
+
+All this was not a mere _brutum fulmen_. It was not difficult to excite
+rebellion among turbulent subjects and attacks from ambitious neighbors.
+With all his vigor and capacity George found the maintenance of his
+position by no means easy. When, in 1468, the German princes had agreed
+upon a five years' truce in order to concentrate their energies against
+the Moslem, Paul II. threw the empire into confusion by sending the
+Bishop of Ferrara to preach a crusade with plenary indulgences against
+Bohemia, adding the special favor that all who joined in the preaching
+should have the privilege of choosing a confessor, and receiving from
+him plenary absolution and indulgence. The kingdom was bestowed upon
+Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, who took the cross, and with an army of
+crusaders occupied Moravia. A long war ensued, during which George died,
+in 1471, released from excommunication on his death-bed, and Ladislas
+II., son of Casimir of Poland, was elected as his successor. In 1475 the
+rivals came to terms; both were recognized as kings of Bohemia, while
+Matthias was to have for life Moravia, Silesia, and the greater part of
+Lusatia, and the survivor was to enjoy the whole kingdom. On the death
+of Matthias, in 1490, Ladislas recovered the three provinces, and
+shortly afterwards added Hungary to his dominions.[602]
+
+Ladislas was a good Catholic, and Sixtus IV., who had aided in his
+election, hoped that the opportunity had at last arrived to break down
+the stubbornness of the Calixtins. The king made the attempt, but bloody
+tumults in Prague, which nearly cost him his life, showed that, slight
+as was the difference between Catholic and Utraquist, the old fanaticism
+for the cup survived. At length, in 1485, at the Diet of Kuttenberg,
+mutual toleration was agreed upon, and Ladislas, who was of easy
+disposition, ran no further risks. Thus the anomalous position of
+Bohemia, as a member of Latin Christendom, became more remarkable than
+ever. The great majority of the people were Calixtins and therefore
+heretics, but the Church had to abandon the attempt to coerce them to
+salvation. Missionary inquisitors were commissioned from time to time,
+but practically their efforts were limited to persuasion and
+controversy. Even Pius II., in 1463, felt obliged to caution Zeger, the
+Observantine Vicar-general, that his brethren, in dealing with
+heretics, should restrain their zeal from the customary curses and
+insults, and should try the effect of gentleness and argument. That
+these missionaries were mostly Franciscans perhaps explains why the
+toleration accorded to Catholics could not be enforced against the
+popular prejudices of which the Order was the object. Even George
+Podiebrad, in 1460, had permitted the Franciscans to return to Prague,
+but their zeal was not to be restrained, and they were expelled in 1468.
+Under Ladislas they came again, in 1482, but in the disturbances of the
+following year they were glad to escape, their house was levelled to the
+ground, and was not rebuilt until 1629. From time to time other
+communities were founded at Hradecz, Glatz, and Neisse, but they were
+short-lived, and were speedily destroyed by the fanaticism of the
+people. As the invention of printing facilitated controversy, polemical
+zeal multiplied treatises to prove the iniquity of the Utraquist heresy,
+but the Utraquists were not to be converted. They maintained the
+Compactata as the charter of their religious independence. When, in
+1526, King Louis fell in the disastrous day of Mohacz, and the House of
+Austria, in the person of Ferdinand I., obtained the Bohemian throne,
+good Catholic though Ferdinand was, he was obliged to pledge himself to
+preserve the Compactata.[603]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It is not to be imagined that the teachings of Wickliff and Huss were
+wholly forgotten in Utraquist degeneracy. Their real inheritors were the
+Taborites, and although these, in their disorderly enthusiasm, vainly
+contended against the spirit of the age and disappeared from sight under
+the strong hand of Podiebrad, the seed which they had nurtured was not
+wholly lost. The profound religious convictions which animated these
+poor and simple folk are visible through the satire with which AEneas
+Sylvius requited their hospitality in 1451, on the eve of their
+suppression. Travelling with some nobles, on a mission from Frederic
+III., he was benighted near Mount Tabor, and thought it safer to trust
+himself with the enemies of his faith than to pass the hours of darkness
+in the open villages. In return for the simple kindliness of his
+reception the polished scholar and courtier describes them with the
+liveliest ridicule, and with brutal sneers at their poverty. They were
+mostly peasants, and as they came forth to greet him in the cold and
+rain, many were almost naked, having nothing but a shirt or a sheepskin
+to protect them; one had no saddle, another no reins, another no spurs;
+this one had lost an eye, that one an arm. Ziska was their patron saint,
+whose portrait was painted on the city gates. Though they ridiculed the
+consecration of churches, they were very earnest in listening to the
+word of God, and if any one was too busy or too lazy to go to the wooden
+house where they assembled for preaching he was compelled by stripes.
+Though they paid no tithes, they filled their priests' houses with
+corn, beer, wood, vegetables, meat, and all the necessaries of life.
+Firm as they were in defence of their religious independence, they were
+not intolerant, and wide diversity of opinion was allowed among
+them.[604]
+
+When such men as these were driven forth and scattered among the people
+they were much more likely to make converts than to be converted, and
+though lost to sight they were assuredly not false to their convictions.
+The reactionary course of Rokyzana and Podiebrad during the succeeding
+years could hardly fail to provoke discontent among the more earnest
+even of the Calixtins and to furnish fresh disciples and teachers.
+Materials existed for a sect representing the doctrines which, a
+generation earlier, had set Bohemia aflame; and although when that sect
+timidly appeared it prudently and sedulously disavowed all affiliation
+with the hated and dreaded Taborites, there can be no doubt that it was,
+to a great extent, composed of the same elements.
+
+These new sectaries first present themselves in an organized form in
+1457. Earnest, humble Christians, who sought to carry out the doctrines
+of Jesus, they differed from the Taborites in a yet closer approach to
+Waldensianism, due probably to the influence of Peter Chelcicky, who,
+without belonging to them, was yet to some extent their teacher. Like
+the Waldenses, they rejected the oath and the sword--nothing would
+justify the taking of human life, and consequently they were
+non-resistants. Since the time of Constantine and Silvester the Roman
+Church had gone astray in the pursuit of wealth and worldly power. The
+sacraments were worthless in polluted hands. Priests might hear
+confessions and impose penances, but they could not absolve; they could
+only announce the forgiveness of God. Purgatory was a myth invented by
+cunning priests. As for the mystery of the Eucharist, they prudently
+adopted the formula of Peter Chelcicky, which eluded the difficulty by
+affirming that the believer receives the body and blood of Christ,
+without pretending to explain or daring to discuss the matter. They
+ridiculed the superstition of the Calixtins, which exaggerated in the
+absurdest fashion the sanctity of the Eucharist, which carried the
+sacrament through the streets for adoration, and which held that he
+whose eye chanced to fall on it was safe from evil happening for that
+day; and they sometimes incurred martyrdom by publicly reproving the
+fanatic zeal which regarded the Eucharist as the holiest of idols. On
+this basis was founded the brotherhood of love and charity, of patient
+endurance and meekness, which represented more nearly the Christian
+ideal than anything the world had seen for thirteen centuries. With
+extreme simplicity of life there was no exaggeration of asceticism.
+Heaven was not to be stormed by mortification of the flesh, but was to
+be won by the sedulous discharge of the duties imposed on man by his
+Creator, in humble obedience to the divine will, and in pious reliance
+on Christ. Such was the "Unitas Fratrum"--the Bohemian or Moravian
+Brotherhood--and that a society thus defenceless and unresisting should
+endure the savage vicissitudes of that transitional period, and maintain
+itself through four hundred years to the present time, shows that force
+is not necessarily the last word in human affairs, and that average
+human nature is capable of a higher moral development than it has been
+permitted to reach under prevailing influences, secular and
+spiritual.[605]
+
+At first they seem to have enjoyed the favor of Rokyzana, whose
+doctrines they claimed to follow, and whose nephew Gregory was one of
+their earliest leaders, along with Michael, priest of Zamberg.
+Rokyzana's fluctuating policy, as the archbishopric seemed to approach
+or recede, soon led him to hold aloof, and when they drew apart from the
+Calixtins and organized themselves as a separate body he had no
+objection to see them persecuted. In vain they declared that they were
+neither Waldenses nor Taborites--the one was a word of bitter reproach,
+the other a terror. When, about 1461, Gregory, with a few companions,
+ventured secretly to Prague, they were betrayed as conspiring Taborites
+and put to the torture. It shows their state of religious exaltation
+that Gregory swooned on the rack and had a beatific vision. It may be
+put to the credit of Rokyzana that when he saw his nephew insensible
+from the torture he burst into tears, exclaiming, "O my Gregory, I
+would I were where thou art!" and that he soon afterwards obtained from
+Podiebrad permission for them to settle at Liticz. Here they prospered
+amid alternate peace and persecution, their numbers rapidly
+increasing.[606]
+
+In retaining all the sacraments they retained belief in the necessity of
+apostolical succession for that of ordination; but as the sacraments
+were vitiated in unworthy hands, they became oppressed with misgivings
+as to the efficacy of the sacerdotal character of their priests, derived
+as it was through the Church of Rome. Some of them proposed sending to
+the legendary Christians of India, but they met with two men who had
+been in the East, and the accounts they received of the Oriental
+churches satisfied them that the succession there had been lost. Then
+they bethought them of the Greeks, but they met some Greeks in Prague,
+and many Bohemians had been in the Levant and Danubian provinces, from
+whom they learned that fees were required for ordination, thus rendering
+it void through simony; moreover, they heard of three Bohemians who had
+been ordained without inquiry as to their morals, which satisfied them
+that no true ordination was to be obtained there. Finally they turned to
+the Waldenses, of whom there was a community on the Austrian border.
+These claimed to descend from the primitive Church; that their ancestors
+had separated from Rome when the papacy was secularized under Silvester
+by the donation of Constantine, and that they had preserved the
+apostolic succession untainted. It remained for the brethren to see
+whether it was the will of God that they should organize themselves by
+means of these Waldenses. At Lhotka, in 1467, an assembly of about sixty
+chosen deputies was held. After fasting and earnest prayer, recourse was
+had to the lot, to decide whether they should separate themselves from
+the Roman priesthood. The result was affirmative. Then they selected
+nine men, from among whom three or two or one should be drawn, or none,
+if God so willed it. Twelve cards were taken, on three of which was
+written "is," and on nine "is not." These were mingled together, and
+a youth was directed to distribute nine of them among the men selected.
+All three with "is" proved to have been distributed, and the assembly
+devoutly thanked God for showing them the path to follow. Michael of
+Zamberg was sent to the Waldensian Bishop Stephen, who investigated his
+faith and life, and thanked God, with tears, that it had been vouchsafed
+him before he died to see such pious men. After episcopal consecration
+Michael returned; careful inquiry was made as to the antecedents of one
+of the three elect, named Matthias, and he was duly consecrated as
+bishop by Michael, who thereupon laid down both his Waldensian
+episcopate and Catholic priesthood, and was again ordained anew by
+Matthias.[607]
+
+Thus all connection with Rome was sundered, and intimate relations were
+established with the Waldenses. Mutual sympathy and the identity of
+their faith drew the two sects together, although the austere virtue of
+the Brethren reproached the older heretics with concealing their faith
+by attending Catholic mass, with accumulating wealth, and with
+neglecting the poor. The Waldenses took the reproof kindly, promised
+amendment, and in a short time the two sects united and formed one body.
+Although the official name remained the "Unity of the Brethren,"
+gradually the despised term of Waldenses came to be recognized, and was
+freely used by the body to designate themselves, in their confessions of
+faith and apologetic tracts. I have already alluded to the mission which
+was sent in 1498 to the Brethren of Italy and France, and to the
+increased spirit of vigor and independence which the old Alpine
+communities drew from the resolute steadfastness of their new
+associates.[608]
+
+Gregory had moulded the Church of the Brethren on the strictest basis.
+Members on entering were not, it is true, obliged to contribute their
+property to the common fund, but this was frequently done. The closest
+watch was kept on the conduct of each, and any dereliction was visited
+with expulsion, not to be revoked without evidence of change of heart.
+No one was allowed to take an oath, even in court, to hold an office, to
+keep an inn, to follow any trade except in the necessaries of life. Any
+noble desiring to join was required to lay aside his rank and resign
+whatever offices he might hold. In 1479 two barons and several knights
+applied for admission, when the rules were strictly enforced, and some
+submitted while others withdrew. This rigor at last caused violent
+dissensions, and in 1490 the Synod of Brandeis relaxed the rules. The
+puritan party recalcitrated and were strong enough to cause a revocation
+of this action in a subsequent synod. Much ill-feeling was generated,
+until, in 1495, at the Synod of Reichenau, there was mutual forgiveness
+and a moderation of the rules. Yet two of the puritan leaders, Jacob of
+Wodnan and Amos of Stekna, refused to accept the compromise, and founded
+the sect known as Amosites, or the Little Party, which maintained a
+separate existence for forty-six years.[609]
+
+During this period the Brethren had been subjected to repeated and
+severe persecution. Sometimes driven for refuge to the mountain and
+forest, whence they earned the name of Jamnici, or cave-dwellers, they
+counted their roll of martyrs who had testified in the dungeon or at the
+stake to the strength of their convictions. Yet the little band steadily
+grew. In the year 1500 it was deemed necessary to increase the number of
+bishops to four. In Bohemia and Moravia they counted between three
+hundred and four hundred churches with nearly two hundred thousand
+members. There were few villages and scarce any towns in which they were
+not to be found, and they had powerful protectors among the nobility,
+who, by the enslavement of the peasants in 1487, had become practically
+independent and able to shelter them during periods of persecution. The
+Brethren were active in education and in the use of the press. Every
+parish had its school, and there were higher institutions of learning,
+especially at Jungbunzlau and Litomysl. Of the six Bohemian
+printing-offices they possessed three, while the Catholics had but one
+and the Calixtins two. Of the sixty books issued in Bohemia between 1500
+and 1510, fifty were printed by the Brethren.[610]
+
+From this period until the death of Ladislas, in 1516, they were
+subjected to intermittent but severe persecution, especially in Bohemia.
+Ladislas, in his will, left instructions for their extermination "for
+the sake of his soul's salvation and of the true faith;" but the
+minority of his son Louis, only ten years old, the breaking-out of
+disturbances, and the feuds between Catholic and Calixtin brought them
+peace. The exiled pastors returned, the churches were reopened, and
+public service was resumed. With the rise of Lutheranism and the
+negotiations between the Bohemians and the German Protestants their
+history passes beyond our present horizon, except to allude to the
+fidelity with which they endured the shocks of the counter-Reformation,
+and succeeded in transmitting to our own time the lessons which they had
+learned from Peter Waldo and John Wickliff. They brought across the
+Atlantic the union of fearless zeal with the gentler Christian virtues,
+and in the annals of Pennsylvania the name of Moravian came to represent
+all that serves as the firmest and surest foundation of social
+organization. Parkman has well indicated the contrast between the
+civilizing influence of the kindly Moravian missionaries and the manner
+in which their Jesuit rivals were content to substitute the cross as a
+fetich in place of the medicine-bag. The same well-directed enthusiasm
+endures to the present day. Small as is the Moravian Church, it
+maintained in 1885 no less than three hundred and nineteen missionaries
+scattered among the remote places of the earth, with over eighty-one
+thousand native converts as church members; and the more rugged and
+inhospitable the fields of labor the more earnest the zeal of the good
+Brethren. But for them the savage coasts of Greenland would be almost
+destitute of Christian teaching, and in their truly apostolic work we
+may recognize that the blood of the martyrs of Constance was not shed in
+vain.[611]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+     I.
+
+     EXCOMMUNICATION OF THE MAGISTRATES OF TOULOUSE, JULY 24, 1237.
+     (Doat, XXI. fol. 146.)
+
+     Manifestum eit omnibus tam presentibus quam futuris quod nos frater
+     Stephanus de ordine fratrum Minorum et frater Guilhelmus A. de
+     ordine fratrum Predicatorum inquisitores instituti ad faciendam
+     inquisitionem contra hereticos, fautores, receptatores et
+     deffensores hereticorum Tholose et in tota diocesi Tholosana; cum
+     per diligentem inquisitionem a nobis factam constiterit nobis R.
+     Centulli et Sicardum de Tholosa et R. Rogerii et Alamannum de
+     Roaxio et R. Embruni et Ondradam uxorem Arnaldi Petrarii infectos
+     esse heretica pravitate, per sententiam diffinitivam eos esse
+     hereticos condemnaverimus. Petrum de Tholosa vicarium Tholose et
+     capitularios Tholose diligenter et legitime tam per nos quam per
+     alios admonuimus ut dictos hereticos caperent et de dictis
+     hereticis facerent quod est de hereticis faciendum; cumi gitur
+     vicarius et capitularii, neglectis et contemptis omnibus
+     supradictis admonitionibus a nobisfactis, non solum non ceperunt
+     eos nec de terra eos fugaverunt, vel eorum bona occupaverunt ut
+     tenentur, sed etiam in periculum animarum suarum et in prejudicium
+     fidei, pacis et ecclesie R. Rogerii et Alamannum de Roaxio
+     predictos hereticos condemnatos tolerant et sustinent in stratis
+     publicis circa Tholosam et aliis locis eotum jurisdictioni
+     subditis, capere viros religiosos et clericos ac eorum bonis
+     propriis spoliare et ad redemptionem compellere, et vulnerare et
+     injuriis eos afficere, necnon et viros Catholicos cum clericis
+     commorantes occidere mutilare et alia mala ceclesiis et
+     ecclesiasticis viris inferre, maxime cum nos dicti inquisitores
+     publice excommunicaverimus omnem hominem tam virum quam mulierem
+     tanquam fautorem et deffensorem hereticorum qui eis consilium vel
+     auxilium aliquod eis occulte vel manifeste prestaret, et vicarius
+     et capitularii supradicti contra prohibitionem nostram temere
+     supradictos hereticos in supradictis malitiis fovent nequiter et
+     sustentant; et cum insuper ipsi sacramento et constitutionibus
+     ecclesie teneantur hereticos ubique capere et totam terram eorum
+     jurisdictioni subjectam a pravitate heretica extirpare, non
+     attendentes quod scriptura dicit, non est grandis differentia utrum
+     letum admittas vel differas quoniam mortem languentibus probatur
+     infligere qui hanc, cum possit, non excludit et alibi dicatur
+     canone, quod error cui non resistitur probatur, et negligere cum
+     possit arguere perversos nihil aliud est quam fovere, nec caret
+     scrupulo societatis occulte qui manifesto facinori distulit
+     obviare, maxime cum vicarius et capitularii supradicti alia vice
+     tanquam fautores et deffensores hereticorum fuerint excommunicati,
+     predictos vicarium et capitularios, habito diligenti consilio et
+     tractatu, assidentibus nobis venerabili patre R. Dei gratia
+     episcopo Tholosano et B. abbate Mansi sub Verduno, et P. preposito
+     Sancti Stephani, et P. priore ecclesie beate Marie desurate,
+     tanquam fautores et sustentatores hereticorum auctoritate qua
+     fungimur excommunicationis vinculo innodamus.
+
+     Lata fuit hec sententia publice in ecclesia sancti Stephani
+     Tholose, coram multis viris religiosis et capellanis parochialium
+     ecclesiarum Tholose et aliis viris ecclesiasticis, IX Kal. Augusti
+     anno Domini MCCXXXVII.
+
+
+     II.
+
+     ARGUMENT OF BERNARD DELICIEUX BEFORE PHILIPPE LE BEL, TOULOUSE,
+     1304.
+
+     (Bib. Nat. MSS., fonds latin. No. 4270, fol. 138.)
+
+     Dixit etiam se dixisse tunc ipse frater Bernardus quod Deus fecerat
+     magnam gratiam patriae in adventu ipsius domini regis, eo quod
+     dictus frater Guilhelmus Petri, ordinis praedicatorum, tunc prior
+     provincialis, praesentibus inquisitoribus Tolosae et Carcassonae et
+     multis aliis fratribus ejusdem ordinis, dixit et confessus est
+     loquens in personam inquisitorum praedictorum, in praesentia ipsius
+     regis et plurium quam quingentarum personarum in aula superiori
+     ipsius domini regis existentium, quod in tota lingua occitana non
+     erant haeretici nisi tantummodo in burgo Carcassonae, Albiae vel
+     Corduae, vel in circuitu per unam leucam vel duas, et quod illi non
+     erant quadraginta, et si erant quadraginta non erant quinquaginta,
+     et quod hoc dictus frater Guilhelmus dixit bis in praesentia
+     praedictorum; et ideo intulit tunc ipse frater Bernardus, ut dixit,
+     quod patria quae hactenus fuerat diffamata testimonio ipsorum
+     inquisitorum ab infamia praedicta in adventu ipsius domini regis
+     fuerat relevata, et sperabat frater Bernardus, ut dixit tunc se
+     dixisse, quod ex quo tunc secundum verba eorum tota patria erat
+     sana, excepta sex leucis et quinquaginta personis, quod leucae illae
+     et personae ac tres villae praedictae adhuc invenientur immunes a labe
+     haeresis praedicta. Dixit etiam tunc se dixisse, quod si hodie
+     viverent beati Petrus et Paulus, et contra eos impingeretur quod
+     haereticos adorassent, si procederetur contra eos super hujusmodi
+     adoratione, sicut per aliquos inquisitores istarum partium
+     aliquando contra multos fuit processum nee pateret eis via
+     deffensionis. Si enim de fide interrogarentur, responderent sicut
+     magistri et doctores, ubi autem diceretur eis quod haereticos
+     adorassent, et quaererent quos haereticos, et dicerentur eis sola
+     nomina dictorum haereticorum (quae quidem nomina et cognomina multis
+     conveniunt) et ipsi beati Petrus et Paulus dicerent "Istos nunquam
+     novimus. Dicatis nobis ubi sunt vel unde venerunt et quo iverunt,
+     cujus linguae, staturae aut conditionis erant" et nihil eis
+     diceretur per quod notitia dictorum haeereticorum, qui dicuntur
+     adorati haberi posset: si etiam quaererent quo tempore facta fuerit
+     haec adoratio, et non diceretur dies, mensis nec annus: si etiam
+     quaererent nomina testium et non darentur eis, non est qui possit
+     exprimere, ut dixit tunc se dixisse ipse frater Bernardus quod hi
+     apostoli qui tam sancti sunt, a tali macula coram hominibus se
+     possent deffendere, maxime cum si quis vellet eos deffendere statim
+     impingeretur quod erat fautor haereticorum, sicut ipse frater
+     Bernardus in se ipso et dicto vicedomino probavit.
+
+
+     III.
+
+     SUPPLICATION OF THE CHURCH OF ALBI TO THE COLLEGE OF CARDINALS
+     (1304-5).
+
+     (Archives de l'Hotel-de-ville d'Albi.--Doat, XXXIV. fol. 42.)
+
+     Illustrissimae Dominationis Patribus venerabilibus Dominis
+     Cardinalibus sacrosanctae Romanae ecclesiae sacroque coetui eorumdem.
+     Capitulum et Canonici ecclesiae Albiensis et Capitulum et Canonici
+     ecclesiae Sti. Salvii de Albia, Abbasque et monachi monasterii de
+     Galliaco Albiensis diocesis, et alii religiosi quorum sigilla
+     inferius sunt appensa, suarum sublimitatum imperiis subjectionem
+     debitam et devotam. Juste pater supplicatur a filiis dum cernunt
+     fluctus tumescere et undis insiliantibus ventis et flantibus ex
+     adverso naufragium imminere formidant, praesertim dum necessarium
+     exigente qualitate causaram salus non pateat aut auxilium aliunde.
+     Verum nostra patria quantis sit exposita praecipitiis et ruinis
+     propter quaestiones et dissensiones quibus ad invicem se collidunt
+     patria et inquisitores haereticae pravitatis novit ille qui nihil
+     ignorat, et adeo excrevit turbatio ut idem populus ad iracundian
+     concitatus non videatur aliud anhelare nisi ut discriminibus se
+     committens deducat in ore gladii, nedum quos sibi putat adversarios
+     sed et alios, ac ad talia se convertat quae non poterunt aliquatenus
+     reparari. Vestrae igitur Paternitatis pedibus provoluti humiliter
+     supplicanus ut circa praemissa sic salutifere et celeriter
+     succurratis quod, praeclusa via periculis et ruinis, patria
+     restituatur paci debitae et quieti. Constet enim vobis quod dictus
+     populus et patria est catholica et fidelis, quantum nos humana
+     fragilitas nosse sinit, et populus civitatis Albiae et patriae fidem
+     catholicam corde credens ore profitetur eamdem ut sic perveniat ad
+     salutem et bonis operibus astruit et confirmat.... Paternitatem
+     vestram conservet altissimus ecclesiae suae sanctae per tempora
+     longiora. (Signed with seventeen seals.)
+
+
+     IV.
+
+     BULL OF CLEMENT V. IN FAVOR OF THE INQUISITION.
+
+     (Doat, XXXIV. fol. 112.)
+
+     Clemens episcopus servus servorum Dei ad perpetuam rei memoriam.
+     Dudum venerabili fratri Petro episcopo Prenestino, tunc tituli
+     Sancti Vitalis, et dilecto filio nostro Berengario titulo sanctorum
+     Nerei et Achillei presbyteris cardinalibus, per nostros sub certa
+     forma litteras duximus committendum ut ipsi circa negotium
+     inquisitionis heretice pravitatis in partibus Carcassonensi,
+     Albiensi et Cordue super certis articulis seu dependentibus ab
+     eisdem diligenter inquireretur et nonnulla etiam ordinarent; qui
+     auctoritate litterarum hujusmodi quadam cura dictum officium
+     ordinasse noscuntur. Quia vero nostre intentionis non extitit nec
+     existit ut occasione dicte commissionis seu alicujus mandati nostri
+     super hiis Cardinalibus ipsis facti, Inquisitoribus pravitatia
+     predicte inquirendi vel conjunctim vel divisim cum episcopo seu
+     episcopis ordinariis, aut sine ipsis, prout eis licet secundum
+     canonicas sanctiones facultas aliquatenus restringatur; Nos
+     ordinationem per quam dicti Cardinales facultatem inquirendi per se
+     divisim inquisitoribus ipsis restrinxisse dicuntur utpote
+     intentioni nostre et juri contrariam, juribus carere decernimus et
+     nullatenus observandam, ordinatione ipsorum Cardinalium circa
+     ceteros alios articulos in omnibus et per omnia in suo robore
+     duratura. Nulli ergo omnino hominum liceat hanc paginam nostre
+     constitutionis infringere, vel ei ausu temerario contraire. Si quis
+     autem hec attemptare presumpserit, indignationem omnipot. Dei et
+     beatorum Petri et Pauli apostolorum ejus se noverit incursurum.
+     Datum Pictavis, secundo Idus Augusti, Pontificatus nostri anno
+     tertio. (12 Aug. 1308.)
+
+
+     V.
+
+     BRIEF OF CLEMENT V. CONCERNING THE PRISONERS OF ALBI.[612]
+
+     (Doat, XXXIV. fol. 89.)
+
+     Venerabili fratri Geraldo episcopo Albiensi et dilectis filiis
+     inquisitoribus heretice pravitatis in partibus Albiensibus. Dudum
+     venerabili fratri nostro Bertrando tunc episcopo Albiensi et
+     inquisitoribus dictis nostros direximus litteras in hec verba:
+
+     Clemens episcopus, servus servorum Dei venerabili fratri Bertrando
+     episcopo Albiensi et dilectis filiis inquisitoribus heretice
+     pravitatis in partibus Albie, salutem et apostolicam benedictionem.
+     Significarunt nobis Isarnus Colli, P. Fransa, Jo. de Porta, Joannes
+     Pays, Petrus de Raissaco, B. Casas, G. Salavert, G. de Landas,
+     Isarnus de Cardalhaco, G. Borrelli, cives Albienses, quod ipsi olim
+     de mandato venerabilis fratris B. Aniciensis, tunc Albiensis,
+     episcopi et inquisitoris seu inquisitorum qui erant tunc in
+     partibus illis, occasione criminis hereseos, fuerint carceri
+     mancipati, et jam per octo annos et amplius, tam Albie quam
+     Carcassone, diu carceris angustias sustulerunt, sicut adhuc
+     sustinent, quamvis nulla super hoc facta fuerit condempnatio de
+     eisdem; cum autem ex parte dictorum civium pluries fuerimus cum
+     instantia requisiti, ut ad condempnationem vel absolutionem
+     eorumdem, prout jus exigit faceremus procedi: Nos volentes quod
+     circa illos vestri officii debitum exequamini, sicut decet,
+     discretioni vestre per Apostolica scripta mandamus, quatenus apud
+     Albiam tu frater episcope per te vel per alium seu alios idoneos,
+     vos vero inquisitor vel inquisitores prefati, personaliter
+     predictos cives ubicumque detineantur, adduci ad vestram,
+     presentiam sub fida custodia facientes, in eodem negotio
+     quibuscumque processibus factis seu inchoatis per venerabiles
+     fratres Leonardum Albanensem, nunc Prenestinum tunc tituli S.
+     Vitalis et Berengarium Tusculanum episcopum, tunc tituli sanctorum
+     Nerei et Achillei, et dilectos filios nostros Johannem tituli
+     sanctorum Marcellini et Petri presbyteros ac Richardum sancti
+     Eustachii diaconum Cardinales, seu per dilectum filium Arnaldum
+     abbatem Fontisfrigidi Cisterciensis ordinis, Narbonensis diocesis,
+     nunc Sancte Romane Ecclesie Vicecancellarium seu alios quoscumque,
+     commissionum vigore per nos vel per felicis recordationis
+     Benedictum papam undecimum predecessorem nostrum super facto
+     heresis dictos cives tangente factarum, ab subrogatione prefati
+     abbatis et predicti Albiensis episcopi facta, nequaquam
+     obstantibus, in eodem negotio solum Deum habentes pre oculis, ad
+     inquirendum contra illos contra quos inquisitum non est, et contra
+     illos etiam contra quos inquisitum extitit, sed non plene,
+     diligenter ac plenarie secundum formam que consuevit in talibus
+     observari, contra illos vero contra quos plenarie inquisitum est,
+     et contra predictos alios cum plene fuerit inquisitum, ad
+     sententiam ratione previa procedatis, et alias contra illos vestri
+     officii debitum exequamini, prout fuerit rationis, communicato
+     tamen processu prius et inquisitione predictis prefatis Prenestino
+     et Tusculano episcopis, eorum consiliis inherentes; per hoc tamen
+     quoad alios ordinationi facte dudum de mandato nostro, tam
+     Carcassone quam Albie per dictos Prenest. et Tuscul. episcopos
+     tunc, ut predicitur, presbyteros Cardin. ex commissione seu
+     commissionibus tam per nos quam per predecessorem nostrum factis
+     predictis quibuscumque aliis Cardinalibus, et processibus habitis
+     per eosdem super facto hominum illorum de Albia et de diocesi
+     Albiensi, contra quos per dictum Bernardum Aniciensem tunc
+     Albiensem episcopum, et inquisitorem seu inquisitores predictos,
+     condempnationis sententia lata fuit, nullatenus volumus prejudicium
+     generari. Datum Avenione, sexto Idus Februarii pontificatus nostro
+     anno V. (8 Feb. 1310).
+
+     Verum sicut accepimus presentatis prefato episcopo et
+     inquisitoribus litteris supradictis, et quibusdam dicentibus quod
+     dicte littere fuerant a nobis subrepticie impetrate, pro eo
+     videlicet quod aliqui ex dictis civibus ante tempus date litterarum
+     ipsarum decesserant, reliqui vero ipso tempore in carcere
+     permanebant, et sic predicta non potuerunt intimasse, et in prefato
+     negotio huc usque procedere neglexerant. Nos itaque nolentes quod
+     propter hoc justitia retardetur, discretioni vestre per apostolica
+     mandamus, quatenus premissis non obstantibus, nec obstante etiam
+     quod aliqui de predictis querelantibus non sint cives Albie, licet
+     sint de diocesi Albie, nec si aliquem de predictis mori contingat,
+     vel ante decessisset quam inquirere inchoaveritis vel
+     inchoavissetis, vel post eorumdem mortem, in aliquo non obstante,
+     tam de mortuis quam de vivis inquirere, et in eodem negotio
+     procedere minime postponatis, juxta predictarum nostrarum tenorem
+     litterarum. Quod si forsan vos filii inquisitores, his nolueritis,
+     aut non potueritis, aut non curaveritis interesse, tu frater
+     episcope, solus per te vel per alium seu alios in negotio eodem
+     procedas, juxta litterarum continentiam earumdem.
+
+
+     VI.
+
+     WITHDRAWAL OF SECURITY FROM CITIZENS OF ALBI.
+
+     (Archives de l'Inquisition de Carcassonne.--Doat, XXXII. fol. 138.)
+
+     Joannes episcopus servus servorum Dei dilectis filiis
+     inquisitoribus haereticae pravitatis in partibus Carcassonae
+     constitutis salutem et apostolicam benedictionem. Ut commissum
+     vobis negotium Catholicae fidei autore Domino prosperetur in vestris
+     manibus libenter apostolicae sollicitudinis partes apponimus et
+     quaeque obstantia submovemus. Olim quidem felicis recordationis
+     Clementi papae quinto praedecessori nostro pro parte quorumdam
+     hominum de partibus Carcassonae suggesto quod inquisitores
+     pravitatis haereticae illarum partium qui tunc erant et pro tempore
+     fuerant multa illis gravamina et injurias irrogarunt, iniquos
+     contra eos et alios illarum partium processus contra justitiam
+     facientes, idem praedecessor hujusmodi suggestionibus aurem
+     accommodans, bonae memoriae Petro episcopo Praenestinensi tunc tituli
+     Sancti Vitalis et venerabili fratri nostro Berengario episcopo
+     Tusculanensi, tunc tituli SS. Nerei et Achillei presbiteris
+     cardinalibus qui partium illarum notitiam habebant et per partes
+     illas transitum facere tunc habebant, suis dedit litteris in
+     mandatis ut de praemissis suggestionibus et aliis incidentibus se
+     plenius informarent, et nihilominus interim personis prosequentibus
+     negotium memoratum de securitate idonea, pendente dicto negotio,
+     auctoritate apostolica providerent nec permitterent eos per eosdem
+     inquisitores aliquatenus molestari; praefati quoque cardinales
+     hujusmodi commissionis praetextu Aymerico de Castro burgensi
+     Carcassonae et quibusdam aliis tunc negotium prosequentibus
+     supradictum securitatem hujusmodi, pendente dicto negotio,
+     apostolica auctoritate praestantes, illos sub sua protectione et
+     sedis apostolica receperunt; quam receptionem idem praedecessor
+     noster ratam habens et gratam mandavit illam inviolabiliter
+     observari, eisdem inquisitoribus districtius inhibendo ne contra
+     praefatum Aymericum et alios officii eorum praetextu procederent
+     quoquomodo, donec praefatum negotium esset per sedem apostolicam
+     terminatum et a sede ipsa aliud reciperent in mandatis. Quia vero
+     praefati Aymericus et alii circa proposita et objecta per eos
+     ulterius coram praedecessore praefato ac etiam coram nobis negotium
+     ipsum prosequi neglexerunt et quasi negligunt, praefata protectione
+     securi, nos nolentes sicut etiam non debemus propterea vestrum
+     officium impediri, securitatem ipsam penitus revocantes discretioni
+     vestrae per apostolica scripta mandamus quatinus contra eumdem
+     Aymericum et alios in decreta vobis provincia, Deum et justitiam
+     habendo prae oculis, procedentes, non obstantibus securitate
+     praedicta et aliis securitatibus, protectionibus, confirmationibus,
+     ordinationibus, et inhibitionibus quibuscumque dicti praedecessoris
+     aut aliorum quorumlibet, juxta formam vobis traditam ac canonicas
+     sanctiones et de peritorum consilio officii vestri debitum curetis
+     exequi diligenter. Datum Avenione, tertio Kalendas Aprilis,
+     pontificatus nostri anno secundo (30 Mart. 1318).
