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diff --git a/39292-0.txt b/39292-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..971022d --- /dev/null +++ b/39292-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1045 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Greek Primer, by Wallace Stearns + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Greek Primer + For Beginners in New Testament Greek + +Author: Wallace Stearns + +Release Date: March 28, 2012 [EBook #39292] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GREEK PRIMER *** + + + + +Produced by Stanley A. Bridgeford + + + + +A GREEK PRIMER +For Beginners in New Testament Greek + +μηδὲν ἄγαν + +by + +Wallace N. Stearns + +[image: logo] + +THE METHODIST BOOK CONCERN +NEW YORK CINCINNATI + +Copyright, 1914, by + + +WALLACE N. STEARNS + +A scholarly knowledge of Greek requires some time and effort. +Every preacher and teacher of the New Testament books would be +greatly helped by being able even to refer to the dictionary +and to pick out the critical notes in a high-grade commentary. + +In many instances memory has grown dim, and there is need of +some not too pretentious guide to a new beginning. + +Out of many such experiences this meager outline has come, an +attempt built up on the old maxim, "Do not in the beginning +attempt too much." + + +SUGGESTIONS + + 1 Learn principles. Language preceded grammar, and the + latter is at best a generalization of the former. + 2 Learn words. Acquire a vocabulary. The first step is + to know words and, further, to know them in their Greek + dress. + 3 Read aloud. The ear lends efficient help to the eye. + There is an indefinable swing even to Greek prose that + facilitates study. + 4 Commit passages—however brief—to memory. Better than + rules is a fund of actual examples, stored up in the memory, + of Greek as it was spoken and written. + 5 With this outline the text of the forth Gospel should + be used from the start (see notice on next page) for study, + reading aloud, and for memorizing. + 6 Remember that in the end all methods avail little. + The way to do a thing is to do it. + +ABBREVIATIONS USED + +B. M. T. Burton's New Testament Moods and Tenses. +Bt. Babbit's Grammar of Attic and Ionic Greek. +G. Gildersleeve's Syntax of Classical Greek. +Gl. Goodell's School Grammar of Attic Greek. +G. M. T. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses. +Gn. Goodwin's Greek Grammar. +H.A. Hadley and Allen's Greek Grammar. + +Useful beginning books are: + +Huddilston's Essentials of New Testament Greek +(Macmillan, 65 cents). + +The Gospel of John in Greek, issued by the Massachusetts +Bible Society (10 cents a copy). + +Moulton's Brief Dictionary of New Testament Greek +(Hinds and Noble, $1.00); or Green's Greek-English +Lexicon to the New Testament (with supplement. Hastings, +Boston, 75 cents). + + +I. THE ALPHABET + +1. In learning a new alphabet attention need be paid only to +such letters as are not already know. Of the Greek alphabet +only twelve characters are unfamiliar: + +A, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, Ζ, Η, Θ, Ι, Κ, Λ, Μ, +α, β, γ, δ, ε, ζ, η, θ, ι, κ, λ, μ, +a, b, g, d, ĕ, z, ē, th, i, k, l, m, + +Ν, Ξ, Ο, Π, Ρ, Σ, Τ, Υ, Φ, Χ, Ψ, Ω, +ν, ξ, ο, π, ρ, σ(ς), τ, υ, φ, χ, ψ, ω, +n, ks, ŏ, p, r, s, t, u, ph, ch, ps, ō, + +Note.