+
+
+     VII.
+
+     Exequatur of on Inquisitor for Champagne.
+
+     (Archives de l'Inquisition de Carcassonne.--Doat, XXXII. fol. 127.)
+
+     Philippus regis Franciae primogenitus Dei gratia rex Navarrae,
+     Campaniae et Briae comes palatinus dilectis et fidelibus suis
+     universis baillivis, castellanis, vasallis, praepositis,
+     communitatibus villarum et earum rectoribus, caeterisque communia
+     officia gerentibus in nostris comitatibus Campaniae et Briae, ad quos
+     praesentes litterae pervenerint salutem et dilectionem. Tenore
+     praesentium bovis districte praecipitiendo mandamus, quatenus dilecto
+     fratri Guillelmo Altissiodorensi ordinis fratrum praedicatorum
+     praesentium exhibitori domini Papae inquisitori haereticorum ac
+     perfidorum Judaeorum in regno Franciae sine mora et qualibet
+     difficultate plenarie obediatis, sicut vobis in citando, capiendo,
+     detinendo, ad eos mittendo seu etiam ducendo et puniendo tam
+     Christianos quam Judaeos, quos idem frater inquisitor invenerit
+     culpabiles contra statuta ecclesiae et fidem Domini nostri Jesu
+     Christi, ipsum nihilominus familiam et res ipsius custodientes et
+     defendientes sicut nos et familiam et res nostras. In cujus rei
+     testimonium praesentibus litteris nostrum fecimus apponi sigillum.
+     Actum et datum Parisius, die Dominica in crastino Sancti Matthiae
+     apostoli, anno Domini MCC. octuagesimo quarto, mense Februarii (25
+     Feb. 1285).
+
+
+     VIII.
+
+     Sentence of Marguerite la Porete.
+
+     (Archives nationales de France.--J. 428, No. 15.)
+
+     In Christi nomine amen. Anno ejusdem MCCC decimo, indictione
+     octava, die dominica post Ascensionem Domini (31 Maii),
+     pontificatus beatissimi patris domini C. divina providentia Pape
+     quinti anno quinto, in Gravia Parisius, facta ibidem congregatione
+     sollempni, assistentibus mihi reverendo in Christo patre domino
+     Parisiensi episcopo, magistris Johanne de Frogerio officiali
+     Parisiensi, C. de Chenat, Johanne de Domnomartino, Xaverio de
+     Charmoia, Stephano de Bercondicuria, fratribus Martino de
+     Abbatisvilla bachalario in theologia, Nicolao de Avessiaco ordinis
+     predicatorum, Johanne Marchandi preposito Parisiensi, G. de Choques
+     et pluribus aliis ad hoc specialiter evocatis, presentibus etiam
+     pluribus processionibus ville Parisius et populi multitudine
+     copiosa, et me notario publico infrascripto, religiosus vir et
+     honestus frater G. de Parisius, ordinis predicatorum, inquisitor
+     heretice pravitatis in regno Francie auctoritate apostolica
+     deputatus in scriptis tulit sententias infrascriptas sub hac forma:
+
+     In nomine Patris et Filii et Spiritua Sancti amen. Quia nobis
+     fratri Guillelmo de Parisius ordinis predicatorum inquisitori
+     heretice pravitatis in regno Francie auctoritate apostolica
+     deputato, constat et constitit evidentibus argumentis te,
+     Margaritam de Hannonia dictam Perete, super labe heretice
+     pravitatis vehementer esse suspectam, propter quod citari te
+     fecimus ut compareas in judicio coram nobis, in quo existens
+     personaliter a nobis ortata pluries canonice et legitime ut coram
+     nobis juramentum prestares de plena pura et integra veritate
+     dicenda de te et aliis super hiis que ad nobis commissum
+     inquisitionis officium pertinere noscuntur, que facere
+     contempsisti, licet a nobis fueris pluries super hoc et locis
+     pluribus requisita, in hiis fuisti semper contumax et rebellis, pro
+     quibus contumaciis et rebellionibus evidentibus et notoriis hoc
+     exigentibus de multorum peritorum consilio, in te sic rebellem et
+     contumacem sententiam majoris excommunicationis tulimus et in
+     scriptis, quam, licet te notificata fuisset, post notificationem
+     predictam fere per annum et dimidium in tue salutis dispendium
+     sustinuisti animo pertinaci, licet tibi pluries obtulerimus nos
+     tibi absolutionis beneficium impensuros secundum formam ecclesie si
+     hoc humiliter postulares, quod usque nunc petere contempsisti nec
+     jurare nec respondere nobis super premissis hactenus voluisti,
+     propter que secundum sanctiones canonicas pro convicta et confessa,
+     et pro lapsa in heresim seu pro heretica te habemus et habere
+     debemus: Porro dum tu Margarita in istis rebellionibus obstinata
+     maneres, ducti conscientia volentes officii nobis commissi debitum
+     exercere inquisitionem contra te et processum fecimus super
+     predictis, prout exegit ordo vite, ex quibus inquisitione et
+     processu nobis constitit evidenter quondam composuisse te librum
+     pestiferum continentem heresim et errores, ob quam causam fuit
+     dictus liber per bone memorie Guidonem olim Cameracensem
+     episcopum[613] condemnatus et de mandato ipsius in Valencenis in
+     tua combustus presentia publice et patenter; a quo episcopo tibi
+     fuit sub pena excommunicationis expresse inhibitum ne de cetero
+     talem librum componeres vel haberes aut eo vel simili utereris,
+     addens et expresse ponens dominus episcopus in quadem littera suo
+     sigillata sigillo, quod si de cetero libro utereris predicto vel si
+     ca que continebantur in eo verbo vel scripto de cetero attemptares,
+     te condempnabat tanquam hereticam et relinquebat justiciandam
+     justicie seculari. Post vero dicta omnia dictum librum contra
+     dictam prohibitionem pluries habuisti et pluries usa es, sicut et
+     ejus patet recognitionibus factis nedum coram inquisitore
+     Lotharingie et coram reverendo patre et domino, domino Johanne tunc
+     Cameracensi episcopo, nunc archiepiscopo Senonensi,[614] dictum
+     eumdem librum, preter condempnationem et combustionem predictas,
+     sicut bonum et licitum communicasti reverendo patri domino Johanni
+     Cathalonensi episcopo et quibusdam personis aliis, prout ex
+     fidedignorum juratorum et super hiis coram nobis evidentibus
+     testimoniis nobis liquet. Nos igiter super premissis omnibus
+     deliberatione prehabita diligenti communicatoque multorum peritorum
+     in utroque jure consilio, Deum et sancta evangelia pre oculis
+     habentes, de reverendi patris et domini Domini G. Dei gratia
+     Parisiensis episcopi consilio et assensu, te Margaritam non solum
+     sicut lapsum in heresim sed sicut relapsam finaliter condempnamus,
+     et te relinquimus justicie seculari, rogantes eam ut citra mortem
+     et membrorum mutilationem, tecum agat misericorditer quantum
+     permictunt canonice sanctiones; dictum etiam librum tanquam
+     hereticum et erroneum upote errores et heresim continentem, judicio
+     magistrorum in theologia Parisius existentium et de eorumdem
+     consilio finaliter condempnamus ac demum excommunicari volumus et
+     comburi; universis et singulis habentibus dictum librum
+     precipientes districte et sub pena excommunicationis quod infra
+     instans festum Apostolorum Petri et Pauli nobis vel priori fratrum
+     predicatorum Parisius, nostro commissario, sine fraude reddere
+     teneantur. Actum Parisius in Gravia, presente predicto patre
+     reverendo Parisiensi episcopo, clero et populo dicte civitatis
+     ibidem sollempniter congregate, Dominica infra Ascensionem Domini,
+     anno Domini MCCC decimo.
+
+
+     CONSULTATION OF CANON LAWYERS ON THE CASE OF MARGUERITE LA PORETE,
+     HELD MAY 30, 1310.
+
+     Universis presentes litteras inspecturis, Guillelmus dictus Frater
+     archidiaconus Laudonie in ecclesia Sancti Andree in Scocia, Hugo de
+     Bisuncio canonicus Parisiensis, Johannes de Tollenz canonicus
+     Sancti Quintini in Veromandua, Henricus de Bitunia canonicus
+     Furnensis et Petrus de Vallibus curatua Sancti Germani
+     Altissiodorensis de Parisius, et etiam regentes Parisius in
+     decretis, salutem in actore salutis. Noveritis virum venerabilem
+     devotum et discretum fratrem Guillelmum de Parisius ordinis
+     predicatorum inquisitorem heretice pravitatis in regno Francie
+     auctoritate sedis apostolice deputatum, inque processum qui
+     sequitur nobis intimasse, consultationemque nobis fecisse inferius
+     annotatam. Processus equidem talis est: Tempore quo Margarita dicta
+     Porete suspecta de heresi fuit in rebellione et in inobedientia,
+     nolens respondere nec jurare coram inquisitore de hiis que ad
+     inquisitionis sibi commisse officium pertinent, ipse inquisitor
+     contra eam nihilominus inquisivit et etiam depositione plurium
+     testium invenit quod dicta Margarita librum quemdam composuerat
+     continentem hereses et errores qui de mandato reverendi patris
+     domini Guidonis condam Cameracensis episcopi publice et
+     sollempniter tanquam talis fuit condempnatus et combustus et per
+     litteram dicti episcopi fuit ordinatum quod si talia sicut ea que
+     continebantur in libro de cetero attemptaret verbo vel scripto earn
+     condempnabat et relinquebat justiciandam justicie seculari. Invenit
+     etiam idem inquisitor quod ipsa recognovit in judicio semel coram
+     inquisitore Lotharingie et semel coram reverendo patre Domino
+     Philippe tunc Cameracensi episcopo, se post condempnationem
+     predictam librum dictum habuisse et alios: invenit etiam idem
+     inquisitor quod dicta Margarita dictum librum in suo consimili
+     eosdem continentem errores post ipsius libri condempnationem
+     reverendo patri Domino Jo. Dei gratia Catbalaunensi episcopo
+     communicavit ac nedum dicto domino sed et pluribus aliis personis
+     simplicibus, begardis et aliis tanquam bonum. Consultatio autem ex
+     predictis resultans per prefatum inquisitorem ut pertactum est
+     nobis facta talis est: Videlicet, utrum in talibus dicta beguina
+     debeat relapsa judicari? Nos autem fidei catholice zelatores,
+     veritatisque canonice professores qualescumque consultationi
+     predicte respondentes, dicimus quod ipsa beguina. supposita
+     veritate facti precedentis, judicanda est relapsa et merito
+     relinquenda est curie seculari. In cujus rei testimonium sigilla
+     nostra presentibus apposuimus. Datum anno Domini MCCC decimo
+     sabbato post festum beati Joannis ante portam latinam.[615]
+
+
+     IX.
+
+     EXEQUATUR OF AN INQUISITOR ISSUED BY PHILLIPE LE BON OF BURGUNDY.
+
+     (MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds Moreau, 444 fol. 10.)
+
+     Philippus universis et singulis seneschallis, baillivis, scultetis,
+     officiariis et justiciariis nostris praesentibus et futuris, et
+     locatenentibus eorumdem per ducatus et diatrictus nostras infra
+     dyoceses Cameracensis et Leodiensis constitutos, ad quos praesentes
+     nostrae litterae pervenerint salutem et omne bonum. Cum religiosus
+     dilectusque noster frater (Henricus) Kaleyser sacrae theologiae
+     professor ordinis fratrum praedicatorum inquisitor baereticae
+     pravitatis per provincialem provinciae Theotoniae in praedictis
+     Cameracensi et Leodiensi dyocesibus auctoritate apostolica
+     specialiter deputatus pro Dei servitio et cultu seu exaltatione
+     sanctae fidei orthodoxae utque ipsum haeresis crimen a dictis partibus
+     quibus presidemus si forsan alicubi vigeat seu inoleat valeat
+     extirpare ad loca seu partes nostrae jurisdictioni subjectas et
+     vobis commissas declinare quisquam habeat seu etiam proficisci,
+     nosque velut princeps catholicus qui de manu altissimi multa bona
+     variosque honores recognoscimus recipisse in praedictis et aliis qui
+     divinum continuo obsequium complacere ut convenit plurimum
+     cupiantes intendimus ymo et volumus favorabilem dare locum,
+     ipsumque inquisitorem tanquam Dei specialem ministrum nostris
+     prosequi gratiis et favoribus optamus ideo vobis et cuilibet vestum
+     qui super hoc fueritis requisiti seu fuerit requisitus, districte
+     praecipiendo mandamus sub obtentu gratiae nostra quatenus dictum
+     fratrem Henricum inquisitorem quotiescumque ad exercendum dictum
+     officium ad dicta loca seu partes vobis commissas contigerit se
+     transferre et supra praedictis saeculare brachium invocando vestrum
+     auxilium postulare, eumdem inquisitorem favorabiliter admittatis,
+     et eidem in et supra praedictis saeculare brachium invocando vestrum
+     auxilium impendatis, capiendo seu capi faciendo quoscumque ipse
+     inquisitor debita informatione seu inquisitione praevia et juris
+     ordine alias desuper observato de memorato facinore suspectos vel
+     diffamatos noverit et haereticos quosque vobis duxerit nominandos,
+     et captos etiam detinendo, et infra jurisdictionem vestram ad locum
+     de quo dictus inquisitor vobis dixerit deducendo, necnon poena
+     debita plectendo eosdem sicut ipse decreverit et est fieri
+     consuetum, si videlicet quando et quotiens ac prout ipse inquisitor
+     vos duxerit requirendos. Ut autem inquisitor praefatus suum
+     inquisitionis officium securius et liberius exercere valeat, nostro
+     suffultus presidio et favore, inquisitorem eumdem ipsiusque socium
+     ac ejus notarium et familiam, res et bona eorum, sub nostris
+     protectione, defensione et salvagardia speciali atque securo
+     conductu recepimus et recipimus per praesentes, mandantes vobis
+     omnibus et singulis supradictis ut vestrum cuilibet quatenus
+     nostras protectionem, defensionem et salvagardiam securumque
+     conductum hujusmodi dicto inquisitori ejusque socio ac notario,
+     familiae, bonis et rebus eorum inviolabiliter observando, nullam
+     injuriam nullumque dispendium, gravamen aut dampnum aliquod ipsis
+     inferre in personis ac bonis a quocumque permittatis, quinnymo
+     provideatis eisdem de securo transitu et salvo conductu si et prout
+     per dictum inquisitorem inde fueritis requisiti. Datum in oppido
+     nostro Bruxellensi mensis novembria die nona, anno Domini MCCCC
+     tricesimo primo.
+
+
+     X.
+
+     WALDENSIANISM IN THE SENTENCES OF PIERRE CELLA.
+
+     (Doat, XXI.)
+
+     I select a few of the sentences of Pierre Cella in 1241-2,
+     illustrating the development of Waldensianism at that period, and
+     the relations between it and Catharism. The sects were perfectly
+     distinct, but frequently the people, in their antagonism to the
+     established Church, looked favorably on both, and considered them
+     equally as "_boni homines_." It will be borne in mind that, in
+     the language of the Inquisition, "heretic" always means Catharan.
+     The following cases are all from Gourdon and Montauban.
+
+     Galterus Archambaut vidit hereticos pluries in diversis locis,
+     audivit predicationes eorum, et comedit cum eis sepe, et adoravit
+     eos sepe, et pacis osculum more hereticorum pluries recepit et
+     interfuit hereticationibus duabus, et adduxit Valdenses ad
+     hereticos in domum suam, ubi disputaverunt, et conduxit hereticos,
+     et fuit depositarius eorum, multociens adoravit eos et comedit cum
+     eis, et dedit eis de bonis suis, et audivit predicationes eorum
+     tociens quod non recordatur, et credebat quod essent boni homines
+     et quod esset salus cum eis, et si moreretur vellet mori in manibus
+     eorum.--Stabit Constantinopoli per quinque annos, de cruce et via
+     sicut alii, et tenebit pauperem quamdiu vixerit (fol. 196-7).
+
+     B. Bonaldi vidit P. de Vallibus Valdensem, et audivit predicationem
+     ejus, et credidit aliquando quod non debet homo jurare, et in domo
+     sua propria recepit Joset de Noguer hereticum, et disputavit cum
+     eo, et ipse commendavit sectam Valdensem.--Idem quod proxima,
+     excepta cruce (id est, Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum
+     Jacobum, Sanctum Salvatorem de Asturia, Sanctum Marcialem, Sanctum
+     Leonardum, Sanctum Dyonisium, Sanctum Thomam Cantuariensem) (fol.
+     201).
+
+     Petrus de Verniolo habuit hereticos et Valdenses in fortia sua, et
+     locutus est alteri eorum, consuluit Valdenses de infirmitate
+     sua.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium et Sanctum Jacobum (fol.
+     202).
+
+     Pana tociens recepit Valdenses quod non recolit, et fuit hospes
+     Valdensium, et misit eis tociens panem, vinum, et alia comestibilia
+     quod non nescit numerum, et fuit in domo sua facta disputatio inter
+     Valdenses et credentes hereticis, et diligebat P. de Vallibus
+     tanquam angelum Dei:--Sicut proxima, excepto paupere et cruce (i.e.
+     Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Salvatorem de Asturia,
+     Sanctum Marcialem, Sanctum Leonardum, Sanctum Dyonisium, Sanctum
+     Thomam Cantuariensem) (fol. 203).
+
+     Petrona uxor Raimundi Joannis, adduxit P. de Vallibus Valdensem ad
+     domum suam, et tenuit per octo dies, et dedit ad comedendum et
+     bibendum, et audivit eum ibi, et tenuit per tres septimanas
+     Geraldam Valdensem, et credebat quod esset bona mulier, et dedit ei
+     de bonis suis, et vidit hereticos et audivit predicationem eorum,
+     et misit eis panem, vinum, et nuces.--Sicut Huga, excepta cruce
+     (i.e. Ibit ad Podium, ad Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum et
+     Sanctum Salvatorem de Asturia, Sanctum Marcialem Lemovicensem,
+     Sanctum Leonardum, Sanctum Dyonisium et Sanctum Thomam
+     Cantuariensem), et tenebit pauperem per annum (fol. 204).
+
+     G. de Pradels vidit hereticos, audivit predicationem eorum, dedit
+     eis de bonia suis, et pluries vidit et in diversis locis hereticos,
+     et credebat quod boni homines essent, pluries vidit Valdensem, et
+     credidit quod bonus homo esset, et dedit ei ad comedendum semel, et
+     audivit predicationem ejus.--Portabit crucem per biennium (fol.
+     208).
+
+     G. Ricart pluries vidit hereticos et in diversis locis et sepe
+     audivit predicationem eorum, et interfuit appareilhamento, recepit
+     osculum pacis ab eis, comedit cum eis, recepit pluries eos in domum
+     suam, dedit eis ad comedendum, recepit ab eis forcipes, dedit eis
+     unam capam, unam camisiam, unam tunicam, unam quartam frumenti,
+     duxit Valdenses ad hereticos ad disputandum in die Pasche,
+     associavit hereticos, fuit depositarius eorum, et multociens
+     audivit predicationem hereticorum, credebat quod essent boni
+     homines, et, si moreretur, vellet mori in manibus eorum, tociens
+     adoravit eos quod non recordatur.--Stabit Constantinopoli per tres
+     annos, de cruce et via sicut alii, et tenebit pauperem quamdiu
+     vixerit (fol. 208).
+
+     P. de Gaulenas viciit Valdenses et hereticos et locutus est cum eis
+     in quadam navi, et cum audisset hereses quas dicebant, recessit ab
+     eis.--Ibit ad Sanctum Jacobum (fol. 230).
+
+     P. Baco vidit Valdenses multociens et dedit eis eleemosynas et
+     audivit predicationem Valdensium, et diligebat eos, et credebat
+     quod essent boni homines, et frequenter dabat eis de suo, et
+     interfuit cene Valdensium, et comedit de pane benedicto, vino et
+     piscibus hereticorum et accepit pacem ab eis; item dedit
+     Valdensibus ad comedendum in domo sua; item interfuit disputationi
+     hereticorum et Valdensium, et dedit eis duodecim denarios.--Idem
+     quod proximus (i.e. Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum
+     Jacobum et Sanctum Thomam) et amplius ad Sanctum Dyonisium (fol.
+     231).
+
+     P. R. Boca dixit quod vidit multociens Valdenses et in diversis
+     locis, et etiam habuit eos in domo sua, et audivit ibi monitiones
+     eorum; item credebat quod essent boni homines; item pluries venit
+     ad hereticos et audivit predicationem eorum, et alibi vidit
+     hereticos et accepit pacem ab ipsis hereticis; item tercio vidit
+     hereticos et adoravit eos; item quarto vidit hereticos et audivit
+     predicationem eorum et adoravit eos; item recepit in porticu suo
+     hereticum, et duxit eum inde ad quemdam locum, et dedit cuidam
+     heretico unam capam; item credidit a principio quod Valdenses erant
+     boni homines, et idem credidit postea de hereticis.--Stabit
+     Constantinopoli tribus annis, de cruce et via sicut alii (fol.
+     232).
+
+     P. Lanes senior dixit quod vidit Valdenses et dedit eis
+     eleemosinam, et uxor sua dedit se Valdensibus in morte et fuit
+     sepulta in cimiterio eorum, ipse tamen absens erat, ut dixit, et
+     vidit alibi Valdenses.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium et Sanctum
+     Jacobum (fol. 232).
+
+     Johannes Toset dixit quod multociens vidit hereticos et in diversis
+     locis, et fuit presens quando quidam fecit se hereticum apud
+     Rabastens, et tunc vidit multos hereticos ibi; item audivit
+     predicationem hereticorum et adoravit eos bis; item dedit sorori
+     sue heretice pluries denarios; item associavit hereticos; item
+     associavit avunculum suum quando fecit se hereticum apud Villamur;
+     item consuluit Valdensibus pro infirmitate sua, et credidit quod
+     essent boni homines.--Stabit tribus annis Constantinopoli, de
+     cruce et via sicut alii (fol. 232-33).
+
+     Ramon Carbonel vidit multos Valdeuses et in diversis locis, et
+     induxit fratrem suum ut solveret solidos ducentos Valdensibus
+     legatos eis; item, interfuit disputationi Valdensium et
+     hereticorum; item, interfuit cene Valdensium et comedit de pane et
+     piscibus benedictis ab eis, de vino bibit, et audivit predicationem
+     eorum.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum, Sanctum
+     Dyonisium et Sanctum Thomam (fol. 234).
+
+     Jacobus Carbonel dixit quod frequenter venit ad scholas Valdensium
+     et legebat cum eis; item interfuit disputationi hereticorum et
+     Valdensium et comedit de pane et pisce benedictis ab eis, de vino
+     bibit, et tunc erat duodecim annorum vel circa, et credidit quod
+     Valdenses erant boni homines usque ad tempus quo ecclesia
+     condemnavit eos.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum
+     et Sanctum Dyonisium (fol. 234).
+
+     Bartholomeus de Posaca dixit quod adduxit quemdam Valdensem ad
+     uxorem suam infirmam, qui curam illius egit, et audivit
+     predicationem Valdensium, et ex tunc dilexit eos, et venerunt
+     pluries ad domum ejus, et faciebat eis eleemosinas dando eis panem
+     et vinum et multociens et in diversis locis audivit predicationem
+     eorum; item interfuit cene Valdensium et comedit ut supra; item
+     pluries (accepit) pacem ab eis.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium,
+     Sanctum Jacobum et Sanctum Thomam (fol. 236).
+
+     Guillelmus de Catus dixit quod cum frater suus et filia ejus
+     infirmarentur adduxit Valdenses ad domum suam ut haberent curam
+     eorum; item, audivit expositionem evangelii a quodam Valdensi; item
+     aliquando iverunt Valdenses ad restringendum dolium suum et tunc
+     dedit eis ad comedendum; item aliquando volebat eis facere
+     eleemosinas sed nolebant accipere; item aliquando accepit pacem ab
+     eis et audivit admonitiones eorum; item credidit quod essent boni
+     homines, et ea quae dicebant et faciebant placebant ei.--Ibit ad
+     Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum et Sanctum Dyonisium (fol.
+     236).
+
+     P. Austores audivit multociens predicationem Valdensium dum
+     predicarent publice in viis; item quidam apportavit sibi de pane
+     pisceque benedicto a Valdensibus et comedit; item credidit quod
+     essent boni homines et quod homo posset salvari cum ipsis; item
+     dixit quod postquam audivit quod ecclesia condamnaverat eos non
+     dilexit eos.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium et Sanctum Jacobum
+     (fol. 237-8).
+
+     Domina de Coutas vidit Valdenses publice predicantes, et dabat eis
+     eleemosinas, et venit ad domum in qua manebant et audivit
+     predicationem eorum, et multociens ivit ad eos pro quodam infirmo;
+     item in die Parasceves venit bis ad Valdenses et audivit
+     predicationem eorum, et confessa fuit Valdensi cuidam peccata sua,
+     et accepit peniteutiam a Valdense; item credebat quod esseut boni
+     homines; item vidit hereticos et comedit cum eis cerasa; et
+     dicebatur quod esset reconciliata; item vidit alibi pluries
+     hereticos; item comedit de pane signato a Valdensibus.--Idem quod
+     proxima excepta cruce (i.e. Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium,
+     Sanctum Jacobum, Sanctum Thomam) (fol. 241).
+
+     B. Remon vidit Valdenses, et audivit predicationem eorum et
+     credebat quod essent boni homines; item, ivit ad hereticos volens
+     tentare qui essent meliores, Valdenses vel heretici, et ibi audivit
+     predicationem eorum; item alibi locutus est cum hereticis, et
+     adoravit eos postquam fuerat confessus quedam de predictis fratri
+     Guillelmo de Belvais; item adduxit sororem suam hereticatam a
+     Tholosa usque ad Montemalbanum, et conduxit eam et alias hereticas
+     usque ad quemdam mansum; item venit ad ipsas et portavit eis piscem
+     et bibit cum eis; item rogavit quemdam quod reciperet illas
+     hereticas in manso suo, quod et fecit, et promisit ei quinquaginta
+     solidos; item, alia vice comedit cum hereticis; item fecit donum
+     dictis hereticis et audivit predicationem eorum et comedit cum eis;
+     item, apportavit hereticis fructus; item, fecit tunicam et capam
+     sorori sue heretice; item, vidit hereticis et credebat quod essent
+     boni homines et haberent bonam fidem, et comedit de pane signato ab
+     eis; item, disputavit cum quodam de fide hereticorum et Valdensium,
+     et approbavit fidem hereticorum.--Stabit Constantinopoli tribus
+     annis, de cruce et via sicut alii (fol. 242).
+
+     G. Macips vidit Valdenses qui habuerunt curam ejus in infirmitate
+     sua, et pluries venerunt ad domum ipsius et audivit admonitiones
+     eorum, et dedit eis pluries eleemosinas, et credebat quod essent
+     boni homines; item, posuit fidejussorem quemdam hereticum pro eo
+     pro quindecim solidis; item, vidit hereticos et audivit
+     admonitionem eorum; item, vidit hereticos et audivit predicationem
+     eorum, et promisit cuidam heretico servitium suum.--Ibit ad Podium,
+     Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum, Sanctum Salvatorem, Sanctum
+     Dyonisium et Sanctum Thomam (fol. 246).
+
+     Guillelmus Laurencii vidit hereticos predicantes, et interfuit
+     disputationi hereticorum et Valdensium, et fecit sibi fieri
+     emplastrum a Valdensibus.--Ibit ad Podium, Egidium et Sanctum
+     Jacobum (fol. 250).
+
+     J. Austores vidit hereticos multociens et adoravit eos multociens,
+     et audivit predicationem eorum multociens. et comedit de pane
+     benedicto ab hereticis et de nucibus; item vidit hereticos alibi;
+     item dixit quod multociens vidit et in diversis locis et
+     temporibus, et quotiens videbat hereticos adorabat eos semel; item,
+     vidit Valdenses et audivit predicationem eorum multociens, et dedit
+     eis panem et vinum multociens, et credebat quod essent boni
+     homines.--Stabit Constantinopoli tribus annis, de cruce et via
+     sicut alii (fol. 256).
+
+     A. Capra dixit quod multociens duxit quemdam Valdensem ad domuin
+     suam pro infirmitate sue uxoris et dedit Valdensibus multociens
+     panem et vinum et carnes; item, dixit quod portavit panem et piscem
+     Valdensibus ad domum suam; item, dixit quod audivit predicationem
+     Valdensium; item, dixit se audivisse predicationem eorum in platea
+     multociens; item, in die Pasche dedit Valdensibus carnes et comedit
+     de cena Valdensium.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum
+     Jacobum et Sanctum Thomam (fol. 257).
+
+     B. Clavelz vidit Valdenses et audivit predicationem eorum in
+     plateis et interfuit cene Valdensium et cenavit cum eis in die
+     Jovis cene, et audivit ibi predicationem eorum, et dedit eis
+     multociens panem et vinum, et credebat quod essent boni
+     homines.--Ibit ad Podium, Sanctum Egidium, Sanctum Jacobum et
+     Sanctum Dyonisium (fol. 258).
+
+
+     XI. LETTERS OF CHARLES I. OF NAPLES.
+
+
+     1.
+
+     (Archivio di Napoli, Anno 1269, Reg. 3, Letters A, fol. 64.)
+
+     Scriptum est comitibus, marchionibus, baronibus, potestatis et
+     consulibus civitatum et villarum comitatibus, ac omnibus aliis
+     potestatem et jurisdictionem habentibus et aliis amicis et
+     fidelibus suis ad quos presentes littere pervenerint salutem et
+     omne bonum. Cum dilecti nobis in Christo fratres predicatores in
+     terris carissimi domini et nepotis nostri illustris regis Francie
+     inquisitores heretice pravitatis auctoritate apostolica deputati in
+     Lombardia et ad alias partes ytalie sane intelleximus proficisci
+     intendant seu mittere nuncios speciales ad explorandos ibi
+     hereticos et alios pro heresi fugitivos qui de terris predictis
+     aufugerent et se ad partes ytalie transtulerunt et pro ipsis
+     hereticis et fugitivis ad loca unde aufugerint per se vel per
+     eosdem nuncios reducendis, rogamus et requerimus quatenus eisdem
+     fratribus vel predictis eorum nuntiis presentium portatoribus in
+     exigendis predictis vestrum impendatis consilium auxilium et
+     favorem ut per terras et potestates vestras ipsos salvo et secure
+     cum rebus societatis et familia suis conducatis et conduci faciatis
+     eundo redeundo et morando. Ad salvamentum et liberationem eorum
+     efficaciter intendentes quocies sibi necesse fuerit et vos inde
+     credederint requirendos. Datum apud urbem veterem penultimo madii
+     primae indictionis.
+
+
+     2.
+
+     (Anno 1269, Registro 4, Letters B, fol. 47.)
+
+     Scriptum est universis justitiariis secretis baiulis judicibus
+     magistris juratis ceterisque officialibus atque fidelibus suis per
+     regnum sicilie constitutis etc. Cum religiosus vir frater
+     benvenutus ordinis Minorum inquisitor heretice pravitatis
+     Regebatium et Jacobucium familiares suos latores presentium pro
+     capiendis quibusdam hereticis per diversas partes regni nostri
+     morantibus quorum nomina inferius continentur mittat ad presens et
+     petiverit nostrum sibi ad hoc favorem et auxilium exhiberi
+     fidelitati tue precipiendo mandamus quatenus ad requisitionem
+     dictorum nunciorum vel alterius eorumdem omnes hujusmodi hereticos
+     cum bonis eorum omnibus tam stabilibus quam mobilibus seseque
+     moventibus capientes faciatis personas illorum in locis tutis cum
+     summa diligentia custodiri. Bona vero ipsorum ad opus nostre curie
+     fideliter et solliciter conservari. Attentius provisuri ne in hoc
+     aliquem adhibeatis negligentiam vel defectum sicut divinam et
+     nostram indignationem cupitis evitare et nihilominus de hiis que
+     ceperitis faciatis fieri quatuor publica consimilia instrumenta,
+     quorum uno penes vos retento alio penes eum qui bona ipsa
+     custodierit dimisso. tercium ad cameram nostram et quartum ad
+     magistros rationales magne nostre curie destinetis. Nomina vero
+     hereticorum ipsorum sunt hec (sequuntur nomina 67). Datum in
+     obsidione lucerie XII. Augusti decime secunde indictionis.
+
+
+     3.
+
+     (Anno 1269, Reg. 6, Lettera D, fol. 135.)
+
+     Karolus etc. Berardo de Rajona militi etc. Cum te ad justitiariatum
+     aprutii et comitatue molisii pro inveniendis et capiendis patarenis
+     hereticis ac receptatoribus et fautoribus eorum specialiter duximus
+     destinandum fidelitati tue districte precipiendo mandamus quatenus
+     ad partes illas etc. personaliter conferens in inveniendis et
+     capiendis ipsis omnem curam quam poteris et diligentiam et
+     sollicitudinem studeas adhibere, ita quod possis exinde in
+     conspectu nostre celsitudinis commendabili merito apparere. Nos
+     enim scribimus omnibus officialibus nostris ceterisque in eisdem
+     partibus constitutis ut super hiis celeriter exequendis dent tibi
+     consilium et auxilium opportunum. Datum Neapoli XIII. Decembris
+     XIII. indictionia.
+
+
+     4.
+
+     (Anno 1270. Reg. 9, Lettera C, fol. 39.)
+
+     Xiiij Martii Neapoli scriptum cst Johannutio de Pando magistro
+     portuiano et procuratori curie in principatu et terra laboris etc.
+     Qnia ex insinuatione fratris Mathei de Castro Maris inquisitoris in
+     regno Sicilie heretice pravitatis intelleximus quod idem frater
+     Matheus nuper invenerit in civitate beneventana tres patarenos,
+     unum videlicet lombardum nomine Andream de Vivi Mercato, alium
+     nomine Judicem Johannem de zeccano, et tertium Thomasium Russum
+     nomine de Maula saracena quos judicavit relapsos et tradi fecit
+     ignibus et comburi, quorum bona omnia sunt regie curie tanquam bona
+     Patarenorum juste et rationabiliter applicanta, Devotioni tue etc.
+     quatenus statim receptis presentibus de bonis omnibus tam
+     stabilibus quam mobilibus et semoventibus ipsorum Paterenorum cum
+     omni diligentia inquirere studeas, quibus inventis et captis debeas
+     ea pro parte curie fideliter procurare, faciens redigi in quaterno
+     uno transumptum inquisitionis ipsius in quo quaterno contineantur
+     etiam bona omnia que ceptris, quantitatem et qualitatem ipsorum in
+     quibuscumque consistant et ubi ac valorem annuum eorumdem; quem
+     quaternum cum litteris tuis continentibus processum tuum totum quem
+     in premissis hujusmodi sub sigillo tuo etc. sine dilatione
+     transmittas, in quo quaterno similiter redigi facias formam
+     presentium litterarum. Datum Neapoli ut supra.
+
+
+     5.
+
+     (Anno 1271, Reg. 10, Lettera B, fol. 96.)
+
+     Pro fratre Trojano inquisitore heretice pravitatis.--Item scriptum
+     est cabellotis seu credentiariis super ferro, pice, et sale
+     Neapolis ut cum scriptum fuerit eis alias ut de pecunia curie etc.
+     fratri Trojano inquisitori heretice pravitatis in justitiariatu
+     provincie terre laboris et aprutii de proventibus ferri picis et
+     salis Neapolis ad requisitionem suam pro expensia suis, alterius
+     socii fratis sui et unius notarii et trium aliarum personarum et
+     equorum suorum pro mensibus martii aprilis madii junii julii et
+     augusti presentis XIIII indictionis ad rationem de augustali uno
+     per diem uncias auri XLVII ponderia generalis in principio
+     videlicet dicti mensis martii deberent ecclesie exhibere etiam
+     mandatum est sub pena dupli ut dictam pecuniam juxta continentiam
+     predictarum litterarum eidem fratri Trojano vel nuncio etc.
+     persolvant. Datum ut supra (apud Montem Flasconem XVIII Martii, XIV
+     indictionis).
+
+
+     XII.
+
+     LETTERS OF CHARLES II. OF NAPLES ORDERING THE PROSECUTION OF A
+     REPLAPSED HERETIC.
+
+     (MSS. Chioccarelli, T. VIII.)
+
+     Scriptum est religioso viro Fratri Roberto de Sancto Valentino
+     Inquisitori in Regno Siciliae post salutem. Olim religiose viro
+     Fratri Benedicto praedecessori tuo in eodem inquisitionis officio
+     post salutem scripsisse dicimur in haec verba. Veridica nuper
+     accepimus relatione quod te ex officio tuo contra haereticae
+     pravitatis infectos inquirente Petrus de Bucclanico ipsius castri
+     archipresbyter de pluribus articulis contra fidem Catholicam
+     inventus est labefactus, cumque satis expediat in contemptae
+     religionis vindictam ad reprimendum tam damnabile exemplum haereticae
+     pravitatis te satis insurgere viribus ad celerem punitionem tam
+     enormis criminis fidelitati tuae mandamus quatenus statim receptis
+     presentibus sic omni specie corruptionis procul ejecta in praemissis
+     contra dictum archipresbyterum tam fideliter proscquaris processum
+     quod inde Deo placens honori ordinis tui deservias et apud nos qui
+     dicti negotii plenam habemus fidem et notitiam dignas tibi laudes
+     valeas vindicare. Datum apud Monasterium Regalis Vallis die 10
+     mensis Martii 4 Indict (1306).--Noviter autem facta nobis assertio
+     continebat quod memoratus archipresbyter ad vomitum rediens in
+     ejusdem haereticae pravitatis laqueum est relapsum, quod si veritate
+     fulcitur de tanta profecto obstinatione turbati devotionem tuam
+     attenta exhortatione requirimus ut tam ex processu dicti
+     praedecessoris tui contra dictum archipresbyterum ab olim habito
+     quam habendo per te ut cupimus denuo contra eum meritis (?) sive
+     indagine in praedictis sic tuae disciplinae virga in dictum
+     archipresbyterum proinde desaeviat aspere ut impunitate non gaudeat
+     hostis fidei orthodoxae. Tuque propterea digua apud Deum et nos
+     laude attolaris. Datum Neapoli apud Bartholomaeum de Capua militem
+     Logothetam et Prothonotarium Regni Siciliae anno Domini 1307 (1308)
+     die ultimo Augusti, 6 Indict. Regnorum nostrorum anno 24.
+
+
+     XIII.
+
+     OATH OF THE DOGE OF VENICE IN 1249.
+
+     (Archivio di Venezia. Codice ex Brera No. 277.)
+
+     Promissio Domini Marini Mauroceno.
+
+     In nomine dei eterni amen. Anno ab incarnatione domini nostri Jesu
+     Christi millesimo ducentesimo quadragesimo nono mense Junii die
+     terciodecimo intrante indictione septima Rivoalto. In palatio
+     ducatus Veneciarum feliciter amen.... Ad honorem dei et sacrosancte
+     matris Ecclesie et robur et defensionem fidei catholice studiosi
+     erimus cum consilio nostrorum consiliariorum vel maioris partis
+     quod probi et discreti et catholici viri eligantur et constituantur
+     super inquirendis hereticis in venecia. Et omnes illos qui dati
+     erunt pro hereticis per dominum Patriarchum Gradensem, Episcopum
+     Castellanum vel per alios episcopos provincie duchatus Veneciarum a
+     Grado videlicet usque ad caput aggeris comburi faciemus de consilio
+     nostrorum consiliariorum vel maioris partis ipsorum.... Ego Marinus
+     Maurocenus Dei gratia Dux manu mea subscripsi.
+
+
+     CAPITULARE SUPER PATARENIS ET USURARIIS (1256).
+
+     (Dal Registro intitulato, Capitolari di piu Magistrati riformato
+     nell' anno 1376. Miscellanea Codici, No. 133, p. 121.)
+
+     Item juro quod amodo usque ad unum annum et per totum ipsum annum
+     simul cum meis vel cum altero eorum studiosus ero bona fide sine
+     fraude ad inquirendum et inveniendum patarenos hereticos et
+     suspectos de heresi tam venetos quam forinsecos in civitate
+     Rivoalti et si quem talem vel tales invenero secretum aput me
+     habebo et quam cito potero bona fide sine fraude denunciabo domino
+     Duci et consiliariis ejus vel aliis quibus per dominum ducem et
+     suum consilium fuerint hoc commissum. Hec autem omnia observabo
+     bona fide sine fraude remote odio vel amore prece vel precio, et
+     servitium inde non tollam nec faciam tolli. Item attendam et
+     observabo ea que continentur in capituiari maioris consilii.--Si
+     autem secundo in eodem crimine quis fuerit depreensus penam
+     predictam incurrat et bannizetur et expellatur de veneciis si
+     forinsecus fuerit venetus autem quociens inventus fuerit penam
+     incurrat predictam excepto quod de veneciis non bannizetur nec
+     expellatur. Post anno domini millesimo ducentesimo quinquagesimo
+     quinto (1256) indictione XIIII. mense februarii fuit hoc additum in
+     presente capitulare.
+
+
+                   END OF VOL. II.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The following typographical errors were corrected by the etext
+transcriber:
+
+Behind them now, moreover, was Gregory XI., the implacable and
+indefatigable persecutor of heresy=>Behind them now, moreover, was
+Gregory IX., the implacable and indefatigable persecutor of heresy
+
+chair of St. Peter to be filled, and in 1216 Louis Hutin sent his=>
+chair of St. Peter to be filled, and in 1316 Louis Hutin sent his
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Diez, Leben und Werke der Troubadours, pp. 450, 576.--Millot, Hist.
+Litteraire des Troubadours, III. 244-50.
+
+[2] Teulet, Layettes, II. 185, 226-8.
+
+In 1239 we find Raymond asking for six months' delay in the payment of
+one of the instalments (Ib. p. 406).
+
+[3] Concil. Tarraconens. ann. 1238 c. 11 (Mart. Ampl. Coll. VII.
+134).--Ripoll I. 120, 145, 165.--Potthast No. 9452, 11092, 11094,
+11515.--Vaissette, III. Pr. 365.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 262.--Arch. des
+Freres Precheurs de Toulouse (Doat, XXXI. 19)--C. 1 Sexto v.
+2.--Raynald. ann. 1243, No. 30.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXI.
+69).--Bern. Guidon, de Trib. Grad. Praedicat. (Bouquet, XXI,
+739).--Practica super Inquisit. (MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 14930,
+fol. 224).
+
+When Cardinal Wolsey sought to reform the English Church he found the
+same difficulty in obtaining bishops to degrade clerical criminals, and
+he obtained from Clement VII. the same remedy (Rymer, XIV. 239).
+
+[4] Coll. Doat, XXI. 149, 153, 156, 158.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin,
+No. 9992.
+
+[5] Practica super Inquisit. (MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 14930,
+fol. 224).--Guill. Pelisso Chron. (Ed. Molinier. Anicii, 1880, pp. 6,
+15).--Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 688 (Monument. Hist.
+German.).--Bern. Guidon. Vit. Gregor. PP. IX. (Muratori S. R. I. III.
+573).
+
+One of the complaints made by Gregory IX. against Raymond, in 1236, was
+that he had neglected to pay the salaries of the professors, and that
+the school of Toulouse was dissolved (Teulet, Layettes, II. 315). In
+1239, however, a receipt in full for them was exhibited to the papal
+legate (Ib. p. 397), and in 1242, when Raymond was under peril of death
+in the Agenois, his chief physician was Loup of Spain, the professor of
+medicine in the University (Ib. p. 466).
+
+[6] Pelisso Chron. pp. 7-8.
+
+[7] Ibid. pp. 9-10.
+
+[8] Pelisso Chron. pp. 10-11.--Preger, Vorarbeiten zu einer Geschichte
+der deutschen Mystik, p. 17.
+
+[9] Pelisso Chron. p. 13. Cf. Bern. Guidon. Vit. Gregor. PP. IX.
+(Muratori S. R. I. III. 573).
+
+[10] Pelisso pp. 10-17.
+
+[11] Ibid. pp. 17-20.
+
+[12] Pelisso Chron. pp. 20-1.
+
+[13] Ibid. p. 22.
+
+[14] Pelisso Chron. pp. 23-5.
+
+[15] Millot, Troubadours, II. 65-77.--Mary-Lafon, Histoire du Midi de la
+France, III. 396-99.
+
+[16] Vaissette, III. 403.--Martene Thesaur. I. 985.--Pelisso Chron. pp.
+13-14, 52-9.
+
+Chabanaud (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. 330) thinks it probable that this
+Arnaud Catala is the troubadour of the same name, developing, like
+Folquet of Marseilles and others, from a poet to a persecutor.
+
+[17] Vaissette, III. 402-3, 406; Pr. 370-1, 379-81.--Coll. Doat, XXXI.
+33.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 321, 334.
+
+[18]
+
+    "Car del pejors homes que son
+     Se defen et de tot le mont;
+       Que Franses ni clergia
+     Ni las autras gens ne l'affront;
+       Mas als bos s'humilia
+         Et l'mal confond."
+
+(Peyrat, Les Albigeois et l'Inquisition, II. 394).
+
+[19] Bern. Guidon. Vit. Gregor. PP. IX. (Muratori, S. R I. III.
+573)--Archives Nat. de France J. 430, No. 17, 18.--Guill. Pod. Laur. c.
+42.--Peyrat, Hist. des Albigeois, I. 287.--Harduin. Concil. VII.
+203-8.--D'Achery Spicileg. III. 606.--Potthast No. 9771.--Epistt. Saeculi
+XIII. T. I. No. 577 (Mon. Germ. Hist.).--Matt. Paris ann. 1334, p.
+280.--Vaissette, III. 399-400, 406.--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. pp.
+485, 799-802.
+
+[20] Pelisso Chron. pp. 25-8.
+
+[21] Pelisso Chron. pp. 30-40.--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Fundat. Convent.
+Praeidicat. (Martene Thesaur. VI. 460-1).--Epistt. Saeculi XIII. T. I. No.
+688 (Mon. Germ. Hist.).--Guill. Pod. Laur. c. 43.
+
+[22] Martene Thesaur. I. 992.--Epistt. Saeculi XIII. T. I. No. 688 (Mon.
+Germ. Hist.)--Teulet, Layettes, II. 314.
+
+The subordination of the bishop to the inquisitors is further shown in
+the excommunication of the viguier and consuls of Toulouse, July 24,
+1237, in which Bishop Raymond and other prelates are mentioned as
+assessors to the inquisitors (Doat, XXI. 148).
+
+[23] Potthast No. 10152.--Epistt. Saecul. XIII T. I. No. 700 (Mon. Germ.
+Hist.).--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. P. II. p. 912.--Vaissette, III.
+408.--Pelisso Chron. pp. 40-1.
+
+[24] Pelisso Chron. p. 41-2.
+
+[25] Coll. Doat, XXI. 163.
+
+[26] Pelisso Chron. pp. 43-51.--Coll. Doat, XXI. 149.--It is probable
+that among these victims perished Vigoros de Bocona, a Catharan bishop.
+Alberic de Trois Fontaines places his burning in Toulouse in 1233
+(Chron. ann. 1233), but there is evidence of his being still alive and
+active in 1235 or 1236 (Doat, XXII. 222). He was ordained a "filius
+major" in Montsegur about 1229, by the Catharan bishop, Guillabert de
+Castres (Doat, XXII. 226), and his name as that of a revered teacher
+continues for many years to occur in the confessions of penitents.
+
+[27] Guill. Pod. Laur. c. 43.--Arch, de l'Eveche de Beziers (Doat,
+XXXI. 35).--Bern. Guidon. Libell. de Magist. Ord. Praedic. (Martene Ampl.
+Coll. VI. 422).--Raynald. ann. 1237, No. 32.
+
+[28] Epistt. Saeculi XIII. T. I. No. 706 (Mon. Germ. Hist).--Potthast No.
+10357, 10361.--Raynald. ann. 1237, No. 33, 37.--Teulet, Layettes, II.
+339, No. 2514.--Vaissette, III. 410.--Coll. Doat, XXI. 146.
+
+A deposition of Raymond Jean of Albi, April 30, 1238 (Doat, XXIII. 273),
+probably marks the term of the activity of the Inquisition before its
+suspension.
+
+[29] Teulet, Layettes, II. 377, 386.--Epistt. Saeculi XIII. T. I. No. 731
+(Mon. Germ. Hist.).--Raynald. ann. 1239, No. 71-3.--Arch. du Vatican T.
+XIX. (Berger, Actes d'Innocent IV. p. xix.).
+
+[30] Arch. Nat. de France J. 430. No. 19, 20.--Guill. Pod. Laurent, c.
+43.--Vaissette, III. 411.
+
+[31] Guill. Pod. Laur. c. 43.--Guill. Nangiac. Gest. S. Ludov. ann.
+1239.--Vaissette, III. 420.--Bern. Guidon. Vit. Gregor. PP. IX.
+(Muratori S. R. I. III. 574).--Teulet, Layettes, II. 457. It was not
+until 1247 that Trencavel released the consuls of Beziers from their
+allegiance to him.--Mascaro, Libre de Memorias, ann. 1247.
+
+[32] A. Molinier (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, VII. 448-61).--Douais, Les
+Albigeois, Paris, 1879; Pieces justif. No. 4.
+
+[33] D'Achery Spicileg. III. 621.--Vaissette, III. 424; Pr. 400.
+
+[34] Guillem de Tudela V. 8980, 9183.--Tresor des Chartes du Roi a
+Carcassonne (Doat, XXII. 34-49).--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, VIII.
+975.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 252, No. 2241.--Vaissette, III. 383, 422-3;
+Pr. 385, 397-99.--Ripoll VII. 9.--Potthast No. 9024.--Pelisso Chron. pp.
+28-9.--Coll. Doat, XXI. 163-164, 166; XXIV. 81.
+
+[35] The document is in the Collection Doat, XXI. 185 sqq.--Although it
+does not specify that the cases are of voluntary penitents within the
+time of grace, there is no risk in assuming this. The penances are all
+of the kind provided for such penitents; and in one case (fol. 220) it
+is mentioned that the party had not come in within the time, which would
+infer that the rest had done so. Besides, the extraordinary speed with
+which the business was transacted is wholly incompatible with
+prosecutions of accused persons striving to maintain their innocence.
+
+[36] Coll. Doat, XXI. 210, 215, 216, 227, 229, 230, 238, 265, 283, 285,
+293, 299, 300, 301, 305, 307, 308, 310.
+
+[37] Concil. Narbonn. ann. 1244 c. 19.
+
+[38] Pelisso Chron. pp. 49-50.--Coll. Doat, XXII. 216-17, 224,
+228.--Schmidt, Cathares I. 315, 324.
+
+[39] Coll. Doat, XXI. 153, 155, 158.
+
+[40] Vaissette, III. 431; Pr. 438-42.--Doat, XXIV. 160.--Guill. Pod.
+Laur. c. 45.--Peyrat, Les Albigeois et l'Inquisition, II. 304.--Diez,
+Leben und Werke der Troubadours, p. 491.--Ripoll I. 117.--Analecta
+Franciscana, Quaracchi, 1887, II. 65.
+
+The Catholic tradition at Avignonet was that some of the inquisitors'
+followers escaped to the church, where they were massacred with a number
+of Catholic inhabitants who had sought refuge there. In consequence of
+this pollution the church remained unused for forty years, and the
+anniversary of its reconciliation, on the first Tuesday in June, was
+still, in the last century, celebrated with illuminations and rejoicing
+as a local feast (Bremond _ap._ Ripoll l.c.)
+
+[41] Vaissette, III. 456.--Guill. Pod. Laur. c. 45.--Molinier _ap._
+Pelisso Chron. p. 19.--Molinier, L'Ensevelissement de Raimond VI. p.
+21.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, VIII. 1258.
+
+[42] Teulet, Layettes, II. 466.--Maj. Chron. Lemovicens. ann. 1242
+(Bouquet, XXI. 765).--Vaissette, III. Pr. 410.--Guill. Pod. Laur. c.
+45.--Schmidt. Cathares, I. 320.--Bern. Guidon. Vit. Coelestin. PP. IV.
+(Muratori S.R.I. III. 589).
+
+[43] Vaissette, III. 434-7, 439.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 470, 481-2, 484,
+487, 488, 489, 493, 495, etc.
+
+[44] Vaissette, III. Pr. 425.--Ripoll I. 118. Innocent's bull is dated
+July 10, 1243, within a fortnight after his election. The deputation had
+evidently been sent to Celestin IV., and the bull had been prepared in
+advance, awaiting the election of a successor.
+
+[45] Archives de l'Eveche d'Albi (Doat, XXXI. 47).--Archives de l'Inq.
+de Carcassonne (Doat, XXXI. 63, 65, 97).--Berger, Registres d'Innocent
+IV. No. 31, 102.
+
+[46] Vaissette, III. 443; Pr. 411, 433-4.--Potthast No. 10943, 11187,
+11218, 11390, 11638.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 523, 524, 528,
+534.--D'Achery, III. 621.--Berger, Registres d'Innocent IV. No. 21, 267,
+360, 364, 594, 697, 1283.--Douais. Les sources de l'histoire de
+l'Inquisition (loc. cit. p. 415).
+
+[47] Guill. Pod. Laur. c. 46.--Coll. Doat, XXII. 204, 210; XXIV. 76, 80,
+168-72, 181.--Schmidt, Cathares, I. 325.--Peyrat, Les Albigeois et
+l'Inquisition, II. 363 sqq.
+
+[48] Collection Doat, XXII. 202, 214, 237; XXIV. 68, 160, 182, 198.
+
+[49] Millot, Troubadours, II. 77.--Berger, Registres d'Innocent IV. No.
+37.
+
+[50] Concil. Biterrens. ann. 1246, Consil. ad Inquis. c. 1.--Ripoll, I.
+179.
+
+[51] Doat, XXII. 217.--Molinier, L'Inquisition dans le midi de la
+France, pp. 186-90.--See also Peyrat, Les Albigeois et l'Inq. III.
+467-73.--Vaissette, III. Pr. 446-8.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 566.
+
+M. l'Abbe Douais (loc. cit. p. 419) tells us that the examinations in
+the inquest of Bernard de Caux number five thousand eight hundred and
+four.
+
+[52] Vaissette, III. 457, 459; Pr. 467.--Guill. Pod. Laur. c.
+48.--Baluz. et Mansi I. 210.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carcassonne (Doat,
+XXXI. 105, 149).--Ripoll, I. 184.
+
+[53] Vaissette, III. 455-6; Pr. 468, 469.--Arcli. de l'Inq. de Carc.
+(Doat, XXXI. 77, 79, 80).--Martene Thesaur. I. 1040.
+
+[54] Martene Thesaur. I. 1044.--Vaissette, III. 465.--Vaissette, Ed.
+Privat, VIII. 1255, 1292, 1333, 1583.--Guill. Pod. Laur. c.
+48--Mary-Lafon, Hist. du midi de la France, III. 33, 49--Arch. de l'Inq.
+de Carcass. (Doat, XXXI. 250).
+
+[55] Rainer. Summa (Mart. Thesnur. V. 1768).--Molinier, L'Inquis. dans
+le midi de la France, pp. 254-55.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No.
+11847.--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 13, 14.--See also the curious
+account of Ivo of Narbonne in Matt. Paris, ann. 1243, p. 412-13 (Ed.
+1644).
+
+The Abbe Douais, in his analysis of the fragments of the "Registre de
+l'Inquisition de Toulouse" of 1254 and 1256, tells us that it contains
+the names of six hundred and thirteen accused belonging to the
+departments of Aude, Ariege, Gers, Aveyron, and Tarne-et-Garonne, the
+greater part of whom were Perfects. That this is evidently an error is
+shown by the statistics of Rainerio Saccone, quoted in the text. At this
+time, in fact, the whole Catharan Church, from Constantinople to Aragon,
+contained only four thousand Perfects. Still the number of accused shows
+the continued existence of heresy as a formidable social factor and the
+successful activity of the Inquisition in tracking it. In this register
+eight witnesses contribute one hundred and seven names to the list of
+accused (Sources de l'hist. de l'Inquisition, loc. cit. pp. 432-33).
+
+[56] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, Nouv. Acquis. 139.--Molinier, op. cit.
+p. 404.--Ripoll I. 273-4.--Arch. Nat. de France, J. 431, No. 34.--Arch.
+de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXI. 239, 250, 252).--Vaissette, III. Pr.
+528, 536.--Arch. di Napoli, Regestro 6, Lettere D, fol. 180.
+
+[57] Concil. Biterrens. ann. 1255.--Vaissette, III. 482-3; IV. 17.--A.
+Molinier (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, VI. 843).--Peyrat, op. cit. III. 54.
+
+[58] Miguel del Verms, Chronique Bearnaise.--P. Sarnaii Hist. Albigens.
+c. 6.--Guill. Pod. Laur., c. 8.--Schmidt, Cathares, I. 299.--Vaissette,
+III. 426, 503; Pr. 383-5, 392-3.--Teulet, Layettes, II. 490.--Bern.
+Guidon. Vit. Coelestin. PP. IV. (Muratori, S. R. I. III. 589).--Berger,
+Registres d'Innocent IV. No. 3530.
+
+[59] Vaissette, III. Pr. 551-3.
+
+[60] Vaissette, III. Pr. 575-77; IV. Pr. 109.
+
+[61] Coll Doat, XXV. XXVI.--Martene Thesaur. V. 1809.
+
+[62] Vaissette, IV. 3-5, 9-11, 16, 24-5.--Baudouin, Lettres inedites de
+Philippe le Bel, Paris, 1886, p. 125.
+
+[63] Raynald ann. 1303, No. 41.--Vaissette, IV. Note xi.--Guill.
+Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1303, 1309, 1310.--Nich. Trivetti Chron. ann.
+1306.--La Faille, Annales de Toulouse I. 284.
+
+The irresistible encroachment of the royal jurisdiction, in spite of
+perpetual opposition, is most effectively illustrated in the series of
+royal letters recently printed by M. Ad. Baudouin (Lettres inedites de
+Philippe le Bel, Paris, 1886).
+
+[64] Bern. Guidon. Gravam. (Doat, XXX. 93, 97).--Molinier op. cit. p.
+35.--Doat, XXVI. 197, 245, 265, 266.--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. p. 282.
+
+Sanche Morlana, the archdeacon of Carcassonne, who is represented as
+bearing a leading part in the conspiracy, belonged to one of the noblest
+families of the city. His brother Arnaud, who at one time was Seneschal
+of Foix, was likewise implicated, and died a few years later in the
+bosom of the Church. In 1328 Jean Duprat, then inquisitor, obtained
+evidence that Arnaud had been hereticated during a sickness, and again
+subsequently on his death-bed (Doat. XXVIII. 128). This would seem to
+lend color to the charge of heresy against the conspirators, but the
+evidence was considered too flimsy to warrant condemnation.
+
+[65] Doat, XXVI. 254.--Bern. Guidon. Gravam. (Doat, XXX. 93).--Arch. de
+l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 132).
+
+[66] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin. No. 11847.--Doat, XXVI. 197.--Lib.
+Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 54, 109, 111, 130, 137, 138, 139, 143, 144,
+146, 147.
+
+[67] There has been great confusion as to the date of Philippe's action.
+The Ordonnance as printed by Lauriere and Isambert is of 1287. As given
+by Vaissette (IV. Pr. 97-8) it is of 1291. A copy in Doat, XXXI. 266
+(from the Regist. Curiae Franciae de Carcass.), is dated 1297. Schmidt
+(Cathares I. 342) accepts 1287; A. Molinier (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, IX.
+157)confirms the date of 1291. The latter accords best with the series
+of events. 1287 would seem manifestly impossible, as Philippe was
+crowned January 6, 1286, at the age of seventeen, and would scarcely, in
+fifteen months, venture on such a step so defiant of all that was held
+sacred; nor would Nicholas IV. in 1290 have praised his zeal in
+furthering the Inquisition (Ripoll II. 29), while 1297 seems
+incompatible with his subsequent action on the subject.
+
+In 1292 Philippe prohibited the capitouls of Toulouse from employing
+torture on clerks subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop, a
+prohibition which had to be repeated in 1307.--Baudouin, Lettres
+inedites de Philippe le Bel, pp. 16, 73.
+
+[68] Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 251).--Chron. Bardin ann.
+1293 (Vaissette IV. Pr. 9).
+
+[69] In 1278 the inquisitors of France applied to Nicholas III. for
+instructions, stating that some time previous, during a popular
+persecution of the Jews, many of them through fear, though not
+absolutely coerced, had received baptism and allowed their children to
+be baptized. With the passing of the storm they had returned to their
+Jewish blindness, whereupon the inquisitors had cast them in prison.
+They were duly excommunicated, but neither this nor the "_squalor
+carceris_" had been of avail, and they had thus remained for more than
+a year. The nonplussed inquisitors thereupon submitted to the Holy See
+the question as to further proceedings, and Nicholas ordered them to
+treat such Jews as heretics--that is to say, to burn them for continued
+obstinacy.--Archives de l'Inq. de Carcassonne (Doat, XXXVII. 191).
+
+[70] Mag. Bull. Roman. I. 151, 155, 159.--Archivio di Napoli, Registro
+20, Lett. B, fol. 91.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 14930, fol.
+227-8.--Wadding, ann. 1290, No. 5, 6.--C. 13, Sexto V. 2--Coll. Doat,
+XXXII. 127; XXXVII. 193, 206, 209, 242, 255, 258.--Wadding, ann. 1359,
+No. 1-3.--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. p. 230.
+
+In 1288 Philippe had already ordered the Seneschal of Carcassonne to
+protect the Jews from the citations and other vexations inflicted on
+them by the ecclesiastical courts (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, IX. Pr. 232).
+Yet in 1306 he had all the Jews of the kingdom seized and exiled, and
+forbidden to return under pain of death (Guill. Nangiac. Contin. ann.
+1306).
+
+[71] Regist. Curiae Franciae de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 254, 267, 268,
+269).--Vaisette, IV. Pr. 99.
+
+[72] Du Puy, Histoire du Differend, etc. Pr. 14, 15, 23,
+24.--D'Argentre, Collect. Judic. de novis Error. I. I. 125.--Vaissette,
+IV. Pr. 99.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 264).--Faucon,
+Registres de Boniface VIII. No. 2140.
+
+[73] Du Puy, op. cit. Pr. 39, 41, 42, 44.--Faucon, Registres de Boniface
+VIII. No. 1822-3, No. 1829, No. 1830-1, No. 1930.--C. 18 Sexto v.
+2.--Isambert, Anc. Loix Franc. II. 718.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. Pr.
+347.--Archives de l'Eveche d'Albi (Doat, XXXII. 275).
+
+[74] C. Molinier, L'Inq. dans le midi de la France, p. 92.--A.
+Molinier(Vaissette, Ed. Privat, IX. 307). The character and power of the
+bishops of Albi are illustrated in a successor of Bernard de Castanet,
+Bishop Geraud, who in 1312, to settle a quarrel with the Seigneur de
+Puygozon, raised an army of five thousand men with which he attacked the
+royal Chateau Vieux d'Albi, and committed much devastation.--Vaissette,
+IV. 160.
+
+[75] Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praedic. (Martene Coll. Ampl. VI.
+477-8).--Ejusd. Gravam. (Doat, XXX. 94).
+
+[76] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 18, 119-23, 129, 135-6,
+292.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 283).--Vaissette, IV. 91;
+Pr. 100-2.--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 282-5.--Coll. Doat, XXXIV.
+21.
+
+[77] Concil. Biterrens. ann. 1299, c. 3 (Vaissette, IV. 96).--MSS. Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 264, 270.--Archives de l'Eveche d'Albi
+(Doat, XXXV. 69).--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 11847.--Lib.
+Sententt. Inquis. Tolos. p. 266.
+
+[78] Du Puy, Hist. du Differend, Pr. 633 sqq. 653-4.--Martene Thesaur.
+I. 1320-36.
+
+[79] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 125-8, 139.
+
+[80] In a series of confessions extracted from Master Arnaud Matha, a
+clerk of Carcassonne, in 1285, there are two, of October 4 and 10, in
+which he describes all the details of the heretication of Castel Fabri
+on his death-bed, in 1278 (Doat, XXVI. 258-60). While these cannot be
+positively said to be interpolations, they have the appearance of being
+so, and it may safely be assumed as impossible that such a matter would
+have been allowed to lie dormant for fifteen years with so rich a prize
+within reach. The case is doubtless one of the forged records which, as
+we have seen, were popularly believed to be customary in the
+Inquisition.
+
+[81] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 14-16, 29-30, 35, 120,
+148.--Coll. Doat, XXVII. 178; XXXIV. 123, 189.
+
+As late as 1338 the confiscated house of Castel Fabri at Carcassonne was
+the subject of a reclamation by Pierre de Manse who claimed that
+Philippe le Bel had given it to his queen, through whom it had come to
+him. The royal officials asserted that the gift had only been for life,
+and had seized it again, but Philippe de Valois abandoned it to the
+claimant.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat. X. Pr. 831-3.
+
+[82] Historia Tribulationum (Archiv fuer Litteratur. u.
+Kirchengeschichte, 1886, p. 148).--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No.
+4270, fol. 231.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. 268.
+
+[83] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 9, 19, 22, 24, 26, 32,
+40, 63, 70, 73, 81, 82, 84, 119, 128, 149, 155, 163.--Bern. Guidon.
+Hist. Conv. Albiens. (D. Bouquet, XXI. 748).--Coll. Doat, XXXIV. 26.
+
+[84] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 163.--Guillel. Nangiac.
+Contin. ann. 1303.--Grandes Chroniques, T. V. pp. 156-7.--Girard de
+Fracheto Chron. contin. ann. 1203 (D. Bouq. XXI. 23).--Vaissette, IV.
+112.--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Fund. Conv. (Martene Ampl. Coll. V. 514).
+
+When, long years afterwards, in 1319, Bernard Delicieux was carried from
+Avignon to Toulouse for the trial which led to his death, one of the
+convoy, a notary named Arnaud de Nogaret, chanced to allude to a report
+that Pequigny had been bribed with one thousand livres to oppose the
+Inquisition. Then the old man's temper flashed forth in defence of his
+departed friend--"Thou liest in the throat: the Vidame was an honest
+man!"--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 263.
+
+[85] Bern. Guidon. Hist. Fund. Conv. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI.
+510-11).--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXVII. 7).--MSS. Bib. Nat.,
+fonds latin, No. 4270. fol. 6, 7, 11, 42, 45, 48, 71, 161, 270.--Arch.
+de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat. XXXIV. 169).--Vaissette, IV. 143.
+
+[86] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 16, 149.
+
+[87] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 121, 125, 132, 150,
+159, 165.--Vaissette, IV. Pr. 118-20.--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praedic.
+(Martene Ampl. Coll. VI. 510).--Arch. de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat,
+XXXIV. 169).
+
+[88] Vaissette, IV. Pr. 118-21.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No, 4270,
+fol. 69.--Isambert, Anc. Loix Franc. II. 747, 789.
+
+[89] Arch, de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 169).--MSS. Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 16, 70, 134, 151.--Coll. Doat, XXXIII.
+207-72; XXXIV. 189.
+
+[90] Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. Pr. 409.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin,
+No. 4270, fol. 165.--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conr. Praedic. (Martene Ampl.
+Coll. VI. 511).
+
+[91] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 8, 17, 19, 20, 32, 44, 49,
+58, 156, 162, 229.--Pequigny is also said to have arrested some of the
+friars connected with the Inquisition (La Faille, Annales de Toulouse I.
+34), but I think this impossible.
+
+[92] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 27, 272.--Arch. de l'Inq.
+de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 114).--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praedic. (Martene
+Ampl. Coll. VI. 511).--Vaissette, IV. Pr. 128.--Coll. Doat, XXXIV. 26.
+
+The Dominican party declared that the statements purporting to come from
+the prisoners were fraudulent, and Bernard Gui relates with savage
+satisfaction that a monk named Raymond Baudier, who was concerned in
+getting them up, hanged himself like Judas (l. c. p. 514).
+
+[93] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 63, 153-55,
+272-3.--Haureau, Bern. Delicieux pp. 187, 190.
+
+[94] Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXI. 10; XXXII. 114).--Bern.
+Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praedic. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI. 510-11).--MSS. Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 88, 109, 122.
+
+[95] Arch. de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 45).--Arch. de
+l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXIV. 14).--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270,
+fol. 23, 25, 31, 86, 132, 137, 140-1, 152, 153.
+
+[96] Grandjean, Registres de Benoit XI. No. 1253-60, 1276.--MSS, Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 21, 73, 74, 158, 162, 278.--Molinier,
+L'Inq. dans le midi de la France pp. 126-7.--Geoffroi d'Ablis had
+sufficient influence with the king to persuade him to found the
+Dominican convent of Poissy.
+
+[97] Vaissette, IV. Pr. 130-1.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol.
+139.
+
+[98] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 26, 74-8, 88-9, 98, 103-8,
+198, 200-3, 226, 233, 265, 279.--Mascaro, Memorias de Bezes, ann. 1336,
+1389.
+
+For the tenure of Montpellier by the Kings of Majorca, see Vaissette,
+IV. 38, 42, 77-8, 151, 235-6. It was not until 1349 that Philippe de
+Valois bought out the rights of Jayme II., and in 1352 his son Jean was
+obliged to extinguish the claims still asserted by Pedro IV. of Aragon
+(Ib. 247, 268, Pr. 219).
+
+Bernard's attention was probably drawn to the House of Majorca by its
+strong adhesion to the Franciscan Order. Ferrand's older brother died in
+1304, in the Franciscan habit, under the name of Fray Jayme. Another
+brother, Felipe, became a "Spiritual Franciscan," as we shall see
+hereafter.
+
+[99] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 78-80, 90-1, 196, 247,
+252-3, 257-9.--Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praedic. (Martene Ampl. Coll.
+VI. 479-80).--Vaissette, IV. 129-30.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. Pr.
+461.--Bernard Gui's allusion refers to the insults offered to the
+Dominicans during the troubles of Carcassonne, when those who ventured
+into the streets were followed with cries of "Coac, Coac!" "_ad modum
+corvi_"--MS. No. 4270, fol. 281.
+
+[100] Arch. de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 42).--Arch, de
+l'Eveche d'Albi (Doat, XXXII. 81).
+
+[101] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, 4270, fol. 10-11, 84, 128,
+160-7.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXII. 83).
+
+Geoffroi's stay at Lyons was prolonged. November 29, we find him issuing
+commissions to those appointed by his deputies (Doat, XXXII. 85). Jean
+de Faugoux had been connected with the Inquisition for at least twenty
+years (Doat, XXXII. 125).
+
+[102] MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 254.--Arch, de
+l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 45).--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc.
+(Doat, XXXIII. 48).
+
+[103] Arch. de l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 45).--Arch. de
+l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXIV. 89, 112).--Bern. Guidon Gravam. (Doat,
+XXX. 95-6.)--Ripoll II. 112.
+
+I designed printing in the Appendix the Gravamina of Bernard Gui and the
+report of the Cardinals. M. Charles Molinier, however, I understand, is
+engaged on an edition of these documents, to be accompanied with a
+complete apparatus, which will render any other publication superfluous.
+
+[104] Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXXI. 74; XXXIV. 89).--MSS. Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, No. 11847.--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 228,
+266-7, 282-5.--Coll. Doat, XXXII. 309, 316.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X.
+Pr. 526.
+
+[105] Archives de l'Inq. de Carcassonne (Doat, XXXVII. 255).