—The small letters, most used, should be learned. The +capital letters may be learned as they occur. + +2. ε, ο are always short; η, ω, always long; α, ι, υ, sometimes +long, sometimes short. + +ā as "a" in father. ī as "i" in machine. +ă as "a" in papa. ĭ as "i" in pin. +η as "e" in fete. ω as "o" in note. +ε as "e" in met. ο as "o" in obey. +υ equals approximately "eu" in feud or the French u. + +Note 1.—In diphthongs with a long vowel ι is subscribed. + +Note 2.—As in music, the difference between long and short +is one of time, as musical notes image A difference in quality +actually appears in pronunciation. + +Note 3.—A diphthong is counted long. But in determining accent +final –αι– and –οι– are counted short except in the optative +mode and in a few words, οἴμοι, οἴκοι. Bt. 3-4; Gl. 5; Gn. 5; +H.A. 9-11. + +3. The consonants are classified: + +(1) Mutes— + Smooth Middle Rough With s +Labial, π β φ ψ +Palatal, κ γ χ ξ +Lingual, τ δ θ ζ + +(2) Liquids— +λ, μ, ν, ρ, as in English, σ(ς) is a sibilant. + +(3) ζ, ξ, ψ are called double consonants. +Bt. 12; Gl. 38; Gn. 18-22. + +SYLLABLES + +1. There are as many syllables in a word as there are separate +vowels and diphthongs. + +2. Consonants are pronounced with succeeding vowels: λό-γος, +πο-λί-της, ἐ-λέ-γε-το. Where two consonants occur together, +they are not separated at the beginning of a word or in the +case of combinations that do occur at the beginning of the +words. G. 97; H.A. 91. + +II. ACCENT + +Accent occurs on one of the last three syllables, and represents +to the eye the movement of the voice in pronouncing words. +Its practical value is to indicate the stress of the voice in reading. + +Note 1.—Accent forms are three (acute ´, grave `, and circumflex ˆ) +and may be summarized thus: + + Short ultima { antepenult ´ + { short penult ´ + { long penult ˆ + { ultima ´ + + Long ultima { penult ´ + { ultima ´ or ` + +Note 2.—In composition acute accent on the last syllable becomes +grave. + +Note 3.—Accent is often arbitrary. Rules indicate where accent may +(not must) occur. + +III. BREATHINGS + +Words beginning with a vowel are pronounced with or without +aspiration (initial "h"). Aspiration is indicated by the sign +( ῾ ), ὅτι (hoti). Unaspirated syllables are marked ( ᾿ ), +οὐκ (ook). + +American him is ῾im; horse is ῾orse. + +English im is ᾿im; orse is ᾿orse. + +Note 1.—Breathing stands over the vowel: in a diphthong, over +the second vowel (accent also stands over the second vowel, +and precedes the breathing). Bt. 8; Gl. 6; Gn. 11. + +Note may be made of the marks of punctuation: comma (,), +colon (·), interrogation (;), period (.). + +IV. DECLENSIONS + +1. There are three numbers; singular, dual, and plural. In +late Greek the dual is less frequent and except the numeral +δύο, does not occur in the New Testament. Bt. 74; Gl. 57; +Gn. 155; H.A. 123. + +2. The five cases are the nominative, genitive (equals of, +or a possessive), dative (equals to, for, with), accusative +(equals English objective), vocative (as in direct address). +Bt 74; Gl. 59; Gn. 160; H.A. 123. + +3 The o– declension (stems end in —o—). + Sing. Dual Plural + (rare in + late Greek) + Mas. Neut. Mas. and Neut. Mas. Neut. +Nom. —ος —ον —ω —οι —ᾰ +Gen. —ου —ου —οιν —ων —ων +Dat. —ῳ —ῳ —οιν —οις —οις +Acc. —ον —ον —ω —ους —ᾰ +Voc. —ε —ον —ω —οι —ᾰ +(or same as Nom.) + +(1) Masculine nouns (and a few feminines) end in –ος in +Nom. Sing.: Neuters end in –ον. + +(2) The stem of an —o— noun may be found by dropping the +case-ending and adding the stem vowel —o—. Bt. 76; Gl. 62; +Gn. 192; H.A. 133. + +Examples + +Determine stem in each of the following words and affix the +above case-ending. Note changes in the accent and the reasons +therefor. ἄρτος, στόλος, λόγος, υἱός, ἄνθρωπος, ἱερόν; σοφός, +σοφόν; αὐτός, οὔτος. + +Translate and construe: + +1. λέγει (says) αὐτῷ ὁ Φίλιππος. +2. ἐν τῷ τοῦ Κρόνου ἱερῷ. +3. καλεῖται (is called) οὗτος ὁ τόπος βίος. +4. περίβολος ἦν (was), ἐν αὐτῷ ἒχων (having, = with) + ἑτέρους περιβόλους δύο. +5. οὗτοι οἱ λόγοι πιστοὶ καὶ ἀληθινοί. + +4. The a– declension (stems end in —a—). + Sing. Dual Plural + Fem. Mas. Fem. and Mas. Mas. and Mas. +Nom. —α, —η —ας, —ης —ᾱ —αι +Gen. —ᾱς, —ης —ου, —ου —αιν —ῶν +Dat. —ᾳ, —ῃ —ᾳ, —ῃ —αιν —αις +Acc. —αν, —ην —αν, —ην —ᾱ —ᾱς +Voc. —α, —η —α, —α —ᾱ —αι + +(1) Feminine nouns in the Nom. Sing. end in –ᾰ, –ᾱ, +or –η; mas. nouns, in –ας or –ης. + +(2) In the gen. sing., mas. nouns end in –ου. + +(3) Except in the genitive, final –α in the sing. is short +when not preceded by ε, ι, or ρ, otherwise long. + +(4) If in the mas. the –ος is preceded by ε, ι, or ρ, +(note 3), the fem. sing. nom. ends in –ᾱ, otherwise in –η. +Bt. 76; Gl. 66; Gn. 171; H.A. 132-3. + +Examples—as in 1 + +μοῦσα, οἰκία, χώρα, τιμή; ὁπλίτης, ταμίας; αὐτή, αὔτη; ἡ ὁδός. + +Translate and construe: + +1. ἐν ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος, καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν πρὸς τὸν θεόν. +2. καὶ αὕτη ἐστὶν (is) ἡ μαρτυρία τοῦ Ἰωάννου. +3. τὸ δὲ κέντρον τοῦ θανάτου ἡ μαρτυρία. +4. ὁ στέφανος τῆς ζωῆς. +5. ἠ πύλη τοῦ πρώτου περιβόλου. +6. Τύχη ἔστι δὲ οὐ μόνον τυφλή, ᾶλλὰ καὶ κωφή. +7. Πλάνος καὶ Ἄγνοια. + +5. The Consonant declension (stems end in a consonant). With +these are grouped in the grammar (3rd declension) nouns with +stems in ι, υ, or a diphthong. + + Sing. Dual Plural + (rare in + late Greek) + Mas. and Fem. Neut. Fem., Mas., + and Neut. Mas. and Fem. Neut. +Nom. —ς, or – – —ε —ες —ᾰ +Gen. —ος —ος —οιν —ων —ων +Dat. —ι —ι —οιν —σι —σι +Acc. —ν, or —ᾰ – —ε —νς or —ᾰς —ᾰ +Voc. —ς, or — – —ε —ες —ᾰ + +(1) Necessary here is the table of mutes and their forms when +combined with –s. (I, 3, 1.) + +(2) All three genders occur in this declension. + +(3) In gen. plural of monosyllabic nouns (as in —α— nouns) +the accent is —ῶν: in datives dual and plural of tones we +have —αῖν, —οῖν, —αῖς, and —οῖς. Bt. 76; Gl. 98; Gn. 225; +H.A. 132-3. + +Examples—as in 1 + +θήρ (stem θερ–), σῶμα (–τος), πίναξ (–κος), σάλπιγξ (–γγος), +λαίλαψ (–πος), φλέψ (–βός), θρίξ (τριχός). + +Translate and construe: + +1. ἦν τὸ φῶς τὸ ἀληθινόν. +2. ἡ δύναμις τῆς ἁμαρτίας ὁ νόμος ἐστίν (is). +3. καὶ ὁ λόγος σάρξ ἐγένετο (become). +4. ἦν πίναξ ἔμπροσθεν τοῦ ναοῦ. +5. ἡ Ἀφροσύνη τοῖς ἀνθρώποις Σφίγξ ἐστιν. +6. οὕτως ἐστὶν ἡ ἀνάστασις τῶν νεκρῶν. + +6. These case-endings hold for all (except indeclinables which +undergo no changes) substantives, adjectives (including the +definite article), pronouns, and participles (see verbs). +E. g.: + + Relative Pronouns Definite Article + Sing. Mas. Fem. Neut. Mas. Fem. Neut. +Nom. ὅς ἥ ὅ ὁ ἡ τό +Gen. οὗ ἧς οὗ τοῦ τῆς τοῦ +Dat. ᾧ ᾗ ᾧ τῷ τῇ τῷ +Acc. ὅν ἥν ὅ τόν τήν τό + etc. etc. +Bt. 144-9; Gl. 214; Gn. 421; H.A. 272-5. + +The personal pronouns, as in other languages, are more irregular, +the several parts being traceable to different stems. + + First Person, I Second Person, Thou + Sing. Plural Sing. Plural +Nom. ἐγώ ἡ-μεῖς σύ ὑ-μεῖς +Gen. ἐ-μοῦ ἡ-μῶν σοῦ ὑ-μῶν +Dat. ἐ-μοί ἡ-μῖν σοί ὑ-μῖν +Acc. ἐ-μέ ἡ-μᾶς σέ ὑ-μἀς +Bt. 139; Gl. 194; Gn. 389; H.A. 261. + +Translate and construe: + +1. ὁ προφήτης εἶ (art). +2. σὺ πίστιν ἔχεις (hast) καὶ ἐγὼ ἔργα. +3. ἐγὼ φωνὴ βοῶντος (one crying) ἐν τῇ ἐρήμῳ. + +V. THE VERB: CONJUGATION + +1. In the study of the verb four points are to be considered: +stem; tense-signs; theme vowels (short in indicative, imperative, +infinitive, and participial modes; long in the subjunctive and +merged in a diphthong in the optative); and personal endings. + +2. The stem is the basic part of the inflected word. To this are +appending the various signs, as above, which in verb analysis must +again be cut off. E. g., τι-μά-ω, I honor, stem τῑμᾰ. Bt. 157-61; +Gl. 248; Gn. 404-7, 153; H.A. 153. + +3. The tenses of the verb are called primary or secondary as +they have to do with present (or future) or past time. Taking +the verb λύω as a model we have: + + Primary Secondary +Present, stem λυ- Imperfect, stem ἐ-λυ +Future, stem λυσ- Aorist, stem ἐ-λυς +Perfect, stem λε-λυκ- Pluperfect, stem ἐ-λε-λυκ +Future perfect, stem λε-λυσ +Bt. 162; Gl. 311; Gn. 717; H.A. 372. + +4. The future tenses (future, future perfect) are indicated +by a σ(+ ο/ε) appended to the stem, as λύ-ω, λύ-σω, λε-λύ-σ-ο-μαι, +λύ-θή-σ-ο-μαι. Bt. 212; Gn. 662; Gl. 277; H.A. 372. + +5. The perfect tenses (perfect, future perfect, pluperfect) are +indicated by (1) the doubling of the stem (i. e., repeating the +initial consonant with ε—), and (2) in the active voice by an +affixed —κ— (cf. Latin —v—). E. g., λύ-ω perf. λέ-λυ-κα (for λύ-λυ-κα). + +Note 1.—If the verb begins with a middle or rough mute, the +reduplication occurs with the corresponding smooth mute (cf. I,3). +E. g., πέ-φυ-κα (for φέ-φυ-κα). Bt. 162; Gl. 287; Gn. 455; H.A. 300-3. + +6. Secondary tenses are indicated generally be the prefix ἐ—, e.g., +ἔ-λυ-ο-ν, ἐ-λε-λύ-κ-ε-μεν. In case the verb itself begins with a vowel, +the initial vowel is lengthened. E.g., ἀ-κού-ω, ἤ-κου-ο-ν. Bt. 171-2; +Gl. 264, 293; Gn. 465, 3; H.A. 354-7. + +7. The theme vowel immediately follows the stem. In the indicative it +is —ο— before μ and ν, otherwise —ε—; in the subjunctive, —ω—or —η—; +in the optative (mode vowel), —οι— or —αι— (aorist passive indicative, +—ει—). E. g., ἔ-λυ-ο-ν, ἕ-λυ-ε-ς, λύ-ω-μαι, λύ-η-ται, λυ-οί-μην, +λυ-σαί-μην. Bt. 159-60; Gl. 294-5; Gn. 568, 719, 730; H.A. 372. + +(1) In aorist tenses except second aorist and aorist passive, the +theme vowel is —α—. + +(2) In the perfect active the them vowel is —α—, in the pluperfect +active it is —ε—. + +(3) In the pluperfect middle and passive the theme vowel is omitted. +E. g., λε-λύ-σ-α-μεν, λε-λύ-κ-α-τε, ἐ-λε-λύ-κ-ε-μεν, λέ-λυ-μαι, +ἐ-λε-λύ-μην. Bt. 201, 222-4; Gl. 279, 288-9, 298; Gn. 669, 682-3, 698; +H.A. 428, 446, 459, 461-3. + +8. The sign of the passive voice is often —θε—, sometimes lengthened +to —θη— in conjugation, e. g., λυ-θή-σ-ο-μαι. Bt. 231-2; Gl. 302; +Gn. 707; H.A. 468. + +9. The person of the verb is indicated by a letter or syllable +(in origin a personal pronoun) added to end of verb. +E. g., λύ-ο-μαι, ἔ-λυ-ο-ν. + +10. The middle and passive voices are alike except in two tenses, +the future and the aorist. Bt. 167; Gl. 263; Gn. 552; H.A. 376-80. + +11. There are two sets (or double sets) of personal ending; one set +for the active (primary and secondary) tenses, and one for the tenses +of the middle and passive (except second aorist and aorist passive). +Bt. 166; Gl. 263, 271; Gn. 551-3; H.A. 375. + +12. The personal ending may be shown thus: + + Primary Tenses + Sing. { —ω —μαι + { —εις —σαι + { —ει —ται + + Dual { —τον —σθον + { —τον —σθην + + Plur. { —μεν —μεθα + { —τε —σθε + { —ουσι(ν) —νται + + Secondary Tenses + + Sing. { —ν —μην + { —ς —σο + { — — —το + + Dual { —τον —σθον + { —την —σθην + + Plur. { —μεν —μεθα + { —τε —σθε + { —ν —ντο + +(1) The longer, softer endings generally indicate middle or +passive voice. + +(2) In verbs as in noun the dual is less frequent in later Greek. + +13. The endings of the active participle to indicate gender are +respectively —ων, —ουσα, —ον. The form —ουσα is of the first +declension; the others (—οντ, Gn. 25; Gl. 119) are of the third. + +14. Middle participles are of the first and second declensions and +may be recognized by the syllable —μεν—. E. g., λυ-ό-μεν-ος. + +15. The active infinitive regularly ends in —ειν —εν + theme +vowel —ε—, contracted, —ειν). E. g., λύ-ειν (for λυ-ε-εν). The +passive and middle (i.e., when used as passive) infinitives +regularly end in —σθαι. E. g., λύ-ε-σθαι, λύ-σ-α-σθαι. The aorist +passive infinitive ends in —ναι. E. g., λυ-θῆ-ναι. Bt. 167; +Gl. 162, 273, 275; Gn. 301, 334. + +16. Variations from the regular forms occur in the endings of +the imperative: + + Active Middle and Passive + Sing. { 2. —, aorist —ν + { (—θι, —ς) —σο aorist —αι + { (contracts with con. vowels ιο —ον) + 3. —τω —σθω + + Dual { 2. —τον —σθον + { 3. —των —σθων + + Plur. { 2. —τε —σθε + { 3. —ντων (or + τωσαν) —σθων (or —σθωσαν) +Bt. 167; Gl. 270-2; Gn. 746; H.A. 376. + +17. The principal parts of the verb (which should be memorized) +are the first person singular of the active indicative present, +future, first aorist, and perfect; the middle perfect; and the +passive aorist. Bt 162-3; Gl. 311; Gn. 462-5; H.A. 304c. + +18. A small class of verbs (about equal to the number of +irregular verbs in English) retain the more primitive personal +endings (e.g., act. ind. pres. sing., —μι, —σι, —τι, remains of +old pronominal forms). Of such are τί-θη-μι, δί-δω-μι, ἴ-στη-μι. +Bt. 251-8; Gl. 372-4; Gn. 500-509; H.A. 476-92. + +19. Certain verbs with vowel stems, as τιμά-ω, φιλέ-ω, δηλό-ω, +by contraction with initial vowels in the personal endings assume +forms not found in the regular verb paradigms. E. g., τιμά-εις, +τίμᾶς; ἐ-τίμα-ε, ἐτίμα; ἐ-τίμα-ο-ν, ἐ-τίμων. Bt. 248-50; Gl. 313-15; +Gn. 492-94; H.A. 337-41. For changes in accent see: Bt. 65; Gl. 29, +Gn. 117; H.A. 37-39. + +(1) These forms are best studied as they occur by reference +to the grammars. + +VI. SEQUENCE + +1. It is a principle in Greek, as in other languages, that a +certain relation must hold between the verbs of dependent +clauses and those of the independent clauses on which they are based. + +2. In Latin the sequence is one of tenses, primary tenses depending +on primary tenses and secondary tenses on secondary tenses. But in +Greek the tenses of the dependent modes do not, in general, express +distinctions of time. G. M. T. 785, 20. + +3. In Greek the subjunctive in dependent clauses is treated (usually) +as though it were a primary mode: the optative as though it were a +secondary mode. E. g.: + +τοῦτο πράττει ἵνα καλῶς ἔχη +τοῦτο ἔπραττε ἵνα καλῶς ἔχοι + +But in the Greek of the New Testament. (B. M. T. 174, 259, 344) and in +Latin (Hale and Buck's Latin Grammar, 459) there is not optative in use, +and the above distinction in modes no longer exits. Bt. 517, 2; Gl. 662; +Gn. 448, 1249, 1267; H.A. 876. The trend of sequence is from the primary +tenses of the indicative through subjunctive and optative in that order +to the past tenses of the indicative. See under VII. + +VII. THE CONDITIONAL SENTENCE + +1. A conditional sentence is one that assumes what may or may not be +true (in reality), and bases on it some other statement (i. e., the +supposition is assumed to be true). Bt. 600-1; Gl. 645; Gn. 1381; +H.A. 889. + +2. A simple supposition implying nothing as to fulfillment, has the +indicative (or an equivalent; Bt. 602, notes) in both clauses. + +(1) If a specific sequence is made in present time, then the present +indicative stands in both clauses. If in past time, a past indicative +occurs in both clauses. E. g.: + +Present: εἰ τοῦτο πράττει, καλῶς ἔχει +Past: εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς εἶχε + +Note 1.—The same tense need not necessarily stand in both clauses, +e. g., εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς ἔχει. + +(2) A general reference if in present time, expressing a customary +or repeated action or a general truth, has ἐάν with the subjunctive +in the if-clause and in the conclusion the present indicative or some +form denoting present repetition, e. g., ἐὰν τοὺτο ποιῇ, καλῶς ἔχει. +If the supposition is in the past time, the if-clause will have the +optative with εἰ and in the conclusion will stand the imperfect +indicative or some form denoting past repetition, e. g., εἰ τοῦτο +πράττοι, καλῶς εἶχε. Bt. 608-10; Gl. 651; Gn. 1393; H.A. 890, 892-4. + +3. The supposition may imply something as to the likelihood of +fulfillment. + +(1) If fulfillment is likely (and such contingencies are related to +future time), then the if-clause will have ἐάν with the subjunctive +and a future indicative (or an equivalent) will stand in the conclusion. +This form is styled "future vivid." E. g., ἐὰν τοῦτο πράττῃ, καλῶς ἕξοι. +If fulfillment is less than likely ("future less vivid"), εἰ with the +optative will stand in the if-clause, the optative with ἄν (potential +optative) in the conclusion. E. g., εἰ τοῦτο πράττοι καλῶς ἄν ἔχοι. +Bt. 604-5; Gl. 650-1; Gn. 1403. + +(2) A supposition contrary to fact has in the if-clause εἰ with a past +indicative; in the conclusion, a past indicative with ἄν (potential +indicative). E. g., εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραττε, καλῶς ἄν εἶχε. +Bt. 606; Gl. 649; Gn. 13197; H.A. 895. + +Note 1.