+
+The Inquisition seems to have by some means acquired jurisdiction over
+the Jews of Languedoc. In 1279 there is a charter granted by Bernard,
+Abbot of S. Antonin of Pamiers, to the Jews of Pamiers, approving of
+certain statutes agreed upon among themselves concerning their internal
+affairs, thus showing them subjected to the abbatial jurisdiction. Yet
+in 1297 we have a letter from the inquisitor, Frere Arnaud Jean,
+ordering the Jews of Pamiers to live according to the customs of the
+Jews of Narbonne, and promising not to introduce "_aliquas graves et
+insolitas novitates_." During the interval they had thus passed into
+the hands of the Inquisition.--Coll. Doat, XXXVII. 156, 160.
+
+[106] Martin Fuldens. Chron. ann. 1312.--C. 1, 2, 3, Clement, V.
+iii.--Bern. Guidon. Gravam. (Doat, XXX.).--Bern. Guidon. Practica, P.
+IV. c. 1.
+
+It is due to Clement to say that doubtless he devised a much more
+thorough reform, and the meagreness of the outcome is probably
+attributable to the final revision under John XXII. Angelo da Clarino,
+writing from Avignon in 1313, about the new canons, which were then
+supposed to be ready for issue, says: "_Inquisitores etiam heretice
+pravitatis restringuntur et supponuntur episcopis_"--which would argue
+something much more decisive than the regulations as they finally
+appeared.--Franz Ehrle, Archiv. fuer Litteratur-u. Kirchengeschichte,
+1885, p. 545.
+
+[107] Du Puy, Histoire du Differend, Preuves, pp. 522-602.
+
+[108] Joann. Canon. S. Victor. Chron. ann. 1314-16.--Rymer, Foedera, III.
+494-5.--Grandes Chroniques, ann. 1314-16--Bern. Guidon. Vit. Joann. PP.
+XXII.--Ptolmaei Lucens. Append.
+
+John XXII. has always passed as the son of a cobbler of Cahors. Recent
+researches, however, render it probable that he belonged to a well-to-do
+burgher family.--A. Molinier (Vaissette, Ed. Privat. X. 363.)
+
+[109] Joann. Can. S. Victor. Chron. ann. 1311, 1316-19.--Historia
+Tribulationum (Archiv. fuer Litteratur-u. Kirchengeschichte, 1886, pp.
+145-8).--Wadding. ann. 1318, No. 26-7.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No.
+4270, fol. 1, 39.
+
+[110] MSS. Bib. Nat, fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 5, 81, 103-4, 146-7,
+169.
+
+Arnaud Garsia and Pierre Probi were kept in prison until 1325, when they
+were released on payment of two thousand gold florins, and such penance
+as Jean Duprat, the inquisitor, might impose on them. Their sequestrated
+property was ordered to be restored.--Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. Pr. 645.
+
+[111] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolosan. pp. 268-73.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds
+latin, No. 4270, fol. 186-92.--Jo. a S. Victore Memor. Historiale ann.
+1319 (Bouquet, XXI. 664).
+
+[112] Isambert, Anc. Loix Franc. III. 123.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc.
+(Doat, XXXII. 138).--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 11847.--Lib.
+Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 228, 244-8, 266-7, 277-81.--Arch, de
+l'hotel-de-ville d'Albi (Doat, XXXIV. 169, 185).
+
+[113] Bern. Guidon. Gravam. (Doat, XXX. 97).
+
+[114] Ibid. (Doat, XXX. 96, 98).--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270,
+fol. 138-9, 213.
+
+[115] Molinier, L'Inq. dans le midi de la France, p. 111--MSS. Bib.
+Nat., fonds latin, No. 4270, fol. 285.
+
+[116] Bern. Guidon. Hist. Conv. Praeedic. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI.
+469).--Touron, Hommes illustres de l'Ordre de S. Dominique, II. 94.
+
+[117] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 2, 3, 12, 13, 32, 68, 76, 81,
+159.--Molinier, L'Inq. dans le midi de la France, pp. 145-56.
+
+[118] Molinier, op. cit. p. 157--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos, p. 102.
+
+[119] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. p. 37.
+
+[120] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 59, 60, 64, 73, 74, 75, 92-3, 132.
+
+[121] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 341-2.--Coll. Doat, XXVII. 198-200,
+248; XXVIII. 128, 158.
+
+The entire disappearance of a sect once so numerous and powerful as the
+Cathari has appeared so unlikely that there has been a widespread belief
+that their descendants were to be found in the Cagots--the accursed race
+of the Pyrenees who in French Navarre were only admitted to common legal
+rights in 1709, and in the Spanish province in 1818, some of them still
+existing in the latter. The Cagots themselves even assumed this to be
+their origin in an appeal to Leo X., in 1517, to be restored to human
+society, and claimed that their ancestral errors had been long atoned
+for. Yet among all the conjectures as to the origin of this mysterious
+class, the descent from Catharans would seem to be the least admissible,
+and M. de Lagreze's opinion that they are descendants of lepers is
+sustained by arguments which appear to be convincing.--Lagreze, La
+Navarre Francaise I. 53-60. Cf. Vaissette, Liv. XXXIV. c. 79.
+
+[122] Coll. Doat, XXVII. 216-25, 234.
+
+[123] Vaissette, III, 362, 496; IV. 104-5, 211.--Archives de l'Eveche
+de Beziers (Doat, XXXI. 35).--Beugnot, Les Olim I. 1029-30.--Les Olim I.
+580.--Coll. Doat, XXXIII. 1.
+
+The extent of the change of the proprietorship is well illustrated by a
+list of the lands and rents confiscated for heresy to the profit of
+Philippe de Montfort from his vassals. It embraces fiefs and other
+properties in Lautrec, Montredon, Senegats, Rabastain, and Lavaur. The
+knights and gentlemen and peasants thus stripped are all named, with
+their offences--one died a heretic, another was hereticated on his
+death-bed, a third was condemned for heresy, and a fourth was burned at
+Lavaur, while in other cases the mother, or the father, or both were
+heretics (Doat, XXXII. 258-63).
+
+Many examples of donations and sales are preserved in the Doat
+collection. I may instance T. XXXI. fol. 171, 237, 255; T. XXXII. fol.
+46, 53, 55, 57, 64, 67, 69, 244, etc.
+
+In the possessions of the English crown in Aquitaine the same process
+was going on, though in a minor degree (Rymer, Foedera, III. 408).
+
+[124] Coll. Doat, XXXII. 309, 316.
+
+[125] Joinville, P. I. (Ed. 1785. p. 23).
+
+[126] Alberic. Triun. Font. Chron. ann. 1236.--Gregor. PP. IX. Bull.
+_Gaudemus_. 19 Ap. 1233 (Ripoll I. 45-6).--Raynald. ann. 1233, No. 59.
+
+[127] Greg. PP. IX. Bull. _Olim_, 4 Feb. 1234; Ejusd. Bull. _Dudum_, 21
+Aug. 1235; Ejusd. Bull. _Quo inter coeteras_, 22 Aug. 1235; Ejusd. Bull.
+_Dudum_, 23 Aug. 1235 (Ripoll I. 80-1).--Potthast No. 9386.--Chron.
+breve Lobiens. ann. 1235 (Martene Thes. III. 1427).--D. Bouquet, XXII.
+570.--Chron. Rimee de Philippe Mousket, v. 28871-29025.--Alberic. Trium
+Font. ann. 1235.
+
+[128] Chron. S. Medardi Suessionens. (D'Achery, II. 491).--Conc.
+Trevirens. ann. 1238, c. 31 (Martene Ampl. Coll. VII. 130).--Wadding.
+Annal. ann. 1236, No. 3.--Meyeri Annal. Flandrens. Lib. VIII. ann.
+1236.--Raynald. ann. 1238, No. 52.--Matt. Paris ann. 1236, 1238, pp.
+293, 326 (Ed. 1644).--Chron. Gaufridi de Collone ann. 1239 (Bouquet,
+XXII. 3).--Alberic. Trium Font. Chron. ann. 1239.--Chron. Rimec de Phil.
+de Mousket, v. 30525-34.
+
+Frere Bremond endeavors to clear Robert's fame from the accusations
+brought against him by Matthew Paris, and states that he died in the
+convent of St. Jacques in Paris in 1235.
+
+[129] Concil. Turonens. ann. 1239, c. 1.--D. Bouquet, XXI. 262, 264,
+268, 273, 274, 276, 280, 281.--Ripoll I. 273-4.
+
+[130] Coll. Doat, XXXI. 68.--Martene Coll. Ampl. I. 1284.--Wadding.
+Annal. ann. 1288, No. 14, 15; ann. 1290, No. 3, 5, 6; ann. 1292, No. 3.
+
+[131] Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat. XXXI. 90; XXXII. 41).--Wadding.
+Annal. ann. 1255, No. 14.--Raynald. ann. 1255, No. 33.--Arch. Nat. de
+France, J. 431, No. 30, 31, 34, 35, 36.--Ripoll I. 273-4, 291, 362, 472,
+512; II. 29.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds latin. No. 14930. fol. 226.--Martene
+Thesaur. V. 1814, 1817.
+
+[132] Ripoll I. 179, 183; II. 29.--Potthast No. 15995.--Lib. Sentt. Inq.
+Tolos. pp. 252-4.
+
+[133] Martene Thesaur. V. 1809, 1811-13.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carcass.
+(Doat, XXXII. 127).
+
+[134] Ripoll II. 1.--Guill. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1307, 1310.
+
+[135] Martene Ampl. Collect. VII. 1325-7. Cf. Concil. Trident. Sess.
+xxv. Decret. Reform, c. 3.
+
+[136] Arch. Nat. de France, J. 428, No. 15, 19 _bis_.--Guillel. Nangiac.
+Contin, ann. 1308, 1310.--Grandes Chroniques, V. 188.
+
+[137] Guillel. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1323.--Grandes Chroniques, V.
+273-4.--Chron. Johann. S. Victor. Contin. ann. 1323 (Bouquet, XXI. 681).
+
+[138] Coll. Doat, XXVII. 119, 132, 140, 146, 156, 178, 192, 198,
+232.--Vaissette, IV. Pr. 23.
+
+[139] Vaiseette, Ed. Privat, X. Pr. 782-3, 792, 802, 813-14.--Arch, de
+l'Eveche d'Albi (Doat. XXXV. 120).--Vaissette, IV. 184.--Martene Ampl.
+Coll. VI. 433.
+
+[140] Ripoll II. 236.
+
+[141] Raynald. ann. 1365, No. 17; ann. 1373, No. 19, 21.--Gaguini Hist.
+Francor. Lib. IX. c. 2. (Ed. 1576, p. 158).--Meyeri Annal. Flandr. Lib.
+XIII. ann. 1372.--Du Cange s. v. _Turlupini_.--Gersoni de Consolat.
+Theolog. Lib. IV. Prosa 3; Ejusd. de Mystica Theol. Specul. P. I.
+Consid. 8; Ejusd. de Distinctione verarum Visionum Signum, 5.--Altmeyer,
+Precurseurs de la Reforme aux Pays-Bas, I. 85.
+
+Probably there may be some connection between the Turelupins and certain
+wandering bands known as "_de Pexariacho_" and suspected of heresy. A
+member of these, named Bidon de Puy-Guillem, of the diocese of Bordeaux,
+was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and was liberated by Gregory
+XI. in 1371 (Coll. Doat, XXXV. 134).
+
+[142] Grandes Chroniques, ann. 1380-1.--Religieux de S. Denis, Hist. de
+Charles VI. Liv. I. c. 13, liv. II. c. 1.
+
+[143] Religieux de S. Denis, op. cit. Liv. IV. ch. 13.--D'Argentre,
+Collect. Judic. de novis error. I. II. 151.
+
+[144] Chron. Bardin, ann. 1322 (Vaissette, IV. Pr. 21-22).
+
+[145] Isambert, Anc. Lois Franc. IV. 364-5.--Coll. Doat, XXVII.
+118.--Vaissette, IV. Pr. 23.
+
+[146] Chron. Bardin, ann. 1340, 1368 (Vaissette, IV. Pr. 27, 31).
+
+[147] Chron. Bardin, ann. 1364 (Vaissette, IV. Pr. 30. Cf. A. Molinier,
+Ed. Privat. X. 763).
+
+[148] Martene Thesaur. I. 1399.
+
+[149] Arch. Administratives de Reims, III. 637-45.--Meyeri Annal.
+Flandr. Lib. XVI. ann. 1419.--Lafaille, Annales de Toulouse I.
+183.--Chron. Bardin, ann. 1423 (Vaissette. IV. Pr. 38).
+
+[150] Arch. Administratives de Reims, III. 639-43.
+
+[151] Isambert, Anc. Lois Franc. IX. 3; X. 393, 396-416, 477.--Bochelli
+Decret. Eccles. Gallican. Lib. IV. Tit. 4, 5.--Bull. de la Soc. de
+l'Hist. du Protestantisme en France, 1860, p. 121.--D'Argentre Coll.
+Judic. de novis Error. I. II. 357.--Fascic. Rer. Expetend. et Fugiend.
+I. 63 (Ed. 1690).
+
+The feelings with which the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction in 1461
+was received are well expressed in the "_Pragmaticae Sanctionis
+Passio_," Baluz. et Mansi, IV. 29.
+
+Pius II. is singularly candid in his account of the simoniacal
+transaction through which he purchased the abrogation by giving the
+cardinal's hat to Jean, Bishop of Arras. The suggestion at first
+provoked the liveliest remonstrances from the members of the Sacred
+College, who, through their spokesman, the Cardinal of Avignon, warned
+Pius that there would be no peace in the Consistory, for the bishop
+would set them all by the ears, and that his unquiet spirit showed that
+he must be the offspring of an Incubus. Pius admitted all this, but
+argued that it was an unfortunate necessity; both Louis XI. and Philippe
+le Bon had asked for his promotion; unless the request was granted the
+Pragmatic Sanction would not be abolished, for the fury of the
+disappointed man would convert him into its supporter, and, as he was
+learned, he would readily find ample Scriptural warrant to adduce in its
+favor, which would be decisive, as he was the only man in France who
+urged the abrogation, and he could readily lead the king to change his
+mind. These arguments were convincing, and Pius enjoyed the supreme
+triumph of destroying the last relic of the reforms of Constance and
+Basle. He paid dearly for it, however, in the annoyances inflicted on
+him by the new cardinal, whom he describes as a liar and a perjurer,
+avaricious and ambitious, a glutton and a drunkard, and excessively
+given to women. He was so irascible that at meals he would frequently
+throw the silver plates and vessels at the servants, and occasionally
+would push the whole table over, to the dismay of his guests.--AEn.
+Sylvii Opp. inedd. (Atti della Accad. dei Lincei, 1883, pp. 531, 546-8).
+
+[152] Juvenal des Ursins, ann. 1411, 1413.--Religieux de S. Denis, Hist.
+de Charles VI. Liv. XXXII. ch. 14; XXXIII. ch. 1, 15, 16; XXXV. ch. 18.
+
+[153] D'Argentre, op. cit. I. II. 370.
+
+[154] Ibid. I. II. 340.
+
+[155] Ibid. I. II. 346.
+
+[156] Wadding, ann. 1375, No. 17; 1418, No. 1, 2; 1419, No. 2; 1434, No.
+2, 3; 1472, No. 24.--Ripoll II. 522, 566-9, 637, 644; III. 487; IV. 6.
+
+[157] Wadding. ann. 1409, No. 13; 1418, No. 1, 2, 4.
+
+[158] Baluz. et Mansi I. 288-93,--Arch. Gen. de Belgique, Papiers
+d'Etat, v. 405.--MSS. Bib. Nat., fonds Moreau, 444, fol. 10.--Ripoll
+II. 533; III. 6, 8, 21, 193.
+
+[159] Ripoll III. 301.--Wadding, ann. 1458, No. 12.
+
+[160] Wadding, ann. 1458, No. 13; 1461, No. 3.--Ripoll III. 317, 423,
+487; IV. 103, 217, 303, 304, 356, 373.
+
+A MS. of Bernard Gui's _Practica_, now in the Municipal Library of
+Toulouse, bears a marginal note that it was lent by the Inquisition of
+Toulouse, in 1483, to the Dominicans of Bordeaux to be transcribed, thus
+showing that there was an Inquisition in operation in the latter city of
+which the members required instruction in their duties (Molinier, l'Inq.
+dans le midi de la France, p. 201).
+
+[161] Memoires de Jacques du Clercq, Liv. III. ch. 43.--D'Argentre, op.
+cit. I. II. 308-18, 319-20, 323, 347.
+
+[162] Bremond, _ap_. Ripoll IV. 373.--Ripoll IV. 390.
+
+[163] Ripoll IV. 376.--Wieri de Praestig. Daemon. Lib. VI. c. 11.
+
+[164] Coll. Doat, XXI. 197, 203, 208, 223, 225, 232, 233, 234, 236, 238,
+241, 244, 250, 252, 254, 261-2, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270, 271,
+275, 276, 281, 282, 289, 296.
+
+It is perhaps worthy of note that Raymond de Pereille, the Castellan of
+Montsegur, and his companions, when on trial, while freely giving
+evidence about innumerable Cathari, declared that they knew nothing
+whatever about Waldenses, which would seem to indicate that there was
+little communication between the sects (Doat, XXII. 217; XXIII. 344;
+XXIV. 8).
+
+[165] Statut. Synod. Odonis Tullensis ann. 1192, c. ix., x. (Martene
+Thesaur. IV. 1180).--Ripoll I. 183.--Douais, Les sources de l'histoire
+de l'Inq. (Revue des Questions Historiques, Oct. 1881, p. 434).--Peyrat,
+Les Alb. et l'Inquis. III. 74.--Chabrand, Vaudois et Protestants des
+Alpes, Grenoble, 1886, p. 34.--Havet, L'heresie et le bras seculier
+(Bib. de l'Ecole des Chartes, 1880, p. 585).--Vaissette, IV. 17.--A.
+Molinier (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, VI. 819).--Wadding, ann. 1288, No.
+14-15; 1292, No. 3.--Raynald. ann. 1288, No. 27-8.
+
+[166] Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolos. pp. 200-1, 207-8, 216-43, 252-4, 262-5,
+289-90, 340-7, 352, 355, 364-66.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carcass. (Doat,
+XXVII. 7 sqq.).
+
+[167] Bernard. Guidon. Practica P. v. (Doat. XXX.).
+
+[168] Wadding. ann. 1321, No. 21-4.
+
+[169] Arch. de l'Inq. de Carcass. (Doat, XXVII. 119 sqq.).--Raynald.
+ann. 1335, No. 63; 1344, No. 9; 1352, No. 20.--Chabrand. op. cit. pp.
+36-7.--Wadding ann. 1352, No. 14, 15; 1363, No. 14, 15; 1364, No. 14,
+15; 1365, No. 3.--Lombard, Pierre Valdo et les Vaudois du Brianconnais,
+Geneve, 1880, pp. 17. 20, 23-7.
+
+[170] Raynald. ann. 1372, No. 34; ann. 1373, No. 19.
+
+[171] Wadding. ann. 1375, No. 11-19.--D'Argentre, op. cit. I. I.
+394.--Ripoll II. 289.--Raynald. ann. 1375, No. 26.--Gautier, Hist, de la
+Ville de Gap, p. 39.
+
+[172] Lombard, op. cit. pp. 27-8.--Wadding, ann. 1375, No.
+21-3.--Isambert, Anc. Loix Franc. IV. 491.
+
+[173] Wadding. ann. 1376, No. 3.
+
+[174] Wadding. ann. 1375, No. 24; ann. 1376, No. 2.--Arch. de l'Inq. de
+Carcass. (Doat, XXXV. 163).
+
+[175] Perrin's Waldenses, translated by Lennard, London, 1624, Bk. 2 pp.
+18, 19.--Leger, Hist. des Eglises Vaudoises II. 26.--Chabrand, op. cit.
+pp. 39, 40.
+
+[176] Miroir de Souabe, ch. 89 (Ed. Matile, Neuchatel, 1843).
+
+[177] Wadding. ann. 1409, No. 12.
+
+[178] Mary-Lafon, Hist. du midi de la France, III. 384.--C. Bituricens.
+ann. 1432 (Harduin. VIII. 1459).--Martene Ampl. Coll. VII. 161-3.
+
+[179] Leger, Hist. des Eglises vaudoises, II. 24.--Duverger, La Vauderie
+dans les Etats de Philippe le Bon, Arras, 1885, p. 112.
+
+Even in the eariy part of the sixteenth century, Robert Gaguin, in
+speaking of riding on a broomstick and worshipping Satan, adds "_quod
+impietatis genus Valdensium esse dicitur_" (Rer. Gallican. Annal. Lib.
+X. p. 242. Francof. ad M. 1587).
+
+[180] Martene Ampl. Collect. II. 1506-7.
+
+[181] Isambert, Anc. Loix Franc. X. 793-4.
+
+[182] Chabrand, op. cit. pp. 43, 48-52, 70.--Herzog, Die romanischen
+Waldenser pp. 277-82.--D'Argentre I. I. 105.--Leger, Hist. des Eglises
+Vaudoises II. 23-5.--Filippo de Boni, I Calabro-Valdesi p. 71.--Comba,
+Histoire des Vaudois d'Italie, Paris, 1887, I. 160-66, 169.
+
+The Waldensian legend relates that in the cavern of Aigue-Fraide the
+number of victims was three thousand, of whom four hundred were
+children, but I think that M. Chabrand has sufficiently demonstrated its
+exaggerated improbability (Op. cit. pp. 53-9).
+
+[183] Herzog, op. cit. pp. 283-5.--Perrin, Hist. Waldens. B. II. ch.
+3.--Chabrand, op. cit. pp. 73-4.
+
+[184] Matt. Paris ann. 1234 (p. 270, Ed. 1644).--Reinerii Summa (Martene
+Thesaur. V. 1767-8).
+
+[185] Archives Nat. de France, J. 426, No. 4.--D'Achery Spicileg III.
+598.--Paramo de Orig. Offic. S. Inquis. p. 177.--Zurita, Anales de
+Aragon, Lib. III. c. 94.--Ripoll I. 38. (Cf. Llorente, Ch. III. Art. i.
+No. 3).--Marca Hispanica, pp. 1425-6.
+
+[186] Llorente, Ch. III. Art. i. No. 5--Ripoll I. 91-2.
+
+[187] Vaissette, III. Pr. 383-5, 392-3.--Doat, XXII. 218; XXIV. 184.
+
+[188] Wadding, ann. 1238, No. 6.--Doat, XXIV. 182.--Pet. Rodulphii Hist.
+Seraph. Lib. II. fol. 285_b_.--Berger, Registres d'Innoc. IV. No.
+2257.--Monteiro, Hist. da Inquisicao, P. I. Liv. ii. ch. 36.
+
+[189] Llorente, Ch. III Art. 1. No. 7, 8, 19.--Concil. Tarraconens. ann.
+1242.--Paramo, pp. 110, 177-8.
+
+[190] Berger, Registres d'Innocent IV. No. 799, 3904.--Baluz. et Mansi
+I. 208.--Ripoll I. 245, 427, 429; II. 235.--Eymeric. Direct. Inquis. pp.
+129-36.--Paramo, p. 132.
+
+[191] Llorente, Ch. III. Art. i. No. 14, 17.--Monteiro, Hist. da
+Inquisicao, P. I. Liv. ii. ch. 10.--Pelayo, Heterodoxos Espanoles, I.
+492.--Zurita, Anales de Aragon, Lib. II. c. 76.--Paramo, p. 178.
+
+[192] Concil. Tarraconens. ann. 1291, c. 8 (Martene Ampl. Coll. VII.
+294).
+
+[193] Llorente, Ch. III. Art. ii. No. 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14.--Eymeric.
+Direct. Inquis. p. 265.--Ripoll II. 245.--Zurita, Anales, Lib. VI. c.
+61.--Raynald. ann. 1344, No. 9.
+
+[194] Eymeric. Direct. Inq. p. 262.--Ripoll. III. 421; VII.
+90.--Wadding. ann. 1351, No. 16, 18, 21; ann. 1462, No. 1-18; 1463, No.
+1-5; 1464, No. 1-6.--D'Argentre, I. I. 372; II. 250, 254.--Gradonici
+Pontif. Brixianorum Series, Brixiae, 1755, pp. 348-51.--AEn. Sylvii
+Comment. Lib. XI.; Ejusd. Lib. de Contentione Divini Sanguinis.
+
+[195] Eymeric. Direct. Inquis. pp. 44, 266, 314-6, 351, 357-8,
+652-3.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I. 263.--Ripoll II. 268, 269, 270.--Martene
+Thesaur. II. 1181-2, 1182 _bis_, 1189.--Raynald. ann. 1398, No.
+23.--Wadding, ann. 1371, No. 14-24.--Paramo, p. 111.--Pelayo,
+Heterodoxos Espanoles, I. 499-500, 528.
+
+[196] Dameto, Mut, y Alemany, Historia General de Mallorca (Ed. 1840, I.
+101-3, II. 652).--Libell. de Magist. Ord. Praedic. (Martene Ampl. Coll.
+VI. 432).--Paramo, pp. 179, 186-7.--Ripoll II. 579, 594; III. 20,
+28.--Monteiro, P. I. Liv. ii. c. 30.--Llorente, Ch. III. Art. iii. No.
+4, 8.
+
+[197] Ripoll II. 613.
+
+[198] Ripoll III. 347.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carcass. (Doat, XXXV. 192).
+
+[199] Llorente, Ch. III. Art. iii. No. 11.--Albertini Repertor. Inquis.
+s. v. _Deficiens_.--Ripoll III. 397, 415, 572.
+
+[200] Llorente, Ch. VII. Art. ii. No. 2.--Herculano, Da Origem, etc., da
+Inquisicao em Portugal, I. 44.--Ripoll III. 422.--Paramo, p. 187.
+
+[201] Monteiro, P. I. Liv. i. c. 38, 44, 46, 48-51; Liv. ii. c.
+5-12.--Chron. Eccles. Hamelens. (Scriptt. Rer. Brunsv. II.
+508).--Herculano, I. 39.--Baluz. et Mansi, I. 208.--Paramo de Orig.
+Offic. S. Inquis. p. 131.
+
+[202] Lucae Tudens. de altera Vita, Lib. III. c. 7, 9. Cf. c. 18,
+20.--Florez, Espana Sagrada, XXII. 120-22, 126-30.
+
+[203] Lucae Tudens. Lib. III. c. 12.--Raynald. ann. 1236, No.
+60.--Rodrigo. Hist. Verdadera de la Inquisicion, II. 10.
+
+[204] Las Siete Partidas, P. I. Tit. vi. I. 58; P.VII. Tit. xxiv. I. 7;
+Tit. XXV. II. 2-7.--El Fuero real, Lib. IV. Tit. i. II. 1, 2.
+
+[205] Coll. Doat, XXX. 132 sqq.--Archbishop Rodrigo's letter is dated
+1315. This I presume to be an error of a copyist, probably misled by the
+use of the Spanish era in which 1355 is equivalent to 1317.
+
+[206] Ripoll II. 421, 433.--Monteiro, P. I. Liv. ii. c. 35,
+36.--Ordenanzas Reales, Lib. VIII. Tit. iv. I. 4.
+
+[207] Monteiro, P. I. Liv. ii. c. 30.--Rodrigo, II. 11, 14-15.--Paramo,
+p. 136.--Raynald. ann. 1453, No. 19.--Alphons. de Spina Fortalic. Fidei
+Prolog, fol. 56_b_ (Ed. 1494).
+
+[208] Alphons. de Castro adv. Haereses Lib. III. s.v.
+_Confessio_.--Illescas, Historia Pontifical, Lib. VI. c. 18.--Aguirre
+Concil. Hispan. V. 351-8.--D'Argentre, I. II. 298-302.
+
+[209] Herculano, I. 40.--Monteiro. P. I. Liv. ii. c. 34.--Pelayo,
+Heterodoxos Espanoles, I. 782-3.
+
+[210] Llorente, Ch. III. Art. ii. No. 24.--Monteiro, P. I. Liv. ii. c.
+35, 37, 38, 39.--Wadding, ann. 1394, No. 4; 1413, No. 4.--Ripoll II.
+389.
+
+[211] Herculano, Da Origem, etc., da Inquisicao, I. 163-5.
+
+[212] Caesar. Heisterbacens. Dial. Mirac. Dist. V. c. 25.--Muratori
+Antiq. Ital. Diss. LX. (T. XII. p. 447).
+
+[213] D'Argentre, Coll. Judic. de novis Error. I. i. 86.--Reinerii Summa
+(Martene Thesaur. V. 1767).
+
+[214] Matt. Paris. ann. 1236, p. 293; ann. 1243, pp. 412-13 (Ed.
+1644)--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1230.--Innoc. PP. III. Regest. XV.
+189.--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. p. 881.
+
+[215] Montet, Hist. litt. des Vaudois du Piemont, pp. 40-1.--Innoc. PP.
+III. Regest. IX. 18, 19, 204; XII. 17; XIII. 63.--Kaltner, Konrad v.
+Marburg, pp. 42, 44.--Annal. Marbacens. ann. 1231 (Urstisii Germ. Hist.
+Scriptt. II. 90).
+
+[216] Boehmer, Regest, Imp. V. 110.--Comba, La Riforma in Italia, I.
+254-57.--Ejusd. Histoire des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 124 sqq.,
+140.--Charvaz, Origine dei Valdesi, App. No. XXII.
+
+Giuseppe Manuel di S. Giovanni (Un' Episodia della Storia del Piemonte,
+Torino, 1874, pp. 15-21) argues that the letter of Otho IV. is only the
+draft of one which the bishop desired to procure, but the question is
+merely of archaeological interest, for in either case it was equally
+ineffective.
+
+[217] Rescript. Heres. Lombard. (Preger, Beitraege, Muenchen, 1875, pp.
+56-63).--Reinerii Summa (Martene Thesaur. V. 1775).
+
+[218] Campi, Dell' Historia Ecclesiastica di Piacenza, P. II.. pp. 92
+sqq.--Innoc. PP. III. Regest. IX. 131, 166-9; X. 54, 64, 222.--Tocco,
+L'Heresia nel Medio Evo, pp. 364, 366 (Firenze, 1884).--Cf.
+Pseudo-Joachim de septem temporibus Ecclesiae P. V.
+
+[219] Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 451 (Mon. Hist. Germ.).--Potthast
+No. 7672.
+
+[220] Epistt. Saec. XIII. T. I. No. 264-66, 275, 295 (Mon. Hist.
+Germ.).--Havet, Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes, 1880, p. 602.
+
+[221] Epistt. Saec. XIII. T. I. No. 355.
+
+[222] Raynald. Annal. ann. 1231, No. 13-18.--Constit. Sicular. Lilt. I.
+Tit. i.--Rich. S. Germ. Chron. (Muratori, S. R. I. VII. 1026).--Vit.
+Gregor. PP. IX. (Ib. III. 578).--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. pp.
+299-300, 409-11.--Verri, Storia di Milano, I. 242.--Bern. Corio, Hist.
+Milanese, ann. 1228.
+
+[223] Ripoll. 41.
+
+[224] Epistt. Saec. XIII. T. I. No. 559.--Raynald. ann. 1233, No.
+40.--Ripoll I. 69, 71.
+
+Probably about this period may have occurred the incident related of
+Moneta, the disciple of St. Dominic, whose efforts against the heretics
+of Lombardy are said to have aroused their animosity to the point that a
+noble named Peraldo hired an assassin to despatch him. Word was brought
+to Moneta, who seized a crucifix and assembled a band of the faithful,
+with whom he captured Peraldo and the bravo, delivered them to the
+secular authorities, and they were both burned alive.--Ricchini Vit.
+Monetae, p. viii.
+
+[225] Ripoll I. 48, 56-9.--Matt. Paris, ann. 1238, p. 320.--Chron.
+Veronens. ann. 1233 (Muratori, S.R.I. VIII. 67).--Gerardi Maurisii Hist.
+(Ib. pp. 37-9).--Barbarano de' Mironi, Hist. Eccles. di Vicenza, II.
+79-84.
+
+[226] Barbarano de' Mironi, op. cit. II. 90-1.
+
+[227] Ripoll I. 60-1--Barbarano de' Mironi op. cit. II. 86, 91-2.
+
+[228] Greg. PP. IX. Bull. _Ille humani generis_, 20 Maii, 1230 (Ripoll
+I. 95. gives this in 1237, probably a reissue).--Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T.
+I. No. 693, 700, 702, 704.--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. P. II. pp.
+907-8.--Schmidt, Cathares, I. 161.
+
+[229] Ripoll I. 174-5.--Barbarano de' Mironi, op. cit. II. 94-6.
+
+[230] Jac. de Voragine Legenda Aurea s. V.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I. 94.
+
+[231] Campana, Storia di San Piero-Martire, Milano, 1741, pp. 28-39.
+
+[232] Bern. Corio, Hist. Milanese, ann. 1233, 1242.--Verri, Storia di
+Milano, I. 241-3.--Ripoll I. 65.--Annal. Mediolanens. c. xiv. (Muratori,
+S.R.I. XVI. 651).--Sarpi, Discorso (Ed. Helmstad. 1763, IV. 21).
+
+[233] Lami, Antichita Toscane, pp. 497, 500.
+
+[234] Ripoll I. 79-80.--Raynald. ann. 1235, No. 15.--Vit. Gregor. PP.
+IX. (Muratori, S.R.I. III. 581).--Lami op. cit. pp. 554, 557.
+
+[235] Lami, op. cit. pp. 560-85.--Lami's account of these troubles,
+based upon original sources, is so complete that I have followed it
+without reference to other authorities. Most of the documents are still
+in the Archives of Florence (Archiv. Diplom., Prov. S. Maria Novella,
+ann. 1245).
+
+The Compagnia della Fede, known subsequently as del Bigallo, was changed
+in the middle of the fifteenth century, by Sant' Antonino, Prior of San
+Marco, into a charitable association for the care of orphans (Villari,
+Storia di Girol. Savonarola, Firenze, 1887, I. 37).
+
+[236] Ripoll I. 192-3, 199, 205, 208-14, 231.--Berger, Registres
+d'Innoc. IV. No. 5065, 5345.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I. 91.
+
+[237] Campana, Vita di San Piero-Martire, pp. 100-1.
+
+[238] Bern. Corio, Hist. Milanese, ann. 1252.--Gualvaneo Flamma c. 286
+(Muratori, S. R. I. XI. 684).--Ripoll I. 224, 244, 389.--Campana, Vita
+di San Piero Martire, pp. 118-20, 125, 128-9, 132-33.--Annal.
+Mediolanens. c. 24 (Muratori, XVI. 656).--Tamburini, Storia dell'
+Inquisizione, I. 492-502.--Wadding Annal. ann. 1284, No. 3.--Rodulphii
+Hist. Seraph. Relig. Lib. I. fol. 126.--Raynald. Annal. ann. 1403, No.
+24.
+
+There is a Daniele da Giussano who appears as inquisitor in Lombardy in
+1279 (Ripoll I. 567), and who may very probably be the same as the
+accomplice in the murder.
+
+[239] Ripoll I. 212.--Campana, op. cit. 126, 149, 151, 257, 259,
+262-3.--Jac. de Vorag. Legenda Aurea s. v.--Mag. Bull. Roman. I.
+94.--Wadding Annal. ann. 1291, No. 24.--Juan de Mata, Santoral de los
+dos Santos, Barcelona, 1637, fol. 28.--Gualvaneo Flamma, Opusc.
+(Muratori, S. R. I. XII. 1035).
+
+Fra Tommaso's disgrace was not perpetual. We shall meet him hereafter as
+inquisitor, alternately protecting and persecuting the Spiritual
+Franciscans. If the accounts of the latter be true, his death in 1306
+was a visitation of God for the frightful cruelties inflicted upon them
+(Hist. Tribulationum, _ap_. Archiv fuer Litteratur-und Kirchengeschichte,
+1886, p. 326).
+
+The question of the Stigmata was always a burning one between the two
+Orders. The Dominicans at first refused to accept the miracle until
+forced to submit by energetic papal measures (Chron. Glassberger ann.
+1237--Analecta Franciscana II. 58, Quaracchi, 1887), and when at length
+they claimed the same honor for St. Catharine of Siena the Franciscans
+were equally incredulous. In 1473, at Trapani, the two Orders preached
+against each other on this subject with so much violence as to raise
+great disorders between their respective partisans among the laity,
+until the Viceroy of Sicily was obliged to interfere (La Mantia,
+L'Inquisizione in Sicilia, Torino, 1886, p. 17); and, as already
+mentioned, Sixtus IV., in 1475, prohibited the ascription of the
+Stigmata to St. Catharine.
+
+[240] Ripoll VIII. 113.--Chron. Parmens. ann. 1286 (Muratori, S.R.I. IX.
+810).--Campana, op. cit. p. 63.--Bernardi Comens. Lucerna Inquis. s. VV.
+_Bona hoereticor_. No. 6, _Crucesignati. Indulgentia._
+
+[241] Ripoll I. 144, 168.--Campi, Dell' Hist. Eccles. di Piacenza, P.
+II. pp. 208-9.
+
+[242] Molinier, Thesis de Fratre Guillelmo Pelisso, Anicii, 1880, pp.
+lix.-lx.
+
+[243] Ripoll I. 238, 242-3; VII. 31.--Bern. Corio, Hist. Milanese, ann.
+1269.
+
+[244] Ripoll I. 254.--Campana, op. cit. p. 114.
+
+[245] Bern. Guidon. Vit. Innocent. PP. IV. (Muratori, S.R.I. III.
+592).--Wadding, ann. 1254, No. 8.--Ripoll I. 246.--Sclopis, Antica
+Legislazione del Piemonte, p. 440.
+
+[246] Ripoll I. 285.--Raynald. ann. 1255, No. 31--Campi, Dell' Hist.
+Eccles. di Piacenza. P. II. pp. 212-13, 402.
+
+[247] Ripoll I. 300, 326, 327, 399.--Potthast No. 16292.
+
+[248] Campi, Deli' Hist. Eccles. di Piacenza, P. II. pp.
+214-15.--Barbarano de Mironi, Hist. Eccles. di Vicenza, II. 99, 104.
+
+[249] Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 451.--Raynald. ann. 1231, No.
+20-22.
+
+[250] Chabaneau (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X. 314).--Monach. Patavin.
+Chron. (Muratori, S. R. I. VIII. 707-9).--Frederic II. is similarly
+described by the papal scribes as a monster delighting in objectless
+cruelty. See Vit. Gregor. PP. IX. (Muratori, S. R. I. III. 583-4).
+
+[251] Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 453, 741, 757-9.--Ripoll I. 59,
+135, 193.--Potthast No. 12899.--Berger, Registres d'Innocent IV. No.
+4095.--Raynald. Annal. ann. 1248. No. 25-6.--Harduin. Concil. VII. 362.
+
+[252] Ripoll I. 230, 247, 249-51, 286, 391.--Mag. Bull. Rom.
+1.102-4.--Pegnae Append. Eymeric. p. 77.--Harduin. Concil. VII. 362.
+
+[253] Raynald. ann. 1357, No. 38-9; 1258, No. 1-4; 1259, No.
+1-3.--Rolandini Chron. Lib. IX.-XII. (Muratori, S. R. I. VIII.
+299-352).--Monach. Patavin. Chron. (Ib. VIII. 691-705).--Nic. Smeregi
+Chron. (Ib. VIII. 101).--Wadding, ann. 1258, No. 6.--Mag. Bull. Rom, I.
+118.
+
+The ferocity of the age is seen in the treatment bestowed on Ezzelin's
+brother Alberico, when captured with his family. He was gagged and tied
+to a tree, his wife and daughters were burned alive before his eyes, his
+sons were slain and their limbs thrown in his face, and then he was
+deliberately hacked in pieces.--Laurentii de Monacis Ezerinus III.
+(Muratori, S. R. I. VIII. 150). Alberico was a man of culture, a
+troubadour, and a patron of the _gai science_ (Vaissette, Ed. Privat, X.
+313).
+
+[254] Raynald. ann. 1259, No. 6-9.
+
+[255] Ripoll I. 398.--Bern. Corio, Hist. Milanese, ann. 1259.
+
+[256] Arch. de l'Inquis de Carcassonne (Doat. XXXI.).--Ripoll I. 400.
+
+[257] Potthast No. 17984-5.--Arch. de I'Inquis. de Carc. (Doat, XXXI.
+216).--Ripoll I. 402, 460, 462, 466, 469, 478.--Raynald. ann. 1260, No.
+12.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I. 119.
+
+The bull threatening the people of Bergamo with interdict for their
+legislation is by Urban IV. and dated in 1264, as found in the archives
+of the Inquisition of Carcassonne (Doat, XXX. 288), while Ripoll (I.
+499) gives it as by Clement IV. in 1265, showing that the Bergamese were
+obstinate. Bergamo had been under interdict for adhering to Frederic and
+Conrad, and had only been reconciled after the death of the latter in
+1255 (Ripoll I. 268).
+
+[258] Epistt. Urbani PP. IV. (Martene Thesaur. II. 9-50, 74-9, 116-18,
+220-37.)--Epistt. Clement. PP. IV. (Ibid. pp. 176, 186, 196-200, 213,
+218, 241-5, 250, 260, 274).
+
+[259] Epistt. Clem. PP. IV. (Martene Thesaur. II. 174, 319,
+327).--Raynald. ann. 1266, No. 23.
+
+[260] Ripoll I. 427, 514.--Campi, Dell' Hist. Eccles. di Piacenza, P.
+II. pp. 218-31.--Philippi Bergomat. Supplem. Chron. ann. 1261.
+
+[261] Wadding, ann. 1254, No. 7, 8, 11, 16; 1261, No. 2.--Grandjean,
+Registres de Benoit XI. No. 1167.--Ripoll II. 87.
+
+[262] Wadding, ann. 1259, No. 3.--Barbarano de' Mironi, Hist. Eccles.
+di Vicenza, II. 95, 105, 108, 113, 121.
+
+[263] Annal. Mediolanens. cap. 31 (Muratori, S. R. I. XVI.
+662).--Muratori Antiq. Ital. XII. 513.--Wadding, ann. 1277, No. 10, 11;
+1278, No. 33; 1289, No. 18.
+
+[264] Grandjean, Registres de Benoit XI. No. 508.
+
+[265] Paramo, p. 264.--Verri, Storia di Milano, I. 244.--Ripoll I.
+567.--Raynald. ann. 1278, No. 78.--In Doat, XXXII. 160, is the letter to
+the authorities of Bergamo, which Bremond (Ripoll ubi sup.) says is not
+to be found.
+
+[266] Memor. Protestat. Regiens. ann. 1279, 1282 (Muratori, S.R.I. VIII.
+1146, 1150).--Bern. Corio, Hist. Milanese, ann. 1279.--Paramo Lib. II.
+Tit. ii. cap. 30, No. 13.--Pegnae Append. ad Eymeric. p. 55--Salimbene
+Chron. pp. 274, 276, 342.--Chron. Parmens. ann. 1279, 1282, 1286, 1287
+(Muratori, IX. 792, 799, 809-11).--Sarpi, Discorso (Opere, IV.
+21).--Concil. Mediolanens. ann. 1287, c. xi.
+
+[267] Ripoll I. 241-2.--Wadding. ann. 1258, No. 3, 5; ann. 1278, No. 33;
+ann. 1279, No. 29; Regest. Nich. PP. III. No. 11.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I.
+118.--Martene Thesaur. II. 191.--Raynald. ann. 1278, No. 78.
+
+[268] Muratori Antiq. Ital. XII. 513-14, 521-3, 537-8.--Lib. Sententt.
+Inq. Tolosan. pp. 2, 3, 12, 13, 32, 68, 75, 76, 81, etc.
+
+[269] Muratori Antiq. Ital. XII. 508-55.--Bern. Guidon. Vit. Bonif.
+VIII. (S.R.I. III. 671-2).--Barbarano de' Mironi, Hist. Eccles. di
+Vicenza II. 153.--Salimbene Chron. ann. 1279, p. 276.--Paramo, p. 299.
+
+The wide attention attracted by the case of Armanno is shown by the
+allusion to it in the German chronicles.--Trithem Chron. Hirsaug. ann.
+1299.--Chron. Cornel. Zanfliet (Martene Ampl. Coll. V. 142-3).
+
+[270] Introductio ad Zanchini Tract. de Haeres, ed. Campegii, Romae, 1568.
+(I owe a copy of this document to the kindness of Prof. Felice Tocco, of
+Florence.)
+
+[271] Cod. Epist. Rodulphi I. Lipsiae, 1807, pp. 266-9.--Wadding. ann.
+1289, No. 20.--Lami, Antichita Toscane, pp. 497, 536-7.
+
+[272] Faucon, Registres de Boniface VIII. No. 1673, p. 632.--Wadding.
+ann. 1298, No. 3.--Arch. de l'Inq. de Carc. (Doat, XXVI. 147).
+
+[273] Wadding. ann. 1285, No. 9, 10.
+
+[274] Tocco, L'Eresia nel Medio Evo, p. 403.--Renerii Summa (Martene
+Thesaur. V. 1767).--Ripoll I. 74.
+
+[275] Raynald. ann. 1231, No. 19.--Rich. de S. German. Chron. ann.
+1233.--Giannone, Ist. Civ. di Napoli, Lib. XVII. c. 6, Lib. XIX. c.
+5.--Vaissette, IV. 17.
+
+[276] Archivio di Napoli, MSS. Chioccarello T. VIII.--Ib. Regist. 3
+Lett. A, fol. 64; Reg. 4 Lett. B, fol. 47; Reg. 5 Lett. C, fol. 224;
+Reg. 6 Lett. D, fol. 35, 39, 174; Reg. 10 Lett. B. fol. 6, 7, 96; Reg.
+11 Lett. C, fol. 40; Reg. 13 Lett. A, fol. 212; Reg. 113 Lett. A, fol.
+385; Reg. 154 Lett. C, fol. 81; Reg. 167 Lett. A, fol. 324.
+
+[277] Archivio di Napoli, Reg. 6 Lett. D, fol. 135; Reg. 253 Lett. A,
+fol. 68.--Giannone, Ist. Civ. di Napoli Lib. XIX. c. 5.
+
+[278] Archivio di Napoli, Regist. 3 Lett. A, fol. 64; Regist. 4 Lett. B,
+fol. 47; Reg. 9 Lett. C, fol. 39.--MSS. Chioccarello, T. VIII.
+
+[279] Lombard, Jean Louis Paschal et les Martyrs de Calabre, Geneve,
+1881, pp. 22-32.--Filippo de Boni, L'Inquisizione e i Calabro-Valdesi,
+Milano, 1864, pp. 73-77.--Perrin, Hist. des Vaudois, Liv. II. ch.
+7.--Comba, Hist. des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 128, 181-6, 190.--Rorengo,
+Memorie Historiche, Torino, 1649, pp. 77 sqq.--Martini Append. ad
+Mosheim de Beghardis, p. 638.
+
+Vegezzi-Ruscalla (Rivista Contemporanea, 1862) has shown the identity of
+the dialects of the Calabrian Guardia and of the Val d'Angrogna, proving
+the reality of the emigration.
+
+[280] Salimbene, p. 330.--Grandjean, Registries de Benoit XI. No.
+834-5.--Pelayo Heterodoxos Espanoles, I. 730.--La Mantia, Origine e
+Vicende dell' Inquisizione in Sicilia, Torino, 1886, p. 12.
+
+[281] Sarpi, Discorso (Opere, Ed. Helmstadt, IV. 20).
+
+[282] Archivio Generale di Venezia, Codice ex Brera, No. 277, Carte 5.
+
+[283] Ripoll VII. 25.--Arch. di Venez. Miscellanea, Codice No. 133, p.
+121; Cod. ex Brera, No. 277, Carte 5.
+
+[284] Albizio, Risposta al P. Paolo Sarpi, pp. 20-3.--Wadding ann. 1288.
+No. 23.
+
+[285] Albizio, op. cit. pp. 24-7.--Wadding. ann. 1289, No. 15.--Sarpi.
+op. cit. p. 21.--Arch. di Venez. Codice ex Brera, No. 277, Carte 41;
+Maggior Consiglio, Carte 67.
+
+[286] Wadding. ann. 1292, No. 5.--Albanese, L'Inquisizione nella
+Repubblica di Venezia, 1875, pp. 52-3.--Sarpi, loc. cit.--Cecchetti, La
+Repubblica di Venezia e la Corte di Roma, Venezia, 1874, I. 18.
+
+[287] Wadding. ann. 1340, No. 10; ann. 1369, No. 4; ann. 1373, No. 7;
+Regest. Gregor. PP. XI. No. 45-7; Tom. VII. p. 481.--Raynald. ann. 1372,
+No. 35.
+
+[288] Archivio Storico Italiano, 1865, No. 39, pp. 46-61.
+
+[289] Archivio Storico Italiano, 1865, No. 39, pp. 33-5.
+
+[290] Archivio Storico Italiano, 1865, No. 39, pp. 4-45.--G. Manuel di
+S. Giovanni, Un Episodio della Storia del Piemonte, Torino, 1874, pp. 75
+sqq.
+
+[291] Raynald. ann. 1403, No. 24.--Archiv. Stor. Ital. 1865, No. 38, p.
+22.--Comba, Les Vaudois d'Italie, I. 120.
+
+[292] Processus contra Valdenses (Archivio Storico Italiano, 1865, No.
+38, pp. 39-40).--Comba, Hist. des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 354-7.
+
+[293] Comba, Hist. des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 141.--Herzog, Die
+romanischen Waldenser, p. 273.--Wadding. ann. 1332, No. 6.
+
+[294] Rorengo, Memorie Historiche, Torino, 1649, p. 17.--Wadding. ann.
+1364, No. 14, 15.--Cantu, Eretici, I. 86.--D'Argentre, Collect. Judic.
+I. I. 387.--Comba, Rivista Cristiana, 1887, pp. 65 sqq.
+
+[295] Raynald. ann. 1375, No. 26.--Filippo de Boni, L'Inquiz. e i
+Calabro-Valdesi, p. 70.
+
+[296] Processus contra Valdenses (Archivio Storico Italiano, 1865, No.
+38, pp. 18-52).
+
+There is some confusion as to the dates of these events which I cannot
+remove. Gregory XI., in his letter of April 20, 1375, to Amadeo VI.,
+speaks of the recent murder at "Bricherasio" of the inquisitor
+Antonius Salvianensis (Raynald. ann. 1375, No. 26). According to the
+records of Antonio Secco, Antonio Pavo da Savigliano received in 1384
+the abjuration of Lorenzo Bandoria (loc. cit. p. 23), and his murder
+must have taken place the same year, from the evidence of the son of one
+of his murderers, Giov. Gabriele of "Bricherasio" (Ib. p. 31). Rorengo
+places the martyrdom of Antonio Pavo in 1374, and tells us that he was
+honored in Savigliano with a local cult as one of the blessed. Another
+Dominican, Fra Bartolomeo di Cervere was also slain, and his assistant
+Ricardo desperately wounded, but the date is not certain (Rorengo,
+Memorie Historiche, p. 17).
+
+[297] Chabrand, Vaudois et Protestants des Alpes, Grenoble, 1886, p. 39.
+
+[298] Raynald. ann. 1403, No. 24.--Melgares Marin, Procedimientos de la
+Inquisicion, Madrid, 1886, I. 50.
+
+[299] Rorengo, Memorie Historiche, pp. 18-20.--E. Comba, Rivista
+Cristiana, Giugno, 1882, p. 204.--Ripoll III. 359.
+
+[300] Hahn, Geschichte der Ketzer im Mittalalter, II. 705.--Rorengo,
+Memorie Historiche, pp. 22-5.--Martene Ampl. Coll. II. 1510-11.--Leger,
+Hist. des Eglises Vaudoises, II. 8-15, 26, 71.--Perrin, Hist. des
+Vaudois, L. II. c. 4.--Filippo de Boni, op. cit. p. 71.--Comba, Les
+Vaudois d'Italie, I. 167, 175-8.--Herzog, Die roman. Waldenser, p.
+274.--Montet, Hist. Litt. des Vaudois, pp. 152-55.--D'Argentre, Coll.
+Judic. I. I. 105-7.
+
+[301] Filippo de Boni, op. cit. pp. 79-81.--Lombard, Jean-Louis
+Paschale, pp. 29-33.--Perrin, Hist. des Vaudois, B. II. ch. 7,
+10.--Comba, La Reforma, I. 269.--Vegezzi-Ruscalla, Rivista
+Contemporanea, 1862.--Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthodox. p. 120.
+
+[302] Bremond in Ripoll II. 139.--Raynald. ann. 1344, No. 9,
+70.--Antiqua Ducum Mediolani Decreta, Mediolani, 1654.--Albanese,
+L'Inquisizione religiosa nella Repubblica di Venezia, Venezia, 1875, p.
+167.--Giuseppe Cosentino, Archivio Storico Siciliano. 1885, p. 92.
+
+[303] Ripoll II. 351; III. 368.--Wadding. ann. 1452, No. 14.--Raynald.
+ann. 1457, No. 90: ann. 1459, No. 31.
+
+[304] Wadding. ann. 1447, No. 8, 47; ann. 1450, No. 2.--Raynald. ann.
+1446. No. 8.
+
+[305] Ripoll IV. 6, 102, 103, 158, 339.--Brev. Hist. Magist. Ord.
+Praedic. (Martene Coll. Ampl. VI. 393).
+
+[306] Wadding, ann. 1356, No. 12-19.--Arch. di. Venez. Misti, Conc. X.
+Vol. VI. p. 26.
+
+[307] Wadding. ann. 1373, No. 15-16; ann. 1376, No. 4-5; ann. 1433, No.
+15; ann. 1434, No. 4, 6; ann. 1437, No. 24-8; ann. 1456, No.
+108.--Archiv. di Venez. Misti, Cons. X. No. 9, pp. 84, 85.--Cecchetti,
+La Repubblica di Venezia, etc. I. 18.
+
+[308] Archiv. di Venez. Misti, Cons. X. Vol. XIII. p. 192; Vol. XIX. p.
+29.--Wadding. ann. 1455, No. 97.--Mag. Bull. Rom. I. 617.--Albizio,
+Riposto al P. Paolo Sarpi, pp. 64-70.
+
+[309] Wadding. ann. 1494, No. 6.--When Fra Bernardo endeavored to
+establish a _mont de piete_ at Florence the moneyed interests were
+strong enough to drive him from the city (Burlamacchi, Vita di
+Savonarola, Baluz. et Mansi I. 557).
+
+[310] Prediche di Fra Giordano da Rivalto, Firenze, 1831, I.
+172.--Wadding. ann. 1340, No. 11.--Archivio di Firenze, Riformagioni,
+Diplomatico, 27; Classe V. No. 129, fol. 46, 54.
+
+[311] Wadding. T. III. App. p. 3--Ughelli, Italia Sacra, Ed. 1659, II.
+1075.--Archiv. di Firenze, Riformag. Classe V. No. 129, fol. 55.
+
+[312] Archiv. di Firenze, Riformag. Atti Pubblici, Lib. XVI. de'
+Capitolari, fol. 15.--Villani Chron. XI. 138; XII. 55, 58.
+
+[313] Archiv. delle Riformag. Atti Pubblici, Lib. XVI. de' Capitolari,
+fol. 22; Classe V. No. 129, fol. 62 sqq.--Archiv. Diplomatico XXXVII.,
+XXXVIII., XL., XLI., XLII.--Villani, XII. 58.
+
+The amount involved was not small. The revenue of Florence at this
+period was only three hundred thousand florins (Sismondi, Rep. Ital. ch.
+36), and Florence was one of the richest states in Europe. Villani (XI.
+92) boasts that France alone enjoyed a larger revenue; that of Naples
+was less, and the three were the wealthiest in Christendom.
+
+[314] Archiv. delle Riformag. Classe IX., Distinzione i. No. 39; Classe
+V. No. 129, fol. 62 sqq.; Prov. del Convento di S. Croce, 23 Ott.
+1354.--Villani, XII. 58.--Ughelli VII. 1015.
+
+[315] Archiv. delle Riformag. Classe II. Distinz. I. No. 14.--Archiv.
+Diplom. LXXVIII.-IX., LXXX.-I.; Prov. del Convento di S. Croce, 1371
+Febb. 18, Ott. 8, 14; 1372, Marz. 15; 1375, Marz. 9; 1380, Genn. 12;
+1380, Dic. 1; 1381, Nov. 18; 1383, Lugl. 12; 1384, Dic. 13.--Werunsky
+Excerptt. ex Registt. Clement. VI. et Innoc. VI. p. 95.--Villani, XII.
+58.--Wadding. ann. 1372, No. 35; ann. 1375, No. 32.--Raynald. ann. 1375,
+No. 13-17; ann. 1376, No. 1-5.--Poggii Hist. Florentin. Lib. II. ann.
+1376.--A document of 1374 (Archiv. Fior. Prov. S. Croce, 1374, Nov. 17)
+allows that Fra Piero di Ser Lippo, at that time Inquisitor of Florence,
+was defendant in an action brought against him in the papal curia by the
+Dominican Fra Simone del Pozzo, Inquisitor of Naples, in which Fra Piero
+seems to have obtained what was equivalent to a nonsuit.
+
+[316] Wadding. ann. 1377, No. 4-23.
+
+[317] Tamburini, Storia Gen. dell' Inquisizione, II. 433-6.--Raynald.
+ann. 1418, No. 11.--Archiv. di Firenze, Prov. S. Maria Novella, 1424,
+Ap. 24.--Wadding. ann. 1437, No. 33; ann. 1438, No. 26; ann. 1439, No.
+57; ann. 1440, No. 26; ann. 1441, No. 61; ann. 1452, No. 30; ann. 1471,
+No. 11; ann. 1496, No. 7.--Ripoll VII. 89, 100.
+
+Fra Gabriele, the Inquisitor of Bologna, in the same year, 1461, in
+which he was sent to Rome, expended twenty-three lire ten sol. in having
+a copy made of Eymerich's _Directorium Inquisitionis_.--Denifle, Archiv
+fuer Litteratur-etc. 1885, p. 144.
+
+[318] Paramo de Orig. Office S. Inq. p. 113.
+
+[319] MSS. Chioccarello, T. VIII.--Raynald. ann. 1344, No. 9; ann. 1368,
+No. 16; ann. 1372, No. 36; ann. 1375, No. 26.--Tocco. Archivio Storico
+Napolitan. Ann. XII. (1887), Fasc. 1.--Ripoll II. 311, 324,
+364.--Guiseppe Cosentino, Archivio Storico Siciliano, 1885, pp. 74-5,
+87.--La Mantia, Dell' Inquisizione in Sicilia, Torino, 1886, pp. 13-15.
+
+[320] Wadding. T. III. Regesta, p. 392.--Ripoll II. 689.
+
+When, in 1447, Nicholas V. issued a cruel edict subjecting the Jews to
+severe disabilities and humiliations, Capistrano was likewise appointed
+conservator to enforce its provisions (Wadding. ann. 1447, No. 10).
+
+[321] Giannone, Ist. Civ. di Napoli, Lib. XXXII. c. 5.--Wadding. ann.
+1449, No. 13.--Ripoll III. 240, 441, 501.
+
+[322] Paramo, pp. 197-99.--Ripoll III. 510.--La Mantia, L'Inquisizione
+in Sicilia, pp. 16-18.
+
+Giuseppe Cosentino says (Archivio Storico Siciliano, 1885, p. 73) that
+the confirmation in 1451 by King Alonso of the diploma of Frederic II.
+is not to be found in the archives of Palermo, but that the royal
+letters of 1415 allude to a privilege granted by Frederic. See also La
+Mantia, pp. 8-10, 13, 15.
+
+[323] Pirro, Sicilia Sacra, I. 185-6.--G. Cosentino, loc. cit. p.
+76.--Caruso, Memorie Istoriche di Sicilia, P. II. T. i. p.
+92.--Giannone, op. cit. Lib. XXXII. c. 5.--Paramo, pp. 191-4.--Zurita,
+Hist. del Rey Hernando, Lib. V. c. 70; Lib. IX. c. 36.--Mariana, Hist.
+de Espana, Lib. XXX. c. 1.
+
+[324] Schmidt, Histoire des Cathares, I. 104-9.--Gregor. PP. VII.
+Regist. VII. 11.--Batthyani Legg. Eccles. Hung. II. 274, 289-90,
+415-17.--Raynald. ann. 1203, No. 22.--Innocent. PP. III. Regest. II.
+176.
+
+[325] Innoc. PP. III. Regest. II. 176; III. 3; V. 103, 110; VI. 140,
+141, 142, 212.
+
+[326] Schmidt, I. 112-13.
+
+[327] Potthast No. 6612, 6725, 6802.--Raynald. ann. 1225, No.
+21.--Klaic, Geschichte Bosniens, nach dem Kroatischen von Ivan v.
+Bojnicic, Leipzig, 1885, pp. 89-91.
+
+[328] Monteiro, Historia da Sacra Inquisicao P. I. Liv. 1, c.
+59.--Paramo, p. 111.--Raynald. ann. 1257, No. 13.--Hist. Ord. Praedic. c.
+8. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI. 338).--Ripoll I. 70.--Klaic, pp. 92-4.
+
+[329] Epist. Saec. XIII. T. I. No. 574, 601.--Ripoll I. 70.--Potthast No.
+9726, 9733-8, 10019, 10052.--Klaic, p. 96.--Batthyani Legg. Eccles.
+Hung. I. 355.--Matt. Paris ann. 1243 (Ed. 1644, pp. 412-13).
+
+[330] Bishop John succeeded in resigning his bishopric, and became Grand
+Master of his Order. A contemporary, who knew him personally, describes
+him as a man of apostolic virtue, who distributed in alms the revenue of
+his see, amounting to 8000 marks, and performed his journeys on foot,
+with an ass to carry his books and vestments. After his death at
+Strassburg he shone in miracles.--Thomae Cantimprat. Bonum universale
+Lib. II. c. 56.
+
+[331] Potthast No. 10223-6, 10507, 10535, 10631-9, 10688-93, 10822-4,
+10842.--Ripoll I. 102-4, 106-7.--Schmidt, I. 122.--Klaic, pp. 97-107.
+
+[332] Ripoll I. 175-6.--Klaic, pp. 107-13.--Kukuljevic, Jura Regni
+Croatiae, Dalmatiae et Slavoniae, Zagrabiae, 1862, I. 67.
+
+[333] Rainerii Summa (Martene Thesaur. V. 1768).--Klaic, p.
+153.--Theiner Monumenta Slavor. Meridional. I. 90.
+
+[334] Raynald. ann. 1280, No. 8, 9; ann. 1291, No. 42-44.--Klaic, pp.
+116-9.--Wadding. ann. 1291, No. 12.
+
+[335] Wadding. ann. 1298, No. 2.--Klaic, pp. 123-4.--Raynald. ann. 1319,
+No. 24.
+
+[336] Klaic, pp. 124-5, 139-40, 154-6.--Theiner Monument. Slavor. Merid.
+I. 157, 234.--Raynald. ann. 1325, No. 28; ann. 1327, No. 48.--Wadding.
+ann. 1325, No. 1-4; ann. 1326, No. 3-7; ann. 1329, No. 16; ann. 1330,
+No. 10.
+
+[337] Archivio di Venezia, Fontanini MSS. III. 560.
+
+[338] Theiner Monument. Slavor. Merid. I. 174, 175--Wadding. ann. 1331,
+No. 4; ann. 1337, No. 1.--Raynald. ann. 1335, No. 62.--Klaic, pp. 157-8.
+
+[339] Klaic, pp. 159-61, 181-3.--Wadding. ann. 1340, No. 6-10.--Theiner,
+op. cit.
+
+[340] Klaic, pp. 184-5, 187-8, 190-5, 200-1, 223, 262, 268-77, 287,
+369.--Theiner Monument. Slavor. Merid. I. 233, 240.--Wadding. ann. 1356,
+No. 7; ann. 1368, No. 1-3; ann. 1369, No. 11; ann. 1372, No. 31-33; ann.
+1373, No. 17; ann. 1382, No. 2.--Raynald. ann. 1368, No. 18; ann. 1372,
+No. 32.--Pet. Ranzani Epit. Rer. Hung. XIX. (Schwandtner Rer. Hung.
+Scriptt, p. 377).
+
+In 1367 we find the people of Cattaro appealing to Urban V. for aid
+against the schismatics of Albania, and the heretics of Bosnia who were
+endeavoring to convert them by force (Theiner, op. cit. I. 259), which
+probably refers to some enterprise of the restless Sandalj Hranic. Yet
+when, in 1383, we hear of a Bishop of Bosnia, recently dead, who had
+lent 12,000 florins to Louis of Hungary, and had then bequeathed the
+debt to the Holy See (Ib. p. 337), we can only conclude that the
+orthodox Bosnian Church continued to exist and was not wholly penniless.
+
+[341] Klaic, pp. 275, 287-8, 291, 297-8, 304-5, 312-13, 324.
+
+[342] Klaic, p. 416.
+
+[343] Ibid. pp. 335-8, 344-6, 351-3.
+
+[344] Wadding, ann. 1433, No. 12-13; ann. 1435, No. 1-7, 9; ann. 1476,
+No. 39-40; ann. 1498. No. 2.--AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legationibus
+(Monument. Concil. General. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 676).
+
+[345] Theiner Monument. Slavor. Merid. I. 375, 376.--Klaic, pp. 354-6,
+364-5, 369.
+
+[346] Klaic, pp. 366-7, 369-70, 372-3.--Wadding, ann. 1437, No. 2-3;
+ann. 1444, No. 42-3.--Ripoll III. 91.--Raynald. ann. 1444, No. 2; ann.
+1445, No. 23: ann. 1447, No. 21.--Theiner, op. cit. I. 388, 389, 395.
+
+[347] Klaic, pp. 373-4.--Raynald. ann. 1449, No. 9.
+
+[348] Klaic, pp. 376-77, 379.--Raynald. ann. 1449, No. 9; ann. 1450, No.
+13; ann. 1461, No. 136.--Wadding. ann. 1451, No. 47, 52-3.--Ripoll III.
+286.
+
+[349] Theiner, op. cit. I. 408.--Klaic, pp. 380-2.
+
+[350] Klaic, pp. 398, 408-9, 412, 414-15.--Theiner, I. 432.
+
+[351] Klaic, pp. 424-6.
+
+[352] Klaic, pp. 427-8, 432-6.--Wadding. ann. 1462, No. 82.
+
+[353] Klaic, pp. 437-9, 443.--Wadding. ann. 1478, No. 67; ann. 1498, No.
+2-3; ann. 1500, No. 44.
+
+There was at least one humorous incident connected with the conquest of
+Bosnia. On the occupation by the Turks of the capital, Jaicza, the
+Franciscans fled to Venice, carrying with them the body of St. Luke,
+which had been translated thither from Constantinople. The possession of
+so important a relic brought them great consideration, but involved them
+in a troublesome contest. For three hundred years the Benedictine house
+of St. Justina at Padua had rejoiced in owning the body of St. Luke,
+which was the source of much profit. The Benedictines objected to the
+intrusion of the doeppelganger; and as no trustworthy tradition assigned
+two bodies to the saint, there was no chance of compromise. They
+appealed to Pius II., who referred the case with full powers of decision
+to his legate at Venice, Cardinal Bessarion. A trial in all legal form
+was held, lasting for three months and resulting in the victory of the
+Franciscans. The Paduan Luke, as an impostor, was forbidden to enjoy in
+future the devotion of the faithful, but no provision was made to
+compensate those who for three centuries had wasted on him their prayers
+and offerings, in the belief that they were securing the suffrages of
+the genuine Evangelist. The Paduans for years vainly endeavored to get
+Bessarion's decision set aside, and they were finally obliged to submit.
+Their strongest argument was that, about the year 580, the Emperor
+Tiberius II. had given to St. Gregory, then apocrisarius of Pelagius II.
+in Constantinople, the head of St. Luke, which was still exhibited and
+venerated in the Basilica of the Vatican. Now the Benedictine St. Luke
+was a headless trunk, while the Franciscan one was perfect, and they
+argued with reason that it was highly improbable that St. Luke had
+possessed two heads. This logic was more cogent than successful, though
+the Vatican clergy did not feel called upon to discredit their own
+valuable relic, which they continued to exhibit as genuine. The question
+was still further complicated by a superfluous arm of the Evangelist
+which was preserved in the Basilica of S. Maria ad Praesepe (Wadding.
+ann. 1463, No. 13-23).
+
+[354] Kaltner, Konrad von Marburg, Prag, 1882, pp. 41-5.--Frag. Hist.
+(Urstisii Scriptt. P. II. p. 89).--Chronik des Jacob v. Koenigshofen
+(Chroniken der deutchen Staedte, IX. 649).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann.
+1215.--H. Mutii Chron. Lib. XIX. ann. 1212.--Innoc. PP. III. Regest.
+XIV. 138.--Caesar. Heisterb. Dist. III. cap. 16, 17.
+
+On the authority of Daniel Specklin, a Strassburg annalist who died in
+1589, Bishop Henry is said to have met St. Dominic in Rome, to have
+promised him and Innocent III. to introduce the Dominican Order in
+Strassburg, and to have taken some members home with him, who speedily
+multiplied to about a hundred, and distinguished themselves by the
+persecution related in the text (Kaltner, loc. cit.; cf. Hoffman.
+Geschichte der Inquisition II. 365-71). At this period, as we have seen
+in a former chapter, Dominic was laboring obscurely in Languedoc, and it
+was not until 1214 that the liberality of Pierre Cella suggested to him
+the idea of assembling around him in Toulouse half a dozen kindred
+spirits. It was not until 1224 that the Dominican convent in Strassburg
+was founded (Kaltner, p. 45).
+
+[355] Kaltner, p. 45.--Hoffmann, II. 371-2.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug.
+ann. 1215.
+
+[356] Innoc. PP. III. Regest. II. 141, 142, 235.--Alberic. Trium Font.
+ann. 1200.--Caesar. Heisterb. Dist. V. c. 20.
+
+[357] Kaltner, op. cit. pp. 69-71.--I am rather inclined to believe that
+honest Daniel Specklin has drawn to some extent upon his own convictions
+for this list of errors. Among them he enumerates lay communion in both
+elements. As the cup at this time had not been withdrawn from the laity,
+its administration would not have been characterized as a heresy.
+
+[358] Tocco, L'Heresia nel Medio Evo, p. 21.--D'Argentre, Collect.
+Judic. I. I. 127.--Caesar. Heisterbac. v. 22.--Nich. Trivetti Chron. ann.
+1215 (D'Achery Spicileg. III. 185.)--Rigord. de Gest. Phil. Aug. ann.
+1210.--Guillel. Nangiac. ann. 1210.--Eymeric. Direct. Inquis. P. II. Q.
+vii.--Cf. Renan, Averroes et l'Averroisme, 3d Ed. pp. 220-4.
+
+[359] Caesar. Heisterb. VI. 5.
+
+[360] Rigordus de Gest. Phil. Aug. ann. 1210.--Chron. Canon Laudunens.
+ann. 1212.--Chron. de Mailros ann. 1210.--Chron. Turonens. ann.
+1210.--Caesar. Heisterb. V. 22.--Chron. Breve S. Dionys. ann.
+1209.--Grandes Chroniques, IV. 139.--Guillel. Brito (Bouquet XVII. 82
+sqq.).--D'Argentre, Coll. Judic. I. I. 128-33.--Harduin. Concil. VI. II.
+1994.--Chron. Engelbusii (Leibnitz, S. Rer. Brunsv. II. 1113).