—For summary of conditional sentences, +see Bt. 611; Gl 645; Gn. 1387; H.A. 891. + +VIII. FINAL CLAUSES + +1. Pure final clauses (expressing purpose or motive) take the +subjunctive when dependent on primary tenses, the optative when +dependent on secondary tenses. The conjunction is ἵνα, ὡς, or ὅπως. +E. g., + + τοῦτο πράττει ἵνα καλῶς ἔχῃ. + τοῦτο ἔπραττε ἵνα καλῶς ἔχοι + +Bt. 590; Gl. 640; Gn. 365; H.A. 881. + +2. Object clauses dependent on verbs denoting care, attention or +effort, regularly take the future indicative ὅπως, though the future +optative is possible when dependent on a secondary tense. +E. g., + + φροντίζει ὅπως καλῶς ἕξει, + ἐφρόντιζεν ὅπας καλῶς ἕζει + (or ἕζοι, see note). + +Bt. 593; Gn. 1372; H.A. 885. + +3. Subordinate clauses introduced by μή (trans. lest or that), +and dependent on verbs denoting fear, caution or danger, take the +subjunctive when dependent on primary tenses, the optative when +dependent on secondary tenses. +E. g., + + φοβεῖται μὴ τοῦτο πράττωμεν + ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο πράττοιμεν + (or πράττωμεν, see note). + +Bt. 593; Gl. 610; Gn. 1378. + +Note 1.—In rules 1-3, for greater vividness—as though using the +language of the person who conceived the purpose—the subjunctive +may be used even when dependent on a secondary tense (see examples +above). Gl. 638; Gn. 1372. + +IX. INDIRECT DISCOURSE + +1. A statement or question of a speaker or writer may be quoted +directly, i. e., without change in the form of the language. +E. g.: + +Direct: τοῦτο πράξω +Indirect: λέγει { + or { ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει. + ἔλεγε { + +Bt. 668; Gl. 623; Gn. 1475. + +2. Or it may be a change to adapt it to the form of the sentence of +which it becomes a part. The form of change will depend on the introductory +verb of saying, φημί, λέγω, or εἶπον. + +(1) If φημί, the main verb of the quotation will be changed to the infinitive +mode of the same tense and voice. E. g., + +Direct: τοῦτο πράττω +Indirect: φησί { + or { τούτο πράττειν. + ἔφη { + +(2) If λέγω with ὅτι or ὡς, no change will occur when dependent on a +primary tense. When dependent on a secondary tense, indicatives and +subjunctives may (not must) be changed to corresponding tenses (and +voice) of the optative; optatives will remain unchanged. +E. g.: + + Direct: τοῦτο πράξω + Indirect: { λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει + { ἔλεγε ὅτι τοῦτο πράξει (or πράξοι). + +(1) Note the change in person to indicate the change of speaker. + +(2) εἶπον as a verb of saying requires, and λέγω in the active voice +prefers the ὅτι (ὡς) construction. + +(3) Where changes of mode might occasion doubt as to the form of the +original direct discourse, no changes are made. E. g., the imperfect +or pluperfect indicative with ἄν, the potential optative with ἄν, or +the aorist indicative in a subordinate clause (cf. Bt. 675). Bt. 678; +Gl. 624; Gn. 1523; 1481, 1497. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Greek Primer, by Wallace Stearns + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A GREEK PRIMER *** + +***** This file should be named 39292-0.txt or 39292-0.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/9/2/9/39292/ + +Produced by Stanley A. Bridgeford + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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