+
+William the goldsmith, under the title of Gulielmus Aurifex, retains his
+place in the Index Librorum Prohibitorum to the present day (Migne,
+Dictionnaire des Heresies, II. 1056). Cf. Reusch, Der Index der
+verbotenen Buecher. I. 17.
+
+[361] Steph. de Borbone (D'Argentre I. I. 88).--Potthast No.
+7348.--Pelayo, Heterodoxos Espanoles, I. 410,--Concil. Lateran. IV. c.
+2.
+
+For the connection between the speculations of Erigena and those of
+Amauri see Poole's "Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought,"
+London, 1884, p. 77.
+
+[362] Anon. Passaviens. c. 6 (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 300-2).--Kaltner, pp.
+64-5.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, 1885, p. 507.
+
+[363] Kaltner, pp. 90-5.--Hartzheim Concil. German. III.
+515-16.--Potthast No. 7260.--Chron. Mont. Sereni ann. 1222 (Menken.
+Scriptt. Rer. Germ. II. 265).--Chron. Sanpetrin. Erfurt, ann. 1222 (Ib.
+III. 250).
+
+[364] Conrad of Marburg was too shining a light not to be earnestly and
+persistently claimed by the Dominicans as an ornament of their Order.
+Their legend relates that he was miraculously drawn into it in 1220 by
+St. Dominic himself, who earnestly desired him as a colleague, and who
+promptly sent him to Germany with a commission as inquisitor (Monteiro,
+Historia da Sacra Inquisicao, P. I. Liv. i. c. 48.--Jac. de Voragine
+Legend. Aur. fol. 90_a_, Ed. 1480.--Paramo, pp. 248-9), and Ripoll
+assumes it as a matter of course, though he failed to furnish us with
+the promised dissertation to prove it (Bull. Domin. I. 20, 52). See also
+Kaltner, pp. 76-82. The claim is based upon his inquisitorial activity,
+his voluntary poverty, and the title of _praedicator_, which he bore in
+virtue of a papal commission--arguments flimsy enough, but better than
+that of his latest champion, Hausrath, who cites an expression in a
+letter of Gregory IX. characterizing Conrad as the watch-dog of the
+Lord--"_Dominicus canis_" (Hoffman, Geschichte d. Inq,. II. 392). Of
+course a negative, such as the present, can only be proved by negatives,
+but these are sufficient. In numerous letters to him from Honorius III.
+and Gregory IX. he is never addressed as "_Frater_," the term
+invariably used by the Mendicants. The superscription always is
+"_Magistro Conrado de Marburo praedicatori Verbi Dei_, or the
+equivalent--Conrad being presumably a master in theology (Epistt. Saec.
+XIII. T. I. No. 51, 117, 118, 126, 361, 362, 484, 533, 537). Similarly
+in the chronicles of the time he is never spoken of as "_Frater_," but
+always as "_Magister Conradus_." Besides, Theodoric of Thuringia,
+himself a Dominican, and almost a contemporary, in his life of St.
+Elizabeth describes Conrad in the moat exalted terms, without claiming
+him for his Order, which he could not have avoided doing had there been
+ground for it (Canisii Thesaur. IV. 116).
+
+[365] Theod. Thuring, de S. Eliz. Lib. III. c. 10 (Canisii Thesaur. IV.
+130).--Potthast No. 7930.--Epistt. Saec. XIII. T. I. No. 361.
+
+[366] Kaltner, pp. 96, 121.--De Dictis IV. Ancillarum (Menken. Scriptt.
+Rer. Germ. II. 2017, 2023, 2029)--Theodor. Vit. S. Eliz. (Ib.
+2000-1).--Jundt, Les Amis de Dieu, p. 95
+
+[367] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1214.--Chron. Sanpetrin. Erfurtens.
+(Menken. III. 242).--Kaltner, pp. 86-7.--Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No.
+117, 118, 126, 362.
+
+[368] Hartzheim III. 521. Cf. Concil. Frizlar. ann. 1246, ib. p.
+574.--Ripoll I. 21.
+
+[369] Vit. S. Eliz. (Canisii Thesaur. I. 116).--Johann Rohte, Chron.
+Thuring. (Menken. II. 1715).--Kaltner, pp. 108, 130-33.--Gesta Treviror.
+Episcopp. c. 172.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1230.
+
+[370] Hartzheim III. 539, 540.--Potthast No. 8073-4.--Hist. Diplom.
+Frid. II. T. III. p. 466.--Gest. Treviror. Archiepp. c. 170. 172.
+
+[371] Kaltner, pp. 135-6, 143.--Theod. Vit. S. Eliz. VII. 1.--Vit.
+rythmic. S. Eliz. (Menken. II. 2090).--Thuer. Fortsetzung d. Saechs.
+Weltchronik (Pertz, Scriptt. Vernac. II. 292).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug.
+ann. 1232.--Erphurdian. Variloq. (Menken. II. 484).
+
+[372] Kaltner. p. 134.--Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. pp. 300-2.
+
+[373] Annal. Wormatiens. (Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. p.
+616).--Kaltner, p. 138.--Saechsiche Weltchronik ann. 1232.--Gest.
+Treviror. Archiepp. c. 170.
+
+[374] Pauli Carnotens. Vet. Aganon. Lib. VI. c. 3.--Adhemar. Cabannens.
+ann. 1022 (Bouquet, X. 159).--Gualteri Mapes de Nugis Curialium Dist. I.
+c. XXX.
+
+[375] Raynald. ann. 1233, No. 41-6.--Epistt. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 533,
+537.--Gest. Treviror. Archiepp. c. 171.
+
+[376] Alberic Trium Font. ann. 1234.--Godefrid S. Pantaleon. annal. ann.
+1233.
+
+It would seem from this that Henry, Archbishop of Cologne, was
+performing his functions at this period, although he had been suspended
+by Gregory IX. in December, 1231, pending an investigation into his
+criminal turpitude, which the pope declared to be a shame to describe
+and a horror to hear. In April, 1233, Gregory tried to make him resign,
+to which he responded in June by an appeal to the Holy See. The
+immediate consequence of this was a papal levy on the clergy of Cologne
+of three hundred sterling marks to defray expenses. In March of the next
+year further provision for the expenses was requisite. In April, 1235,
+we find him still under excommunication and deprived of his functions.
+After this he seems to have re-established himself, and in March, 1238,
+he was condemned to pay thirteen hundred sterling marks to a Roman
+banker for expenses incurred many years before by his predecessor. In
+May, 1239, we find his successor, Conrad von Hochstaden, in Rome as
+archbishop-elect, and Gregory ordering a levy of eight thousand marks on
+the province to pay the debts due there by the see (Epistt. Select.
+Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 457, 472, 523, 529-30, 555, 579, 637, 723, 748).
+This serves to illustrate the relations between the Roman curia and the
+great German bishoprics, the insatiable greed of the former, and the
+fruitless efforts at emancipation of the latter.
+
+[377] Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T. IV. pp. 285-7, 300-2.
+
+[378] Annal. Wormatiens. (Hist. Dip. Frid. II. T. IV. pp.
+616-17).--Kaltner, pp. 19, 146-8.--Epistt. Select. Saec. XIII. No. 514.
+
+[379] Gest. Treviror. Archiepp. c. 174.--Saechsische Weltchronik, ann.
+1233 (Pertz, II. 292).--Annal. Wormatiens. (loc. cit.).--Godefrid. S.
+Pantaleon. Annal. ann. 1233.
+
+[380] Saechsische Weltchronik, loc. cit.--Gest. Treviror. loc.
+cit--Alberic. Trium Font. ann. 1233.--Erphurdian. Variloq. ann.
+1233.--Chron. Erfordiens. ann. 1233 (Schannat Vindem. Literar. I.
+93).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1233.--Kaltner, pp. 160-1.
+
+[381] Alberic. Trium Font. ann. 1233.--Alban Butler, Vies des Saints, 19
+Novbre.
+
+[382] Gest. Treviror. c. 174.--Hartzheim III. 549.
+
+[383] Epistt. Select. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 533, 537, 558,
+560-1.--Chron. Erfordiens. ann. 1234 (Schannat Vindem. Literar. I. 94).
+
+[384] Epistt. Select. Saecul. XIII. T. I. No. 503, 572.--Chron.
+Erfordiens. (Schannat Vindem. Literar. I. 94).--Alberic. Trium Font.
+ann. 1234.--Gest. Treviror. c. 175.
+
+[385] Alberic. Trium Font. ann. 1233.
+
+[386] Alberic. Trium Font. ann. 1233.--Epistt. Select. Saecul. XIII. T.
+I. No. 607, 611-12, 636, 647.
+
+There would appear not to be ground for the story told by Philippe
+Mousket (Chronique Rimee, 28831-42.--Bouquet, XXII. 55) that Gregory
+sent a cardinal Otho to Germany, who proceeded to degrade sundry
+ecclesiastics concerned in the matter, and raised such a tempest that he
+was obliged to escape by night to Tournay, and thence return to Rome.
+Even if baseless, however, the very circulation of such a report shows
+the antagonism excited between Rome and Germany.
+
+[387] Kaltner, p. 173.--Annal Wormatiens. (Hist. Diplom. Frid. II. T.
+IV. p. 617).
+
+[388] Tritbem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1232.--Erphurdian. Variloq. ann.
+1232 (Menken. II. 484).--Chron. Sanpetrin. Erfurt. (Ib. III.
+254).--Anon. Saxon. Hist. Impp. (Ib. III. 125).--Chron. Erfordiens. ann.
+1232 (Schannut Vindem. Literar. I. 92).
+
+[389] Kaltner, pp. 171, 173.--Annal. Dominican. Colmar. ann. 1233
+(Urstisii Germ. Hist. II. 6).--Potthast No. 13000, 15995.--Albert.
+Statdens. Chron. ann. 1248.
+
+[390] Anon. Passaviens. contra Waldens. c. 3, 6, 9, 10 (Mag. Bib. Pat.
+XIII. 299, 301-2, 308-9).--W. Preger, Beitraege, pp. 9, 49.--Ejusd. Per
+Tractat des David von Augsburg.
+
+[391] Concil. Mogunt. ann. 1261 c. 1 (Hartzheim III. 596).--Cod. Epist.
+Rodolph. I. pp. 148-9, Lipsiae, 1806.
+
+[392] Sachsenspiegel, II. iii., III. i.--Raynald. ann. 1374, No. 12.
+
+The papal condemnation was probably elicited by a passage in the
+Sachsenspiegel (II. 3) declaring that the pope could not issue decretals
+in prejudice of the local laws and constitutions. The Saxon legists were
+in no wise disconcerted, and proceeded to reassert and prove their
+position (Richstich Lnndrecht, II. 24).
+
+[393] Schwabenspiegel, Ed. Senck. c. 29, 116 Sec. 12, 351; Ed. Schilt. c.
+111, 166, 308.
+
+[394] Hist. Monast. S. Laurent. Leodiens. Lib. V. c. 54.--Mag. Chron.
+Belgic. p. 193.--Mosheim de Beghardis, Lipsiae, 1790, pp. 98-100, 114.
+
+In popular use the words Lollard and Beghard were virtually convertible,
+and yet there is a difference between them. The associations of Lollards
+were founded during a pestilence at Antwerp about the year 1300. They
+were laymen who devoted themselves to the care of the sick and insane,
+and specially to the burial of the dead, supplying the funds partly by
+labor and partly by begging. The name was derived from the low and soft
+singing of the funeral chants, but they called themselves Alexians, from
+their patron, St. Alexis, and Cellites from dwelling in cells. They were
+also known as Matemans, and in Germany as Nollbrueder. The word Lollard
+gradually grew to have the significance of external sanctity covering
+secret license, and was promiscuously applied to all the mendicants
+outside of the regular Orders. The Cellite associations spread from the
+Netherlands through the Rhinelands and all over Germany. Constantly the
+subject of persecution, along with the Beghards, their value was
+recognized by the magistrates of the cities who endeavored to protect
+them. In 1472 Charles the Bold obtained from Sixtus IV. a bull receiving
+them into the recognized religious orders, thus withdrawing them from
+episcopal jurisdiction; and in 1506 Julius II. granted them special
+privileges. The associations of Alexian Brothers still exist, devoted to
+the care of the sick, and have flourishing hospitals in the United
+States, as well as in Europe. (Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 461,
+469.--Martini Append. ad Mosheim pp. 585-88.--Hartzheim IV.
+625-6.--Addis & Arnold's Catholic Dictionary, New York, 1884, p. 886.)
+
+[395] Miraei Opp. Diplom. II. 948 (Ed. Foppens).--D'Argentre, Coll.
+Judic. I. I.
+
+[396] Miraei Opp. Diplom. I. 429; II. 998, 1013; III. 398, 523.--Mosheim
+de Beghardis pp. 43, 105, 127, 131-2.--Wadding, ann. 1485, No. 27.--B.
+de Jonghe Beigium Dominican, ap. Ripoll II. 170.--Chron. Rimee de Ph.
+Mousket, 28817 (Bouquet. XXII. 54).
+
+[397] Chron. Senonens. Lib. IV. c. 18 (D'Achery II. 634-6).
+
+The cry of "_Brod durch Gott_ was already of old usage. It was the
+first German speech acquired by the Franciscans sent to Germany, in
+1221, by St. Francis.--Frat. Jordani Chron. c. 27 (Analecta Franciscana
+I. 10).
+
+[398] Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, 1885, p. 544.--Hartzheim
+III. 717; IV. 577.--Concil. Trevirens. ann. 1257 c. 66 (Martene Ampl.
+Coll. VII. 114-5).--Mosheim p. 199.
+
+[399] C. 3 Clement. V. 3.--Johann. de Ochsenstein (or of Zurich)
+(Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 255-61).--Concil. Colon. ann. 1306 c. 1, 2
+(Hartzheim IV. 100-2).--Vitodurani Chron. ann. 1344 (Eccard. Corp. Hist.
+I. 1906-7).--Alvar. Pelag. de Planctu Eccles. Lib. II. art. 52.--Conr.
+de Monte Puellarum contra Begehardos (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII.
+342-3).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1356.--D'Argentre, Coll. Judic.
+I. I. 377.--Nider Formicar. III. v.--W. Preger, Meister Eckart u. d.
+Inquisition, pp. 45-7.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, 1885,
+557-8.
+
+[400] Nider. Formicar. III. vi.--Concil. Colon, ann. 1306 c. 1
+(Hartzheim IV. 101).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1356.
+
+Poggio states that in his time a number of ecclesiastics in Venice
+corrupted many women with this theory of impeccability and of nakedness
+as an evidence of a state of grace.--Poggii Dial. contra Hypocrisim.
+
+[401] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1315.--Schroedl, Passavia Sacra,
+Passau, 1879, pp. 242-3, 247, 284.
+
+[402] Altmeyer, Les Precurseurs de la Reforme aux Pays-Bas, I.
+94.--Raynald. ann. 1329, No. 71.
+
+For the relations of Master Eckart with the Brethren of the Free Spirit,
+see Preger, Vorarbeiten zu einer Geschichte der deutschen Mystik
+(Zeitschrift fuer die hist. Theol. 1869. pp. 68-78). The fact that the
+bull of John XXII., "_In agro Dominico_" (Ripoll VII. 57; cf. Herman.
+Corneri Chron. _ap._ Eccard. Corp. Hist. II. 1036-7), condemning Master
+Eckart's errors, has until within a few years passed as a general bull
+against the Brethren, sufficiently shows the connection.
+
+[403] Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 305, 433-57.--Jundt, Les Amis de Dieu,
+pp. 65-66.--Gersoni Opp. Ed. 1494, xv. Z-xvi.B.--D'Argentre, Coll.
+Judic. I. II. 152.--Altmeyer, Les Precurseurs de la Reforme aux
+Pays-Bas, I. 107-117, 166-188.--Acquoy, Gerardi Magni Epistolae,
+Amstelod. 1857, pp. 28, 32-5, 37-8, 40-2, 48-9, 52-4, 57-60, 69, 83,
+101.--Von der Hardt, III. 107-20.--Bonet-Maury, Gerard Groot, pp. 37-8,
+49-54, 62-4, 83-5.
+
+[404] J. Tauleri Institt. c. 12.--Vitae D. Johannis Tauleri Historia.
+
+It is no wonder that Tauler's writings have been the subject of
+contradictory opinion and action on the part of the Church. Their
+tendencies to Illuminism and Quietism were recognized, and, in 1603, the
+Congregation of the Index proposed to prepare an expurgated edition of
+his works and of those of Savonarola, but the project was never
+executed.--Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Buecher, I. 370, 469, 523,
+589.
+
+[405] Vitae Tauleri Historia.
+
+M. Jundt, as the result of a series of elaborate and ingenious
+investigations, feels himself authorized to assume that the mysterious
+Friend of God in the Oberland, who has given rise to so much discussion,
+was John of Rutberg; that he was a resident of Coire, and that his final
+hermitage was in the parish of Ganterschwyl, Canton of St. Gall (Jundt,
+Amis de Dieu, Paris, 1879, pp. 334-42). Prof. Ch. Schmidt, however,
+still considers that the mystery has not been solved.--Precis de
+l'Histoire de l'Eglise de l'Occident, Paris, 1885, p. 304.
+
+[406] Jundt, pp. 37-9, 60-2, 83, 106-7, 166, 313.
+
+[407] See Renan, Averroes et l'Averroisme, 3e Ed. pp. 95, 144-6.
+
+[408] Jundt, pp. 143, 164, 308-9, 312-13, 316-17.
+
+[409] Mosheim de Beghardis p. 256.--Jundt, pp. 13, 42-3, 147, 155-60,
+282-7, 347.--Nider Formicar. III. 2.--Gerson. de Exam. Doctrinarum P.
+II. Consid. 3.
+
+There is nothing improbable in the freedom of speech attributed to the
+Friends of God in their interview with Gregory. Apocalyptic inspiration
+was common at the period, and St. Birgitta of Sweden, and St. Catharine
+of Siena, were not particularly reticent in their language to the
+successors of St. Peter.
+
+[410] Raynald. ann. 1296, No. 34.--Annal. Domin. Colmar. ann. 1290
+(Urstisii Germ. Histor. II. 25).--Hartzheim IV. 54, 201.
+
+[411] Concil. Colon, ann. 1306, c. 1, 2 (Hartzheim IV. 100-2).--Wadding,
+ann. 1305, No. 12.--Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 232-4.
+
+[412] Concil. Trevirens. ann. 1310 c. 51 (Martene Thesaur. IV.
+250).--Hocsemii Gest. Pontif. Lend. Lib. I. c. 31 (Chapeaville, II.
+350).
+
+[413] C. 3, Clement. V. iii.; C. 1, III. xi.
+
+[414] Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 255-61, 268-9.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer
+K.G. 1885, pp. 561-4.
+
+Many of the decrees of the Council of Vienne were circulated at the
+time, but Clement, desiring a revision, ordered them to be destroyed or
+surrendered. After recasting them, they were adopted by a consistory
+held March 21, 1314, and copies were sent to some of the universities;
+but Clement's death, on April 20, caused new delay. John XXII. subjected
+them to another revision, and they were finally published October 25,
+1317.--Franz Ehrle, Archiv fuer Litteratur-u. Kirchengeschichte, 1885,
+pp. 541-2.
+
+The contradictory character of the provisions concerning the Beguines is
+doubtless attributable to these repeated revisions.
+
+The manner in which John of Zurich obtained the bishopric of Strassburg
+is highly illustrative of the methods of the papal curia. On the death
+of Bishop Frederic, the chapter divided and elected four aspirants,
+among whom was John of Ochsenstein, a favorite of the Emperor Albert,
+who, to secure his confirmation, sent to Clement V. his chancellor, John
+of Zurich, Bishop of Eichstedt, and the Abbot of Pairis. The envoys
+returned bringing papal briefs, one appointing the chancellor to the
+contested see, and another filling that of Eichstedt with the
+abbot.--Closener's Chronik (Chron. der deutschen Staedte, VIII. 91).
+
+[415] Guill. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1317.--Ripoll II. 169.--Wadding, ann.
+1319, No. 11; Ejusd. Regest. Johann. PP. XXII. No. 81.--Vitodurani
+Chron. ann. 1317 (Eccard. Corp. Hist. I. 1785-6).--Chron. Sanpetrin.
+Erfurt, ann. 1315 (Menken. III. 325).--Chron. Magdeburgens. ann. 1317
+(Meibom. Rer. German. II. 337).--Chron. Egmondan. ann. 1317 (Matthaei
+Analect. IV. 161).--Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 251, 269.
+
+[416] Mosheim, pp. 189-90.--Martini Append. ad Mosheim, pp. 630-2,
+638-40.--C. 1 Extrav. Commun. III. 9.--Ripoll II. 169-70.--Haupt,
+Zeitschrift fuer K. G. 1885, pp. 517, 524.
+
+[417] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1322.
+
+[418] Gesta Treviror. ann. 1323 (Martene Ampl. Coll. IV. 410).--Chron.
+Egmondan. (Matthaei Analect. IV. 233-4)--Vitodurani Chron. (Eccard. Corp.
+Histor. I. 1814-15).
+
+[419] Hartzheim IV. 436, 438.
+
+[420] Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 272, 298-300.--Martini Append. ad
+Mosheim, p. 537.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer K. G. 1885, p. 534.--Chron. de
+S. Thiebaut de Metz (Calmet, II. Pr. clxxi.).--Erphurdian. Variloq. ann.
+1350 (Menken. II. 507).
+
+[421] Vitodurani Chron. (Eccard. Corp. Hist. I. 1833-4,
+1839-40).--Dalham Concil. Salisburg. p. 157.
+
+[422] Vitodurani Chron. (Eccard. I. 1906-7, 1767-8).--Ullman, Reformers
+before the Reformation, Menzies' Translation, I. 383.
+
+[423] Conrad, de Monte Puellar. contra Begehardos (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII.
+342).--Mosheim de Beghardis p. 307.
+
+[424] Carl Mueller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Baiern mit der roemischen Curie,
+Tubingen, 1879, I. 234 sqq.
+
+When that bold thinker, Marsiglio of Padua, endeavored, for the benefit
+of his patron, the Emperor Louis, to introduce into Germany the
+principles of the Roman jurisprudence which had enabled the French
+monarchs to triumph over their feudatories and to become independent of
+the Church, he handled the subject of the persecution of heresy in a
+manner which has led some writers to regard him as an advocate of
+toleration. This is an error. It is true that he denies all Scriptural
+or apostolical authority for the temporal punishment of infractions of
+the divine law, and asserts that Christ alone is the judge thereof, and
+his punishments are reserved for the next world, but this is only to
+serve as a premise to his conclusion that the persecution of heresy is a
+matter of human law, to be ordained and enforced by the secular ruler.
+Though the heretic, he argues, sins against the divine law, he is
+punished for transgressing a human law; the priest has nothing to do
+with it, except as an expert to determine the commission of the crime,
+and has no claim upon the consequent confiscations (Defensor. Pacis P.
+II. c. ix., x.; P. III. c. ii. Conclus. 3, 30). All this is simply part
+of his general scheme to exclude the Church from control in secular
+affairs. Louis was never in a position to give these theories practical
+effect; they had no influence either on the current of opinion or on the
+course of events, and are only interesting as an episode in the
+development of political thought.
+
+[425] Werunsky Excerpta ex Registris Clement. VI. et Innoc. VI.,
+Innsbruck, 1885, pp. 8, 40, 63.--Schmidt, Paebstliche Urkunden und
+Regesten, Halle, 1886, p. 383.
+
+[426] Boccaccio, Decamerone, Giorn. I--Alberti Argentinens. Chron, ann.
+1348-9 (Urstisius, II. 147).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann.
+1248.--Aventinus, Annal. Boiorum Lib. VII. c. 20.--Grandes Chroniques V.
+485-6.--Guillel. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1348-9.--Froissart, Lib. I. P.
+ii. ch. 5.--Meyeri Annal. Flandr. ann. 1349.--Henrici Rebdorff. Chron.
+ann. 1347.--Alberti Argent. de Gestis Bertold. (Urstisius, II.
+177).--Mascaro, Memorias de Bezes, ann. 1348.--Gesta Treviror. ann.
+1349.--Chron. Cornel. Zantfliet (Martene Ampl. Coll. V.
+253-4).--Erphurd. Variloq. ann. 1348-9 (Menken. II. 506-7).
+
+Accusations such as were brought against the Jews were no new thing. In
+1321 all the lepers throughout Languedoc were burned on the charge that
+they had been bribed by the Jews to poison the wells. Doubtless torture
+was employed to obtain the confessions which were freely made. The story
+went that the King of Granada, finding himself hard pressed by the
+Christians, gave great sums to leading Jews to effect in this way the
+desolation of Christendom. The Jews, fearing that they would be
+suspected, employed the lepers. Four great councils of lepers were held
+in various parts of Europe, where every lazar-house was represented
+except two in England; there the attempt was resolved upon, and the
+poison was distributed. King Philippe le Long was in Poitou at the time;
+when the news was brought him he returned precipitately to Paris, whence
+he issued orders for the seizure of all the lepers of the kingdom.
+Numbers of them were burned, as well as Jews. At the royal castle of
+Chinon, near Tours, an immense trench was dug, and filled with blazing
+wood, where, in a single day, one hundred and sixty Jews were burned.
+Many of them, of either sex, sang gayly as though going to a wedding,
+and leaped into the flames, while mothers cast in their children for
+fear that they would be taken and baptized by the Christians present.
+The royal treasury is said to have acquired one hundred and fifty
+thousand livres from the property of Jews burned and exiled.--Guillel.
+Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1321.--Grandes Chroniques V. 245-51.--Chron.
+Cornel. Zantfliet. ann. 1321.
+
+[427] Amalr. Augerii Hist. Pontif. Roman. ann. 1320 Muratori, S. R. I.
+III. II. 475.--Johann. S. Victor. Chron. ann. 1320 (Ib. p. 485).--Chron.
+Anon. ann. 1330 (Ib. p. 499).--Pet. de Herentals ann. 1320 (Ib. p.
+500).--Guillel. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1320.--Grandes Chroniques, V.
+245-6.--Cronaca di Firenze ann. 1335 (Baluz. et Mansi IV.
+114).--Villani, Lib. XI. c. 23.--Lami, Antichita Toscane, p. 617.
+
+Venturino was acquitted of the charge of heresy, but his free speech
+offended the pope; he was forbidden to preach or hear confessions, and
+was sentenced to live in retirement at Frisacca, in the mountains of
+Ricondona (Villani l. c.). He died in 1346, at Smyrna, whither he had
+gone as a missionary. He had preached with wonderful success in all the
+countries of Europe, including Spain, England, and Greece. His face,
+when preaching, shone with celestial light, and his miracles were
+numerous (Raynald. ann. 1346, No. 70).
+
+[428] Erphurdian. Variloq. ann. 1349.--Chron. Magdeburgens. ann. 1348
+(Meibom. Rer. German. II. 342).--Alberti Argentinens. Chron. ann.
+1349.--Closener's Chronik (Chron. der deutschen Staedte, VIII. 105
+sqq.).--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1348--Hermann. Corneri Chron. ann.
+1350.--Guillel. Nangiac. Contin. ann. 1349.--Grandes Chroniques, V.
+492-3.--Froissart, Liv. I. P. II. ch. 5.--Gesta Treviror. ann.
+1349.--Meyeri Annal. Flandriae ann. 1349.--Chron. AEgid. Li Muisis (De
+Smet, Corp. Chron. Flandr. II. 349-51).--Henr. Rebdorff. Annal. ann.
+1347.
+
+[429] Alberti Argentinens. Chron. ann. 1349.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug.
+ann. 1348.
+
+[430] Von der Hardt. T. III. pp. 95-105.
+
+[431] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1348.--Hartzheim IV. 471-2.--Meyeri
+Ann. Flandr. ann. 1349.
+
+[432] Raynald, ann. 1353, No. 26, 27.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann.
+1356.--Naucleri Chron. ann. 1356.--Hartzheim IV. 483.
+
+[433] Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 333-4.
+
+[434] Mosheim de Beghardis, pp. 335-7.--Chron. Magdeburg. (Leibnitii
+Scriptt. R. Brunsv. III. 749).--Herm. Korneri Chron. (Eccard. II.
+1113).--Cat. Praedic. Prov. Saxon. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI.
+344).--Boehmer, Regest. Karl IV. No. 4761.
+
+[435] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 343-55.
+
+[436] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 356-62.--Mosheim suggests that the
+distinction between the houses of the Beghards and the Beguines probably
+arose from the former being larger and situated in the cities, the
+latter smaller, more numerous, and scattered among the towns and
+villages.
+
+[437] Chron. Magdeburg. (Leibnitii S. R. Brunsv. III. 749).--Herm.
+Corneri Chron. (Eccard. Corp. Hist. III. 1113-4).--Raynald. ann. 1372,
+No. 34.--Ripoll II. 275.--Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 380-3.
+
+[438] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 368-74, 378-9.--Boehmer, Regest. Karl. IV.
+No. 4761.
+
+[439] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 364-66.--Martini Append. ad Mosheim pp.
+541-2.
+
+[440] Cat. Praedic. Prov. Saxon. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI. 344).--Raynald.
+ann. 1372, No. 33, 34.--Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 388-92.--Martini
+Append. ad Mosheim pp. 647-8.
+
+[441] Martene Thesaur. II. 960-1.--Chron. Cornel. Zantfliet (Martene
+Ampl. Coll. V. 293, 301-2).--Raynald. ann. 1372, No. 33.--Meyeri Annal.
+Flandriae ann. 1373.--Mag. Chron. Belgic. ann. 1374.--Trithem. Chron.
+Hirsaug. ann. 1374.--P. de Herentals Vit. Gregor. XI. ann. 1375
+(Muratori S. R. I. III. ii. 674-5).
+
+[442] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 394-8.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer K.G. 1885,
+pp. 525-6, 553-4, 563-4.--Haemmerlin Glosa quarumd. Bullar. per Beghardos
+impetratar. (Basil. 1497, c. 4 sqq.).
+
+[443] Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 26-7.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann.
+1392.--Jundt, Les Amis de Dieu, p. 3.--Haupt, ubi sup. p. 510.
+
+[444] There has recently been discovered at St. Florian, in Austria, an
+epistle written in 1368 by the Waldenses of Lombardy to some of their
+German brethren on the occasion of the withdrawal of certain members of
+the sect, who alleged in justification that the Waldenses were ignorant,
+that they had no divine authority, and that they were mercenary.
+Evidently the local church had appealed to the Lombards as to a central
+head, for an answer to these accusations, and the reply, together with a
+rejoinder by one of the apostates, throws valuable light upon the
+current beliefs of the sectaries. It appears that they carried their
+origin back to the primitive Church, claiming that their predecessors
+had opposed the reception of the Donation of Constantine, and that when
+Silvester refused to reject the perilous gift a voice sounded from
+heaven, "This day hath poison been spread in the Church of God." As
+they were unyielding, they were driven out and persecuted, since when
+they had preserved the genuine tradition of the Church in obscurity and
+affliction. They asserted that Peter Waldo had been ordained to the
+priesthood, and that they possessed full authority, transmitted from
+God, but nothing is said as to the apostolical succession, and the
+apostate, Sigfried, reproaches them with only hearing confessions and
+sending their disciples to the Catholic churches for the other
+sacraments. There is no word as to transubstantiation, which must
+therefore have been an accepted doctrine among them, and their frequent
+quotations from Augustine and Bernard show that they admitted the
+authority of the doctors of the Church. They allude to two Franciscans
+who had recently joined the sect, to a priest who had done so and had
+been burned, and to a Bishop Bestardi, who, for the same offence, had
+been summoned to Rome, whence he had never returned.--Comba, Histoire
+des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 243-55.
+
+[445] Index Error. Waldens. (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 340).--Petri Herp
+Annal. Francofurt. ann. 1389 (Senckenberg Select. Juris II. 19).--Gudeni
+Cod. Diplom. III. 598-600.--Serrarii Hist. Mogunt. Lib. v. p.
+707.--Hist. Ordin. Carthus. (Martene Ampl. Coll. VI. 214).--Modus
+examinandi Hsereticos (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 341-2).
+
+John Wasmod subsequently wrote a tract against the Beghards which has
+been printed by Haupt (Zeitschrift fur Kirchengeschichte, 1885, pp.
+567-76). Its chief interest lies in its attributing to the Beghards the
+tenets of the Waldenses. There is no allusion to pantheism, to union
+with God, to refusal of the sacraments, to the denial of hell and
+purgatory. Either he confounds the sects, or else the Waldenses
+concealed themselves under the guise of Beghards, or else there were
+among the Beghards a certain number who constituted a church separate
+from that of Rome without adopting the distinctive principles of
+Amaurianism. Wasmod tells us that they do not easily receive applicants,
+whose obedience they test by making them eat putrid flesh, drink water
+foul with maggots, etc., at the risk of their lives. One of their
+strongest arguments is found in the corruption of the Church, which is
+thus deprived of the power of the keys. Distinctively referable to
+Beghardism is the assertion that these heretics are greatly favored and
+defended by the magistrates of the cities; and not very flattering to
+Rome is the explanation that the bulls in favor of the Beguines were
+obtained by the use of money.
+
+
+[446] Gretseri Prolegom. c. 6 (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 292).--Refutat.
+Waldens. (Ib. p. 335).--P. de Pilichdorf. c. 15 (Ib. p.
+315).--Wattenbach, Sitzungsberichte der Preuss. Akad. 1886, pp. 49-9,
+51.
+
+
+[447] Wattenbach, op. cit. pp. 49-50, 54-55.--Flac. Illyr. Cat. Test.
+Veritatis Lib. XV. pp. 1506, 1524; Lib. XVIII. p. 1803 (Ed. 1608).
+
+[448] W. Preger, Beitraege, pp. 51, 53-4, 68, 72.--P. de Pilichdorf c. 15
+(Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 315).
+
+[449] Hoffmann, Geschichte der Inquisition, II. 384-90.--C. Schmidt,
+Real-Encyklop. s. V. Winkeler.
+
+[450] Martini Append, ad Mosheim pp. 652-66, 674-5.--Mosheim pp. 409-10,
+430-1.--Hartzheim V. 676--Haupt. Zeitschrift fuer K. G. 1885, pp. 565-7.
+
+[451] Mosheim de Beghardis pp. 225-8, 383-4.--Martini Append, ad Mosheim
+pp. 656-7.--Herm. Corneri Chron. ann. 1402-3 (Eccard. Corp. Hist. II.
+1185-6).--Raynald. ann. 1403, No. 23.
+
+[452] Chron. Cornel. Zantfliet ann. 1400 (Martene Amplis. Coll. V.
+358.)--Haupt. Zeitschrift fuer K. G. 1885, pp. 513-15.--Chron.
+Glassberger ann. 1410 (Analecta Franciscana II. 233-5).--Martini Append.
+ad Mosheim p. 559.--Mosheim p. 455.--Serrarii Lib. V. (Scriptt. Rer.
+Mogunt. I. 724).
+
+In 1399 an outbreak very similar to that of the Flagellants took place
+in Italy, stimulated by a pestilence which was ravaging the land. The
+pilgrims were known as _Bianchi_, from the white linen vestments which
+they wore, and they first brought to popular notice the "Stabat
+Mater," which was their favorite hymn. The only reference to
+flagellation, however, is that in Genoa they were joined by the old
+fraternities of the Verberati or guilds, founded in 1306, which publicly
+used the scourge. The Archbishop of Genoa and many of the Lombard
+bishops lent the movement their countenance; universal peace was
+proclaimed, enemies forgave each other, and even the strife of Guelf and
+Ghibelline for a moment was forgotten. When we are told that twenty-five
+thousand Modenese made the pilgrimage to Bologna, we can readily
+understand why suspicious rulers, such as Galeazzo Visconti and the
+Signory of Venice, forbade the entry of their states to such armies.
+Boniface IX. probably felt the same alarm when the movement reached
+Rome, and the whole population, including some of the cardinals, put on
+white garments and marched in procession through the neighboring towns.
+He caused one of the leaders to be seized at Aquapendente; the free use
+of torture brought a confession that the whole affair was a fraud, and
+the poor wretch was burned, when the movement collapsed.--Georgii Stella
+Annal. Genuens. ann. 1399 (Muratori, S. R. I. XVII. 1170).--Mattaei de
+Griffonibus Memor. Historial. ann. 1399 (Ib. XVIII. 207).--Cronica di
+Bologna ann. 1399 (Ib. XVIII. 565).--Annal. Estens. ann. 1398 (Ib.
+XVIII. 956-8).--Conrad Urspurgens. Chron. Contin. ann. 1399.--Theod. a
+Niem de Schismate, Lib. II. c. 26.
+
+[453] Nider Formicar. Lib. III. c. 2.--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer K. G.
+1885, pp. 510-11.--Gersoni de Consolat. Theolog. Lib. IV. Prosa iii.;
+Ejusd. de Mystica Theol. speculat. P. I. consid. viii.; Ejusd. de
+Distinct, verar. Vision. a falsis, Signum V.
+
+[454] Baluz. et Mansi I. 288-93.--Altmeyer, Les Precurseurs de la
+Reforme aux Pays-Bas, I. 84.
+
+[455] Theod. Vrie, Hist. Concil. Constant. Lib. IV. Dist. 13.--Marieta,
+Los Santos de Espana, Lib. XI. c. xxviii.--Gobelini Person. Cosmodrom.
+AEt. VI. c. 93.--Chron. S. AEgid. in Brunswig (Leibnitii S. R. Brunsv.
+III. 595).--Gieseler, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, II. III.
+317-18.--Herm. Corneri Chron. ann. 1416 (Eccard. Corp. Hist. II.
+1206).--Andreae Gubernac. Concil. P. IV. c. 11 (Von der Hardt VI.
+194)--Chron. Magdeburgens. ann. 1454 (Meibom. Rer. German. II.
+363).--Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, 1887, 114-18.--Herzog,
+Abriss. II. 405.
+
+In 1448, when pestilence and famine in Italy brought men to a sense of
+their sins, the eloquence of Fra Roberto, a Franciscan, excited
+multitudes to repentance, and the streets of the cities were again
+filled with Flagellants, disciplining themselves and weeping (Illescas,
+Historia Pontifical, II. 130).
+
+[456] Conc. Constant. Decret. Reform. Lib. III. Tit. X. c. 13; Tit. V.
+c. 5 (Von der Hardt, I. 715-17).--Hemmerlin Glosa quarund. Bullar. (Opp.
+c. d.).--De Rebus Malthaei Grabon (Von der Hardt, III. 107-20).
+
+[457] Von der Hardt, IV. 1518.--Concil. Salisburg. XXXIV. c. 32 (Dalham,
+Concil Salisb. p. 186).
+
+[458] Hemmerlin Glosa quarund. Bullar; Ejusd. Lollardorum
+Descriptio.--Nider Formicar. III. 5, 7, 9.
+
+[459] Concil. Herbipolens. ann. 1446 (Hartzheim V. 336).. Mosheim de
+Beghardis pp. 173-9, 190, 194-5.--Addis and Arnold's Catholic
+Dictionary, p. 73.
+
+[460] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1460.--.Hartzheim V. 464, 507, 560,
+578.--Wadding, ann. 1492, No. 8.--Martini Append, ad Mosheim p. 579.
+
+[461] Concil. Senens. ann. 1423 (Harduin. VIII. 1016-17).--.Ullumnn's
+Reformers before the Reformation, Menzies' Transl. I. 383-4.--Flac.
+Illyr. Catal. Test. Veritatis Lib. XIX. p. 1836 (Ed. 1608).--Comba,
+Histoire des Vaudois d'Italie, I. 97.--Hoffmann, Geschichte der
+Inquisition, II. 390-1.
+
+
+[462] Wattenbach, Sitzungsberichte der Preuss. Akad. 1886, pp. 57-8,
+
+[463] Hist. Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. pp. 71-2 (s. 1. 1648). Camerarii
+Hist. Frat. Orthodox, pp. 116-17 (Heidelbergae, 1605).--Ripoll
+III. 577.]
+
+[464] Ullmann, op. cit. I. 195-207.--AEn. Sylvii Epist. 400 (Opp. 1571,
+p. 932).--Fasciculus Rerum Expetendarum et Fugiendarum II. 115-28 (Ed.
+1690).--Freber et Struv. II. 187-266.--Wadding. ann. 1461, No.
+5.--Ripoll III. 466.--Chron. Glassberger ann. 1462.
+
+[465] Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1476.--Ullmann, op. cit. I. 377 sqq.
+
+[466] D'Argentre I. II. 291-8.--Ullmann, op.cit. I. 258-9, 277-94,
+356-7.--Trithem. Chron. Hirsaug. ann. 1479.--Conr. Ursperg. Chron.
+Continuat. ann. 1479,--Melanchthon. Respons. ad Bavar. Inquis.,
+Witebergae, 1559, Sig. B 3.
+
+[467] Ripoll IV. 5.--Synod Bamberg. ann. 1491, Tit. 44 (Ludewig Scriptt.
+Rer. Germ. I. 1242-44).--D'Argentre I. II. 342.
+
+[468] Pauli Langii Chron. Citicens. (Pistorii Rer. Germ. Scriptt. I.
+1276-6.)--Gieseler, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte II. IV. 532
+sq.--Herzog, Abriss, II. 397-401.--Spalatini Annal. ann. 1515 (Menken.
+II. 591).--Eleuth. Bizeni Joannis Reuchlin Encomion (sine nota. sed c.
+ann. 1516).--II. Corn. Agrippae Epist. II.  54
+
+[469] Ripoll IV. 378.--Lutheri Opp., Jenae, 1564, I. 185 sqq.--Henke,
+Neuere Kirchengeschichte, I. 42-6.
+
+[470] Dubrav. Hist. Bohem. Lib. 14 (Ed. 1587, pp. 380-1).
+
+[471] Palacky, Beziehungen der Waldenser, Prag, 1869, p. 10.--Potthast
+No. 11818.
+
+Palacky (pp. 7-8) conjectures that these heretics were Cathari, but his
+reasoning is quite inadequate to overcome the greater probability that
+they were of Waldensian origin. He is, however, doubtless correct in
+suggesting that the allusion to princes and magnates may properly
+connect the movement with the commencement of the conspiracy which
+finally dethroned King Wenceslas I. in 1253. Wenceslas was a zealous
+adherent of the papacy and opponent of Frederic II., and the connection
+between antipapal politics and heresy was too close for us to
+discriminate between them without more details than we possess.
+
+[472] Wadding. ann. 1257, No. 16.--Potthast No. 16819.--Hoefler, Prager
+Concilien. Einleitung, p. xix.
+
+[473] Palacky. op. cit. pp. 11-13.--Schroedl, Passavia Sacra, Passau,
+1879, p. 242.--Dubravius (Hist. Bohem. Lib. 20) relates that in 1315
+King John burned fourteen Dolcinists in Prague. Palacky (ubi sup.)
+argues, and I think successfully, that this relates to the above affair
+and that there were no executions.
+
+[474] Wadding. ann. 1318, No. 2-6.--Ripoll II. 138-9, 174-6.--Gustav
+Schmidt, Paebstliche Urkunden und Regesten, Halle, 1886, p.
+105.--Raynald. ann. 1319, No. 43.
+
+[475] Palacky, op. cit. pp. 15-18.--Flac. Illyr. Catal. Test. Veritatis
+Lib. XV. p. 1505 (Ed. 1608).--Raynald. ann. 1335, No. 61-2.--Wadding.
+ann. 1335, No. 3-4.
+
+[476] Krasinsky, Reformation in Poland, London, 1838, I. 55-6.--Raynald.
+ann. 1341, No. 27.
+
+[477] Werunsky Excerptt. ex Registt. Clem. VI. pp. 28, 47.--Raynald.
+ann. 1347, No. 11.
+
+[478] OEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 36.--Naucleri Chron. ann.
+1360.--Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 2, 3, 5, 7.--Loserth, Hus und
+Wicklif, Prag, 1884, pp. 261 sqq.--Werunsky Excerptt. ex Registt. Clem.
+VI. pp. 1, 2, 3, 13, 25.
+
+Dispensations for children to hold preferment were an abuse of old date,
+as we have seen in a former chapter. In 1297 Boniface VIII. authorized a
+boy of Florence, twelve years old, to take a benefice involving the cure
+of souls.--Faucon, Registres de Boniface VIII. No. 1761, p. 666.
+
+[479] Werunsky op. cit. pp. 89, 94, 98, 99, 102, 111, 120, 135, 136,
+140, 141.--Gudeni Cod. Diplom. III. 509.--Hartzheim Concil. Germ. IV.
+510.
+
+[480] Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 2, 5, 12, 14, 26-7.--Loserth, Hus
+und Wiclif, pp. 32-33, 37.--W. Preger, Beitraege, p. 51.--Flac. Illyr.
+Catal. Test. Veritatis Lib. xv. p. 1506 (Ed. 1608).
+
+[481] Mosheim de Beghardis p. 381.
+
+[482] Loserth, Hus und Wiclif, pp. 49, 50-2.--Lechler (Real
+Encyklopaedie, X. 1-3).--Raynald. ann. 1374, No. 10-11.
+
+[483] Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 33, 37-9.--De Schweinitz, History of
+the Unitas Fratrum (Bethlehem, Pa., 1885, pp. 25-6).
+
+[484] Loserth, Hus und Wiclif, pp. 54, 56-7, 63-4, 68-9.--Montet, Hist.
+Lit. des Vaudois, p. 150.--Pseudo-Pilichdorf Tract. contra Waldens. c.
+15 (Mag. Bib. Pat. XIII. 315).
+
+[485] Arnold's English Works of Wyclif, III. 454-96. Cf. Vae Octuplex
+(Ib. II. 380); Of Mynystris in the Chirch (Ib. II. 394); Vaughan's
+Tracts and Treatises, p. 226; Trialogi III. 6, 7; Trialogi Supplem. c.
+2.--Losertb, Mittheilungen des Vereines fuer Gesch. der Deutschen in
+Boehmen, 1886, pp. 384 sqq.
+
+[486] Trialogi II. 14; IV. 22.--Jo. Hus de Ecclesia, c. 1 (Monument. I.
+fol. 196-7, Ed. 1558).--Wil. Wodford adv. Jo. Wiclefum (Fascic. Rer.
+Expetend. et Fugiend. I. 250, Ed. 1690).--In the condemnation of the
+innovations by the Council of Prague, in 1412, predestination is not
+among the errors enumerated (Hoefler, Prager Concilien, p. 72), though it
+appears in the final proceedings against Huss in the Council of
+Constance (P. Mladenowic Relatio, Palacky Documenta. p. 317).
+
+[487] Raynald. ann. 1377, No. 4-6.--Lechler's Life of Wickliff,
+Lorimer's Translation, II. 288-90, 343-7.--Loserth, Hus und Wiclif, pp.
+101-2, 121.--Palacky Documenta Mag. Johannis Hus, p. 189, 203, 313,
+374-6, 426-8, 467.--Harduin. Concil. VIII. 203.--Von der Hardt III. XII.
+168; IV. 153, 328.--Jo. Hus Replica contra P. Stokes (Monument. I. 108
+_a_).--Hoefler, Prager Concilien. p. 53.
+
+[488] Loserth, op. cit. pp. 79, 114, 161 sqq.--Mittheilungen des
+Vereines fuer Gesch. d. Deutschen in Boehmen, 1886, 395 sqq.--Jo. Hus
+Monument. I. 25_a_, 108_a_.--Nider Formicar. Lib. III. c. 9. fol.
+50_a._--Von der Hardt IV. 328.--Gobelin. Personae Cosmodrom. AEtat. VI. c.
+86-7 (Meibom. Rer. German. I. 319-21).
+
+[489] Loserth, op. cit. pp. 13, 75-8, 98-100.--Jo. Hus Monument. II.
+25-52.
+
+Even AEneas Sylvius (Hist. Bohem. c. 35) speaks of Huss as distinguished
+for the purity of his life; and the Jesuit Balbinus says that his
+austerity and modesty, his kindness to all, even to the meanest, won for
+him universal favor. No one believed that so holy a man could deceive or
+be deceived, so that the memory of the thief was worshipped at Prague as
+that of a saint (Bohuslai Balbini Epit. Rer. Bohem. Lib. V. C. V. p.
+431).
+
+[490] Palacky Documenta, pp. 3, 56.--Berger, Johannes Hus u. Koenig
+Sigmund, p. 5.--Loserth, op. cit. pp. 82, 98-100, 103-5, 111-12,
+270.--Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 43-6, 51-3, 57, 60, 61-2.--Hist.
+Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. p. 29.
+
+Wickliff continued to the end to be the chief authority of the Hussites.
+A half a century later he is appealed to by both factions into which
+they were divided. See Peter Chelcicky's reply to Rokyzana, in Goll,
+Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Boehmischen Brueder, II.
+83-4.
+
+[491] Loserth, pp. 105-6.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 345-6, 363-4.
+
+[492] Loserth, op. cit. pp. 106-10, 123-4.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 181,
+347, 350--62.--Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 64-70.--Raynald. ann. 1409,
+No. 89.
+
+[493] AEneae; Sylv. Hist. Bohem. c. 35.--Loserth, op. cit. p.
+137.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 184-5, 342-3.--Palacky, Beziehungen, pp.
+19-20--Jo. Hus Monument. I. 2-3.
+
+[494] Loserth, op. cit. pp. 120, 123-4.--Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp.
+5, 15, 18, 31, 32, 46, 57.
+
+[495] Loserth, op. cit. pp. 121-3, 130.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 19-21,
+191, 233.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky p. 319).--Jo. Hus Disputatio
+contra Indulgent. (Monument. I. 174-89); Ejusd. contra Bull. PP. Joannis
+(Ib. I. 189-91); Ejusd. Serm. XXII. de Remissione Peccatorum (Ib. II.
+74-5).
+
+[496] Loserth, op. cit. p. 131.--Palacky Documenta, p. 640.--De
+Schweinitz, Hist. of the Unitas Fratrum, pp. 41-2.--Stephani Cartus.
+Antihussus c. 5 (Pez Thesaur. Anecd. IV. II. 380, 382).
+
+[497] Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 73, 110.--Loserth, op. cit. pp.
+132-5.--J. Hus Monument. I. 17; Ejusd. de Ecclesia c. 14 (Monument. I,
+223. Cf. Wicklif. de Eccles. c. 18, _ap._ Loserth, p. 188).--Palacky
+Documenta, pp. 458, 464-66.
+
+[498] Hoefler, Prager Concilien, pp. 73-100.--Loserth, op. cit. pp.
+142-5.--Palacky Documenta, p. 510.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky
+Documenta, p. 246).
+
+[499] Von der Hardt IV. 313.
+
+[500] Leonardi Aretini Comment. (Muratori S.R.I. XIX. 927-8). --Harduin.
+VIII. 231.--Theod. a Niem Vit. Joann. XXIII. Lib. II. c. 37 (Von der
+Hardt II. 384).--Palacky Documenta, pp. 512-18.
+
+For the confusion existing in Germany, caused by the Schism, see Haupt,
+Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte, 1883, pp. 356-8.
+
+[501] Jo. Fistenport. Chron. ann. 1415 (Hahn. Coll. Monum. I.
+401).--Dacherii Hist. Magnatum (Von der Hardt V. II. 50).--Theod. a Niem
+Vita Joann. XXIII. Lib. I. c. 40 (Ib. II. 388).--Nider Formicar. Lib. V.
+c. ix.
+
+[502] Stephani Cartus. Dial. Volatilis c. 11, 14, 21 (Pez Thesaur.
+Anecd. IV. II. 465, 473, 492).--The three sermons prepared for this
+purpose are printed in Huss's works (Monument. I. 44-56). The first is
+on the sufficiency of the law of Christ for the government of the
+Church: the second is an elaborate exposition of his belief; the third
+on Peace, in which he attributes the schisms and troubles of the Church
+to the pride and greed and vices of the clergy.
+
+[503] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky Documenta, p. 237).--Von der Hardt IV.
+754.--Jo. Hus Monument. I. 2-4, 57, 68.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 70, 73.
+
+[504] Richentals Chronik des Constanzer Concils p. 76 (Tuebingen,
+1882).--Jo. Hus Epistt. iii. vi. (Monument. I. 57-8).--Monument. I. 4_a_
+
+[505] Richentals Chronik p. 58.--Jo. Hus Epistt. iv. vi. vii. (Monument.
+I. 58-9).
+
+[506] Hus Epistt. v. vi. (Monument. I. 58).--Monument. I. 4 _b._--Laur.
+Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. ann. 1414 (Ludewig Reliq. MSS. VI.
+124).--Palacky Document. p. 170.--Richentals Chronik pp.
+76-77.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, pp. 247-8).--Naucleri Chron. ann.
+1414.
+
+[507] Richentals Chronik p. 77.--Jo. Hus Monument. I. 5 _b._--Von der
+Hardt IV. 22, 32, 212.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky Document. pp.
+246-52).
+
+The special rigor of confinement near the latrines was well understood.
+In 1317, when John XXII. delivered some Spiritual Franciscans to their
+brethren for safe-keeping, Friar Francois Sanche "_posuerunt fratres in
+quodum carcere juxta latrinas_."--Historia Tribulationum (Archiv. fuer
+Litteratur-u. Kirchengeschichte, 1886, p. 146).
+
+[508] Von der Hardt IV. 11-12, 22.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, p.
+251).
+
+[509] Palacky Documenta, p. 238.--Von der Hardt IV. 12, 28.--Richentals
+Chronik p. 76.--Jo. Hus Epist. lvii. (Monument. I. 75).--Mladenowic
+Relatio (Palacky, p. 253).
+
+[510] Von der Hardt IV. 189, 209.
+
+Berger's labored collection of safe-conducts and their comparison with
+the one given to Huss (Johann Hus u. Koenig Sigmund pp. 180-208) prove
+nothing but his own industry. Huss went to Constance as an excommunicate
+to defend himself and his faith. Sigismund. knowing this, gave him a
+safe-conduct without limitation or condition. The only contemporaneous
+documents with which this can fairly be compared are those offered by
+the council and by Sigismund to John XXIII. when they summoned him back
+to Constance, May 2, 1415, and the one offered by the council to Jerome
+of Prague, April 17. Of these the first was limited by the clause
+"_justitia tamen semper salva_," the second by "_in quantum idem
+dominus rex tenetur sibi dare de jure et servare alios salros conductus
+sibi datos_," the third by "_quantum in nobis est et fides exegit
+orthodoxa_" (V. d. Hardt IV. 119, 143, 145). No ingenious reasoning can
+explain this away. The allusion in Sigismund's safe-conduct to other
+letters already given by him to the pope refers to those which John had
+required of him and of the city of Constance before he would trust
+himself there (Raynald. ann. 1413, No. 22-3). These the council set
+aside as coolly as it did that of Huss.
+
+Sigismund, as we shall see, had no power to give a safe conduct that
+would protect a heretic, but Berger's argument that he therefore could
+not have designedly issued an unlimited one to Huss (Berger, op. cit.
+92-3, 109) is worthless in view of his readiness, which Berger freely
+concedes (p. 85), to enter into engagements which he knew he could not
+fulfil. From his indignation it is evident that he was unacquainted with
+the niceties of the canon law; but even if he were, his giving the
+letters is easily explicable by the fact, which Berger has well pointed
+out (pp. 100-1), that Huss's certificates of orthodoxy, obtained in
+August, were laid before him (Palacky Document, p. 70). He could thus
+easily persuade himself that there was no risk of his pledge causing him
+trouble. It was of the greatest moment to him that Huss should be
+reconciled to the Church, and to a man of his temperament it was
+inconceivable that Huss's delicate conscientiousness would in the end
+render martyrdom inevitable.
+
+Hefele (Conciliengeschichte VII. 234), following Palacky, calls
+attention to the absence, in the letter of the Bohemian magnates to the
+council, September 2, 1415, of any reproach for violating the
+safe-conduct, and he argues thence that they admitted that it could not
+protect Huss from judgment as a heretic. So little is this the case that
+they emphatically declare that Huss was not a heretic, and if there is
+no allusion to the safe-conduct this is evidently attributable to their
+referring to certain previous letters to Sigismund which the council had
+ordered burned, and which they defiantly desired to be considered as
+embodied and repeated in the present one (Monument I. 78). Anything they
+might have to say on the subject must have been said in those letters,
+which presumably were the occasion of the projected decree of September
+23, 1415, punishing as fautors of heresy all who vilified Sigismund for
+permitting the violation of his safe-conduct.
+
+[511] Martene Thesaur. II. 1611.--Von der Hardt II. x. 255; IV.
+26.--Palacky Documenta, p. 612.--Berger, Johann Hus u. Koenig Sigmund,
+pp. 133, 136.--Fistenport. Chron. ann. 1419 (Hahn Collect. Monument. I
+.404).--AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legationibus (Monument. Conc. General.
+Saec. XV. T. I. pp. 531, 536-7, 595-6, 612-13, 662-73, 680-4, 688-93,
+695-7).--Thomae Ebendorferi Diar. (Ib. p. 767).--Jo. de Turonis Regestr.
+(Ib. pp. 834-5).
+
+Even in France Sigismund was reproached for surrendering Huss after
+giving him a safe-conduct, and was accused of disregarding other
+engagements of the same kind.--(Martene Ampl. Coll. II. 1444-5.) Yet had
+he persisted he would have been liable to excommunication and heavy
+penalties as an impeder of the Inquisition; and had he carried out his
+threat of forcibly liberating Huss, under the bull _Ad extirpanda_ he
+would have been punishable by perpetual relegation and the forfeiture of
+all his dominions (Mag. Bull. Rom. Ed. Luxemb. 1742, I. 92, 149).
+
+[512] Von der Hardt IV. 32, 311-13, 329.--Martene Thesaur. II.
+1611.--Berger, Johann Hus u. Koenig Sigmund, p. 138.--Palacky Documenta,
+541, 543, 546-53.--Jo. Hus Epistt. xxxiii., liv., lix., lx.(Monument. I.
+68-9, 74-77).--Mladenowic Relat. (Palacky, p. 314-15).--Narr. Hist, de
+Condemnatione (Monument. II. 346 _a_; Von der Hardt IV. 393).--AEgid.
+Carlerii Lib. de Legat. (Monument. Concil. Gen. Saec. XV. Tom. I. p.
+435).--Martene Ampl. Coll. VII. 174-6, 179-83.--Jo. de Turonis Regestrum
+(Monument. Con. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 860).
+
+The incident of Sigismund's blush has been disputed by some recent
+writers. It is a matter not worth controversy, but as the only evidence
+to his credit in the whole affair it may be hoped to be true.
+
+[513] Richentals Chronik p. 78.--Von der Hardt IV. 313, 521-22.--Chron.
+Glassberger ann. 1415.--Martene Ampl. Collect. VIII. 131-33. Cf. Noel
+Alexander's justification of the decree of September 23 (Hist. Eccles.
+Ed. Paris, 1699. T. VIII. p. 496).
+
+It is customary with modern Catholic writers to stigmatize as a
+Protestant calumny the assertion that the Church held the doctrine that
+faith is not to be kept with heretics. See, for instance, Van Ranst,
+Regent of the College of Antwerp, in his "Historia Haereticorum" (4th.
+Ed. Venet. 1759, p. 263), together with his ingenious endeavor to argue
+away the case of Huss. I have already alluded to this subject (Vol. I.
+p. 228), and have shown that it was a recognized principle of the Church
+that faith and oaths pledged to heretics were void. It has also been
+seen how the efforts of the popes procured the insertion in the public
+law of Europe of the principle that suspicion of heresy in the lord
+released the vassal from the most binding engagement known to the Middle
+Ages--the oath of allegiance (Lib. V. Extra, VII. xiii. Sec. 3). When thus
+the basis on which society itself was founded was destroyed by heresy
+all minor pledges were necessarily invalidated. The Church did not allow
+this to become obsolete. When, in 1327, John XXII. sentenced the Emperor
+Louis of Bavaria as a heretic, he not only released all his vassals from
+their oaths of allegiance, but declared void all compacts and agreements
+made with him (Martene Thesaur. II. 702, 775-6, 791). So, in 1463, when
+it pleased Pius II. to declare George Podiebrad a heretic, he released
+the communities of Breslau and Namslau from their allegiance, and
+excommunicated all who should lend their aid or service to their monarch
+(AEn. Sylvii Epist. 401); and when Frederic III. asked him to compel
+Breslau to submit to George, he replied by arguing that heresy dissolved
+compacts as effectually as death (Martene Ampl. Coll. I. 1598-99). When,
+in 1469, Paul II. again declared George a heretic he pronounced that
+each and every obligation, promise, and oath made to that heretic was
+null and void, for faith was not to be kept with him who kept not faith
+with God. Acting under this, when George released from prison Wenceslas
+of Biberstein, on bail of six thousand florins furnished by John and
+Ulric of Hazemburg, the papal legate Rudolph incontinently ordered the
+bailors neither to surrender the accused nor to pay the forfeit (Ludewig
+Reliq. MSS. VI. 77).
+
+The play upon the double meaning of the word faith by which this was
+epigrammatically justified was seriously accepted by Christendom. In
+April, 1415, Fernando of Aragon wrote to Sigismund earnestly
+remonstrating with him for the delay in judging Huss, and expressing the
+hope that the safe-conduct would not be allowed to protect him
+"_quoniam non est frangere fidem in eo qui Deo fidem
+frangit_."--Andreae Ratisponens Chron. ann. 1414 (Pez Thesaur. Anecd.
+IV. III. 626.--Palacky Documenta, p. 540).
+
+All statutes and laws impeding the free action of the Inquisition,
+directly or indirectly, were null and void _ipso jure_, as we have
+repeatedly seen above (see also Farinaccii de Haeresi Quaest. 182 No. 76);
+and what Sigismund could not have done at the head of the Imperial Diet,
+he certainly could not do by a simple safe-conduct, and no
+ecclesiastical jurisdiction was bound to respect it.
+
+If the Church thus disregarded the pledges of laymen, it was equally
+unmindful of its own when heretics were concerned. Even late in the
+sixteenth century the bull _Multiplices inter_ of Pius V. annulled all
+letters of absolution and decrees of acquittal for heresy issued by
+inquisitors, bishops, popes, and even by the Council of Trent, showing
+how scant was the ceremony customarily used in such cases, and how
+completely suspicion of heresy deprived a man of all rights (Lib. V. in
+Septimo III. x.).
+
+Even without this general principle, however, there would have been no
+difficulty in soothing Sigismund's scruples of conscience, if,
+perchance, he had any. The system of the mediaeval Church so completely
+confused the ideas of right and wrong that the ordinary notions of
+morality were superseded. The power of the keys was such that a papal
+dispensation could release any one from an inconvenient vow or promise,
+no matter how binding might be its form. Sigismund's father, Charles,
+when Margrave of Moravia, was released, in 1346, by Clement VI. from a
+troublesome oath which he had taken (Werunsky Excerptt. ex Regist. Clem.
+VI. p. 44); and the sin of perjury was one for which the popes were
+accustomed to grant efficacious pardons when it was committed in their
+interest (Ludewig op. cit. VI. 14). It was deemed only a reasonable
+precaution in compacts for the parties to pledge themselves that they
+would not seek a release by a papal dispensation (Hartzheim IV. 329;
+Preger, Der kirchenpolitische Kampf unter Ludwig dem Baier, p. 59).
+Sigismund, in the case of Huss, admitted that his pledge was dissolved
+by heresy and a dispensation was superfluous, but it could have been had
+for the asking. In view of these facts all attempts to argue away the
+betrayal of Huss are useless, nor is it possible to accuse the good
+fathers of Constance of conscious bad faith. They but accepted and
+enforced the principles in which they were trained.
+
+[514] Mandata Synodalia ann. 1390 (Hoefler, Prager Concilien, p.
+40).--AEn. Sylvii. Hist. Bohem. cap. 35.--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell.
+Hussit. ann. 1414 (Ludewig Reliq. MSS. VI. 125, 128-9).--Von der Hardt
+III. 335 sqq.; IV. 288-91, 334, 342.--Jo. Hus Monument. I. 42-44, 62,
+72.
+
+The relentless obstinacy with which the Church of the fifteenth and
+sixteenth centuries refused the use of the cup to the laity at the cost
+of Christian unity and unnumbered troubles is perhaps the most
+impressive example on record of the perversity of sacerdotalism in
+sacrificing essentials to non-essentials. No one denied that in the
+early Church communion in both elements was administered to all the
+faithful, as it continued to be without interruption in the Greek
+Church. The refusal of the cup to the laity was originally a Manichaean
+custom, in imitation of the corresponding ancient Izeshne rite of the
+Mazdeans. Communion in one element thus became a mark of heresy, and was
+condemned as such by Leo the Great (Leon. PP. I. Serm. XLII. cap. 5),
+about the middle of the fifth century, and again towards its end by
+Gelasius I., whose decretal on the subject is embodied, without comment
+or contradiction, by Gratian in the Decretum (P. II. Dist. ii. c. 12),
+showing that it was still good law in the twelfth century.
+
+When, however, in the tenth and eleventh centuries the belief in
+transubstantiation became the accepted dogma of the Church, the supreme
+veneration felt for the consecrated elements naturally gave rise to the
+necessity of the utmost care in handling them and to excessive dread as
+to any accidents which might occur to them; and the penitentials grew
+full of all manner of penalties inflicted on priests who, through
+carelessness, let fall a crumb of the body or a drop of the blood, for
+which, by forged decretals of the early popes, a false antiquity was
+claimed (Decreti III. ii. 27). Of course the liquid was much more
+subject to these accidents, and to decomposition, than the solid, and
+the ministering priests were sorely tried to avert such profanation and
+its consequences to themselves. At first they adopted the ready
+expedient of dipping the host in the wine-and-water, and thus
+administering both elements together, which was conducive both to safety
+and comfort. This innovation was condemned by the Church, but was
+suppressed with great difficulty. Under Gregory VII. the author of the
+Micrologus devotes a chapter to its prohibition (Micrologi c. 19). In
+1095 the great Council of Clermont forbade it, except in cases where it
+was demanded by prudence or necessity for the avoidance of accidents
+(Conc. Claromont. ann. 1095, c. 28); and some twenty years later Paschal
+II. laid down the rule that it was only admissible in the communion of
+infants and the sick who could not swallow the bread (Paschal PP. II.
+Epist. 535). In a Bohemian document dating about the close of the
+twelfth century the priest carrying the viaticum to the dying is
+directed to dip the wafer in the wine so as to avoid accidents and yet
+be able to administer both elements (Hoefler, Prager Concilien,
+Einleitung, p. ix.). When this resource was denied, while the veneration
+of the sacrament as the flesh and blood of Christ continued to develop,
+the custom was gradually introduced of restricting the laity to the
+solid element, in administering which there was less liability to
+accident, while the priest continued to partake in both. About 1270
+Thomas Aquinas tells us that in some churches the bread only is given to
+the laity, as a matter of prudence, to avoid spilling, and his
+dialectics are equal to the task of proving that both body and blood are
+contained in the wafer (Summa III. lxxx. 12). The convenience of the
+innovation led to its extension, but it was left to the individual
+churches, and no authoritative decree was issued withdrawing the cup
+from the laity until the Bohemian controversy led to the action of the
+Council of Constance. How universal the custom had become without
+authority of law is shown by the special privilege granted, about 1345,
+by Clement VI. to John, Duke of Normandy, son of Philip of Valois, to
+receive both elements (Martene Ampl. Coll. I. 1456-7). When the question
+was exhaustively debated before the Council of Basle, the orator of the
+council, John of Ragusa, freely admitted that the Hussite practice was
+in accordance with the traditions of the Church, but argued that it
+could be changed if convenience or other reasons demanded it (Harduin.
+Concil. VIII. 1712, 1740); and the Cardinal of St. Peter told William,
+Baron of Kostka, the Bohemian chief, that the cup was refused to
+children and common people simply as a precaution, adding. "If you were
+to ask of me I would give it, but not to the careless" (Petri
+Zaticensis Liber Diurnus; Mon. Concil. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 315). The
+final decision of the Council of Basle, in December, 1437, admits that
+there is no precept on the subject, but lay communion in one element is
+a laudable custom, the law of the Church, and not to be modified without
+authority (Conc. Basiliens. Sess. XXX.; Harduin. VIII. 1234). How
+thoroughly indefensible the Church felt its position to be, yet how
+arbitrarily and despotically it was resolved to enforce that position,
+is most clearly shown by the inquisitor Capistrano, in 1452, when he
+heard that the cardinal legate, Nicholas of Cusa, was thinking of giving
+Rokyzana a hearing on the subject at Ratisbon. Capistrano expressed his
+mind freely to the legate: "If we excuse the heretics we condemn
+ourselves.... I have always avoided a debate with the Bohemians under
+the ordinary rules, for they study to justify their heresy from the
+ancient Scriptures and observances, and they have a perfect knowledge of
+the texts, which certainly are numerous, in favor of communion in both
+elements." Capistrano then quotes to the legate the bulls of Nicholas
+V. sent to him, in which the Bohemians are denounced as schismatics,
+heretics, and disobedient to the Roman Church, pointedly adding that the
+disciple is not above the teacher, nor the servant superior to the
+master; he had never read in the law that heretics were to be rewarded,
+but were to be sharply punished with confiscation and the bitterest
+penalties (Wadding. Annal. ann. 1452, No. 12). So it had come to this,
+that those who admittedly followed the practices of the Church current
+until the thirteenth century were to be condemned and exterminated as
+heretics. Disobedience was heresy, and Rome, for a century, endeavored
+to convulse Europe on this simple punctilio.
+
+An episode of this question was the communion of infants. This was the
+practice of the early Church (Cyprian. de Lapsis c. 25), and St.
+Innocent I. and St. Gelasius I. had both declared that as soon as
+infants were baptized the sacrament was necessary to secure them eternal
+life (Innocent PP. I. Epist. XXX. c. 5; Gelasii PP. I. Ep. VII.). The
+epistle of Paschal II., quoted above, shows that this was still
+customary in the twelfth century, but the same causes which led to the
+withdrawal of the cup from the laity induced the withholding of the
+sacrament from infants, who were liable at any moment unconsciously to
+commit sacrilege with the body and blood of Christ. In their enthusiasm
+for the Eucharist the Bohemians naturally recurred to infantile
+communion, and their obstinacy in this gave the fathers of Basle
+infinite trouble. After the reconciliation of 1436 the question still
+remained disputed. The feeling about it is well defined by the Bishop of
+Coutances, legate of the Council of Basle in Prague, who was
+horror-stricken when, April 28, 1437, Rokyzana administered communion to
+a number of infants, and one of them ejected the wafer from its mouth,
+forcing Rokyzana quietly to replace it. This incident was evidently
+regarded as the most convincing argument, and the terms in which it is
+alluded to show how profound was the terror which it was expected to
+create (Jo. de Turonis Regestrum; Monument. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p.
+863). At the Council of Constance it was gravely argued that if a layman
+allowed the wine to moisten his beard he ought to be burned with his
+beard (Von der Hardt III. 369). Gerson was not quite so absurd, but he
+did not shrink from alleging such reasons as the expensiveness of wine
+and its liability to turn sour (ib. 771 sqq.). In 1391, when John
+Malkaw, in preaching against the concubinary priesthood, hotly declared
+that he would rather place reverently on the ground a consecrated wafer
+than violate his vow of chastity, Boeckeler, the Strassburg inquisitor,
+in trying him, made this the ground of a charge of heresy with respect
+to the sacrament of the altar (Haupt, Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte,
+1883, pp. 366-7).
+
+In older times the Church had felt no such exaggerated reverence for the
+elements. In 646 Pope Theodore, when he excommunicated Pyrrhus, the
+refugee Patriarch of Constantinople, mingled consecrated wine from the
+cup with the ink with which he signed the sentence; and in 869 the
+Council of Constantinople adopted the same device in condemning
+Photius.--Chr. Lupi Dissert. de Sexta Synodo c. V. (Opp. III. 25).
+
+As a matter of course the vilest stories were circulated to inspire the
+faithful with abhorrence for the Bohemian innovations. It was said that
+the wine was consecrated in bottles and barrels; that the sectaries held
+conventicles in cellars, where they would partake of it to intoxication
+and then commit all manner of sexual abominations (Laur. Byzyn. Diar.
+Bell. Hussit,; Ludewig VI. 129-30).
+
+[515] Palacky Documenta, pp. 194-204, 506.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky,
+p. 252).
+
+The council itself recognized that its proceedings were inquisitorial.
+In the sentence of Jerome of Prague it uses the phrase "_Haec sancta
+synodus Constantiensis in causa inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis per
+eamdem sanctum synodem mota_."--Von der Hardt IV. 766.
+
+[516] Palacky, pp. 204-24.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, p.
+254).--Martene Thesaur. II. 1635.--Jo. Hus Epist. xlviii. (Monument. I.
+72).
+
+[517] Epist. xxxii. (Monument. I. 68).--Von der Hardt IV. 20-8.--Jo. Hus
+Monument. I. 39-41.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, pp. 276-8, 303, 318).
+
+Already in 1411 Huss energetically disclaimed to John XXIII. belief in
+remanence and in the vitiation of sacraments (Palacky, p. 19. Cf. pp.
+164-5, 170, 174-85).
+
+[518] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, pp. 252-3).--Palacky, pp. 73, 174,
+318, 560.--Von der Hardt IV. 308, 420-8.
+
+[519] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky. pp. 253, 323).--Von der Hardt IV.
+188, 212, 289.--Epist. xlix. (Monument. I. 73 _a_).
+
+[520] Von der Hardt IV. 47.--Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, p.
+255).--Palacby, p. 541.--Jo. Hus Monument. I. 7, 29-42.--Epistt. xi.,
+xxvii., xxx., xxxi., xxxii., xxxvi., xlvii., li., lii., lvi. (Monument.
+I. 60, 65-9, 72-5).--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig Reliq.
+MSS. VI. 128-9).
+
+[521] Epist. lii. (Monument. I. 75).--Theod. a Niem de Vit. Joann.
+XXIII. Lib. III. c. 5.--Raynald. ann. 1419, No. 5.
+
+[522] Jo. Hus Monument. I. 118, 128.--Epist. xliii. (Ib. 71
+_a_).--Palacky Documenta, pp. 60, 185, 523-8.--Mladenowic Relatio
+(Palacky, p. 301).
+
+[523] Von der Hardt IV. 100, 118, 136, 153, 189, 209, 212-13, 288-90,
+296, 306.--Martene Thesaur. II. 1635.--Harduin. VIII. 280.--Mladenowic
+Relatio (Palacky, pp. 256-72).
+
+[524] Epistt. xliii., xlvii. (Monument. I. 71, 72).--Von der Hardt IV.
+291, 306-7.
+
+[525] Jo. Hus Monument. I. 25 _b._--Von der Hardt IV. 307,
+311-29.--Epistt. xii., xv., xxxvi. (Monument. I. 60-2, 69),--Palacky,
+pp. 275, 308-15.
+
+The attempt to deny to Huss the inalienable privilege of recantation was
+based upon a mistranslated passage of his Bohemian address to his
+disciples, in which he was made to assure them that if he was forced to
+abjure, it would only be with the lips and not with the heart (Palacky,
+pp. 274, 311). In such matters the council was at the mercy of Huss's
+Bohemian enemies.
+
+[526] Von der Hardt IV. 432-33.
+
+[527] Huss was by no means the first to suffer from this technical
+necessity of confession in abjuring. In the case of the English
+Templars, William de la More, Preceptor of England, and Humbert Blanc,
+Preceptor of Aquitaine, refused to abjure because they would not confess
+to heresies which they had never entertained.--Wilkins, Concil. II. 390,
+393.
+
+[528] Epistt. xxx., xxxi., xxxii. (Monument. I. 67-8).--Von der Hardt
+IV. 342-5.
+
+[529] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, p. 309).--Epistt. xxvii., xxix.,
+xxx., xxxviii., xxxix., xl., xli. (Monument. I. 63-66, 67, 70).--Von der
+Hardt IV. 329-30.--Palacky, pp. 225-34.
+
+[530] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, pp. 316-17).--Von der Hardt IV.
+345-6, 386.--Palacky, p. 560.
+
+To appreciate properly the extent of the concessions offered to Huss it
+is necessary to bear in mind the elaborately careful formulas of
+abjuration which the inquisitors were accustomed to use, so as to allow
+no loophole for the avoidance of the penalties of relapse, and to force
+the penitent to betray his fellow-heretics. See Modus Procedendi
+(Martene Thesaur. V. 1800-1).--Lib. Sententt. Inq. Tolosan. p.
+215.--Bern. Guidon. Practica pp. 92-3 (Ed. Douais).
+
+[531] Mladenowic Relatio (Palacky, pp. 318-21).--Von der Hardt IV.
+389-96, 432-40.--Harduin. VIII. 408-10.--Richentals Chronik p.
+80.--Richental says that Huss was delivered to the secular arm with the
+customary adjuration for mercy, but the text of the sentence as printed
+by Von der Hardt contains no such clause. It may well have been omitted
+at Sigismund's request, as he had already incurred sufficient obloquy,
+but the same omission is noticeable in the sentence of Jerome of Prague
+(Von der Hardt IV. 771).
+
+[532] Richentals Chronik pp. 80-2.--Von der Hardt IV. 445-8.--Mladenowic
+Relatio (Palacky, pp. 321-4).--AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 36.--Laur.
+Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 135-6).--Andrew Ratispon. Chron.
+(Pez Thes. Anecdot. IV. III. 627).
+
+[533] P. d'Ailly (Theod. a Niem) de Necess. Reform. c. 28, 29 (Von der
+Hardt I. VI. 306-9).--Theod. Vrie Hist. Concil. Constant. Lib. VI. Dist.
+11; Lib. VII. Dist. 3 (Ibid. I. 170-1, 181-2). It is simply a lack of
+familiarity with the ecclesiastical jurisprudence of the Middle Ages
+that has led historians to regard the cases of Huss and Jerome as
+exceptional. Even so well informed an authority as Lechler does not
+hesitate to say "Hussens Verbrennung war, mit dem Massstab des
+damaligen Rechts gemessen, ein warer Justizmord" (Herzog's
+Real-Encyklop. VI. 392).
+
+[534] Loserth, Huss u. Wiclif p. 156.--Epistt. lxi., lxii., lxiv.
+(Monument. I. 77-9, 81).--Von der Hardt IV. 489-90, 494-7.--Palacky
+Documenta, pp. 580-4, 593-4.--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig
+VI. 136).
+
+The temper of the Bohemians had been excited, a few days before the
+burning of Huss, by the news that in Olmuetz a student of Prague named
+John, described as a zealous follower of God, had been, within the short
+space of twelve hours, arrested, tortured, convicted, and
+burned.--Palacky Documenta, p. 561.
+
+[535] Von der Hardt IV. 634-91, 756.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 63, 336-7,
+408-9, 417-20, 506, 572.--Loserth, Mittheilungen des Vereins fuer Gesch.
+der Deutschen in Boehmen, 1885, pp. 108-9.--Schroedl, Passavia Sacra, pp.
+284-5.
+
+[536] Von der Hardt IV. 103-5, 134_bis_.--Palacky Documenta, p.
+541-2.--Richentals Cronik, p. 78.--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. ann.
+1415 (Ludewig VI. 132).
+
+[537] Von der Hardt IV. 119, 134, 139, 142, 148-9, 216-18.
+
+[538] Richentals Cronik p. 70.--Theod. Vrie Hist. Concil. Constant. Lib.
+VI. Dist. 12.--Theod. a Niem de Vita Joann. PP. XXIII. Lib. III. c.
+8.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 596-9.
+
+[539] Von der Hardt IV. 501-7.--Richentals Cronik p. 79.--In the final
+official articles drawn up against Jerome by the _Promotor Haereticae
+Pravitatis_, his absolute refusal to write to Bohemia, after promising
+to do so, is made a special point of accusation. Yet his letter to that
+effect, of September 12, is still on record, and in his last defiant
+address to the council he speaks of having written it under fear of
+burning, and now desires to withdraw it (V. d. Hardt IV. 688, 761).
+
+[540] Von der Hardt III. IV. 39; IV. 634-91.--Laur. Byzyn Diar. Bell.
+Hussit (Ludewig VI. 137-8).
+
+[541] Von der Hardt IV. 600-1, 732-33, 748-56.
+
+[542] Von der Hardt III. 64-9.
+
+[543] Ibid. IV. 754-62.
+
+[544] Von der Hardt III. 55-60; IV. 763-71.--Theod. Vrie Hist. Conc.
+Constant. Lib. VII. Dist. 4.
+
+[545] Von der Hardt III. 64-71; IV. 771-2.--Richentals Cronik p.
+83.--Theod. Vrie Hist. Conc. Constant. Lib. VII. Dist. 3.--Laur. Byzyn.
+Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 141).--AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 36.
+
+[546] Chron. Glassberger ann. 1416.
+
+[547] Palacky Documenta, pp. 566-7, 572-9, 602-3.--Von der Hardt IV.
+528, 609-12, 724, 781-2, 823-40.--AEn. Sylvii. Hist. Bohem. c.
+35.--Theod. a Niem Vit. Joann. PP. XXIII. Lib. III. c. 12.
+
+[548] Epistt. lxiii., lxv. (Jo. Hus Monument. I. 79-80, 82).--Palacky
+Documenta, pp. 611-14, 621.--Ludewig Rel. MSS. VI. 69.--Stepbani Cartus.
+Epist. ad Hussitas P. I. c. 5 (Pez Thesaur. Anecd. IV. II. 521).
+
+[549] Von der Hardt IV. 1077-82, 1410-13.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 652-4.
+Doubtless there was much ill-treatment of such of the clergy as remained
+faithful to Rome. In 1417 Stephen of Olmuetz complains that they were
+driven from their benefices, beaten, and slain.--Steph. Cartus. Epist.
+ad Hussit. P. I. c. 3 (Pez Thesaur. Anecd. IV. II. 517).
+
+[550] Von der Hardt IV. 1514-18.--Palacky Documenta, pp. 676-77.
+
+[551] Von der Hardt IV. 1518-31.--Palacky pp. 684-6.
+
+[552] Palacky Documenta, pp. 631-2, 633-8, 654-6, 679.--Laur. Byzyn.
+Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 138-9).--Jo. Hus Monument. II.
+364.--AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legation. (Monument Concil. General. Saec.
+XV. T. I. pp. 385-6).
+
+[553] Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. pp. 142-44).--AEn.
+Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 36, 37.
+
+[554] Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 145-52,
+154-56).--Hist. Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. pp. 37-8.--Camerarii Hist.
+Frat. Orthod. p. 49.
+
+[555] AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legation. (Mon. Concil. General. Saec. XV.
+T. I. p. 387).--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 152-4,
+157-8, 168, 172).
+
+[556] Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 159).--Raynald. ann.
+1420, No. 13.--Hist. Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. pp. 39-40.--AEgid. Carlerii
+Lib. de Legation. loc. cit.
+
+There was warning also to the democratic party among the Bohemians in
+the vengeance taken by Sigismund on citizens of Breslau who had been
+concerned in an uprising similar to that of Prague. On March 7 he caused
+twenty-three of them to be beheaded.--Bezold, Koenig Sigmund und die
+Reichskriege gegen die Husiten, Muenchen, 1872, p. 37.
+
+[557] Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 161-3, 167-70,
+181).--Andreae Ratispon. Chron. (Eccard. Corp. Hist. I. 2147).--Schroedl,
+Passavia Sacra, p. 289.--Naucleri Chron. p. 933 (Ed. 1544).--Hist.
+Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. pp. 43-44.
+
+[558] Palacky, Beziehungen, pp. 20-1.--AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c.
+41.--Dubravii Hist. Bohem. Lib. 27.
+
+[559] Laur. Byzyn. Diar. Bell. Hussit. (Ludewig VI. 202-7).--Palacky,
+Beziehungen, p. 31.--J. Goll, Quellen u. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
+der Boehmischen Brueder, Prag, 1882, II. 10-11, 57-60.--Hist. Persecut.
+Eccles. Bohem. pp. 46-8.--Palacky, Praef. in Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. p.
+xx.
+
+[560] AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legation. (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I.
+p. 389).--Epistt. lxvi. lxvii. (Jo. Hus Monument. I. 82-4).--Laur.
+Byzyn. Diar. (Ludewig VI. 175-81).
+
+[561] Conciliab. Pragens. ann. 1421 (Hartzheim V. 199-201). Cf. Johann.
+de Przibram Profess. Cath. Fidei (Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. pp. 501 sqq.).
+
+[562] Jo. de Turonis Regestrum (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 833,
+858).
+
+Yet these Puritans were represented to Europe in the papal bulls for the
+crusades as not only subverting all political and social order, but as
+condemning marriage and abandoning themselves to all manner of license
+and bestiality.--Martini PP. V. Bull. _Permisit Deus_, 25 Oct. 1427
+(Fascic. Rer. Expetendarum et Fugiend, II. 613).
+
+[563] Jo. de Turonis Regestrum (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. pp. 843,
+858, 865).--Wratislaw, Diary of an Embassy from George of Bohemia,
+London, 1871.
+
+[564] AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 35; Ejusd. Epist. 130 (Opp. Ed. 1571,
+p. 678).--Pet. Zatecens. Lib. Diurnus (Monument. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T.
+I. p. 352).--Concil. Bituricens. ann. 1432 (Harduin. VIII. 1459).--Goll,
+Quellen u. Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Boehmischen Brueder, I. 106.
+
+[565] Goll, Quellen u. Untersuchungen, II. 40-1.--Preger, Beitraege zur
+Geschichte der Waldesier, pp. 68-71.--Laur. Byzyn. Diar. (Ludewig VI.
+183-4, 194-202).--Johann. de Przibram Profess. Fidei (Cochlaei Hist.
+Huss. p. 507).--Huss, Sermo de Exequiis (Monument. II. 50).
+
+See also AEneas Sylvius's statement of the identity between the
+Waldensian and Hussite teachings (Hist. Bohem. c. 35).
+
+[566] Laur. Byzyn. (loc. cit. p. 195).--Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 19-27,
+249-51, 596-99.--Jo. de Turonis Regest. (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I.
+p. 842, 846).--Jo. de Ragusio Tractatus (Ibid. T. I. pp. 272-4, 278,
+285).--Goll, Quellen, II. 17-18, 61-1.--AEn. Sylvii Epist. 130 (Ed. 1571,
+p. 661).
+
+Even Rokyzana, in 1436, was with great difficulty forced to express his
+disbelief in the remanence of the substance of the bread.--Jo. de
+Turonis Regest. (loc. cit. pp. 426-7). Yet nothing can exceed the
+strength of his affirmation of the existence of the body and blood, in
+his _Tractatus de Septem Sacramentis_ (Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. pp. 473-4).
+In view of the exaggerated superstitious adoration of the Eucharist by
+the Calixtins, the assertion of Cardinal Giuliano, in 1431, that the
+Hussites were wont to manifest their contempt for it by trampling it in
+the blood of the slain, is a good illustration of the stories invented
+to stimulate popular abhorrence (Cochlaei op. cit. p. 240).
+
+[567] Herburt. de Fulstin Statut. Regni Poloniae, Samoscii, 1597, p. 191.
+
+[568] Balbin. Epit. Rer. Hung. pp. 475-6.--Sommersberg Silesiac. Rer.
+Scriptt. L. 75.--A popular rhyme of the period described:
+
+    "Meissen und Sachsen verderbt,         Oesterreich verhergt,
+    Schliesien und Laussnitz zerscherbt,   Maehren verzerht,
+    Bayern aussgenehrt,                    Boeheimb umbgekehrt."
+                     (Balbin. p. 478.)
+
+
+[569] C. Constant. Decr. _Frequens_ (Von der Hardt IV. 1435).
+
+[570] Ludewig Reliq. MSS. XI. 385, 409.
+
+[571] Concil. Senens. ann. 1423 (Harduin. VIII. 1015).
+
+[572] Jo. de Ragusio Init. et Prosec. Conc. Basil. (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec.
+XV. T. I. pp. 28-30, 32-35, 53-61, 64).--Concil. Senens. (Harduin. VIII.
+1025-6).--Act. Conc. Basil. (Harduin. VIII. 1108-10).--Raynald. ann.
+1425, No. 3, 4.
+
+John of Ragusa was the delegate of the University of Paris to Siena, and
+subsequently played an active part at Basle.
+
+[573] Jo. de Ragusio Init. etc. (Mon. Con. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. pp.
+66-7).--Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. pp. 237-9.
+
+The repulsion of the papacy for general councils was not unnatural. On
+June 3, 1435, the Council of Basle, with virtual unanimity, abrogated
+the annates and decreed that in future no charges should be made for
+sealing collations and confirmations of sees and benefices, except the
+scrivener's moderate fees. The Bishops of Otranto and Padua protested in
+the name of the pope, and finding this unheeded arose and left the
+council, followed by a few others, while the rest gave themselves up to
+rejoicing and thanking God.--AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legation, (op. cit.
+I. 568).
+
+[574] Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 15-18.--Chron. Concil. Zantfliet (Ibid.
+V. 425-7).--Jo. de Ragusio Tractatus (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. pp.
+135, 138).
+
+[575] Harduin VIII. 1575-8.--Raynald. ann. 1431, No. 26.--Epist. Card.
+Juliani (AEn. Sylv. Opp. Ed. 1571, pp. 66-9).
+
+The letter of Cardinal Giuliano and AEneas Sylvius's Commentaries on the
+Council of Basle were subsequently put in the Index Expurgatorius
+(Reusch, Der Index der verbotenen Buecher, I. 40).
+
+[576] Hemmerlin Lollardor. Descriptio.--Duverger, La Vauderie dans les
+Etats de Philippe le Bon, Arras, 1885, p. 24--Harduin. VIII. 1141,
+1172-82, 1263, 1280, 1582. 1606.--Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 80-2.
+
+[577] Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 131-33.--Pet. Zatecens. Lib. Diurn.
+(Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 304-5, 324, 328-31, 348).--Naucleri
+Chron. ann. 1434.
+
+[578] AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de Legation (Ibid. T. I. pp. 447-71,
+495-7).--Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 305-40, 356-415, 698-704.--Hartzheim
+V. 768-9.--Kukuljevic, Jura Regni Croatiae, Zagrabiae, 1862, I.
+192.--Batthyani Legg. Eccles. Hung. III. 419. The question of infantile
+communion affords an illustration of the skilful casuistry of the
+orthodox. After the reconciliation, when Sigismund was ruling in Prague,
+infantile communion was forbidden by the legate of the council, on the
+ground that the Compactata only guaranteed the privilege to those who
+had been accustomed to it, and that infants born since then were
+therefore not entitled to it.--Jo. de Turonis Regest. (Mon. C. Gen. Saec.
+XV. T. I. p. 865).
+
+[579] Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 710-19.--Harduin. VIII. 1604,
+1650-2.--AEgid. Carlerii Liber de Legationibus (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV.
+T. I. pp. 522, 529-39, 544).--Raynald. ann. 1435, No. 22-3.--Naucleri
+Chron. ann. 1434.
+
+The democratic insubordination characteristic of the Taborites is seen
+in an incident occurring in September, 1433. Procopius sent a detachment
+to invade Bavaria, and appointed as leader a captain named Pardus. The
+men mutinied before setting out, and, on Procopius interposing, one of
+them felled him to the ground with a blow on the head with a stool. The
+man who struck him was elected leader, and under his guidance the
+Taborites lost two thousand of their best veterans.--AEgid. Carlerii l.c.
+pp. 466-7.
+
+The reduction to serfdom of the Bohemian peasantry, in 1487, may be
+regarded as the final result of the overthrow of the Taborites.
+
+[580] Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 354-6.--AEgid. Carlerii Lib. de
+Legationibus (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. pp. 368-9, 516-17, 519,
+595, 597, 600, 632-4, 662-4, 674-6, 678, 684-6, 688).--Th. Ebendorferi
+Diar. (Ib. pp. 767-9, 776-9, 782-3).--Jo. de Turonis Regest. (Ib. 834-5,
+837-8, 848, 868).
+
+[581] Th. Ebendorferi Diar. (loc. cit. 82).--Jo. de Turonis Regest. (Ib.
+821-22).--Naucleri Chron. ann. 1436.
+
+[582] Jo. de Turonis Regest. (loc. cit. pp. 862, 865).--AEn. Sylvii Hist.
+Bohem. c. 59.--Naucleri Chron. ann. 1437.
+
+[583] AEn. Sylvii Epist. lxxi. (Opp. inedd. _ap._ Atti della Accademia
+dei Lincei, 1883, p. 465).--Jo. de Turonis Regest. (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec.
+XV. T. I. pp. 855, 857).--Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthod. pp.
+57-8.--Naucleri Chron. ann. 1436, 1438.
+
+Concil. Basiliens. Sess. XXX. (Harduin. VIII. 1244).--Petitiones
+Bohemorum (Fascic. Rer. Expetend. et Fugiend. I. 319, Ed.
+1690).--Martene Ampl. Coll. VIII. 942-3--AEn. Sylvii Epist. 101 (Ed.
+1571, p. 591).--Chron. Cornel. Zantfliet (Martene Ampl. Coll. V.
+445).--De Schweinitz, Hist. of Unitas Fratrum, pp. 91-2, 94.
+
+[584] AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 58.--Ejusd. Epist. xix. (Opp. inedd. p.
+397).--Raynald. ann. 1448, No. 3-5.
+
+[585] AEgid. Carlerii. Lib. de Legation. (Monument. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV.
+T. I. pp. 691, 694).--Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. Lib. XII. ann.
+1462.--Wadding, ann. 1452, No. 1-4.--Raynald. ann. 1446, No. 3, 4; ann.
+1447, No. 5-7.--Harduin. VIII. 1307-9.
+
+The papal view of the permission to use the cup, as set forth by Pius
+II. (AEneas Sylvius) in 1464, was that it was only conceded to those
+accustomed to it until the Council of Basle should decide the question.
+Had this been observed those who used it would in time have died out,
+and it was an infraction of the agreement to give it to children and new
+communicants, through whom the custom was perpetuated.--AEn. Sylvii
+Epist. lxxi. (Opp. inedd. pp. 465).
+
+[586] Loserth, Mittheilungen des Vereins fuer Gesch. der Deutschen in
+Boehmen, 1885, pp. 102-4, 107.--Wadding. ann. 1436, No. 1-11.--AEgid.
+Carlerii. Lib. de Legation. (Mon. Conc. Gen. Saec. XV. T. I. p. 691).
+
+[587] Wadding. ann. 1437, No. 6-12.--Synodd. Strigonens. ann. 1450, 1480
+(Batthyani Legg. Eccles. Hung. III. 481, 557).
+
+[588] Wadding. ann. 1437, No. 13-21; ann. 1438, No. 12-16; ann. 1439,
+No. 41-6; ann. 1440, No. 7; ann. 1444, No. 44; ann. 1446, No.
+10.--Herburt de Fulstin Statuta Regni Poloniae, Samoscii, 1597, p.
+192.--Raynald. ann. 1446, No. 10.--Theiner Monument. Slavor. Meridian.
+I. 394.
+
+[589] AEn. Sylvii. Epistt. 130, 246-7, 259, 404 (Ed. 1571, pp. 667,
+782-3, 788, 947).--Wadding. ann. 1455, No. 2; ann. 1456, No. 11-12.
+
+In George Podiebrad's letter of 1468 to his son-in-law Matthius
+Corvinus, complaining of his treatment by the Holy See, he says, "In
+truth there were formerly in Bohemia many errors concerning the
+sacrament, and also concerning the ornaments and vestments in
+administering the rite, and the veneration of saints, but by divine
+grace these have been so reduced that there is scarcely any difference
+now existing with the Roman Church. By comparing what was customary
+thirty or forty years ago with the present, it will be seen that little
+remains to do in comparison with what has been accomplished."--D'Achery
+Spieileg. III. 834.
+
+A notable part of this retrogression occurred in 1454, when edicts were
+issued in the name of Ladislas, with the consent of Rokyzana, ordering
+that the epistles and gospels, in the canon of the mass, should be
+recited in Latin and not in the vulgar tongue; that confession should be
+a prerequisite to communion; that children should not receive communion
+without due preparation; that the blood of the Eucharist should not be
+carried beyond the churches for fear of accidents; that no one should
+administer it without letters authenticating his priesthood; that no
+marriage should be celebrated without banns published in full
+church.--Chron. Cornel. Zantfliet. ann. 1454 (Martene Ampl. Coll. V.
+486-7).
+
+[590] Wadding. ann. 1451, No. 1-16; ann. 1452, No. 34.
+
+[591] Wadding. ann. 1451, No. 17-20; ann. 1452, No. 18, 26; ann. 1453,
+No. 2-8.
+
+[592] Wadding. ann. 1451, No. 24-36; ann. 1452, No. 1, 12,--Sommersberg
+Silesiac. Rer. Scriptt. I. 84-5.--Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. Lib. X. ann.
+1451.
+
+[593] Wadding. ann. 1452, No. 2-4, 13-14.--Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. Lib.
+XI. ann. 1452.
+
+[594] Chron. Glassberger ann. 1452.
+
+[595] Wadding, ann. 1453, No. 9-10; ann. 1254, No. 12-13, 17-19--Chron.
+Cornel. Zantfliet (Martene Ampl. Coll. V. 486-7).--AEn. Sylvii Epist. 404
+(Ed. 1571, p. 947).
+
+[596] Wadding, ann. 1254, No. 7-12; ann. 1255, No. 2-7--AEn. Sylv. Epist.
+405 (p. 947).--Ejusd. Epistt. xxxix.-xliii., xlvi., lviii., lx. (Opp.
+inedd. pp. 415-24. 426-9, 440-1, 448).
+
+[597] Wadding, ann. 1455, No. 8-13; ann. 1456, No. 9-12.
+
+[598] Wadding. ann. 1456, No. 16-67, 83-4.--AEn. Sylv. Hist. Bohem. cap.
+lxv. Six several attempts were made, at various times, to canonize
+Capistrano, but the fates were against it. The earlier efforts were
+neutralized by the opposition of the legate, Nicholas of Cusa, and the
+jealousy of the rival orders of Dominicans and Conventual Franciscans.
+Repeated requests came from Germany, but they remained unheeded. In 1462
+urgent letters were written by Frederic III., the Margrave of
+Brandenburg, and innumerable bishops and magistrates of cities from
+Cracow to Ratisbon; these were intrusted to a Franciscan friar to take
+to Rome, but he died on the road, and confided them to a knight of
+Assisi. The latter brought them to his home, and then departed for
+Germany, where he died. The trunk containing them was piously preserved
+by his descendants until, towards the middle of the seventeenth century,
+Wadding chanced to see it, and took the letters to Rome, in the hopes of
+their still accomplishing their object. At the inquest held by Leo X. a
+classified record of the miracles wrought by the thaumaturge shows, of
+dead brought to life, more than thirty; of deaf made to hear, three
+hundred and seventy; of blind restored to sight, one hundred and
+twenty-three; of cripples and gouty persons cured, nine hundred and
+twenty, and miscellaneous cases innumerable. This resulted in his
+admission to the inferior order of the Blessed, to be worshipped by the
+Franciscans of the diocese of Capistrano. In 1622 Gregory XV. enlarged
+his cult to the whole Franciscan Order; and in 1690 Alexander VIII.
+enrolled him in the calendar of saints.--Wadding, ann. 1456, No. 114-22;
+ann. 1462, No. 29-78.--Weizfaecker, ap. Herzog's Real Encyklop. s. v.
+
+[599] Wadding, ann. 1457, No. 5, 10; ann. 1461, No. 1-2; ann. 1465, No.
+6; ann. 1467, No. 5.
+
+[600] AEn. Sylvii Epist. 162, 324, 334-5, 337-40, 356, 369, 387 (Ed.
+1571, pp. 714, 815, 821-22, 825, 831, 837, 840).--Ejusd. Hist. Bohem. c.
+71-2.
+
+Pius II. did not hesitate to publish to Christendom a positive assertion
+that George poisoned Ladislas, and said that, though the facts were
+obscure, the Viennese physicians in attendance attributed his death to
+poison.--AEn. Sylv. Epist. lxxi. (Opp. inedd. p. 467).
+
+[601] AEn. Sylvii Hist. Bohem. c. 69.--Ejusd. Epist. lxxi. (Opp. inedd.
+pp. 461-70).--Ejusd. Tractatus (Ib. pp. 566, 581).--Raynald. ann. 1457,
+No. 69; ann. 1458, No. 20-8; ann. 1459, No. 18-23; ann. 1463, No.
+96-102.--Cochlaei Hist. Lib. XII.--Dubrav. Hist. Bohem. Lib.
+30.--Wadding, ann. 1462, No. 87.--Pii PP. II. Bull. _In
+minoribus_.--Sommersberg Silesiac. Rer. Scriptt. II. 1025-6,
+1031.--Wadding, ann. 1456, No. 12; ann. 1469, No. 4, 6.--Ludewig Reliq.
+MSS. VI. 61.--Martene Ampl. Coll. I. 1598-9.--D'Achery Spicileg. III.
+830-4.--Ripoll III. 466.
+
+[602] Raynald. ann. 1468, No. 1-14.--Chron. Glassberger ann.
+1468.--Dubrav. Hist. Bohem. Libb. XXX.-XXXI.--Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. Lib.
+XII. ann. 1471.
+
+[603] Wadding, ann. 1460, No. 55; ann. 1462, No. 87; ann. 1471, No. 5;
+ann. 1475, No. 28, 37-9; ann. 1489, No. 21; ann. 1491, No. 8,
+78.--Chron. Glassberger ann. 1463, 1466, 1479, 1483.--Dubrav. Hist.
+Bohem. Lib. XXXI.--De Schweinitz, Hist. of Unitas Fratrum, p.
+168.--Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthod. pp. 72-3.--Georgisch Regest. Chron.
+Diplom. III. 158.
+
+[604] AEn. Sylvii Epist. 130 (Ed. 1571 pp. 661-2).
+
+[605] Goll, Quellen u. Untersuchungen, I. 10, 32-33, 92, 99; II. 72,
+87-88, 94.--De Schweinitz, Hist. of Unitas Fratrum, pp. 111-12, 159,
+204-5.--Von Zezschwitz, Real-Encyklop. II. 652-3.--Hist. Persecutionum
+pp. 58-60, 90.--Palacky, Die Beziehungen der Waldenser, pp.
+32-33.--Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthod. pp. 59-66.--For the Calixtin views
+on the Eucharist see the treatises of Rokyzana and of John of Przibram
+in Cochlaei Hist. Hussit. pp. 474, 508; also the latter's articles
+against Peter Payne (Ib. 230).
+
+When the Brethren undertook to explain their views on the Eucharist they
+become somewhat difficult to understand. The bread and wine became the
+body and blood, and they would have believed it had the bread been
+stone, but still the substance remained, and Christ was not
+present.--Fascic. Rer. Expetend. et Fugiend. I. 165, 170, 174, 183, 185.
+
+[606] Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthod. pp. 84-9.--Hist. Persecut. p.
+65.--Von Zezschwitz, I. c. p. 653-4.
+
+[607] Wie sich die Menschen u.s.w. (Goll, II. 99-100).--Das Buch der
+Prager Magister (Ib. 104-5).
+
+The Calixtins had the same trouble about the apostolic succession. A
+letter from the Church of Constantinople, in 1451, warmly urging union,
+and offering to supply spiritual pastors, shows that overtures had been
+made to the Greek Church to remove the difficulty; but apparently the
+Bohemians were not prepared to cut loose definitely from Catholicism
+(Flac. Illyr. Catal. Test. Veritatis, Lib. XIX. p. 1834-5, Ed. 1608).
+The trouble was renewed after the death of Rokyzana. At length, in 1482,
+Agostino Luciano, an Italian bishop, came to Prague in search of a purer
+religion, and was joyfully received. He served them until 1493, when he
+died. Then Filippo, Bishop of Sidon, came, but after three years he was
+recalled by the pope. In 1499 a mission was sent to Armenia, where some
+of them were ordained.--Hist. Persecutionum pp. 95-6.
+
+[608] Goll. op. cit. II. 101.--De Schweinitz, op. cit. p. 156,
+200-1.--Edouard Montet, Hist. Litt. des Vaudois, pp. 152, 156.
+
+[609] De Schweinitz, op. cit. pp. 122-7, 172-5, 180-1.
+
+[610] Hist. Persecut. Eccles. Bohem. pp. 63-66, 73-4.--Ripoll III.
+577.--Camerarii Hist. Frat. Orthod. pp. 104-22.--De Schweinitz, op. cit.
+170, 225-6.--Von Zezschwitz, Real-Encyklop. II. 656-7, 660.
+
+[611] Parkman's Montcalm, II. 144-5.--I owe to the kindness of Bishop De
+Schweinitz the statistics of the Moravian Missions.
+
+[612] Haureau (Bernard Delicieux, p. 194) prints the bull of 1210 (Doat,
+XXXII. fol. 60), contained in the above, but has apparently overlooked
+the subsequent and far more significant one. The earlier bull also
+appears in T. V. p. 40, of the Regestum Clementis PP. V. just issued in
+Rome.
+
+In the same publication, received too late for reference to be made in
+the proper place (see above, p. 78), there arc several letters throwing
+light on the troubles of Bernard de Castanet, Bishop of Albi. In 1307
+two of his cathedral canons, Sicard Aleman and Bernard Astruc, accused
+him before the pope of numerous crimes. Berenger, Cardinal of SS. Nereo
+and Achille, to whom the matter was referred, after examining the
+articles of accusation, suspended him from all his functions during an
+investigation. "Executors" were ordered to proceed to Albi to take
+testimony, giving three months to the prosecution, then two to the
+defence, and finally two more to the prosecution in rebuttal. A
+vicar-general was appointed, July 31, to take charge of the see, and
+three procurators to collect its revenues. One of the "executors" was
+Arnaud Novelli, Abbot of Fontfroide, whom we have seen (p. 87)
+replacing, by order of Philipe le Bel, the bishop in his inquisitorial
+capacity. Arnaud was soon afterwards appointed vice-chancellor of the
+curia; this, with other impediments, delayed the investigation, and on
+November 20 two additional months were granted to the prosecution.
+Nothing apparently came of the trial except that it probably quickened
+Bernard's desire to abandon his thorny seat. There is a papal brief of
+October 31, 1308, addressed to Bertrand de Bordes as Bishop of Albi, in
+which Bernard is alluded to as late of Albi and now of Puy (Ibid. T. II.
+pp. 52, 165; T. III. pp. 3, 255).
+
+[613] Gui II., Bishop of Cambrai from 1296 to 1305.
+
+[614] Philippe de Marigny, Bishop of Cambrai in 1306, transferred to
+Sens in April, 1310, in time to burn the Templars who retracted their
+confessions.
+
+[615] In the Register of Clement V., received since the text of this
+volume was in type, there is a brief addressed September 3, 1310, to the
+Inquisitor of Langres ordering him to proceed vigorously against the
+heretics of that diocese who have been reported by the bishop as
+multiplying so that, unless prompt measures are taken, grave injury to
+the faith is to be apprehended. The nature of the heresy is not
+described, but it was probably that of the Brethren of the Free Spirit
+which Marguerite la Porete had been disseminating throughout that
+region.
+
+The incident has further interest as showing how completely the French
+episcopate had transferred to the Inquisition its jurisdiction over
+heresy, in spite of its renewed activity at the moment in the affair of
+the Templars.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A History of The Inquisition of The
+Middle Ages; volume II, by Henry Charles Lea
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